rsvm 0.0.1

data/.gitignore

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+*.gem
+.bundle
+Gemfile.lock
+.DS_Store
+lib/libsvm/*
+pkg/*

data/Gemfile

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+source "http://rubygems.org"
+
+# Specify your gem's dependencies in rsvm.gemspec
+gemspec
+
+gem 'rake'

data/README.md

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+# RSVM
+
+RSVM is a Ruby gem to perform Support Vector Machine classification and regresion
+in Ruby. It is FFI wrapper of libsvm.
+
+## Usage
+
+```ruby
+problem = Svm::Problem.new
+
+# These are the training samples. The first element in each array is the label
+# for the sample, the rest is the sample coordinates.
+
+problem.data = [
+  [1, 1, 0, 1],
+  [-1, -1, 0, -1]
+]
+
+# Generate a model from this problem
+
+model = problem.generate_model(:kernel_type => :linear, :c => 10)
+
+# And make predictions
+
+model.predict([-1, 0, -1]) # - 1
+model.predict([1,  0,  1]) # 1
+
+# Models can be saved to a file
+
+model.save(file.path)
+
+loaded_model = Svm::Model.load(file.path)
+
+loaded_model.predict([-1, 0, -1]) # -1
+loaded_model.predict([1,  0,  1]) # 1
+
+## Load data from csv
+
+```ruby
+csv_path = File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__), '..', 'fixtures', 'heart_scale.csv')
+problem = Svm::Problem.load_from_csv(csv_path)
+```
+
+For the Support Vector Machine to perform well the features in the samples data must
+be of the same order of magnitude. RSVM can scale your data linearly to the [-1, 1] range.
+
+## Scaling data
+
+```ruby
+data = [
+  [1, 12.0, -7.6, 100_000, 0],
+  [2, 30.0, 0, -100_000, 0],
+  [3, 36.0, 7.6, 0, 0]
+]
+
+problem = Svm::Problem.new(data, scale: true)
+```
+
+## Estimate probabilities
+
+```ruby
+
+problem.estimate_probabilities = true
+model = problem.generate_model
+
+sample = [60.0, 1.0, 3.0, 140.0, 185.0, 0.0, 2.0, 155.0, 0.0, 3.0, 2.0, 0.0, 3.0]
+probs = model.predict_probabilities(sample)
+
+# Return a hash with the probabilities associated with the sample
+# {1=>0.4443737921739047, -1=>0.5556262078260953}
+```
+
+## Find parameters doing grid search
+
+```ruby
+problem = Svm::Problem.load_from_csv(UNBALANCED_CSV)
+n_folds = 3
+
+# This will perform a grid search using each combination with c from 2^1 up to 2^14
+# and gamma from 2^-13 up to 2^-1. For each combination it will use crossvalidation
+# using 3 folds.
+
+options = problem.find_best_parameters(n_folds)
+
+# Result:
+# {:c=>64, :gamma=>(1/128)}
+```
+
+

data/Rakefile

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+require "bundler/gem_tasks"
+require 'rake'
+require 'rake/testtask'
+require 'rake/clean'
+
+task :default => :test
+
+LIB_EXT = RbConfig::CONFIG['DLEXT']
+
+desc "Run unit tests"
+Rake::TestTask.new do |test|
+  test.libs       << "test"
+  test.test_files =  Dir[ "test/**/*_test.rb"]
+  test.verbose    =  false
+end
+
+# rule to build the extension: this says
+# that the extension should be rebuilt
+# after any change to the files in ext
+file "lib/libsvm/libsvm.#{LIB_EXT}" =>
+  Dir.glob("ext/libsvm/*{.rb,.c}") do
+    Dir.chdir("ext/libsvm") do
+      # this does essentially the same thing
+      # as what rubygems does
+      ruby "extconf.rb"
+      sh "make"
+  end
+
+  cp "ext/libsvm/libsvm.#{LIB_EXT}", "lib/libsvm/libsvm.#{LIB_EXT}"
+end
+
+# make the :test task depend on the shared
+# object, so it will be built automatically
+# before running the tests
+task :test => "lib/libsvm/libsvm.#{LIB_EXT}"
+
+# use 'rake clean' and 'rake clobber' to
+# easily delete generated files
+CLEAN.include("ext/**/*{.o,.log,.#{LIB_EXT}}")
+CLEAN.include('ext/**/Makefile')
+CLOBBER.include("lib/**/*.#{LIB_EXT}")

data/ext/libsvm/COPYRIGHT

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+
+Copyright (c) 2000-2011 Chih-Chung Chang and Chih-Jen Lin
+All rights reserved.
+
+Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+are met:
+
+1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+
+2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+
+3. Neither name of copyright holders nor the names of its contributors
+may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+without specific prior written permission.
