wasmtime 10.0.1 → 12.0.0

data/ext/cargo-vendor/wasmtime-wasi-12.0.0/src/preview2/preview1/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,1870 @@
+use crate::preview2::bindings::cli_base::{preopens, stderr, stdin, stdout};
+use crate::preview2::bindings::clocks::{monotonic_clock, wall_clock};
+use crate::preview2::bindings::filesystem::filesystem;
+use crate::preview2::bindings::io::streams;
+use crate::preview2::filesystem::TableFsExt;
+use crate::preview2::preview2::filesystem::TableReaddirExt;
+use crate::preview2::{bindings, TableError, WasiView};
+use anyhow::{anyhow, bail, Context};
+use std::borrow::Borrow;
+use std::cell::Cell;
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::mem::{size_of, size_of_val};
+use std::ops::{Deref, DerefMut};
+use std::slice;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use wiggle::tracing::instrument;
+use wiggle::{GuestError, GuestPtr, GuestSliceMut, GuestStrCow, GuestType};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+struct File {
+    /// The handle to the preview2 descriptor that this file is referencing.
+    fd: filesystem::Descriptor,
+
+    /// The current-position pointer.
+    position: Arc<AtomicU64>,
+
+    /// In append mode, all writes append to the file.
+    append: bool,
+
+    /// In blocking mode, read and write calls dispatch to blocking_read and
+    /// blocking_write on the underlying streams. When false, read and write
+    /// dispatch to stream's plain read and write.
+    blocking: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+enum Descriptor {
+    Stdin(preopens::InputStream),
+    Stdout(preopens::OutputStream),
+    Stderr(preopens::OutputStream),
+    PreopenDirectory((filesystem::Descriptor, String)),
+    File(File),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct WasiPreview1Adapter {
+    descriptors: Option<Descriptors>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+struct Descriptors {
+    used: BTreeMap<u32, Descriptor>,
+    free: Vec<u32>,
+}
+
+impl Deref for Descriptors {
+    type Target = BTreeMap<u32, Descriptor>;
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        &self.used
+    }
+}
+
+impl DerefMut for Descriptors {
+    fn deref_mut(&mut self) -> &mut Self::Target {
+        &mut self.used
+    }
+}
+
+impl Descriptors {
+    /// Initializes [Self] using `preopens`
+    fn new(
+        preopens: &mut (impl preopens::Host + stdin::Host + stdout::Host + stderr::Host + ?Sized),
+    ) -> Result<Self, types::Error> {
+        let stdin = preopens
+            .get_stdin()
+            .context("failed to call `get-stdin`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let stdout = preopens
+            .get_stdout()
+            .context("failed to call `get-stdout`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let stderr = preopens
+            .get_stderr()
+            .context("failed to call `get-stderr`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let directories = preopens
+            .get_directories()
+            .context("failed to call `get-directories`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+
+        let mut descriptors = Self::default();
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stdin(stdin))?;
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stdout(stdout))?;
+        descriptors.push(Descriptor::Stderr(stderr))?;
+        for dir in directories {
+            descriptors.push(Descriptor::PreopenDirectory(dir))?;
+        }
+        Ok(descriptors)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns next descriptor number, which was never assigned
+    fn unused(&self) -> Result<u32> {
+        match self.last_key_value() {
+            Some((fd, _)) => {
+                if let Some(fd) = fd.checked_add(1) {
+                    return Ok(fd);
+                }
+                if self.len() == u32::MAX as usize {
+                    return Err(types::Errno::Loop.into());
+                }
+                // TODO: Optimize
+                Ok((0..u32::MAX)
+                    .rev()
+                    .find(|fd| !self.contains_key(fd))
+                    .expect("failed to find an unused file descriptor"))
+            }
+            None => Ok(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Removes the [Descriptor] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn remove(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Option<Descriptor> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        let desc = self.used.remove(&fd)?;
+        self.free.push(fd);
+        Some(desc)
+    }
+
+    /// Pushes the [Descriptor] returning corresponding number.
+    /// This operation will try to reuse numbers previously removed via [`Self::remove`]
+    /// and rely on [`Self::unused`] if no free numbers are recorded
+    fn push(&mut self, desc: Descriptor) -> Result<u32> {
+        let fd = if let Some(fd) = self.free.pop() {
+            fd
+        } else {
+            self.unused()?
+        };
+        assert!(self.insert(fd, desc).is_none());
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Like [Self::push], but for [`File`]
+    fn push_file(&mut self, file: File) -> Result<u32> {
+        self.push(Descriptor::File(file))
+    }
+}
+
+impl WasiPreview1Adapter {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::default()
+    }
+}
+
+// Any context that needs to support preview 1 will impl this trait. They can
+// construct the needed member with WasiPreview1Adapter::new().
+pub trait WasiPreview1View: Send + Sync + WasiView {
+    fn adapter(&self) -> &WasiPreview1Adapter;
+    fn adapter_mut(&mut self) -> &mut WasiPreview1Adapter;
+}
+
+/// A mutably-borrowed [`WasiPreview1View`] implementation, which provides access to the stored
+/// state. It can be thought of as an in-flight [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] transaction, all
+/// changes will be recorded in the underlying [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by
+/// [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`] on [`Drop`] of this struct.
+// NOTE: This exists for the most part just due to the fact that `bindgen` generates methods with
+// `&mut self` receivers and so this struct lets us extend the lifetime of the `&mut self` borrow
+// of the [`WasiPreview1View`] to provide means to return mutably and immutably borrowed [`Descriptors`]
+// without having to rely on something like `Arc<Mutex<Descriptors>>`, while also being able to
+// call methods like [`TableFsExt::is_file`] and hiding complexity from preview1 method implementations.
