second_step 0.1.2 → 0.1.3

data/secondstep-notify-1.0.0-osx/lib/ruby/lib/ruby/2.2.0/mathn.rb

@@ -1,191 +0,0 @@
-#--
-# $Release Version: 0.5 $
-# $Revision: 1.1.1.1.4.1 $
-
-##
-# = mathn
-#
-# mathn serves to make mathematical operations more precise in Ruby
-# and to integrate other mathematical standard libraries.
-#
-# Without mathn:
-#
-#   3 / 2 => 1 # Integer
-#
-# With mathn:
-#
-#   3 / 2 => 3/2 # Rational
-#
-# mathn keeps value in exact terms.
-#
-# Without mathn:
-#
-#   20 / 9 * 3 * 14 / 7 * 3 / 2 # => 18
-#
-# With mathn:
-#
-#   20 / 9 * 3 * 14 / 7 * 3 / 2 # => 20
-#
-#
-# When you require 'mathn', the libraries for Prime, CMath, Matrix and Vector
-# are also loaded.
-#
-# == Copyright
-#
-# Author: Keiju ISHITSUKA (SHL Japan Inc.)
-#--
-# class Numeric follows to make this documentation findable in a reasonable
-# location
-
-warn('lib/mathn.rb is deprecated') if $VERBOSE
-
-class Numeric; end
-
-require "cmath.rb"
-require "matrix.rb"
-require "prime.rb"
-
-require "mathn/rational"
-require "mathn/complex"
-
-unless defined?(Math.exp!)
-  Object.instance_eval{remove_const :Math}
-  Math = CMath # :nodoc:
-end
-
-##
-# When mathn is required, Fixnum's division is enhanced to
-# return more precise values from mathematical expressions.
-#
-#   2/3*3  # => 0
-#   require 'mathn'
-#   2/3*3  # => 2
-
-class Fixnum
-  remove_method :/
-
-  ##
-  # +/+ defines the Rational division for Fixnum.
-  #
-  #   1/3  # => (1/3)
-
-  alias / quo
-end
-
-##
-# When mathn is required Bignum's division is enhanced to
-# return more precise values from mathematical expressions.
-#
-#   (2**72) / ((2**70) * 3)  # => 4/3
-
-class Bignum
-  remove_method :/
-
-  ##
-  # +/+ defines the Rational division for Bignum.
-  #
-  #   (2**72) / ((2**70) * 3)  # => 4/3
-
-  alias / quo
-end
-
-##
-# When mathn is required, the Math module changes as follows:
-#
-# Standard Math module behaviour:
-#   Math.sqrt(4/9)     # => 0.0
-#   Math.sqrt(4.0/9.0) # => 0.666666666666667
-#   Math.sqrt(- 4/9)   # => Errno::EDOM: Numerical argument out of domain - sqrt
-#
-# After require 'mathn', this is changed to:
-#
-#   require 'mathn'
-#   Math.sqrt(4/9)      # => 2/3
-#   Math.sqrt(4.0/9.0)  # => 0.666666666666667
-#   Math.sqrt(- 4/9)    # => Complex(0, 2/3)
-
-module Math
-  remove_method(:sqrt)
-
-  ##
-  # Computes the square root of +a+.  It makes use of Complex and
-  # Rational to have no rounding errors if possible.
-  #
-  #   Math.sqrt(4/9)      # => 2/3
-  #   Math.sqrt(- 4/9)    # => Complex(0, 2/3)
-  #   Math.sqrt(4.0/9.0)  # => 0.666666666666667
-
-  def sqrt(a)
-    if a.kind_of?(Complex)
-      abs = sqrt(a.real*a.real + a.imag*a.imag)
-      x = sqrt((a.real + abs)/Rational(2))
-      y = sqrt((-a.real + abs)/Rational(2))
-      if a.imag >= 0
-        Complex(x, y)
-      else
-        Complex(x, -y)
-      end
-    elsif a.respond_to?(:nan?) and a.nan?
-      a
-    elsif a >= 0
-      rsqrt(a)
-    else
-      Complex(0,rsqrt(-a))
-    end
-  end
-
-  ##
-  # Compute square root of a non negative number. This method is
-  # internally used by +Math.sqrt+.
-
-  def rsqrt(a)
-    if a.kind_of?(Float)
-      sqrt!(a)
-    elsif a.kind_of?(Rational)
-      rsqrt(a.numerator)/rsqrt(a.denominator)
-    else
-      src = a
-      max = 2 ** 32
-      byte_a = [src & 0xffffffff]
-      # ruby's bug
-      while (src >= max) and (src >>= 32)
-        byte_a.unshift src & 0xffffffff
-      end
-
-      answer = 0
-      main = 0
-      side = 0
-      for elm in byte_a
-        main = (main << 32) + elm
-        side <<= 16
-        if answer != 0
-          if main * 4  < side * side
-            applo = main.div(side)
-          else
-            applo = ((sqrt!(side * side + 4 * main) - side)/2.0).to_i + 1
-          end
-        else
-          applo = sqrt!(main).to_i + 1
-        end
-
-        while (x = (side + applo) * applo) > main
-          applo -= 1
-        end
-        main -= x
-        answer = (answer << 16) + applo
-        side += applo * 2
-      end
-      if main == 0
-        answer
-      else
-        sqrt!(a)
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  class << self
-    remove_method(:sqrt)
-  end
-  module_function :sqrt
-  module_function :rsqrt
-end

data/secondstep-notify-1.0.0-osx/lib/ruby/lib/ruby/2.2.0/matrix.rb

@@ -1,2161 +0,0 @@
-# encoding: utf-8
-#
-# = matrix.rb
-#
-# An implementation of Matrix and Vector classes.
-#
-# See classes Matrix and Vector for documentation.
-#
-# Current Maintainer:: Marc-André Lafortune
-# Original Author:: Keiju ISHITSUKA
-# Original Documentation:: Gavin Sinclair (sourced from <i>Ruby in a Nutshell</i> (Matsumoto, O'Reilly))
-##
-
-require "e2mmap.rb"
-
-module ExceptionForMatrix # :nodoc:
-  extend Exception2MessageMapper
-  def_e2message(TypeError, "wrong argument type %s (expected %s)")
-  def_e2message(ArgumentError, "Wrong # of arguments(%d for %d)")
-
-  def_exception("ErrDimensionMismatch", "\#{self.name} dimension mismatch")
-  def_exception("ErrNotRegular", "Not Regular Matrix")
-  def_exception("ErrOperationNotDefined", "Operation(%s) can\\'t be defined: %s op %s")
-  def_exception("ErrOperationNotImplemented", "Sorry, Operation(%s) not implemented: %s op %s")
-end
-
-#
-# The +Matrix+ class represents a mathematical matrix. It provides methods for creating
-# matrices, operating on them arithmetically and algebraically,
-# and determining their mathematical properties (trace, rank, inverse, determinant).