+
+
+THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
+``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
+A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR
+CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
+EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
+PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
+PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
+NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
+SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

data/ext/libsvm/FAQ.html

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+<html>
+<head>
+<title>LIBSVM FAQ</title>
+</head>
+<body bgcolor="#ffffcc">
+
+<a name="_TOP"><b><h1><a
+href=http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm>LIBSVM</a>  FAQ </h1></b></a>
+<b>last modified : </b>
+Tue, 11 Oct 2011 13:35:12 GMT
+<class="categories">
+<li><a
+href="#_TOP">All Questions</a>(75)</li>
+<ul><b>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q1:_Some_sample_uses_of_libsvm">Q1:_Some_sample_uses_of_libsvm</a>(2)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program">Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program</a>(12)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q3:_Data_preparation">Q3:_Data_preparation</a>(7)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q4:_Training_and_prediction">Q4:_Training_and_prediction</a>(33)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q5:_Probability_outputs">Q5:_Probability_outputs</a>(3)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q6:_Graphic_interface">Q6:_Graphic_interface</a>(3)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm">Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm</a>(4)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q8:_Python_interface">Q8:_Python_interface</a>(1)</li>
+<li><a
+href="#/Q9:_MATLAB_interface">Q9:_MATLAB_interface</a>(10)</li>
+</b></ul>
+</li>
+
+<ul><ul class="headlines">
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#faq101">Some courses which have used libsvm as a tool</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#faq102">Some applications/tools which have used libsvm </a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f201">Where can I find documents/videos of libsvm ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f202">Where are change log and earlier versions?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f203">How to cite LIBSVM?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f204">I would like to use libsvm in my software. Is there any license problem?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f205">Is there a repository of additional tools based on libsvm?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f206">On unix machines, I got "error in loading shared libraries" or "cannot open shared object file." What happened ? </a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f207">I have modified the source and would like to build the graphic interface "svm-toy" on MS windows. How should I do it ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f208">I am an MS windows user but why only one (svm-toy) of those precompiled .exe actually runs ?  </a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f209">What is the difference between "." and "*" outputed during training? </a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f210">Why occasionally the program (including MATLAB or other interfaces) crashes and gives a segmentation fault?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f211">How to build a dynamic library (.dll file) on MS windows?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f212">On some systems (e.g., Ubuntu), compiling LIBSVM gives many warning messages. Is this a problem and how to disable the warning message?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f301">Why sometimes not all attributes of a data appear in the training/model files ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f302">What if my data are non-numerical ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f303">Why do you consider sparse format ? Will the training of dense data be much slower ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f304">Why sometimes the last line of my data is not read by svm-train?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f305">Is there a program to check if my data are in the correct format?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f306">May I put comments in data files?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f307">How to convert other data formats to LIBSVM format?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f401">The output of training C-SVM is like the following. What do they mean?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f402">Can you explain more about the model file?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f403">Should I use float or double to store numbers in the cache ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f404">How do I choose the kernel?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f405">Does libsvm have special treatments for linear SVM?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f406">The number of free support vectors is large. What should I do?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f407">Should I scale training and testing data in a similar way?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f408">Does it make a big difference  if I scale each attribute to [0,1] instead of [-1,1]?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f409">The prediction rate is low. How could I improve it?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f410">My data are unbalanced. Could libsvm handle such problems?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f411">What is the difference between nu-SVC and C-SVC?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f412">The program keeps running (without showing any output). What should I do?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f413">The program keeps running (with output, i.e. many dots). What should I do?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f414">The training time is too long. What should I do?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f4141">Does shrinking always help?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f415">How do I get the decision value(s)?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f4151">How do I get the distance between a point and the hyperplane?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f416">On 32-bit machines, if I use a large cache (i.e. large -m) on a linux machine, why sometimes I get "segmentation fault ?"</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f417">How do I disable screen output of svm-train?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f418">I would like to use my own kernel. Any example? In svm.cpp, there are two subroutines for kernel evaluations: k_function() and kernel_function(). Which one should I modify ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f419">What method does libsvm use for multi-class SVM ? Why don't you use the "1-against-the rest" method ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f420">After doing cross validation, why there is no model file outputted ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f4201">Why my cross-validation results are different from those in the Practical Guide?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f421">On some systems CV accuracy is the same in several runs. How could I use different data partitions? In other words, how do I set random seed in LIBSVM?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f422">I would like to solve L2-loss SVM (i.e., error term is quadratic). How should I modify the code ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f424">How do I choose parameters for one-class svm as training data are in only one class?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f427">Why the code gives NaN (not a number) results?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f428">Why on windows sometimes grid.py fails?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f429">Why grid.py/easy.py sometimes generates the following warning message?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f430">Why the sign of predicted labels and decision values are sometimes reversed?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f431">I don't know class labels of test data. What should I put in the first column of the test file?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f432">How can I use OpenMP to parallelize LIBSVM on a multicore/shared-memory computer?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f433">How could I know which training instances are support vectors?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f425">Why training a probability model (i.e., -b 1) takes a longer time?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f426">Why using the -b option does not give me better accuracy?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f427">Why using svm-predict -b 0 and -b 1 gives different accuracy values?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f501">How can I save images drawn by svm-toy?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f502">I press the "load" button to load data points but why svm-toy does not draw them ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f503">I would like svm-toy to handle more than three classes of data, what should I do ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f601">What is the difference between Java version and C++ version of libsvm?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f602">Is the Java version significantly slower than the C++ version?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f603">While training I get the following error message: java.lang.OutOfMemoryError. What is wrong?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f604">Why you have the main source file svm.m4 and then transform it to svm.java?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f704">Except the python-C++ interface provided, could I use Jython to call libsvm ?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f801">I compile the MATLAB interface without problem, but why errors occur while running it?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f8011">On 64bit Windows I compile the MATLAB interface without problem, but why errors occur while running it?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f802">Does the MATLAB interface provide a function to do scaling?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f803">How could I use MATLAB interface for parameter selection?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f8031">I use MATLAB parallel programming toolbox on a multi-core environment for parameter selection. Why the program is even slower?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f8032">How do I use LIBSVM with OpenMP under MATLAB?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f804">How could I generate the primal variable w of linear SVM?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f805">Is there an OCTAVE interface for libsvm?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f806">How to handle the name conflict between svmtrain in the libsvm matlab interface and that in MATLAB bioinformatics toolbox?</a></li>
+<li class="headlines_item"><a href="#f807">On Windows I got an error message "Invalid MEX-file: Specific module not found" when running the pre-built MATLAB interface in the windows sub-directory. What should I do?</a></li>
+</ul></ul>
+
+
+<hr size="5" noshade />
+<p/>
+  
+<a name="/Q1:_Some_sample_uses_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="faq101"><b>Q: Some courses which have used libsvm as a tool</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<ul>
+<li><a href=http://lmb.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/lectures/svm_seminar/>Institute for Computer Science,           
+Faculty of Applied Science, University of Freiburg, Germany 
+</a>
+<li> <a href=http://www.cs.vu.nl/~elena/ml.html>
+Division of Mathematics and Computer Science. 