+struct Transaction<'a, T: WasiPreview1View + ?Sized> {
+    view: &'a mut T,
+    descriptors: Cell<Descriptors>,
+}
+
+impl<T: WasiPreview1View + ?Sized> Drop for Transaction<'_, T> {
+    /// Record changes in the [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        let descriptors = self.descriptors.take();
+        self.view.adapter_mut().descriptors = Some(descriptors);
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: WasiPreview1View + ?Sized> Transaction<'_, T> {
+    /// Borrows [`Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`types::Errno::Badf`] if no [`Descriptor`] is found
+    fn get_descriptor(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&Descriptor> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        let desc = self
+            .descriptors
+            .get_mut()
+            .get(&fd)
+            .ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?;
+        Ok(desc)
+    }
+
+    /// Borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::File`] type
+    fn get_file(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get_mut().get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file @ File { fd, .. })) if self.view.table().is_file(*fd) => {
+                Ok(file)
+            }
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Mutably borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::File`] type
+    fn get_file_mut(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&mut File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get_mut().get_mut(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file)) if self.view.table().is_file(file.fd) => Ok(file),
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Borrows [`File`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::File`] type.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns [`types::Errno::Spipe`] if the descriptor corresponds to stdio
+    fn get_seekable(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<&File> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get_mut().get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(file @ File { fd, .. })) if self.view.table().is_file(*fd) => {
+                Ok(file)
+            }
+            Some(Descriptor::Stdin(..) | Descriptor::Stdout(..) | Descriptor::Stderr(..)) => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into())
+            }
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn get_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor> {
+        match self.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) => Ok(*fd),
+            Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((fd, _)) => Ok(*fd),
+            Descriptor::Stdin(stream) => Ok(*stream),
+            Descriptor::Stdout(stream) | Descriptor::Stderr(stream) => Ok(*stream),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::File`] type
+    fn get_file_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor> {
+        self.get_file(fd).map(|File { fd, .. }| *fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] or [`Descriptor::PreopenDirectory`]
+    /// of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::Dir`] type
+    fn get_dir_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor> {
+        let fd = fd.into();
+        match self.descriptors.get_mut().get(&fd) {
+            Some(Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. })) if self.view.table().is_dir(*fd) => Ok(*fd),
+            Some(Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((fd, _))) => Ok(*fd),
+            _ => Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+trait WasiPreview1ViewExt:
+    WasiPreview1View + preopens::Host + stdin::Host + stdout::Host + stderr::Host
+{
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`Transaction`] on success
+    fn transact(&mut self) -> Result<Transaction<'_, Self>, types::Error> {
+        let descriptors = if let Some(descriptors) = self.adapter_mut().descriptors.take() {
+            descriptors
+        } else {
+            Descriptors::new(self)?
+        }
+        .into();
+        Ok(Transaction {
+            view: self,
+            descriptors,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    fn get_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor, types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::File`] type
+    fn get_file_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor, types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+
+    /// Lazily initializes [`WasiPreview1Adapter`] returned by [`WasiPreview1View::adapter_mut`]
+    /// and returns [`filesystem::Descriptor`] corresponding to `fd`
+    /// if it describes a [`Descriptor::File`] or [`Descriptor::PreopenDirectory`]
+    /// of [`crate::preview2::filesystem::Dir`] type
+    fn get_dir_fd(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<filesystem::Descriptor, types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let fd = st.get_dir_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(fd)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: WasiPreview1View + preopens::Host> WasiPreview1ViewExt for T {}
+
+pub fn add_to_linker<
+    T: WasiPreview1View
+        + bindings::cli_base::environment::Host
+        + bindings::cli_base::exit::Host
+        + bindings::cli_base::preopens::Host
+        + bindings::filesystem::filesystem::Host
+        + bindings::sync_io::poll::poll::Host
+        + bindings::random::random::Host
+        + bindings::io::streams::Host
+        + bindings::clocks::monotonic_clock::Host
+        + bindings::clocks::wall_clock::Host,
+>(
+    linker: &mut wasmtime::Linker<T>,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    wasi_snapshot_preview1::add_to_linker(linker, |t| t)
+}
+
+// Generate the wasi_snapshot_preview1::WasiSnapshotPreview1 trait,
+// and the module types.
+// None of the generated modules, traits, or types should be used externally
+// to this module.
+wiggle::from_witx!({
+    witx: ["$CARGO_MANIFEST_DIR/witx/wasi_snapshot_preview1.witx"],
+    async: {
+        wasi_snapshot_preview1::{
+            fd_advise, fd_close, fd_datasync, fd_fdstat_get, fd_filestat_get, fd_filestat_set_size,
+            fd_filestat_set_times, fd_read, fd_pread, fd_seek, fd_sync, fd_readdir, fd_write,
+            fd_pwrite, poll_oneoff, path_create_directory, path_filestat_get,
+            path_filestat_set_times, path_link, path_open, path_readlink, path_remove_directory,
+            path_rename, path_symlink, path_unlink_file
+        }
+    },
+    errors: { errno => trappable Error },
+});
+
+impl wiggle::GuestErrorType for types::Errno {
+    fn success() -> Self {
+        Self::Success
+    }
+}
+
+fn systimespec(set: bool, ts: types::Timestamp, now: bool) -> Result<filesystem::NewTimestamp> {
+    if set && now {
+        Err(types::Errno::Inval.into())
+    } else if set {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::Timestamp(filesystem::Datetime {
+            seconds: ts / 1_000_000_000,
+            nanoseconds: (ts % 1_000_000_000) as _,
+        }))
+    } else if now {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::Now)
+    } else {
+        Ok(filesystem::NewTimestamp::NoChange)
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<wall_clock::Datetime> for types::Timestamp {
+    type Error = types::Errno;
+
+    fn try_from(
+        wall_clock::Datetime {
+            seconds,
+            nanoseconds,
+        }: wall_clock::Datetime,
+    ) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        types::Timestamp::from(seconds)
+            .checked_mul(1_000_000_000)
+            .and_then(|ns| ns.checked_add(nanoseconds.into()))
+            .ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Lookupflags> for filesystem::PathFlags {
+    fn from(flags: types::Lookupflags) -> Self {
+        if flags.contains(types::Lookupflags::SYMLINK_FOLLOW) {
+            filesystem::PathFlags::SYMLINK_FOLLOW
+        } else {
+            filesystem::PathFlags::empty()
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Oflags> for filesystem::OpenFlags {
+    fn from(flags: types::Oflags) -> Self {
+        let mut out = filesystem::OpenFlags::empty();
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::CREAT) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::CREATE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::DIRECTORY) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::DIRECTORY;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::EXCL) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::EXCLUSIVE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(types::Oflags::TRUNC) {
+            out |= filesystem::OpenFlags::TRUNCATE;
+        }
+        out
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<types::Advice> for filesystem::Advice {
+    fn from(advice: types::Advice) -> Self {
+        match advice {
+            types::Advice::Normal => filesystem::Advice::Normal,
+            types::Advice::Sequential => filesystem::Advice::Sequential,
+            types::Advice::Random => filesystem::Advice::Random,
+            types::Advice::Willneed => filesystem::Advice::WillNeed,
+            types::Advice::Dontneed => filesystem::Advice::DontNeed,
+            types::Advice::Noreuse => filesystem::Advice::NoReuse,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<filesystem::DescriptorType> for types::Filetype {
+    type Error = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(ty: filesystem::DescriptorType) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match ty {
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::RegularFile => Ok(types::Filetype::RegularFile),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Directory => Ok(types::Filetype::Directory),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::BlockDevice => Ok(types::Filetype::BlockDevice),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::CharacterDevice => Ok(types::Filetype::CharacterDevice),
+            // preview1 never had a FIFO code.