-#
-# == Method Catalogue
-#
-# To create a matrix:
-# * Matrix[*rows]
-# * Matrix.[](*rows)
-# * Matrix.rows(rows, copy = true)
-# * Matrix.columns(columns)
-# * Matrix.build(row_count, column_count, &block)
-# * Matrix.diagonal(*values)
-# * Matrix.scalar(n, value)
-# * Matrix.identity(n)
-# * Matrix.unit(n)
-# * Matrix.I(n)
-# * Matrix.zero(n)
-# * Matrix.row_vector(row)
-# * Matrix.column_vector(column)
-# * Matrix.hstack(*matrices)
-# * Matrix.vstack(*matrices)
-#
-# To access Matrix elements/columns/rows/submatrices/properties:
-# * #[](i, j)
-# * #row_count (row_size)
-# * #column_count (column_size)
-# * #row(i)
-# * #column(j)
-# * #collect
-# * #map
-# * #each
-# * #each_with_index
-# * #find_index
-# * #minor(*param)
-# * #first_minor(row, column)
-# * #cofactor(row, column)
-# * #adjugate
-# * #laplace_expansion(row_or_column: num)
-# * #cofactor_expansion(row_or_column: num)
-#
-# Properties of a matrix:
-# * #diagonal?
-# * #empty?
-# * #hermitian?
-# * #lower_triangular?
-# * #normal?
-# * #orthogonal?
-# * #permutation?
-# * #real?
-# * #regular?
-# * #singular?
-# * #square?
-# * #symmetric?
-# * #unitary?
-# * #upper_triangular?
-# * #zero?
-#
-# Matrix arithmetic:
-# * #*(m)
-# * #+(m)
-# * #-(m)
-# * #/(m)
-# * #inverse
-# * #inv
-# * #**
-# * #+@
-# * #-@
-#
-# Matrix functions:
-# * #determinant
-# * #det
-# * #hstack(*matrices)
-# * #rank
-# * #round
-# * #trace
-# * #tr
-# * #transpose
-# * #t
-# * #vstack(*matrices)
-#
-# Matrix decompositions:
-# * #eigen
-# * #eigensystem
-# * #lup
-# * #lup_decomposition
-#
-# Complex arithmetic:
-# * conj
-# * conjugate
-# * imag
-# * imaginary
-# * real
-# * rect
-# * rectangular
-#
-# Conversion to other data types:
-# * #coerce(other)
-# * #row_vectors
-# * #column_vectors
-# * #to_a
-#
-# String representations:
-# * #to_s
-# * #inspect
-#
-class Matrix
-  include Enumerable
-  include ExceptionForMatrix
-  autoload :EigenvalueDecomposition, "matrix/eigenvalue_decomposition"
-  autoload :LUPDecomposition, "matrix/lup_decomposition"
-
-  # instance creations
-  private_class_method :new
-  attr_reader :rows
-  protected :rows
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where each argument is a row.
-  #   Matrix[ [25, 93], [-1, 66] ]
-  #      =>  25 93
-  #          -1 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.[](*rows)
-    rows(rows, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where +rows+ is an array of arrays, each of which is a row
-  # of the matrix.  If the optional argument +copy+ is false, use the given
-  # arrays as the internal structure of the matrix without copying.
-  #   Matrix.rows([[25, 93], [-1, 66]])
-  #      =>  25 93
-  #          -1 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.rows(rows, copy = true)
-    rows = convert_to_array(rows, copy)
-    rows.map! do |row|
-      convert_to_array(row, copy)
-    end
-    size = (rows[0] || []).size
-    rows.each do |row|
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "row size differs (#{row.size} should be #{size})" unless row.size == size
-    end
-    new rows, size
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix using +columns+ as an array of column vectors.
-  #   Matrix.columns([[25, 93], [-1, 66]])
-  #      =>  25 -1
-  #          93 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.columns(columns)
-    rows(columns, false).transpose
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix of size +row_count+ x +column_count+.
-  # It fills the values by calling the given block,
-  # passing the current row and column.
-  # Returns an enumerator if no block is given.
-  #
-  #   m = Matrix.build(2, 4) {|row, col| col - row }
-  #     => Matrix[[0, 1, 2, 3], [-1, 0, 1, 2]]
-  #   m = Matrix.build(3) { rand }
-  #     => a 3x3 matrix with random elements
-  #
-  def Matrix.build(row_count, column_count = row_count)
-    row_count = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_int(row_count)
-    column_count = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_int(column_count)
-    raise ArgumentError if row_count < 0 || column_count < 0
-    return to_enum :build, row_count, column_count unless block_given?
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) do |i|
-      Array.new(column_count) do |j|
-        yield i, j
-      end
-    end
-    new rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where the diagonal elements are composed of +values+.
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3)
-  #     =>  9  0  0
-  #         0  5  0
-  #         0  0 -3
-  #
-  def Matrix.diagonal(*values)
-    size = values.size
-    return Matrix.empty if size == 0
-    rows = Array.new(size) {|j|
-      row = Array.new(size, 0)
-      row[j] = values[j]
-      row
-    }
-    new rows
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates an +n+ by +n+ diagonal matrix where each diagonal element is
-  # +value+.
-  #   Matrix.scalar(2, 5)
-  #     => 5 0
-  #        0 5
-  #
-  def Matrix.scalar(n, value)
-    diagonal(*Array.new(n, value))
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates an +n+ by +n+ identity matrix.
-  #   Matrix.identity(2)
-  #     => 1 0
-  #        0 1
-  #
-  def Matrix.identity(n)
-    scalar(n, 1)
-  end
-  class << Matrix
-    alias unit identity
-    alias I identity
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a zero matrix.
-  #   Matrix.zero(2)
-  #     => 0 0
-  #        0 0
-  #
-  def Matrix.zero(row_count, column_count = row_count)
-    rows = Array.new(row_count){Array.new(column_count, 0)}
-    new rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-row matrix where the values of that row are as given in
-  # +row+.
-  #   Matrix.row_vector([4,5,6])
-  #     => 4 5 6
-  #
-  def Matrix.row_vector(row)
-    row = convert_to_array(row)
-    new [row]
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-column matrix where the values of that column are as given
-  # in +column+.
-  #   Matrix.column_vector([4,5,6])
-  #     => 4
-  #        5
-  #        6
-  #
-  def Matrix.column_vector(column)
-    column = convert_to_array(column)
-    new [column].transpose, 1
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a empty matrix of +row_count+ x +column_count+.
-  # At least one of +row_count+ or +column_count+ must be 0.