+Faculteit der Exacte Wetenschappen 
+Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands. </a>
+<li>
+<a href=http://www.cae.wisc.edu/~ece539/matlab/>
+Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, 
+University of Wisconsin-Madison 
+</a>
+<li>
+<a href=http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Carl_Staelin/cs236601/project.html>
+Technion (Israel Institute of Technology), Israel.
+<li>
+<a href=http://www.cise.ufl.edu/~fu/learn.html>
+Computer and Information Sciences Dept., University of Florida</a>
+<li>
+<a href=http://www.uonbi.ac.ke/acad_depts/ics/course_material/machine_learning/ML_and_DM_Resources.html>
+The Institute of Computer Science,
+University of Nairobi, Kenya.</a>
+<li>
+<a href=http://cerium.raunvis.hi.is/~tpr/courseware/svm/hugbunadur.html>
+Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Iceland.
+<li>
+<a href=http://chicago05.mlss.cc/tiki/tiki-read_article.php?articleId=2>
+SVM tutorial in machine learning
+summer school, University of Chicago, 2005.
+</a>
+</ul>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q1:_Some_sample_uses_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="faq102"><b>Q: Some applications/tools which have used libsvm </b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+(and maybe liblinear).
+<ul>
+<li>
+<a href=http://people.csail.mit.edu/jjl/libpmk/>LIBPMK: A Pyramid Match Toolkit</a>
+</li>
+<li><a href=http://maltparser.org/>Maltparser</a>:
+a system for data-driven dependency parsing
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href=http://www.pymvpa.org/>PyMVPA: python tool for classifying neuroimages</a>
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href=http://solpro.proteomics.ics.uci.edu/>
+SOLpro: protein solubility predictor
+</a>
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href=http://bdval.campagnelab.org>
+BDVal</a>: biomarker discovery in high-throughput datasets.
+</li>
+<li><a href=http://johel.m.free.fr/demo_045.htm>
+Realtime object recognition</a>
+</li>
+<li><a href=http://scikit-learn.sourceforge.net/>
+scikits.learn: machine learning in Python</a>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f201"><b>Q: Where can I find documents/videos of libsvm ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+Official implementation document:
+<br>
+C.-C. Chang and
+C.-J. Lin.
+LIBSVM
+: a library for support vector machines.
+ACM Transactions on Intelligent
+Systems and Technology, 2:27:1--27:27, 2011.
+<a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/libsvm.pdf">pdf</a>, <a href=http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/libsvm.ps.gz>ps.gz</a>,
+<a href=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1961199&CFID=29950432&CFTOKEN=30974232>ACM digital lib</a>.
+
+
+<li> Instructions for using LIBSVM are in the README files in the main directory and some sub-directories.
+<br>
+README in the main directory: details all options, data format, and library calls.
+<br>
+tools/README: parameter selection and other tools
+<li>
+A guide for beginners:
+<br>
+C.-W. Hsu, C.-C. Chang, and
+C.-J. Lin.
+<A HREF="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/guide/guide.pdf">
+A practical guide to support vector classification
+</A> 
+<li> An <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gePWtNAQcK8>introductory video</a>
+for windows users.
+
+</ul>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f202"><b>Q: Where are change log and earlier versions?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>See <a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm/log">the change log</a>.
+
+<p> You can download earlier versions 
+<a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm/oldfiles">here</a>.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f203"><b>Q: How to cite LIBSVM?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Please cite the following paper:
+<p>
+Chih-Chung Chang and Chih-Jen Lin, LIBSVM
+: a library for support vector machines.
+ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 2:27:1--27:27, 2011.
+Software available at http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm
+<p>
+The bibtex format is 
+<pre>
+@article{CC01a,
+ author = {Chang, Chih-Chung and Lin, Chih-Jen},
+ title = {{LIBSVM}: A library for support vector machines},
+ journal = {ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology},
+ volume = {2},
+ issue = {3},
+ year = {2011},
+ pages = {27:1--27:27},
+ note =	 {Software available at \url{http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm}}
+}
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f204"><b>Q: I would like to use libsvm in my software. Is there any license problem?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+The libsvm license ("the modified BSD license")
+is compatible with many
+free software licenses such as GPL. Hence, it is very easy to
+use libsvm in your software.
+Please check the COPYRIGHT file in detail. Basically
+you need to 
+<ol>
+<li>
+Clearly indicate that LIBSVM is used.
+</li>
+<li>
+Retain the LIBSVM COPYRIGHT file in your software.
+</li>
+</ol>
+It can also be used in commercial products.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f205"><b>Q: Is there a repository of additional tools based on libsvm?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Yes, see <a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvmtools">libsvm 
+tools</a>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f206"><b>Q: On unix machines, I got "error in loading shared libraries" or "cannot open shared object file." What happened ? </b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+This usually happens if you compile the code
+on one machine and run it on another which has incompatible
+libraries.
+Try to recompile the program on that machine or use static linking.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f207"><b>Q: I have modified the source and would like to build the graphic interface "svm-toy" on MS windows. How should I do it ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+Build it as a project by choosing "Win32 Project."
+On the other hand, for "svm-train" and "svm-predict"
+you want to choose "Win32 Console Project."
+After libsvm 2.5, you can also use the file Makefile.win.
+See details in README.
+
+
+<p>
+If you are not using Makefile.win and see the following 
+link error
+<pre>
+LIBCMTD.lib(wwincrt0.obj) : error LNK2001: unresolved external symbol
+_wWinMain@16
+</pre>
+you may have selected a wrong project type.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f208"><b>Q: I am an MS windows user but why only one (svm-toy) of those precompiled .exe actually runs ?  </b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+You need to open a command window 
+and type  svmtrain.exe to see all options.