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Fifo => Ok(types::Filetype::Unknown),
+            // TODO: Add a way to disginguish between FILETYPE_SOCKET_STREAM and
+            // FILETYPE_SOCKET_DGRAM.
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Socket => {
+                bail!("sockets are not currently supported")
+            }
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::SymbolicLink => Ok(types::Filetype::SymbolicLink),
+            filesystem::DescriptorType::Unknown => Ok(types::Filetype::Unknown),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<filesystem::ErrorCode> for types::Errno {
+    fn from(code: filesystem::ErrorCode) -> Self {
+        match code {
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Access => types::Errno::Acces,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::WouldBlock => types::Errno::Again,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Already => types::Errno::Already,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::BadDescriptor => types::Errno::Badf,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Busy => types::Errno::Busy,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Deadlock => types::Errno::Deadlk,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Quota => types::Errno::Dquot,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Exist => types::Errno::Exist,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::FileTooLarge => types::Errno::Fbig,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::IllegalByteSequence => types::Errno::Ilseq,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InProgress => types::Errno::Inprogress,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Interrupted => types::Errno::Intr,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Invalid => types::Errno::Inval,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Io => types::Errno::Io,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::IsDirectory => types::Errno::Isdir,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Loop => types::Errno::Loop,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::TooManyLinks => types::Errno::Mlink,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::MessageSize => types::Errno::Msgsize,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NameTooLong => types::Errno::Nametoolong,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoDevice => types::Errno::Nodev,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoEntry => types::Errno::Noent,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoLock => types::Errno::Nolck,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InsufficientMemory => types::Errno::Nomem,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InsufficientSpace => types::Errno::Nospc,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Unsupported => types::Errno::Notsup,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotDirectory => types::Errno::Notdir,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotEmpty => types::Errno::Notempty,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotRecoverable => types::Errno::Notrecoverable,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoTty => types::Errno::Notty,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NoSuchDevice => types::Errno::Nxio,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Overflow => types::Errno::Overflow,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::NotPermitted => types::Errno::Perm,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::Pipe => types::Errno::Pipe,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::ReadOnly => types::Errno::Rofs,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::InvalidSeek => types::Errno::Spipe,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::TextFileBusy => types::Errno::Txtbsy,
+            filesystem::ErrorCode::CrossDevice => types::Errno::Xdev,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<std::num::TryFromIntError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(_: std::num::TryFromIntError) -> Self {
+        types::Errno::Overflow.into()
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<GuestError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: GuestError) -> Self {
+        use wiggle::GuestError::*;
+        match err {
+            InvalidFlagValue { .. } => types::Errno::Inval.into(),
+            InvalidEnumValue { .. } => types::Errno::Inval.into(),
+            // As per
+            // https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi/blob/main/legacy/tools/witx-docs.md#pointers
+            //
+            // > If a misaligned pointer is passed to a function, the function
+            // > shall trap.
+            // >
+            // > If an out-of-bounds pointer is passed to a function and the
+            // > function needs to dereference it, the function shall trap.
+            //
+            // so this turns OOB and misalignment errors into traps.
+            PtrOverflow { .. } | PtrOutOfBounds { .. } | PtrNotAligned { .. } => {
+                types::Error::trap(err.into())
+            }
+            PtrBorrowed { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            InvalidUtf8 { .. } => types::Errno::Ilseq.into(),
+            TryFromIntError { .. } => types::Errno::Overflow.into(),
+            SliceLengthsDiffer { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            BorrowCheckerOutOfHandles { .. } => types::Errno::Fault.into(),
+            InFunc { err, .. } => types::Error::from(*err),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<filesystem::ErrorCode> for types::Error {
+    fn from(code: filesystem::ErrorCode) -> Self {
+        types::Errno::from(code).into()
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<filesystem::Error> for types::Errno {
+    type Error = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(err: filesystem::Error) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match err.downcast() {
+            Ok(code) => Ok(code.into()),
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<filesystem::Error> for types::Error {
+    type Error = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(err: filesystem::Error) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match err.downcast() {
+            Ok(code) => Ok(code.into()),
+            Err(e) => Err(e),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<TableError> for types::Error {
+    fn from(err: TableError) -> Self {
+        types::Error::trap(err.into())
+    }
+}
+
+type Result<T, E = types::Error> = std::result::Result<T, E>;
+
+fn write_bytes<'a>(
+    ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, u8>>,
+    buf: impl AsRef<[u8]>,
+) -> Result<GuestPtr<'a, u8>, types::Error> {
+    // NOTE: legacy implementation always returns Inval errno
+
+    let buf = buf.as_ref();
+    let len = buf.len().try_into()?;
+
+    let ptr = ptr.borrow();
+    ptr.as_array(len).copy_from_slice(buf)?;
+    let next = ptr.add(len)?;
+    Ok(next)
+}
+
+fn write_byte<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, u8>>, byte: u8) -> Result<GuestPtr<'a, u8>> {
+    let ptr = ptr.borrow();
+    ptr.write(byte)?;
+    let next = ptr.add(1)?;
+    Ok(next)
+}
+
+fn read_str<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, str>>) -> Result<GuestStrCow<'a>> {
+    let s = ptr.borrow().as_cow()?;
+    Ok(s)
+}
+
+fn read_string<'a>(ptr: impl Borrow<GuestPtr<'a, str>>) -> Result<String> {
+    read_str(ptr).map(|s| s.to_string())
+}
+
+// Find first non-empty buffer.