-  #
-  #   m = Matrix.empty(2, 0)
-  #   m == Matrix[ [], [] ]
-  #     => true
-  #   n = Matrix.empty(0, 3)
-  #   n == Matrix.columns([ [], [], [] ])
-  #     => true
-  #   m * n
-  #     => Matrix[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.empty(row_count = 0, column_count = 0)
-    raise ArgumentError, "One size must be 0" if column_count != 0 && row_count != 0
-    raise ArgumentError, "Negative size" if column_count < 0 || row_count < 0
-
-    new([[]]*row_count, column_count)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Create a matrix by stacking matrices vertically
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   Matrix.vstack(x, y) # => Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.vstack(x, *matrices)
-    raise TypeError, "Expected a Matrix, got a #{x.class}" unless x.is_a?(Matrix)
-    result = x.send(:rows).map(&:dup)
-    matrices.each do |m|
-      raise TypeError, "Expected a Matrix, got a #{m.class}" unless m.is_a?(Matrix)
-      if m.column_count != x.column_count
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "The given matrices must have #{x.column_count} columns, but one has #{m.column_count}"
-      end
-      result.concat(m.send(:rows))
-    end
-    new result, x.column_count
-  end
-
-
-  #
-  # Create a matrix by stacking matrices horizontally
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   Matrix.hstack(x, y) # => Matrix[[1, 2, 5, 6], [3, 4, 7, 8]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.hstack(x, *matrices)
-    raise TypeError, "Expected a Matrix, got a #{x.class}" unless x.is_a?(Matrix)
-    result = x.send(:rows).map(&:dup)
-    total_column_count = x.column_count
-    matrices.each do |m|
-      raise TypeError, "Expected a Matrix, got a #{m.class}" unless m.is_a?(Matrix)
-      if m.row_count != x.row_count
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "The given matrices must have #{x.row_count} rows, but one has #{m.row_count}"
-      end
-      result.each_with_index do |row, i|
-        row.concat m.send(:rows)[i]
-      end
-      total_column_count += m.column_count
-    end
-    new result, total_column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix.new is private; use Matrix.rows, columns, [], etc... to create.
-  #
-  def initialize(rows, column_count = rows[0].size)
-    # No checking is done at this point. rows must be an Array of Arrays.
-    # column_count must be the size of the first row, if there is one,
-    # otherwise it *must* be specified and can be any integer >= 0
-    @rows = rows
-    @column_count = column_count
-  end
-
-  def new_matrix(rows, column_count = rows[0].size) # :nodoc:
-    self.class.send(:new, rows, column_count) # bypass privacy of Matrix.new
-  end
-  private :new_matrix
-
-  #
-  # Returns element (+i+,+j+) of the matrix.  That is: row +i+, column +j+.
-  #
-  def [](i, j)
-    @rows.fetch(i){return nil}[j]
-  end
-  alias element []
-  alias component []
-
-  def []=(i, j, v)
-    @rows[i][j] = v
-  end
-  alias set_element []=
-  alias set_component []=
-  private :[]=, :set_element, :set_component
-
-  #
-  # Returns the number of rows.
-  #
-  def row_count
-    @rows.size
-  end
-
-  alias_method :row_size, :row_count
-  #
-  # Returns the number of columns.
-  #
-  attr_reader :column_count
-  alias_method :column_size, :column_count
-
-  #
-  # Returns row vector number +i+ of the matrix as a Vector (starting at 0 like
-  # an array).  When a block is given, the elements of that vector are iterated.
-  #
-  def row(i, &block) # :yield: e
-    if block_given?
-      @rows.fetch(i){return self}.each(&block)
-      self
-    else
-      Vector.elements(@rows.fetch(i){return nil})
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns column vector number +j+ of the matrix as a Vector (starting at 0
-  # like an array).  When a block is given, the elements of that vector are
-  # iterated.
-  #
-  def column(j) # :yield: e
-    if block_given?
-      return self if j >= column_count || j < -column_count
-      row_count.times do |i|
-        yield @rows[i][j]
-      end
-      self
-    else
-      return nil if j >= column_count || j < -column_count
-      col = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-        @rows[i][j]
-      }
-      Vector.elements(col, false)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a matrix that is the result of iteration of the given block over all
-  # elements of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].collect { |e| e**2 }
-  #     => 1  4
-  #        9 16
-  #
-  def collect(&block) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum(:collect) unless block_given?
-    rows = @rows.collect{|row| row.collect(&block)}
-    new_matrix rows, column_count
-  end
-  alias map collect
-
-  #
-  # Yields all elements of the matrix, starting with those of the first row,
-  # or returns an Enumerator if no block given.
-  # Elements can be restricted by passing an argument:
-  # * :all (default): yields all elements
-  # * :diagonal: yields only elements on the diagonal
-  # * :off_diagonal: yields all elements except on the diagonal
-  # * :lower: yields only elements on or below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_lower: yields only elements below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_upper: yields only elements above the diagonal
-  # * :upper: yields only elements on or above the diagonal
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each { |e| puts e }
-  #     # => prints the numbers 1 to 4
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each(:strict_lower).to_a # => [3]
-  #
-  def each(which = :all) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum :each, which unless block_given?
-    last = column_count - 1
-    case which
-    when :all
-      block = Proc.new
-      @rows.each do |row|
-        row.each(&block)
-      end
-    when :diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        yield row.fetch(row_index){return self}
-      end
-    when :off_diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        column_count.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index] unless row_index == col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        0.upto([row_index, last].min) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        [row_index, column_count].min.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        (row_index+1).upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row_index.upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, "expected #{which.inspect} to be one of :all, :diagonal, :off_diagonal, :lower, :strict_lower, :strict_upper or :upper"
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Same as #each, but the row index and column index in addition to the element
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each_with_index do |e, row, col|
-  #     puts "#{e} at #{row}, #{col}"
-  #   end
-  #     # => Prints:
-  #     #    1 at 0, 0
-  #     #    2 at 0, 1
-  #     #    3 at 1, 0
-  #     #    4 at 1, 1
-  #
-  def each_with_index(which = :all) # :yield: e, row, column
-    return to_enum :each_with_index, which unless block_given?
-    last = column_count - 1
-    case which
-    when :all
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row.each_with_index do |e, col_index|
-          yield e, row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        yield row.fetch(row_index){return self}, row_index, row_index
-      end
-    when :off_diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        column_count.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index unless row_index == col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        0.upto([row_index, last].min) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        [row_index, column_count].min.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        (row_index+1).upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row_index.upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, "expected #{which.inspect} to be one of :all, :diagonal, :off_diagonal, :lower, :strict_lower, :strict_upper or :upper"
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  SELECTORS = {all: true, diagonal: true, off_diagonal: true, lower: true, strict_lower: true, strict_upper: true, upper: true}.freeze
-  #
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   index(value, selector = :all) -> [row, column]
-  #   index(selector = :all){ block } -> [row, column]
-  #   index(selector = :all) -> an_enumerator
-  #
-  # The index method is specialized to return the index as [row, column]
-  # It also accepts an optional +selector+ argument, see #each for details.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].index(&:even?) # => [0, 1]
-  #   Matrix[ [1,1], [1,1] ].index(1, :strict_lower) # => [1, 0]
-  #
-  def index(*args)
-    raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments(#{args.size} for 0-2)" if args.size > 2
-    which = (args.size == 2 || SELECTORS.include?(args.last)) ? args.pop : :all
-    return to_enum :find_index, which, *args unless block_given? || args.size == 1
-    if args.size == 1
-      value = args.first
-      each_with_index(which) do |e, row_index, col_index|
-        return row_index, col_index if e == value
-      end
-    else
-      each_with_index(which) do |e, row_index, col_index|
-        return row_index, col_index if yield e
-      end
-    end
-    nil
-  end
-  alias_method :find_index, :index
-
-  #
-  # Returns a section of the matrix.  The parameters are either:
-  # *  start_row, nrows, start_col, ncols; OR
-  # *  row_range, col_range
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3).minor(0..1, 0..2)
-  #     => 9 0 0
-  #        0 5 0
-  #
-  # Like Array#[], negative indices count backward from the end of the
-  # row or column (-1 is the last element). Returns nil if the starting
-  # row or column is greater than row_count or column_count respectively.