+Some examples are in README file.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f209"><b>Q: What is the difference between "." and "*" outputed during training? </b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+"." means every 1,000 iterations (or every #data 
+iterations is your #data is less than 1,000).
+"*" means that after iterations of using
+a smaller shrunk problem, 
+we reset to use the whole set. See the 
+<a href=../papers/libsvm.pdf>implementation document</a> for details.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f210"><b>Q: Why occasionally the program (including MATLAB or other interfaces) crashes and gives a segmentation fault?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+Very likely the program consumes too much memory than what the 
+operating system can provide. Try a smaller data and see if the 
+program still crashes.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f211"><b>Q: How to build a dynamic library (.dll file) on MS windows?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+The easiest way is to use Makefile.win.
+See details in README.
+
+Alternatively, you can use Visual C++. Here is 
+the example using Visual Studio .Net 2008:
+<ol>
+<li>Create a Win32 empty DLL project and set (in Project->$Project_Name
+Properties...->Configuration) to "Release."
+   About how to create a new dynamic link library, please refer to
+<a href=http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms235636(VS.80).aspx>http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms235636(VS.80).aspx</a>
+
+<li> Add svm.cpp, svm.h to your project.
+<li> Add __WIN32__ and _CRT_SECURE_NO_DEPRECATE to Preprocessor definitions (in
+Project->$Project_Name Properties...->C/C++->Preprocessor)
+<li> Set Create/Use Precompiled Header to Not Using Precompiled Headers
+(in Project->$Project_Name Properties...->C/C++->Precompiled Headers)
+<li> Set the path for the Modulation Definition File svm.def (in 
+Project->$Project_Name Properties...->Linker->input
+<li> Build the DLL.
+<li> Rename the dll file to libsvm.dll and move it to the correct path.
+</ol>
+
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q2:_Installation_and_running_the_program"></a>
+<a name="f212"><b>Q: On some systems (e.g., Ubuntu), compiling LIBSVM gives many warning messages. Is this a problem and how to disable the warning message?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+The warning message is like
+<pre>
+svm.cpp:2730: warning: ignoring return value of int fscanf(FILE*, const char*, ...), declared with attribute warn_unused_result
+</pre>
+but this is not a problem. In the future we may modify the code
+so that these messages do not appear.
+At this moment, to disable the warning message you can replace
+<pre>
+CFLAGS = -Wall -Wconversion -O3 -fPIC
+</pre>
+with
+<pre>
+CFLAGS = -Wall -Wconversion -O3 -fPIC -U_FORTIFY_SOURCE
+</pre>
+in Makefile.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f301"><b>Q: Why sometimes not all attributes of a data appear in the training/model files ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+libsvm uses the so called "sparse" format where zero
+values do not need to be stored. Hence a data with attributes
+<pre>
+1 0 2 0
+</pre>
+is represented as
+<pre>
+1:1 3:2
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f302"><b>Q: What if my data are non-numerical ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Currently libsvm supports only numerical data.
+You may have to change non-numerical data to 
+numerical. For example, you can use several
+binary attributes to represent a categorical
+attribute.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f303"><b>Q: Why do you consider sparse format ? Will the training of dense data be much slower ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+This is a controversial issue. The kernel
+evaluation (i.e. inner product) of sparse vectors is slower 
+so the total training time can be at least twice or three times
+of that using the dense format.
+However, we cannot support only dense format as then we CANNOT
+handle extremely sparse cases. Simplicity of the code is another
+concern. Right now we decide to support
+the sparse format only.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f304"><b>Q: Why sometimes the last line of my data is not read by svm-train?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+We assume that you have '\n' in the end of
+each line. So please press enter in the end
+of your last line.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f305"><b>Q: Is there a program to check if my data are in the correct format?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+The svm-train program in libsvm conducts only a simple check of the input data. To do a
+detailed check, after libsvm 2.85, you can use the python script tools/checkdata.py. See tools/README for details.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f306"><b>Q: May I put comments in data files?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+We don't officially support this. But, cureently LIBSVM
+is able to process data in the following
+format:
+<pre>
+1 1:2 2:1 # your comments
+</pre>
+Note that the character ":" should not appear in your
+comments.
+<!--
+No, for simplicity we don't support that.
+However, you can easily preprocess your data before
+using libsvm. For example,
+if you have the following data
+<pre>
+test.txt
+1 1:2 2:1 # proten A
+</pre>
+then on unix machines you can do
+<pre>
+cut -d '#' -f 1 < test.txt > test.features
+cut -d '#' -f 2 < test.txt > test.comments
+svm-predict test.feature train.model test.predicts
+paste -d '#' test.predicts test.comments | sed 's/#/ #/' > test.results
+</pre>
+-->
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q3:_Data_preparation"></a>
+<a name="f307"><b>Q: How to convert other data formats to LIBSVM format?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+It depends on your data format. A simple way is to use
+libsvmwrite in the libsvm matlab/octave interface.
+
+Take a CSV (comma-separated values) file
+in UCI machine learning repository as an example.
+We download <a href=http://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/machine-learning-databases/spect/SPECTF.train>SPECTF.train</a>. 
+Labels are in the first column. The following steps produce
+a file in the libsvm format.
+<pre>
+matlab> SPECTF = csvread('SPECTF.train'); % read a csv file
+matlab> labels = SPECTF(:, 1); % labels from the 1st column
+matlab> features = SPECTF(:, 2:end); 
+matlab> features_sparse = sparse(features); % features must be in a sparse matrix
+matlab> libsvmwrite('SPECTFlibsvm.train', labels, features_sparse);
+</pre>
+The tranformed data are stored in SPECTFlibsvm.train.