+fn first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs: &types::CiovecArray<'_>) -> Result<Option<Vec<u8>>> {
+    for iov in ciovs.iter() {
+        let iov = iov?.read()?;
+        if iov.buf_len == 0 {
+            continue;
+        }
+        return Ok(Some(iov.buf.as_array(iov.buf_len).to_vec()?));
+    }
+    Ok(None)
+}
+
+// Find first non-empty buffer.
+fn first_non_empty_iovec<'a>(
+    iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+) -> Result<Option<GuestSliceMut<'a, u8>>> {
+    iovs.iter()
+        .map(|iov| {
+            let iov = iov?.read()?;
+            if iov.buf_len == 0 {
+                return Ok(None);
+            }
+            let slice = iov.buf.as_array(iov.buf_len).as_slice_mut()?;
+            Ok(slice)
+        })
+        .find_map(Result::transpose)
+        .transpose()
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+// Implement the WasiSnapshotPreview1 trait using only the traits that are
+// required for T, i.e., in terms of the preview 2 wit interface, and state
+// stored in the WasiPreview1Adapter struct.
+impl<
+        T: WasiPreview1View
+            + bindings::cli_base::environment::Host
+            + bindings::cli_base::exit::Host
+            + bindings::cli_base::preopens::Host
+            + bindings::filesystem::filesystem::Host
+            + bindings::sync_io::poll::poll::Host
+            + bindings::random::random::Host
+            + bindings::io::streams::Host
+            + bindings::clocks::monotonic_clock::Host
+            + bindings::clocks::wall_clock::Host,
+    > wasi_snapshot_preview1::WasiSnapshotPreview1 for T
+{
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn args_get<'b>(
+        &mut self,
+        argv: &GuestPtr<'b, GuestPtr<'b, u8>>,
+        argv_buf: &GuestPtr<'b, u8>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_arguments()
+            .context("failed to call `get-arguments`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .try_fold((*argv, *argv_buf), |(argv, argv_buf), arg| -> Result<_> {
+                argv.write(argv_buf)?;
+                let argv = argv.add(1)?;
+
+                let argv_buf = write_bytes(argv_buf, arg)?;
+                let argv_buf = write_byte(argv_buf, 0)?;
+
+                Ok((argv, argv_buf))
+            })?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn args_sizes_get(&mut self) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Size), types::Error> {
+        let args = self
+            .get_arguments()
+            .context("failed to call `get-arguments`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let num = args.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        let len = args
+            .iter()
+            .map(|buf| buf.len() + 1) // Each argument is expected to be `\0` terminated.
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            .try_into()
+            .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        Ok((num, len))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn environ_get<'b>(
+        &mut self,
+        environ: &GuestPtr<'b, GuestPtr<'b, u8>>,
+        environ_buf: &GuestPtr<'b, u8>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_environment()
+            .context("failed to call `get-environment`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .try_fold(
+                (*environ, *environ_buf),
+                |(environ, environ_buf), (k, v)| -> Result<_, types::Error> {
+                    environ.write(environ_buf)?;
+                    let environ = environ.add(1)?;
+
+                    let environ_buf = write_bytes(environ_buf, k)?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_byte(environ_buf, b'=')?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_bytes(environ_buf, v)?;
+                    let environ_buf = write_byte(environ_buf, 0)?;
+
+                    Ok((environ, environ_buf))
+                },
+            )?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn environ_sizes_get(&mut self) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Size), types::Error> {
+        let environ = self
+            .get_environment()
+            .context("failed to call `get-environment`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let num = environ.len().try_into()?;
+        let len = environ
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| k.len() + 1 + v.len() + 1) // Key/value pairs are expected to be joined with `=`s, and terminated with `\0`s.
+            .sum::<usize>()
+            .try_into()?;
+        Ok((num, len))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn clock_res_get(&mut self, id: types::Clockid) -> Result<types::Timestamp, types::Error> {
+        let res = match id {
+            types::Clockid::Realtime => wall_clock::Host::resolution(self)
+                .context("failed to call `wall_clock::resolution`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                .try_into()?,
+            types::Clockid::Monotonic => monotonic_clock::Host::resolution(self)
+                .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::resolution`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            types::Clockid::ProcessCputimeId | types::Clockid::ThreadCputimeId => {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into())
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(res)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn clock_time_get(
+        &mut self,
+        id: types::Clockid,
+        _precision: types::Timestamp,
+    ) -> Result<types::Timestamp, types::Error> {
+        let now = match id {
+            types::Clockid::Realtime => wall_clock::Host::now(self)
+                .context("failed to call `wall_clock::now`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?