-  #
-  def minor(*param)
-    case param.size
-    when 2
-      row_range, col_range = param
-      from_row = row_range.first
-      from_row += row_count if from_row < 0
-      to_row = row_range.end
-      to_row += row_count if to_row < 0
-      to_row += 1 unless row_range.exclude_end?
-      size_row = to_row - from_row
-
-      from_col = col_range.first
-      from_col += column_count if from_col < 0
-      to_col = col_range.end
-      to_col += column_count if to_col < 0
-      to_col += 1 unless col_range.exclude_end?
-      size_col = to_col - from_col
-    when 4
-      from_row, size_row, from_col, size_col = param
-      return nil if size_row < 0 || size_col < 0
-      from_row += row_count if from_row < 0
-      from_col += column_count if from_col < 0
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, param.inspect
-    end
-
-    return nil if from_row > row_count || from_col > column_count || from_row < 0 || from_col < 0
-    rows = @rows[from_row, size_row].collect{|row|
-      row[from_col, size_col]
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, [column_count - from_col, size_col].min
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the submatrix obtained by deleting the specified row and column.
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3, 4).first_minor(1, 2)
-  #     => 9 0 0
-  #        0 0 0
-  #        0 0 4
-  #
-  def first_minor(row, column)
-    raise RuntimeError, "first_minor of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-
-    unless 0 <= row && row < row_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid row (#{row.inspect} for 0..#{row_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    unless 0 <= column && column < column_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid column (#{column.inspect} for 0..#{column_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    arrays = to_a
-    arrays.delete_at(row)
-    arrays.each do |array|
-      array.delete_at(column)
-    end
-
-    new_matrix arrays, column_count - 1
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the (row, column) cofactor which is obtained by multiplying
-  # the first minor by (-1)**(row + column).
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3, 4).cofactor(1, 1)
-  #     => -108
-  #
-  def cofactor(row, column)
-    raise RuntimeError, "cofactor of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-
-    det_of_minor = first_minor(row, column).determinant
-    det_of_minor * (-1) ** (row + column)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the adjugate of the matrix.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [7,6],[3,9] ].adjugate
-  #     => 9 -6
-  #        -3 7
-  #
-  def adjugate
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    Matrix.build(row_count, column_count) do |row, column|
-      cofactor(column, row)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the Laplace expansion along given row or column.
-  #
-  #    Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].laplace_expansion(column: 1)
-  #     => 45
-  #
-  #    Matrix[[Vector[1, 0], Vector[0, 1]], [2, 3]].laplace_expansion(row: 0)
-  #     => Vector[3, -2]
-  #
-  #
-  def laplace_expansion(row: nil, column: nil)
-    num = row || column
-
-    if !num || (row && column)
-      raise ArgumentError, "exactly one the row or column arguments must be specified"
-    end
-
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    raise RuntimeError, "laplace_expansion of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-
-    unless 0 <= num && num < row_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid num (#{num.inspect} for 0..#{row_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    send(row ? :row : :column, num).map.with_index { |e, k|
-      e * cofactor(*(row ? [num, k] : [k,num]))
-    }.inject(:+)
-  end
-  alias_method :cofactor_expansion, :laplace_expansion
-
-
-  #--
-  # TESTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a diagonal matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def diagonal?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each(:off_diagonal).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an empty matrix, i.e. if the number of rows
-  # or the number of columns is 0.
-  #
-  def empty?
-    column_count == 0 || row_count == 0
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an hermitian matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def hermitian?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each_with_index(:upper).all? do |e, row, col|
-      e == rows[col][row].conj
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a lower triangular matrix.
-  #
-  def lower_triangular?
-    each(:strict_upper).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a normal matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def normal?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    rows.each_with_index do |row_i, i|
-      rows.each_with_index do |row_j, j|
-        s = 0
-        rows.each_with_index do |row_k, k|
-          s += row_i[k] * row_j[k].conj - row_k[i].conj * row_k[j]
-        end
-        return false unless s == 0
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an orthogonal matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def orthogonal?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    rows.each_with_index do |row, i|
-      column_count.times do |j|
-        s = 0
-        row_count.times do |k|
-          s += row[k] * rows[k][j]
-        end
-        return false unless s == (i == j ? 1 : 0)
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a permutation matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def permutation?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    cols = Array.new(column_count)
-    rows.each_with_index do |row, i|
-      found = false
-      row.each_with_index do |e, j|
-        if e == 1
-          return false if found || cols[j]
-          found = cols[j] = true
-        elsif e != 0
-          return false
-        end
-      end
-      return false unless found
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if all entries of the matrix are real.
-  #
-  def real?
-    all?(&:real?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a regular (i.e. non-singular) matrix.
-  #
-  def regular?
-    not singular?
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a singular matrix.
-  #
-  def singular?
-    determinant == 0
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a square matrix.
-  #
-  def square?
-    column_count == row_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a symmetric matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def symmetric?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each_with_index(:strict_upper) do |e, row, col|
-      return false if e != rows[col][row]
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a unitary matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def unitary?
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    rows.each_with_index do |row, i|
-      column_count.times do |j|
-        s = 0
-        row_count.times do |k|
-          s += row[k].conj * rows[k][j]
-        end
-        return false unless s == (i == j ? 1 : 0)
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an upper triangular matrix.
-  #
-  def upper_triangular?
-    each(:strict_lower).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a matrix with only zero elements
-  #
-  def zero?
-    all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # OBJECT METHODS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if and only if the two matrices contain equal elements.
-  #
-  def ==(other)
-    return false unless Matrix === other &&
-                        column_count == other.column_count # necessary for empty matrices
-    rows == other.rows
-  end
-
-  def eql?(other)
-    return false unless Matrix === other &&
-                        column_count == other.column_count # necessary for empty matrices
-    rows.eql? other.rows
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a clone of the matrix, so that the contents of each do not reference
-  # identical objects.
-  # There should be no good reason to do this since Matrices are immutable.
-  #
-  def clone
-    new_matrix @rows.map(&:dup), column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a hash-code for the matrix.