+
+<p>
+Alternatively, you can use <a href="./faqfiles/convert.c">convert.c</a> 
+to convert CSV format to libsvm format.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f401"><b>Q: The output of training C-SVM is like the following. What do they mean?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<br>optimization finished, #iter = 219
+<br>nu = 0.431030
+<br>obj = -100.877286, rho = 0.424632
+<br>nSV = 132, nBSV = 107
+<br>Total nSV = 132
+<p>
+obj is the optimal objective value of the dual SVM problem.
+rho is the bias term in the decision function
+sgn(w^Tx - rho).
+nSV and nBSV are number of support vectors and bounded support
+vectors (i.e., alpha_i = C). nu-svm is a somewhat equivalent
+form of C-SVM where C is replaced by nu. nu simply shows the
+corresponding parameter. More details are in
+<a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/libsvm.pdf">
+libsvm document</a>.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f402"><b>Q: Can you explain more about the model file?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+After the parameters, each line represents a support vector.
+Support vectors are listed in the order of "labels" listed earlier.
+(i.e., those from the first class in the "labels" list are
+grouped first, and so on.) 
+If k is the total number of classes,
+in front of a support vector in class j, there are
+k-1 coefficients 
+y*alpha where alpha are dual solution of the
+following two class problems:
+<br>
+1 vs j, 2 vs j, ..., j-1 vs j, j vs j+1, j vs j+2, ..., j vs k
+<br>
+and y=1 in first j-1 coefficients, y=-1 in the remaining
+k-j coefficients.
+
+For example, if there are 4 classes, the file looks like:
+
+<pre>
++-+-+-+--------------------+
+|1|1|1|                    |
+|v|v|v|  SVs from class 1  |
+|2|3|4|                    |
++-+-+-+--------------------+
+|1|2|2|                    |
+|v|v|v|  SVs from class 2  |
+|2|3|4|                    |
++-+-+-+--------------------+
+|1|2|3|                    |
+|v|v|v|  SVs from class 3  |
+|3|3|4|                    |
++-+-+-+--------------------+
+|1|2|3|                    |
+|v|v|v|  SVs from class 4  |
+|4|4|4|                    |
++-+-+-+--------------------+
+</pre>
+See also
+<a href="#f804"> an illustration using
+MATLAB/OCTAVE.</a>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f403"><b>Q: Should I use float or double to store numbers in the cache ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+We have float as the default as you can store more numbers
+in the cache. 
+In general this is good enough but for few difficult
+cases (e.g. C very very large) where solutions are huge
+numbers, it might be possible that the numerical precision is not
+enough using only float.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f404"><b>Q: How do I choose the kernel?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+In general we suggest you to try the RBF kernel first.
+A recent result by Keerthi and Lin
+(<a href=http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/limit.pdf>
+download paper here</a>)
+shows that if RBF is used with model selection,
+then there is no need to consider the linear kernel.
+The kernel matrix using sigmoid may not be positive definite
+and in general it's accuracy is not better than RBF.
+(see the paper by Lin and Lin
+(<a href=http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/tanh.pdf>
+download paper here</a>).
+Polynomial kernels are ok but if a high degree is used,
+numerical difficulties tend to happen
+(thinking about dth power of (<1) goes to 0
+and (>1) goes to infinity).
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f405"><b>Q: Does libsvm have special treatments for linear SVM?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+
+No, libsvm solves linear/nonlinear SVMs by the
+same way.
+Some tricks may save training/testing time if the
+linear kernel is used,
+so libsvm is <b>NOT</b> particularly efficient for linear SVM,
+especially when
+C is large and
+the number of data is much larger
+than the number of attributes.
+You can either
+<ul>
+<li>
+Use small C only. We have shown in the following paper
+that after C is larger than a certain threshold,
+the decision function is the same. 
+<p>
+<a href="http://guppy.mpe.nus.edu.sg/~mpessk/">S. S. Keerthi</a>
+and
+<B>C.-J. Lin</B>.
+<A HREF="papers/limit.pdf">
+Asymptotic behaviors of support vector machines with 
+Gaussian kernel
+</A>
+.
+<I><A HREF="http://mitpress.mit.edu/journal-home.tcl?issn=08997667">Neural Computation</A></I>, 15(2003), 1667-1689.
+
+
+<li>
+Check <a href=http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/liblinear>liblinear</a>,
+which is designed for large-scale linear classification.
+</ul>
+
+<p> Please also see our <a href=../papers/guide/guide.pdf>SVM guide</a>
+on the discussion of using RBF and linear
+kernels.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f406"><b>Q: The number of free support vectors is large. What should I do?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+ <p>
+This usually happens when the data are overfitted.
+If attributes of your data are in large ranges,
+try to scale them. Then the region
+of appropriate parameters may be larger.
+Note that there is a scale program
+in libsvm. 
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f407"><b>Q: Should I scale training and testing data in a similar way?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Yes, you can do the following:
+<pre>
+> svm-scale -s scaling_parameters train_data > scaled_train_data
+> svm-scale -r scaling_parameters test_data > scaled_test_data
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f408"><b>Q: Does it make a big difference  if I scale each attribute to [0,1] instead of [-1,1]?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+For the linear scaling method, if the RBF kernel is
+used and parameter selection is conducted, there
+is no difference. Assume Mi and mi are 
+respectively the maximal and minimal values of the
+ith attribute. Scaling to [0,1] means
+<pre>
+                x'=(x-mi)/(Mi-mi)
+</pre>
+For [-1,1],
+<pre>
+                x''=2(x-mi)/(Mi-mi)-1.
+</pre>
+In the RBF kernel,
+<pre>
+                x'-y'=(x-y)/(Mi-mi), x''-y''=2(x-y)/(Mi-mi).
+</pre>
+Hence, using (C,g) on the [0,1]-scaled data is the
+same as (C,g/2) on the [-1,1]-scaled data.