+                .try_into()?,
+            types::Clockid::Monotonic => monotonic_clock::Host::now(self)
+                .context("failed to call `monotonic_clock::now`")
+                .map_err(types::Error::trap)?,
+            types::Clockid::ProcessCputimeId | types::Clockid::ThreadCputimeId => {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into())
+            }
+        };
+        Ok(now)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_advise(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+        len: types::Filesize,
+        advice: types::Advice,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.advise(fd, offset, len, advice.into())
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `advise`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Force the allocation of space in a file.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `posix_fallocate` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_allocate(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        _offset: types::Filesize,
+        _len: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        Err(types::Errno::Notsup.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Close a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `close` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_close(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let desc = self
+            .transact()?
+            .descriptors
+            .get_mut()
+            .remove(fd)
+            .ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?
+            .clone();
+        match desc {
+            Descriptor::Stdin(stream) => streams::Host::drop_input_stream(self, stream)
+                .await
+                .context("failed to call `drop-input-stream`"),
+            Descriptor::Stdout(stream) | Descriptor::Stderr(stream) => {
+                streams::Host::drop_output_stream(self, stream)
+                    .await
+                    .context("failed to call `drop-output-stream`")
+            }
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) | Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((fd, _)) => self
+                .drop_descriptor(fd)
+                .await
+                .context("failed to call `drop-descriptor`"),
+        }
+        .map_err(types::Error::trap)
+    }
+
+    /// Synchronize the data of a file to disk.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fdatasync` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_datasync(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.sync_data(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `sync-data`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Get the attributes of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This returns similar flags to `fsync(fd, F_GETFL)` in POSIX, as well as additional fields.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_fdstat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Fdstat, types::Error> {
+        let (fd, blocking, append) = match self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            Descriptor::Stdin(..) => {
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::FD_READ;
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: types::Filetype::CharacterDevice,
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout(..) | Descriptor::Stderr(..) => {
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::FD_WRITE;
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: types::Filetype::CharacterDevice,
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((_, _)) => {
+                // Hard-coded set or rights expected by many userlands:
+                let fs_rights_base = types::Rights::PATH_CREATE_DIRECTORY
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_CREATE_FILE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_LINK_SOURCE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_LINK_TARGET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_OPEN
+                    | types::Rights::FD_READDIR
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_READLINK
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_RENAME_SOURCE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_RENAME_TARGET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_SYMLINK
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_REMOVE_DIRECTORY
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_UNLINK_FILE
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::PATH_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES;
+
+                let fs_rights_inheriting = fs_rights_base
+                    | types::Rights::FD_DATASYNC
+                    | types::Rights::FD_READ
+                    | types::Rights::FD_SEEK
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FDSTAT_SET_FLAGS
+                    | types::Rights::FD_SYNC
+                    | types::Rights::FD_TELL
+                    | types::Rights::FD_WRITE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_ADVISE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_ALLOCATE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_GET
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_SIZE
+                    | types::Rights::FD_FILESTAT_SET_TIMES
+                    | types::Rights::POLL_FD_READWRITE;
+
+                return Ok(types::Fdstat {
+                    fs_filetype: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    fs_flags: types::Fdflags::empty(),
+                    fs_rights_base,
+                    fs_rights_inheriting,
+                });
+            }
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking,
+                append,
+                ..
+            }) => (*fd, *blocking, *append),
+        };
+
+        // TODO: use `try_join!` to poll both futures async, unfortunately that is not currently
+        // possible, because `bindgen` generates methods with `&mut self` receivers.
+        let flags = self.get_flags(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `get-flags`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let fs_filetype = self
+            .get_type(fd)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `get-type`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?
+            .try_into()
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let mut fs_flags = types::Fdflags::empty();
+        let mut fs_rights_base = types::Rights::all();
+        if !flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::READ) {
+            fs_rights_base &= !types::Rights::FD_READ;
+        }
+        if !flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::WRITE) {
+            fs_rights_base &= !types::Rights::FD_WRITE;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::DATA_INTEGRITY_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::DSYNC;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::REQUESTED_WRITE_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::RSYNC;
+        }
+        if flags.contains(filesystem::DescriptorFlags::FILE_INTEGRITY_SYNC) {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::SYNC;
+        }
+        if append {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::APPEND;
+        }
+        if !blocking {
+            fs_flags |= types::Fdflags::NONBLOCK;
+        }
+        Ok(types::Fdstat {
+            fs_filetype,
+            fs_flags,
+            fs_rights_base,
+            fs_rights_inheriting: fs_rights_base,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the flags associated with a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fcntl(fd, F_SETFL, flags)` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_fdstat_set_flags(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let File {
+            append, blocking, ..
+        } = st.get_file_mut(fd)?;
+
+        // Only support changing the NONBLOCK or APPEND flags.
+        if flags.contains(types::Fdflags::DSYNC)
+            || flags.contains(types::Fdflags::SYNC)
+            || flags.contains(types::Fdflags::RSYNC)
+        {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into());
+        }
+        *append = flags.contains(types::Fdflags::APPEND);
+        *blocking = !flags.contains(types::Fdflags::NONBLOCK);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Does not do anything if `fd` corresponds to a valid descriptor and returns `[types::Errno::Badf]` error otherwise.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_fdstat_set_rights(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        _fs_rights_base: types::Rights,
+        _fs_rights_inheriting: types::Rights,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        self.get_fd(fd)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Return the attributes of an open file.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Filestat, types::Error> {
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?.clone();
+        match desc {
+            Descriptor::Stdin(..) | Descriptor::Stdout(..) | Descriptor::Stderr(..) => {
+                Ok(types::Filestat {
+                    dev: 0,
+                    ino: 0,
+                    filetype: types::Filetype::CharacterDevice,
+                    nlink: 0,
+                    size: 0,
+                    atim: 0,
+                    mtim: 0,
+                    ctim: 0,
+                })
+            }
+            Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((fd, _)) | Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) => {
+                let filesystem::DescriptorStat {
+                    device: dev,
+                    inode: ino,
+                    type_,
+                    link_count: nlink,
+                    size,
+                    data_access_timestamp,
+                    data_modification_timestamp,
+                    status_change_timestamp,
+                } = self.stat(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `stat`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let filetype = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                let atim = data_access_timestamp.try_into()?;
+                let mtim = data_modification_timestamp.try_into()?;
+                let ctim = status_change_timestamp.try_into()?;
+                Ok(types::Filestat {
+                    dev,
+                    ino,
+                    filetype,
+                    nlink,
+                    size,
+                    atim,
+                    mtim,
+                    ctim,
+                })
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the size of an open file. If this increases the file's size, the extra bytes are filled with zeros.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `ftruncate` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_set_size(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        size: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.set_size(fd, size).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `set-size`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the timestamps of an open file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `futimens` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_filestat_set_times(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        atim: types::Timestamp,
+        mtim: types::Timestamp,
+        fst_flags: types::Fstflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let atim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM),
+            atim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+        let mtim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM),
+            mtim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+
+        let fd = self.get_fd(fd)?;
+        self.set_times(fd, atim, mtim).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `set-times`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Read from a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `readv` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_read<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?.clone();
+        let (mut buf, read, state) = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking,
+                position,
+                ..