-  #
-  def hash
-    @rows.hash
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Matrix multiplication.
-  #   Matrix[[2,4], [6,8]] * Matrix.identity(2)
-  #     => 2 4
-  #        6 8
-  #
-  def *(m) # m is matrix or vector or number
-    case(m)
-    when Numeric
-      rows = @rows.collect {|row|
-        row.collect {|e| e * m }
-      }
-      return new_matrix rows, column_count
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-      r = self * m
-      return r.column(0)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if column_count != m.row_count
-
-      rows = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-        Array.new(m.column_count) {|j|
-          (0 ... column_count).inject(0) do |vij, k|
-            vij + self[i, k] * m[k, j]
-          end
-        }
-      }
-      return new_matrix rows, m.column_count
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix addition.
-  #   Matrix.scalar(2,5) + Matrix[[1,0], [-4,7]]
-  #     =>  6  0
-  #        -4 12
-  #
-  def +(m)
-    case m
-    when Numeric
-      Matrix.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "+", self.class, m.class
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-    when Matrix
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_count == m.row_count && column_count == m.column_count
-
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      Array.new(column_count) {|j|
-        self[i, j] + m[i, j]
-      }
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix subtraction.
-  #   Matrix[[1,5], [4,2]] - Matrix[[9,3], [-4,1]]
-  #     => -8  2
-  #         8  1
-  #
-  def -(m)
-    case m
-    when Numeric
-      Matrix.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "-", self.class, m.class
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-    when Matrix
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_count == m.row_count && column_count == m.column_count
-
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      Array.new(column_count) {|j|
-        self[i, j] - m[i, j]
-      }
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix division (multiplication by the inverse).
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]] / Matrix[[2,9], [3,1]]
-  #     => -7  1
-  #        -3 -6
-  #
-  def /(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      rows = @rows.collect {|row|
-        row.collect {|e| e / other }
-      }
-      return new_matrix rows, column_count
-    when Matrix
-      return self * other.inverse
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the inverse of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[-1, -1], [0, -1]].inverse
-  #     => -1  1
-  #         0 -1
-  #
-  def inverse
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    self.class.I(row_count).send(:inverse_from, self)
-  end
-  alias inv inverse
-
-  def inverse_from(src) # :nodoc:
-    last = row_count - 1
-    a = src.to_a
-
-    0.upto(last) do |k|
-      i = k
-      akk = a[k][k].abs
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-        v = a[j][k].abs
-        if v > akk
-          i = j
-          akk = v
-        end
-      end
-      Matrix.Raise ErrNotRegular if akk == 0
-      if i != k
-        a[i], a[k] = a[k], a[i]
-        @rows[i], @rows[k] = @rows[k], @rows[i]
-      end
-      akk = a[k][k]
-
-      0.upto(last) do |ii|
-        next if ii == k
-        q = a[ii][k].quo(akk)
-        a[ii][k] = 0
-
-        (k + 1).upto(last) do |j|
-          a[ii][j] -= a[k][j] * q
-        end
-        0.upto(last) do |j|
-          @rows[ii][j] -= @rows[k][j] * q
-        end
-      end
-
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-        a[k][j] = a[k][j].quo(akk)
-      end
-      0.upto(last) do |j|
-        @rows[k][j] = @rows[k][j].quo(akk)
-      end
-    end
-    self
-  end
-  private :inverse_from
-
-  #
-  # Matrix exponentiation.
-  # Equivalent to multiplying the matrix by itself N times.
-  # Non integer exponents will be handled by diagonalizing the matrix.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]] ** 2
-  #     => 67 96
-  #        48 99
-  #
-  def ** (other)
-    case other
-    when Integer
-      x = self
-      if other <= 0
-        x = self.inverse
-        return self.class.identity(self.column_count) if other == 0
-        other = -other
-      end
-      z = nil
-      loop do
-        z = z ? z * x : x if other[0] == 1
-        return z if (other >>= 1).zero?
-        x *= x
-      end
-    when Numeric
-      v, d, v_inv = eigensystem
-      v * self.class.diagonal(*d.each(:diagonal).map{|e| e ** other}) * v_inv
-    else
-      Matrix.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "**", self.class, other.class
-    end
-  end
-
-  def +@
-    self
-  end
-
-  def -@
-    collect {|e| -e }
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # MATRIX FUNCTIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the determinant of the matrix.
-  #
-  # Beware that using Float values can yield erroneous results
-  # because of their lack of precision.
-  # Consider using exact types like Rational or BigDecimal instead.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].determinant
-  #     => 45
-  #
-  def determinant
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    m = @rows
-    case row_count
-      # Up to 4x4, give result using Laplacian expansion by minors.
-      # This will typically be faster, as well as giving good results
-      # in case of Floats
-    when 0
-      +1
-    when 1
-      + m[0][0]
-    when 2
-      + m[0][0] * m[1][1] - m[0][1] * m[1][0]
-    when 3
-      m0, m1, m2 = m
-      + m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[2] - m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[1] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[2] + m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[1] - m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[0]
-    when 4
-      m0, m1, m2, m3 = m
-      + m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[2] * m3[3] - m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[3] * m3[2] \
-      - m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[1] * m3[3] + m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[3] * m3[1] \
-      + m0[0] * m1[3] * m2[1] * m3[2] - m0[0] * m1[3] * m2[2] * m3[1] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[2] * m3[3] + m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[3] * m3[2] \
-      + m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[0] * m3[3] - m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[3] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[3] * m2[0] * m3[2] + m0[1] * m1[3] * m2[2] * m3[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[1] * m3[3] - m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[3] * m3[1] \
-      - m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[0] * m3[3] + m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[3] * m3[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[3] * m2[0] * m3[1] - m0[2] * m1[3] * m2[1] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[3] * m1[0] * m2[1] * m3[2] + m0[3] * m1[0] * m2[2] * m3[1] \
-      + m0[3] * m1[1] * m2[0] * m3[2] - m0[3] * m1[1] * m2[2] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[3] * m1[2] * m2[0] * m3[1] + m0[3] * m1[2] * m2[1] * m3[0]
-    else
-      # For bigger matrices, use an efficient and general algorithm.
-      # Currently, we use the Gauss-Bareiss algorithm
-      determinant_bareiss
-    end
-  end
-  alias_method :det, :determinant
-
-  #
-  # Private. Use Matrix#determinant
-  #
-  # Returns the determinant of the matrix, using
-  # Bareiss' multistep integer-preserving gaussian elimination.
-  # It has the same computational cost order O(n^3) as standard Gaussian elimination.
-  # Intermediate results are fraction free and of lower complexity.
-  # A matrix of Integers will have thus intermediate results that are also Integers,
-  # with smaller bignums (if any), while a matrix of Float will usually have
-  # intermediate results with better precision.