+
+<p> Though the performance is the same, the computational
+time may be different. For data with many zero entries,
+[0,1]-scaling keeps the sparsity of input data and hence
+may save the time.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f409"><b>Q: The prediction rate is low. How could I improve it?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Try to use the model selection tool grid.py in the python
+directory find
+out good parameters. To see the importance of model selection,
+please 
+see my  talk:
+<A HREF="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/talks/freiburg.pdf">
+A practical guide to support vector 
+classification 
+</A>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f410"><b>Q: My data are unbalanced. Could libsvm handle such problems?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Yes, there is a -wi options. For example, if you use
+<pre>
+> svm-train -s 0 -c 10 -w1 1 -w-1 5 data_file
+</pre>
+<p>
+the penalty for class "-1" is larger.
+Note that this -w option is for C-SVC only.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f411"><b>Q: What is the difference between nu-SVC and C-SVC?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Basically they are the same thing but with different
+parameters. The range of C is from zero to infinity
+but nu is always between [0,1]. A nice property
+of nu is that it is related to the ratio of 
+support vectors and the ratio of the training
+error.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f412"><b>Q: The program keeps running (without showing any output). What should I do?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+You may want to check your data. Each training/testing
+data must be in one line. It cannot be separated.
+In addition, you have to remove empty lines.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f413"><b>Q: The program keeps running (with output, i.e. many dots). What should I do?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+In theory libsvm guarantees to converge.
+Therefore, this means you are
+handling ill-conditioned situations
+(e.g. too large/small parameters) so numerical
+difficulties occur.
+<p>
+You may get better numerical stability by replacing
+<pre>
+typedef float Qfloat;
+</pre>
+in svm.cpp with
+<pre>
+typedef double Qfloat;
+</pre>
+That is, elements in the kernel cache are stored
+in double instead of single. However, this means fewer elements
+can be put in the kernel cache.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f414"><b>Q: The training time is too long. What should I do?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+For large problems, please specify enough cache size (i.e.,
+-m).
+Slow convergence may happen for some difficult cases (e.g. -c is large).
+You can try to use a looser stopping tolerance with -e.
+If that still doesn't work, you may train only a subset of the data.
+You can use the program subset.py in the directory "tools" 
+to obtain a random subset.
+
+<p>
+If you have extremely large data and face this difficulty, please
+contact us. We will be happy to discuss possible solutions.
+
+<p> When using large -e, you may want to check if -h 0 (no shrinking) or -h 1 (shrinking) is faster.
+See a related question below.
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f4141"><b>Q: Does shrinking always help?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+If the number of iterations is high, then shrinking
+often helps.
+However, if the number of iterations is small
+(e.g., you specify a large -e), then
+probably using -h 0 (no shrinking) is better.
+See the 
+<a href=../papers/libsvm.pdf>implementation document</a> for details.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f415"><b>Q: How do I get the decision value(s)?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+We print out decision values for regression. For classification,
+we solve several binary SVMs for multi-class cases. You
+can obtain values by easily calling the subroutine
+svm_predict_values. Their corresponding labels
+can be obtained from svm_get_labels. 
+Details are in 
+README of libsvm package. 
+
+<p>
+We do not recommend the following. But if you would
+like to get values for 
+TWO-class classification with labels +1 and -1
+(note: +1 and -1 but not things like 5 and 10)
+in the easiest way, simply add 
+<pre>
+		printf("%f\n", dec_values[0]*model->label[0]);
+</pre>
+after the line
+<pre>
+		svm_predict_values(model, x, dec_values);
+</pre>
+of the file svm.cpp.
+Positive (negative)
+decision values correspond to data predicted as +1 (-1).
+
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f4151"><b>Q: How do I get the distance between a point and the hyperplane?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+The distance is |decision_value| / |w|. 
+We have |w|^2 = w^Tw = alpha^T Q alpha = 2*(dual_obj + sum alpha_i). 
+Thus in svm.cpp please find the place 
+where we calculate the dual objective value
+(i.e., the subroutine Solve())
+and add a statement to print w^Tw.
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f416"><b>Q: On 32-bit machines, if I use a large cache (i.e. large -m) on a linux machine, why sometimes I get "segmentation fault ?"</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+On 32-bit machines, the maximum addressable
+memory is 4GB. The Linux kernel uses 3:1
+split which means user space is 3G and
+kernel space is 1G. Although there are
+3G user space, the maximum dynamic allocation
+memory is 2G. So, if you specify -m near 2G,
+the memory will be exhausted. And svm-train
+will fail when it asks more memory.
+For more details, please read 
+<a href=http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&selm=3BA164F6.BAFA4FB%40daimi.au.dk>
+this article</a>.
+<p>
+The easiest solution is to switch to a
+ 64-bit machine.
+Otherwise, there are two ways to solve this. If your
+machine supports Intel's PAE (Physical Address
+Extension), you can turn on the option HIGHMEM64G
+in Linux kernel which uses 4G:4G split for
+kernel and user space. If you don't, you can
+try a software `tub' which can eliminate the 2G
+boundary for dynamic allocated memory. The `tub'
+is available at 
+<a href=http://www.bitwagon.com/tub.html>http://www.bitwagon.com/tub.html</a>.
+
+
+<!--
+
+This may happen only  when the cache is large, but each cached row is
+not large enough. <b>Note:</b> This problem is specific to 
+gnu C library which is used in linux.
+The solution is as follows:
+
+<p>
+In our program we have malloc() which uses two methods 
+to allocate memory from kernel. One is
+sbrk() and another is mmap(). sbrk is faster, but mmap 
+has a larger address
+space. So malloc uses mmap only if the wanted memory size is larger
+than some threshold (default 128k).
+In the case where each row is not large enough (#elements < 128k/sizeof(float)) but we need a large cache ,
+the address space for sbrk can be exhausted. The solution is to
+lower the threshold to force malloc to use mmap
+and increase the maximum number of chunks to allocate
+with mmap.