+            }) if self.table().is_file(fd) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+
+                let pos = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                let stream = self.read_via_stream(fd, pos).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `read-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let max = buf.len().try_into().unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+                let (read, state) = if blocking {
+                    streams::Host::blocking_read(self, stream, max).await
+                } else {
+                    streams::Host::read(self, stream, max).await
+                }
+                .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?;
+
+                let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+                let pos = pos.checked_add(n).ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+                position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+
+                (buf, read, state)
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdin(stream) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+                let (read, state) =
+                    streams::Host::read(self, stream, buf.len().try_into().unwrap_or(u64::MAX))
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?;
+                (buf, read, state)
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        if read.len() > buf.len() {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Range.into());
+        }
+        if state == streams::StreamStatus::Open && read.len() == 0 {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Intr.into());
+        }
+        let (buf, _) = buf.split_at_mut(read.len());
+        buf.copy_from_slice(&read);
+        let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Read from a file descriptor, without using and updating the file descriptor's offset.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `preadv` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_pread<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        iovs: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?.clone();
+        let (mut buf, read, state) = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, blocking, .. }) if self.table().is_file(fd) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_iovec(iovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+
+                let stream = self.read_via_stream(fd, offset).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `read-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let max = buf.len().try_into().unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+                let (read, state) = if blocking {
+                    streams::Host::blocking_read(self, stream, max).await
+                } else {
+                    streams::Host::read(self, stream, max).await
+                }
+                .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?;
+
+                (buf, read, state)
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdin(..) => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                return Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into());
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        if read.len() > buf.len() {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Range.into());
+        }
+        if state == streams::StreamStatus::Open && read.len() == 0 {
+            return Err(types::Errno::Intr.into());
+        }
+        let (buf, _) = buf.split_at_mut(read.len());
+        buf.copy_from_slice(&read);
+        let n = read.len().try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Write to a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `writev` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_write<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ciovs: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?.clone();
+        let n = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File {
+                fd,
+                blocking,
+                append,
+                position,
+            }) if self.table().is_file(fd) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+                let (stream, pos) = if append {
+                    let stream = self.append_via_stream(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+                        e.try_into()
+                            .context("failed to call `append-via-stream`")
+                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                    })?;
+                    (stream, 0)
+                } else {
+                    let position = position.load(Ordering::Relaxed);
+                    let stream = self.write_via_stream(fd, position).await.map_err(|e| {
+                        e.try_into()
+                            .context("failed to call `write-via-stream`")
+                            .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                    })?;
+                    (stream, position)
+                };
+                let (n, _stat) = if blocking {
+                    streams::Host::blocking_write(self, stream, buf).await
+                } else {
+                    streams::Host::write(self, stream, buf).await
+                }
+                .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?;
+                if !append {
+                    let pos = pos.checked_add(n).ok_or(types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+                    position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+                }
+                n
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout(stream) | Descriptor::Stderr(stream) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+                let (n, _stat) = streams::Host::blocking_write(self, stream, buf)
+                    .await
+                    .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?;
+                n
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        let n = n.try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Write to a file descriptor, without using and updating the file descriptor's offset.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `pwritev` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_pwrite<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ciovs: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+        offset: types::Filesize,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)?.clone();
+        let (n, _stat) = match desc {
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, blocking, .. }) if self.table().is_file(fd) => {
+                let Some(buf) = first_non_empty_ciovec(ciovs)? else {
+                    return Ok(0)
+                };
+                let stream = self.write_via_stream(fd, offset).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `write-via-stream`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                if blocking {
+                    streams::Host::blocking_write(self, stream, buf).await
+                } else {
+                    streams::Host::write(self, stream, buf).await
+                }
+                .map_err(|_| types::Errno::Io)?
+            }
+            Descriptor::Stdout(..) | Descriptor::Stderr(..) => {
+                // NOTE: legacy implementation returns SPIPE here
+                return Err(types::Errno::Spipe.into());
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        let n = n.try_into()?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    /// Return a description of the given preopened file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_prestat_get(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Prestat, types::Error> {
+        if let Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((_, p)) = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            let pr_name_len = p.len().try_into()?;
+            return Ok(types::Prestat::Dir(types::PrestatDir { pr_name_len }));
+        }
+        Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()) // NOTE: legacy implementation returns BADF here
+    }
+
+    /// Return a description of the given preopened file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_prestat_dir_name<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        path_max_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let path_max_len = path_max_len.try_into()?;
+        if let Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((_, p)) = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(fd)? {
+            if p.len() > path_max_len {
+                return Err(types::Errno::Nametoolong.into());
+            }
+            write_bytes(path, p)?;
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        Err(types::Errno::Notdir.into()) // NOTE: legacy implementation returns NOTDIR here
+    }
+
+    /// Atomically replace a file descriptor by renumbering another file descriptor.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_renumber(&mut self, from: types::Fd, to: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let mut st = self.transact()?;
+        let descriptors = st.descriptors.get_mut();
+        let desc = descriptors.remove(from).ok_or(types::Errno::Badf)?;
+        descriptors.insert(to.into(), desc);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Move the offset of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `lseek` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_seek(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        offset: types::Filedelta,
+        whence: types::Whence,
+    ) -> Result<types::Filesize, types::Error> {
+        let (fd, position) = {
+            let mut st = self.transact()?;
+            let File { fd, position, .. } = st.get_seekable(fd)?;
+            (*fd, Arc::clone(&position))
+        };
+        let pos = match whence {
+            types::Whence::Set if offset >= 0 => offset as _,
+            types::Whence::Cur => position
+                .load(Ordering::Relaxed)
+                .checked_add_signed(offset)
+                .ok_or(types::Errno::Inval)?,
+            types::Whence::End => {
+                let filesystem::DescriptorStat { size, .. } = self.stat(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to call `stat`")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                size.checked_add_signed(offset).ok_or(types::Errno::Inval)?