-  #
-  def determinant_bareiss
-    size = row_count
-    last = size - 1
-    a = to_a
-    no_pivot = Proc.new{ return 0 }
-    sign = +1
-    pivot = 1
-    size.times do |k|
-      previous_pivot = pivot
-      if (pivot = a[k][k]) == 0
-        switch = (k+1 ... size).find(no_pivot) {|row|
-          a[row][k] != 0
-        }
-        a[switch], a[k] = a[k], a[switch]
-        pivot = a[k][k]
-        sign = -sign
-      end
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |i|
-        ai = a[i]
-        (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-          ai[j] =  (pivot * ai[j] - ai[k] * a[k][j]) / previous_pivot
-        end
-      end
-    end
-    sign * pivot
-  end
-  private :determinant_bareiss
-
-  #
-  # deprecated; use Matrix#determinant
-  #
-  def determinant_e
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Matrix#determinant_e is deprecated; use #determinant"
-    determinant
-  end
-  alias det_e determinant_e
-
-  #
-  # Returns a new matrix resulting by stacking horizontally
-  # the receiver with the given matrices
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   x.hstack(y) # => Matrix[[1, 2, 5, 6], [3, 4, 7, 8]]
-  #
-  def hstack(*matrices)
-    self.class.hstack(self, *matrices)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the rank of the matrix.
-  # Beware that using Float values can yield erroneous results
-  # because of their lack of precision.
-  # Consider using exact types like Rational or BigDecimal instead.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].rank
-  #     => 2
-  #
-  def rank
-    # We currently use Bareiss' multistep integer-preserving gaussian elimination
-    # (see comments on determinant)
-    a = to_a
-    last_column = column_count - 1
-    last_row = row_count - 1
-    pivot_row = 0
-    previous_pivot = 1
-    0.upto(last_column) do |k|
-      switch_row = (pivot_row .. last_row).find {|row|
-        a[row][k] != 0
-      }
-      if switch_row
-        a[switch_row], a[pivot_row] = a[pivot_row], a[switch_row] unless pivot_row == switch_row
-        pivot = a[pivot_row][k]
-        (pivot_row+1).upto(last_row) do |i|
-           ai = a[i]
-           (k+1).upto(last_column) do |j|
-             ai[j] =  (pivot * ai[j] - ai[k] * a[pivot_row][j]) / previous_pivot
-           end
-         end
-        pivot_row += 1
-        previous_pivot = pivot
-      end
-    end
-    pivot_row
-  end
-
-  #
-  # deprecated; use Matrix#rank
-  #
-  def rank_e
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Matrix#rank_e is deprecated; use #rank"
-    rank
-  end
-
-  # Returns a matrix with entries rounded to the given precision
-  # (see Float#round)
-  #
-  def round(ndigits=0)
-    map{|e| e.round(ndigits)}
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the trace (sum of diagonal elements) of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].trace
-  #     => 16
-  #
-  def trace
-    Matrix.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    (0...column_count).inject(0) do |tr, i|
-      tr + @rows[i][i]
-    end
-  end
-  alias tr trace
-
-  #
-  # Returns the transpose of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[1,2], [3,4], [5,6]]
-  #     => 1 2
-  #        3 4
-  #        5 6
-  #   Matrix[[1,2], [3,4], [5,6]].transpose
-  #     => 1 3 5
-  #        2 4 6
-  #
-  def transpose
-    return self.class.empty(column_count, 0) if row_count.zero?
-    new_matrix @rows.transpose, row_count
-  end
-  alias t transpose
-
-  #
-  # Returns a new matrix resulting by stacking vertically
-  # the receiver with the given matrices
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   x.vstack(y) # => Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #
-  def vstack(*matrices)
-    self.class.vstack(self, *matrices)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # DECOMPOSITIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the Eigensystem of the matrix; see +EigenvalueDecomposition+.
-  #   m = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   v, d, v_inv = m.eigensystem
-  #   d.diagonal? # => true
-  #   v.inv == v_inv # => true
-  #   (v * d * v_inv).round(5) == m # => true
-  #
-  def eigensystem
-    EigenvalueDecomposition.new(self)
-  end
-  alias eigen eigensystem
-
-  #
-  # Returns the LUP decomposition of the matrix; see +LUPDecomposition+.
-  #   a = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   l, u, p = a.lup
-  #   l.lower_triangular? # => true
-  #   u.upper_triangular? # => true
-  #   p.permutation?      # => true
-  #   l * u == p * a      # => true
-  #   a.lup.solve([2, 5]) # => Vector[(1/1), (1/2)]
-  #
-  def lup
-    LUPDecomposition.new(self)
-  end
-  alias lup_decomposition lup
-
-  #--
-  # COMPLEX ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the conjugate of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #     => 1+2i   i  0
-  #           1   2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].conjugate
-  #     => 1-2i  -i  0
-  #           1   2  3
-  #
-  def conjugate
-    collect(&:conjugate)
-  end
-  alias conj conjugate
-
-  #
-  # Returns the imaginary part of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #     => 1+2i  i  0
-  #           1  2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].imaginary
-  #     =>   2i  i  0
-  #           0  0  0
-  #
-  def imaginary
-    collect(&:imaginary)
-  end
-  alias imag imaginary
-
-  #
-  # Returns the real part of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #     => 1+2i  i  0
-  #           1  2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].real
-  #     =>    1  0  0
-  #           1  2  3
-  #
-  def real
-    collect(&:real)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array containing matrices corresponding to the real and imaginary
-  # parts of the matrix
-  #
-  # m.rect == [m.real, m.imag]  # ==> true for all matrices m
-  #
-  def rect
-    [real, imag]
-  end
-  alias rectangular rect
-
-  #--
-  # CONVERTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # The coerce method provides support for Ruby type coercion.
-  # This coercion mechanism is used by Ruby to handle mixed-type
-  # numeric operations: it is intended to find a compatible common
-  # type between the two operands of the operator.
-  # See also Numeric#coerce.
-  #
-  def coerce(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      return Scalar.new(other), self
-    else
-      raise TypeError, "#{self.class} can't be coerced into #{other.class}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of the row vectors of the matrix.  See Vector.
-  #
-  def row_vectors
-    Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      row(i)
-    }
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of the column vectors of the matrix.  See Vector.
-  #
-  def column_vectors
-    Array.new(column_count) {|i|
-      column(i)
-    }
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of arrays that describe the rows of the matrix.
-  #
-  def to_a
-    @rows.collect(&:dup)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_f
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Matrix#elements_to_f is deprecated, use map(&:to_f)"
-    map(&:to_f)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_i
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Matrix#elements_to_i is deprecated, use map(&:to_i)"
-    map(&:to_i)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_r
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Matrix#elements_to_r is deprecated, use map(&:to_r)"
-    map(&:to_r)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PRINTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#to_s
-  #
-  def to_s
-    if empty?
-      "#{self.class}.empty(#{row_count}, #{column_count})"
-    else
-      "#{self.class}[" + @rows.collect{|row|
-        "[" + row.collect{|e| e.to_s}.join(", ") + "]"
-      }.join(", ")+"]"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#inspect
-  #
-  def inspect
-    if empty?