+
+<p>
+Therefore, in the main program (i.e. svm-train.c) you want
+to have
+<pre>
+      #include &lt;malloc.h&gt;
+</pre>
+and then in main():
+<pre>
+      mallopt(M_MMAP_THRESHOLD, 32768);
+      mallopt(M_MMAP_MAX,1000000);
+</pre>
+You can also set the environment variables instead
+of writing them in the program:
+<pre>
+$ M_MMAP_MAX=1000000 M_MMAP_THRESHOLD=32768 ./svm-train .....
+</pre>
+More information can be found by 
+<pre>
+$ info libc "Malloc Tunable Parameters"
+</pre>
+-->
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f417"><b>Q: How do I disable screen output of svm-train?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+For commend-line users, use the -q option:
+<pre>
+> ./svm-train -q heart_scale
+</pre>
+<p>
+For library users, set the global variable
+<pre>
+extern void (*svm_print_string) (const char *);
+</pre>
+to specify the output format. You can disable the output by the following steps:
+<ol>
+<li>
+Declare a function to output nothing:
+<pre>
+void print_null(const char *s) {}
+</pre>
+</li>
+<li>
+Assign the output function of libsvm by
+<pre>
+svm_print_string = &print_null;
+</pre>
+</li>
+</ol>
+Finally, a way used in earlier libsvm
+is by updating svm.cpp from
+<pre>
+#if 1
+void info(const char *fmt,...)
+</pre>
+to
+<pre>
+#if 0
+void info(const char *fmt,...)
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f418"><b>Q: I would like to use my own kernel. Any example? In svm.cpp, there are two subroutines for kernel evaluations: k_function() and kernel_function(). Which one should I modify ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+An example is "LIBSVM for string data" in LIBSVM Tools.
+<p>
+The reason why we have two functions is as follows.
+For the RBF kernel exp(-g |xi - xj|^2), if we calculate
+xi - xj first and then the norm square, there are 3n operations.
+Thus we consider exp(-g (|xi|^2 - 2dot(xi,xj) +|xj|^2))
+and by calculating all |xi|^2 in the beginning, 
+the number of operations is reduced to 2n.
+This is for the training.  For prediction we cannot
+do this so a regular subroutine using that 3n operations is
+needed.
+
+The easiest way to have your own kernel is
+to  put the same code in these two
+subroutines by replacing any kernel.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f419"><b>Q: What method does libsvm use for multi-class SVM ? Why don't you use the "1-against-the rest" method ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+It is one-against-one. We chose it after doing the following
+comparison:
+C.-W. Hsu and C.-J. Lin.
+<A HREF="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/multisvm.pdf">
+A comparison of methods 
+for multi-class support vector machines
+</A>, 
+<I>IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks</A></I>, 13(2002), 415-425.
+
+<p>
+"1-against-the rest" is a good method whose performance
+is comparable to "1-against-1." We do the latter
+simply because its training time is shorter.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f420"><b>Q: After doing cross validation, why there is no model file outputted ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Cross validation is used for selecting good parameters.
+After finding them, you want to re-train the whole
+data without the -v option.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f4201"><b>Q: Why my cross-validation results are different from those in the Practical Guide?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+Due to random partitions of
+the data, on different systems CV accuracy values
+may be different.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f421"><b>Q: On some systems CV accuracy is the same in several runs. How could I use different data partitions? In other words, how do I set random seed in LIBSVM?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+If you use GNU C library,
+the default seed 1 is considered. Thus you always
+get the same result of running svm-train -v.
+To have different seeds, you can add the following code
+in svm-train.c:
+<pre>
+#include &lt;time.h&gt;
+</pre>
+and in the beginning of main(),
+<pre>
+srand(time(0));
+</pre>
+Alternatively, if you are not using GNU C library
+and would like to use a fixed seed, you can have
+<pre>
+srand(1);
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+For Java, the random number generator
+is initialized using the time information.
+So results of two CV runs are different.
+To fix the seed, after version 3.1 (released
+in mid 2011), you can add
+<pre>
+svm.rand.setSeed(0);
+</pre>
+in the main() function of svm_train.java.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f422"><b>Q: I would like to solve L2-loss SVM (i.e., error term is quadratic). How should I modify the code ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+It is extremely easy. Taking c-svc for example, to solve
+<p>
+min_w w^Tw/2 + C \sum max(0, 1- (y_i w^Tx_i+b))^2,
+<p>
+only two 
+places of svm.cpp have to be changed. 
+First, modify the following line of 
+solve_c_svc from 
+<pre>
+	s.Solve(l, SVC_Q(*prob,*param,y), minus_ones, y,
+		alpha, Cp, Cn, param->eps, si, param->shrinking);
+</pre>
+to
+<pre>
+	s.Solve(l, SVC_Q(*prob,*param,y), minus_ones, y,
+		alpha, INF, INF, param->eps, si, param->shrinking);
+</pre>
+Second, in  the class  of SVC_Q, declare C as 
+a private variable:
+<pre>
+	double C;
+</pre> 
+In the constructor replace
+<pre>
+	for(int i=0;i&lt;prob.l;i++)
+		QD[i]= (Qfloat)(this->*kernel_function)(i,i);
+</pre>
+with
+<pre>
+        this->C = param.C;
+	for(int i=0;i&lt;prob.l;i++)
+		QD[i]= (Qfloat)(this->*kernel_function)(i,i)+0.5/C;
+</pre>
+Then in the subroutine get_Q, after the for loop, add
+<pre>
+        if(i >= start && i < len) 
+		data[i] += 0.5/C;
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+For one-class svm, the modification is exactly the same. For SVR, you don't need an if statement like the above. Instead, you only need a simple assignment:
+<pre>
+	data[real_i] += 0.5/C;
+</pre>
+
+
+<p>
+For large linear L2-loss SVM, please use
+<a href=../liblinear>LIBLINEAR</a>.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f424"><b>Q: How do I choose parameters for one-class svm as training data are in only one class?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+You have pre-specified true positive rate in mind and then search for
+parameters which achieve similar cross-validation accuracy.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f427"><b>Q: Why the code gives NaN (not a number) results?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+This rarely happens, but few users reported the problem.