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Inval.into()),
+        };
+        position.store(pos, Ordering::Relaxed);
+        Ok(pos)
+    }
+
+    /// Synchronize the data and metadata of a file to disk.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `fsync` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_sync(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_file_fd(fd)?;
+        self.sync(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `sync`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the current offset of a file descriptor.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `lseek(fd, 0, SEEK_CUR)` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn fd_tell(&mut self, fd: types::Fd) -> Result<types::Filesize, types::Error> {
+        let pos = self
+            .transact()?
+            .get_seekable(fd)
+            .map(|File { position, .. }| position.load(Ordering::Relaxed))?;
+        Ok(pos)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn fd_readdir<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+        cookie: types::Dircookie,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let fd = self.get_dir_fd(fd)?;
+        let stream = self.read_directory(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `read-directory`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let filesystem::DescriptorStat {
+            inode: fd_inode, ..
+        } = self.stat(fd).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `stat`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let cookie = cookie.try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+
+        let head = [
+            (
+                types::Dirent {
+                    d_next: 1u64.to_le(),
+                    d_ino: fd_inode.to_le(),
+                    d_type: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    d_namlen: 1u32.to_le(),
+                },
+                ".".into(),
+            ),
+            (
+                types::Dirent {
+                    d_next: 2u64.to_le(),
+                    d_ino: fd_inode.to_le(), // NOTE: incorrect, but legacy implementation returns `fd` inode here
+                    d_type: types::Filetype::Directory,
+                    d_namlen: 2u32.to_le(),
+                },
+                "..".into(),
+            ),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(Ok::<_, types::Error>);
+
+        let dir = self
+            .table_mut()
+            // remove iterator from table and use it directly:
+            .delete_readdir(stream)?
+            .into_iter()
+            .zip(3u64..)
+            .map(|(entry, d_next)| {
+                let filesystem::DirectoryEntry { inode, type_, name } = entry.map_err(|e| {
+                    e.try_into()
+                        .context("failed to inspect `read-directory` entry")
+                        .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+                })?;
+                let d_type = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+                let d_namlen: u32 = name.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+                Ok((
+                    types::Dirent {
+                        d_next: d_next.to_le(),
+                        d_ino: inode.unwrap_or_default().to_le(),
+                        d_type, // endian-invariant
+                        d_namlen: d_namlen.to_le(),
+                    },
+                    name,
+                ))
+            });
+
+        // assume that `types::Dirent` size always fits in `u32`
+        const DIRENT_SIZE: u32 = size_of::<types::Dirent>() as _;
+        assert_eq!(
+            types::Dirent::guest_size(),
+            DIRENT_SIZE,
+            "Dirent guest repr and host repr should match"
+        );
+        let mut buf = *buf;
+        let mut cap = buf_len;
+        for entry in head.chain(dir).skip(cookie) {
+            let (ref entry, mut path) = entry?;
+
+            assert_eq!(
+                1,
+                size_of_val(&entry.d_type),
+                "Dirent member d_type should be endian-invariant"
+            );
+            let entry_len = cap.min(DIRENT_SIZE);
+            let entry = entry as *const _ as _;
+            let entry = unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(entry, entry_len as _) };
+            cap = cap.checked_sub(entry_len).unwrap();
+            buf = write_bytes(buf, entry)?;
+            if cap == 0 {
+                return Ok(buf_len);
+            }
+
+            if let Ok(cap) = cap.try_into() {
+                // `path` cannot be longer than `usize`, only truncate if `cap` fits in `usize`
+                path.truncate(cap);
+            }
+            cap = cap.checked_sub(path.len() as _).unwrap();
+            buf = write_bytes(buf, path)?;
+            if cap == 0 {
+                return Ok(buf_len);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(buf_len.checked_sub(cap).unwrap())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_create_directory<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.create_directory_at(dirfd, path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `create-directory-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Return the attributes of a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `stat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_filestat_get<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<types::Filestat, types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        let filesystem::DescriptorStat {
+            device: dev,
+            inode: ino,
+            type_,
+            link_count: nlink,
+            size,
+            data_access_timestamp,
+            data_modification_timestamp,
+            status_change_timestamp,
+        } = self.stat_at(dirfd, flags.into(), path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `stat-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        let filetype = type_.try_into().map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        let atim = data_access_timestamp.try_into()?;
+        let mtim = data_modification_timestamp.try_into()?;
+        let ctim = status_change_timestamp.try_into()?;
+        Ok(types::Filestat {
+            dev,
+            ino,
+            filetype,
+            nlink,
+            size,
+            atim,
+            mtim,
+            ctim,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the timestamps of a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `utimensat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_filestat_set_times<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        atim: types::Timestamp,
+        mtim: types::Timestamp,
+        fst_flags: types::Fstflags,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let atim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM),
+            atim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::ATIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+        let mtim = systimespec(
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM),
+            mtim,
+            fst_flags.contains(types::Fstflags::MTIM_NOW),
+        )?;
+
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.set_times_at(dirfd, flags.into(), path, atim, mtim)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `set-times-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Create a hard link.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `linkat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_link<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_fd: types::Fd,
+        src_flags: types::Lookupflags,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        target_fd: types::Fd,
+        target_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let src_fd = self.get_dir_fd(src_fd)?;
+        let target_fd = self.get_dir_fd(target_fd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let target_path = read_string(target_path)?;