-      "#{self.class}.empty(#{row_count}, #{column_count})"
-    else
-      "#{self.class}#{@rows.inspect}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  # Private helper modules
-
-  module ConversionHelper # :nodoc:
-    #
-    # Converts the obj to an Array. If copy is set to true
-    # a copy of obj will be made if necessary.
-    #
-    def convert_to_array(obj, copy = false) # :nodoc:
-      case obj
-      when Array
-        copy ? obj.dup : obj
-      when Vector
-        obj.to_a
-      else
-        begin
-          converted = obj.to_ary
-        rescue Exception => e
-          raise TypeError, "can't convert #{obj.class} into an Array (#{e.message})"
-        end
-        raise TypeError, "#{obj.class}#to_ary should return an Array" unless converted.is_a? Array
-        converted
-      end
-    end
-    private :convert_to_array
-  end
-
-  extend ConversionHelper
-
-  module CoercionHelper # :nodoc:
-    #
-    # Applies the operator +oper+ with argument +obj+
-    # through coercion of +obj+
-    #
-    def apply_through_coercion(obj, oper)
-      coercion = obj.coerce(self)
-      raise TypeError unless coercion.is_a?(Array) && coercion.length == 2
-      coercion[0].public_send(oper, coercion[1])
-    rescue
-      raise TypeError, "#{obj.inspect} can't be coerced into #{self.class}"
-    end
-    private :apply_through_coercion
-
-    #
-    # Helper method to coerce a value into a specific class.
-    # Raises a TypeError if the coercion fails or the returned value
-    # is not of the right class.
-    # (from Rubinius)
-    #
-    def self.coerce_to(obj, cls, meth) # :nodoc:
-      return obj if obj.kind_of?(cls)
-
-      begin
-        ret = obj.__send__(meth)
-      rescue Exception => e
-        raise TypeError, "Coercion error: #{obj.inspect}.#{meth} => #{cls} failed:\n" \
-                         "(#{e.message})"
-      end
-      raise TypeError, "Coercion error: obj.#{meth} did NOT return a #{cls} (was #{ret.class})" unless ret.kind_of? cls
-      ret
-    end
-
-    def self.coerce_to_int(obj)
-      coerce_to(obj, Integer, :to_int)
-    end
-  end
-
-  include CoercionHelper
-
-  # Private CLASS
-
-  class Scalar < Numeric # :nodoc:
-    include ExceptionForMatrix
-    include CoercionHelper
-
-    def initialize(value)
-      @value = value
-    end
-
-    # ARITHMETIC
-    def +(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value + other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        Scalar.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "+", @value.class, other.class
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def -(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value - other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        Scalar.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "-", @value.class, other.class
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def *(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value * other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        other.collect{|e| @value * e}
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def / (other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value / other)
-      when Vector
-        Scalar.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "/", @value.class, other.class
-      when Matrix
-        self * other.inverse
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def ** (other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value ** other)
-      when Vector
-        Scalar.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "**", @value.class, other.class
-      when Matrix
-        #other.powered_by(self)
-        Scalar.Raise ErrOperationNotImplemented, "**", @value.class, other.class
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-end
-
-
-#
-# The +Vector+ class represents a mathematical vector, which is useful in its own right, and
-# also constitutes a row or column of a Matrix.
-#
-# == Method Catalogue
-#
-# To create a Vector:
-# * Vector.[](*array)
-# * Vector.elements(array, copy = true)
-# * Vector.basis(size: n, index: k)
-#
-# To access elements:
-# * #[](i)
-#
-# To enumerate the elements:
-# * #each2(v)
-# * #collect2(v)
-#
-# Properties of vectors:
-# * #angle_with(v)
-# * Vector.independent?(*vs)
-# * #independent?(*vs)
-#
-# Vector arithmetic:
-# * #*(x) "is matrix or number"
-# * #+(v)
-# * #-(v)
-# * #+@
-# * #-@
-#
-# Vector functions:
-# * #inner_product(v), dot(v)
-# * #cross_product(v), cross(v)
-# * #collect
-# * #magnitude
-# * #map
-# * #map2(v)
-# * #norm
-# * #normalize
-# * #r
-# * #size
-#
-# Conversion to other data types:
-# * #covector
-# * #to_a
-# * #coerce(other)
-#
-# String representations:
-# * #to_s
-# * #inspect
-#
-class Vector
-  include ExceptionForMatrix
-  include Enumerable
-  include Matrix::CoercionHelper
-  extend Matrix::ConversionHelper
-  #INSTANCE CREATION
-
-  private_class_method :new
-  attr_reader :elements
-  protected :elements
-
-  #
-  # Creates a Vector from a list of elements.
-  #   Vector[7, 4, ...]
-  #
-  def Vector.[](*array)
-    new convert_to_array(array, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a vector from an Array.  The optional second argument specifies
-  # whether the array itself or a copy is used internally.
-  #
-  def Vector.elements(array, copy = true)
-    new convert_to_array(array, copy)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a standard basis +n+-vector, where k is the index.
-  #
-  #    Vector.basis(size:, index:) # => Vector[0, 1, 0]
-  #
-  def Vector.basis(size:, index:)
-    raise ArgumentError, "invalid size (#{size} for 1..)" if size < 1
-    raise ArgumentError, "invalid index (#{index} for 0...#{size})" unless 0 <= index && index < size
-    array = Array.new(size, 0)
-    array[index] = 1
-    new convert_to_array(array, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector.new is private; use Vector[] or Vector.elements to create.
-  #
-  def initialize(array)
-    # No checking is done at this point.
-    @elements = array
-  end
-
-  # ACCESSING
-
-  #
-  # Returns element number +i+ (starting at zero) of the vector.
-  #
-  def [](i)
-    @elements[i]
-  end
-  alias element []
-  alias component []
-
-  def []=(i, v)
-    @elements[i]= v
-  end
-  alias set_element []=
-  alias set_component []=
-  private :[]=, :set_element, :set_component
-
-  #
-  # Returns the number of elements in the vector.
-  #
-  def size
-    @elements.size
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ENUMERATIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Iterate over the elements of this vector
-  #
-  def each(&block)
-    return to_enum(:each) unless block_given?
-    @elements.each(&block)
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Iterate over the elements of this vector and +v+ in conjunction.
-  #
-  def each2(v) # :yield: e1, e2
-    raise TypeError, "Integer is not like Vector" if v.kind_of?(Integer)
-    Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    return to_enum(:each2, v) unless block_given?
-    size.times do |i|
-      yield @elements[i], v[i]
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Collects (as in Enumerable#collect) over the elements of this vector and +v+
-  # in conjunction.
-  #
-  def collect2(v) # :yield: e1, e2
-    raise TypeError, "Integer is not like Vector" if v.kind_of?(Integer)
-    Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    return to_enum(:collect2, v) unless block_given?
-    Array.new(size) do |i|
-      yield @elements[i], v[i]
-    end
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PROPERTIES -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ iff all of vectors are linearly independent.