+        self.link_at(src_fd, src_flags.into(), src_path, target_fd, target_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `link-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    /// Open a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `openat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_open<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        dirflags: types::Lookupflags,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        oflags: types::Oflags,
+        fs_rights_base: types::Rights,
+        _fs_rights_inheriting: types::Rights,
+        fdflags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Fd, types::Error> {
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+
+        let mut flags = filesystem::DescriptorFlags::empty();
+        if fs_rights_base.contains(types::Rights::FD_READ) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::READ;
+        }
+        if fs_rights_base.contains(types::Rights::FD_WRITE) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::WRITE;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::SYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::FILE_INTEGRITY_SYNC;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::DSYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::DATA_INTEGRITY_SYNC;
+        }
+        if fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::RSYNC) {
+            flags |= filesystem::DescriptorFlags::REQUESTED_WRITE_SYNC;
+        }
+
+        let desc = self.transact()?.get_descriptor(dirfd)?.clone();
+        let dirfd = match desc {
+            Descriptor::PreopenDirectory((fd, _)) => fd,
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) if self.table().is_dir(fd) => fd,
+            Descriptor::File(File { fd, .. }) if !self.table().is_dir(fd) => {
+                // NOTE: Unlike most other methods, legacy implementation returns `NOTDIR` here
+                return Err(types::Errno::Notdir.into());
+            }
+            _ => return Err(types::Errno::Badf.into()),
+        };
+        let fd = self
+            .open_at(
+                dirfd,
+                dirflags.into(),
+                path,
+                oflags.into(),
+                flags,
+                filesystem::Modes::READABLE | filesystem::Modes::WRITABLE,
+            )
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `open-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })?;
+        let fd = self.transact()?.descriptors.get_mut().push_file(File {
+            fd,
+            position: Default::default(),
+            append: fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::APPEND),
+            blocking: !fdflags.contains(types::Fdflags::NONBLOCK),
+        })?;
+        Ok(fd.into())
+    }
+
+    /// Read the contents of a symbolic link.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `readlinkat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_readlink<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        let mut path = self.readlink_at(dirfd, path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `readlink-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })?;
+        if let Ok(buf_len) = buf_len.try_into() {
+            // `path` cannot be longer than `usize`, only truncate if `buf_len` fits in `usize`
+            path.truncate(buf_len);
+        }
+        let n = path.len().try_into().map_err(|_| types::Errno::Overflow)?;
+        write_bytes(buf, &path)?;
+        Ok(n)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_remove_directory<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = read_string(path)?;
+        self.remove_directory_at(dirfd, path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `remove-directory-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Rename a file or directory.
+    /// NOTE: This is similar to `renameat` in POSIX.
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_rename<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_fd: types::Fd,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        dest_fd: types::Fd,
+        dest_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let src_fd = self.get_dir_fd(src_fd)?;
+        let dest_fd = self.get_dir_fd(dest_fd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let dest_path = read_string(dest_path)?;
+        self.rename_at(src_fd, src_path, dest_fd, dest_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `rename-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_symlink<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        src_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        dest_path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let src_path = read_string(src_path)?;
+        let dest_path = read_string(dest_path)?;
+        self.symlink_at(dirfd, src_path, dest_path)
+            .await
+            .map_err(|e| {
+                e.try_into()
+                    .context("failed to call `symlink-at`")
+                    .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+            })
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn path_unlink_file<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        dirfd: types::Fd,
+        path: &GuestPtr<'a, str>,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let dirfd = self.get_dir_fd(dirfd)?;
+        let path = path.as_cow()?.to_string();
+        self.unlink_file_at(dirfd, path).await.map_err(|e| {
+            e.try_into()
+                .context("failed to call `unlink-file-at`")
+                .unwrap_or_else(types::Error::trap)
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    async fn poll_oneoff<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        subs: &GuestPtr<'a, types::Subscription>,
+        events: &GuestPtr<'a, types::Event>,
+        nsubscriptions: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 poll_oneoff is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn proc_exit(&mut self, status: types::Exitcode) -> anyhow::Error {
+        let status = match status {
+            0 => Ok(()),
+            _ => Err(()),
+        };
+        match self.exit(status) {
+            Err(e) => e,
+            Ok(()) => anyhow!("`exit` did not return an error"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn proc_raise(&mut self, _sig: types::Signal) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        Err(types::Errno::Notsup.into())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sched_yield(&mut self) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        // TODO: This is not yet covered in Preview2.
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn random_get<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        buf: &GuestPtr<'a, u8>,
+        buf_len: types::Size,
+    ) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        let rand = self
+            .get_random_bytes(buf_len.into())
+            .context("failed to call `get-random-bytes`")
+            .map_err(types::Error::trap)?;
+        write_bytes(buf, rand)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_accept(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        flags: types::Fdflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Fd, types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_accept is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_recv<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        ri_data: &types::IovecArray<'a>,
+        ri_flags: types::Riflags,
+    ) -> Result<(types::Size, types::Roflags), types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_recv is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_send<'a>(
+        &mut self,
+        fd: types::Fd,
+        si_data: &types::CiovecArray<'a>,
+        _si_flags: types::Siflags,
+    ) -> Result<types::Size, types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_send is not implemented")
+    }
+
+    #[allow(unused_variables)]
+    #[instrument(skip(self))]
+    fn sock_shutdown(&mut self, fd: types::Fd, how: types::Sdflags) -> Result<(), types::Error> {
+        todo!("preview1 sock_shutdown is not implemented")
+    }
+}