-  #
-  #   Vector.independent?(Vector[1,0], Vector[0,1])
-  #     => true
-  #
-  #   Vector.independent?(Vector[1,2], Vector[2,4])
-  #     => false
-  #
-  def Vector.independent?(*vs)
-    vs.each do |v|
-      raise TypeError, "expected Vector, got #{v.class}" unless v.is_a?(Vector)
-      Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless v.size == vs.first.size
-    end
-    return false if vs.count > vs.first.size
-    Matrix[*vs].rank.eql?(vs.count)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ iff all of vectors are linearly independent.
-  #
-  #   Vector[1,0].independent?(Vector[0,1])
-  #     => true
-  #
-  #   Vector[1,2].independent?(Vector[2,4])
-  #     => false
-  #
-  def independent?(*vs)
-    self.class.independent?(self, *vs)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # COMPARING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ iff the two vectors have the same elements in the same order.
-  #
-  def ==(other)
-    return false unless Vector === other
-    @elements == other.elements
-  end
-
-  def eql?(other)
-    return false unless Vector === other
-    @elements.eql? other.elements
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a copy of the vector.
-  #
-  def clone
-    self.class.elements(@elements)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a hash-code for the vector.
-  #
-  def hash
-    @elements.hash
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Multiplies the vector by +x+, where +x+ is a number or another vector.
-  #
-  def *(x)
-    case x
-    when Numeric
-      els = @elements.collect{|e| e * x}
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) * x
-    when Vector
-      Vector.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "*", self.class, x.class
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(x, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector addition.
-  #
-  def +(v)
-    case v
-    when Vector
-      Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-      els = collect2(v) {|v1, v2|
-        v1 + v2
-      }
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) + v
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(v, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector subtraction.
-  #
-  def -(v)
-    case v
-    when Vector
-      Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-      els = collect2(v) {|v1, v2|
-        v1 - v2
-      }
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) - v
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(v, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector division.
-  #
-  def /(x)
-    case x
-    when Numeric
-      els = @elements.collect{|e| e / x}
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix, Vector
-      Vector.Raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "/", self.class, x.class
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(x, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  def +@
-    self
-  end
-
-  def -@
-    collect {|e| -e }
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # VECTOR FUNCTIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the inner product of this vector with the other.
-  #   Vector[4,7].inner_product Vector[10,1]  => 47
-  #
-  def inner_product(v)
-    Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-
-    p = 0
-    each2(v) {|v1, v2|
-      p += v1 * v2.conj
-    }
-    p
-  end
-  alias_method :dot, :inner_product
-
-  #
-  # Returns the cross product of this vector with the others.
-  #   Vector[1, 0, 0].cross_product Vector[0, 1, 0]   => Vector[0, 0, 1]
-  #
-  # It is generalized to other dimensions to return a vector perpendicular
-  # to the arguments.
-  #   Vector[1, 2].cross_product # => Vector[-2, 1]
-  #   Vector[1, 0, 0, 0].cross_product(
-  #      Vector[0, 1, 0, 0],
-  #      Vector[0, 0, 1, 0]
-  #   )  #=> Vector[0, 0, 0, 1]
-  #
-  def cross_product(*vs)
-    raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "cross product is not defined on vectors of dimension #{size}" unless size >= 2
-    raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments (#{vs.size} for #{size - 2})" unless vs.size == size - 2
-    vs.each do |v|
-      raise TypeError, "expected Vector, got #{v.class}" unless v.is_a? Vector
-      Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless v.size == size
-    end
-    case size
-    when 2
-      Vector[-@elements[1], @elements[0]]
-    when 3
-      v = vs[0]
-      Vector[ v[2]*@elements[1] - v[1]*@elements[2],
-        v[0]*@elements[2] - v[2]*@elements[0],
-        v[1]*@elements[0] - v[0]*@elements[1] ]
-    else
-      rows = self, *vs, Array.new(size) {|i| Vector.basis(size: size, index: i) }
-      Matrix.rows(rows).laplace_expansion(row: size - 1)
-    end
-  end
-  alias_method :cross, :cross_product
-
-  #
-  # Like Array#collect.
-  #
-  def collect(&block) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum(:collect) unless block_given?
-    els = @elements.collect(&block)
-    self.class.elements(els, false)
-  end
-  alias map collect
-
-  #
-  # Returns the modulus (Pythagorean distance) of the vector.
-  #   Vector[5,8,2].r => 9.643650761
-  #
-  def magnitude
-    Math.sqrt(@elements.inject(0) {|v, e| v + e.abs2})
-  end
-  alias r magnitude
-  alias norm magnitude
-
-  #
-  # Like Vector#collect2, but returns a Vector instead of an Array.
-  #
-  def map2(v, &block) # :yield: e1, e2
-    return to_enum(:map2, v) unless block_given?
-    els = collect2(v, &block)
-    self.class.elements(els, false)
-  end
-
-  class ZeroVectorError < StandardError
-  end
-  #
-  # Returns a new vector with the same direction but with norm 1.
-  #   v = Vector[5,8,2].normalize
-  #   # => Vector[0.5184758473652127, 0.8295613557843402, 0.20739033894608505]
-  #   v.norm => 1.0
-  #
-  def normalize
-    n = magnitude
-    raise ZeroVectorError, "Zero vectors can not be normalized" if n == 0
-    self / n
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an angle with another vector. Result is within the [0...Math::PI].
-  #   Vector[1,0].angle_with(Vector[0,1])
-  #   # => Math::PI / 2
-  #
-  def angle_with(v)
-    raise TypeError, "Expected a Vector, got a #{v.class}" unless v.is_a?(Vector)
-    Vector.Raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    prod = magnitude * v.magnitude
-    raise ZeroVectorError, "Can't get angle of zero vector" if prod == 0
-
-    Math.acos( inner_product(v) / prod )
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # CONVERTING
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-row matrix from this vector.
-  #
-  def covector
-    Matrix.row_vector(self)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the elements of the vector in an array.
-  #
-  def to_a
-    @elements.dup
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_f
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Vector#elements_to_f is deprecated"
-    map(&:to_f)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_i
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Vector#elements_to_i is deprecated"
-    map(&:to_i)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_r
-    warn "#{caller(1)[0]}: warning: Vector#elements_to_r is deprecated"
-    map(&:to_r)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # The coerce method provides support for Ruby type coercion.
-  # This coercion mechanism is used by Ruby to handle mixed-type
-  # numeric operations: it is intended to find a compatible common
-  # type between the two operands of the operator.
-  # See also Numeric#coerce.
-  #
-  def coerce(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      return Matrix::Scalar.new(other), self
-    else
-      raise TypeError, "#{self.class} can't be coerced into #{other.class}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PRINTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#to_s
-  #
-  def to_s
-    "Vector[" + @elements.join(", ") + "]"
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#inspect
-  #
-  def inspect
-    "Vector" + @elements.inspect
-  end
-end