+It seems that their 
+computers for training libsvm have the VPN client
+running. The VPN software has some bugs and causes this
+problem. Please try to close or disconnect the VPN client.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f428"><b>Q: Why on windows sometimes grid.py fails?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+This problem shouldn't happen after version
+2.85. If you are using earlier versions,
+please download the latest one.
+
+<!--
+<p>
+If you are using earlier 
+versions, the error message is probably
+<pre>
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  File "grid.py", line 349, in ?
+    main()
+  File "grid.py", line 344, in main
+    redraw(db)
+  File "grid.py", line 132, in redraw
+    gnuplot.write("set term windows\n")
+IOError: [Errno 22] Invalid argument
+</pre>
+
+<p>Please try to close gnuplot windows and rerun.
+If the problem still occurs, comment the following
+two lines in grid.py by inserting "#" in the beginning:
+<pre>
+        redraw(db)
+        redraw(db,1)
+</pre>
+Then you get accuracy only but not cross validation contours.
+-->
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f429"><b>Q: Why grid.py/easy.py sometimes generates the following warning message?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<pre>
+Warning: empty z range [62.5:62.5], adjusting to [61.875:63.125]
+Notice: cannot contour non grid data!
+</pre>
+<p>Nothing is wrong and please disregard the 
+message. It is from gnuplot when drawing
+the contour.  
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f430"><b>Q: Why the sign of predicted labels and decision values are sometimes reversed?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>Nothing is wrong. Very likely you have two labels +1/-1 and the first instance in your data
+has -1.
+Think about the case of labels +5/+10. Since
+SVM needs to use +1/-1, internally
+we map +5/+10 to +1/-1 according to which
+label appears first.
+Hence a positive decision value implies
+that we should predict the "internal" +1,
+which may not be the +1 in the input file.
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f431"><b>Q: I don't know class labels of test data. What should I put in the first column of the test file?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>Any value is ok. In this situation, what you will use is the output file of svm-predict, which gives predicted class labels.
+
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f432"><b>Q: How can I use OpenMP to parallelize LIBSVM on a multicore/shared-memory computer?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>It is very easy if you are using GCC 4.2
+or after. 
+
+<p> In Makefile, add -fopenmp  to CFLAGS.
+
+<p> In class SVC_Q of svm.cpp, modify the for loop
+of get_Q to:
+<pre>
+#pragma omp parallel for private(j) 
+			for(j=start;j&lt;len;j++)
+</pre>
+<p> In the subroutine svm_predict_values of svm.cpp, add one line to the for loop:
+<pre>
+#pragma omp parallel for private(i) 
+		for(i=0;i&lt;l;i++)
+			kvalue[i] = Kernel::k_function(x,model-&gt;SV[i],model-&gt;param);
+</pre>
+For regression, you need a reduction clause for the variable sum:
+<pre>
+#pragma omp parallel for private(i) reduction(+:sum) 
+		for(i=0;i&lt;model->l;i++)
+			sum += sv_coef[i] * Kernel::k_function(x,model&gt;SV[i],model&gt;param);
+</pre>
+
+<p> Then rebuild the package. Kernel evaluations in training/testing will be parallelized. An example of running this modification on
+an 8-core machine using the data set
+<a href=../libsvmtools/datasets/binary/ijcnn1.bz2>ijcnn1</a>:
+
+<p> 8 cores:
+<pre>
+%setenv OMP_NUM_THREADS 8
+%time svm-train -c 16 -g 4 -m 400 ijcnn1
+27.1sec
+</pre>
+1 core:
+<pre>
+%setenv OMP_NUM_THREADS 1
+%time svm-train -c 16 -g 4 -m 400 ijcnn1
+79.8sec
+</pre>
+For this data, kernel evaluations take 80% of training time. In the above example, we assume you use csh. For bash, use
+<pre>
+export OMP_NUM_THREADS=8
+</pre>
+instead.
+
+<p> For Python interface, you need to add the -lgomp link option:
+<pre>
+$(CXX) -lgomp -shared -dynamiclib svm.o -o libsvm.so.$(SHVER)
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q4:_Training_and_prediction"></a>
+<a name="f433"><b>Q: How could I know which training instances are support vectors?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+
+<p>
+It's very simple. Please replace 
+<pre>
+			if(nonzero[i]) model->SV[p++] = x[i];
+</pre>
+in svm_train() of svm.cpp with
+<pre>
+			if(nonzero[i]) 
+			{
+				model->SV[p++] = x[i];
+				info("%d\n", perm[i]);
+			}
+</pre>
+If there are many requests, we may
+provide a function to return indices
+of support vectors. In the mean time,
+if you need such information in your code,
+you can add the array nonzero to the model
+structure. This array has the same size as
+the number of data, so alternatively you can
+store only indices of support vectors.
+
+<p> If you use matlab interface, you can easily
+compare support vectors and training data to know
+the indices:
+<pre>
+[tmp index]=ismember(model.SVs, training_data,'rows');
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q5:_Probability_outputs"></a>
+<a name="f425"><b>Q: Why training a probability model (i.e., -b 1) takes a longer time?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+To construct this probability model, we internally conduct a 
+cross validation, which is more time consuming than
+a regular training.
+Hence, in general you do parameter selection first without
+-b 1. You only use -b 1 when good parameters have been
+selected. In other words, you avoid using -b 1 and -v
+together.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q5:_Probability_outputs"></a>
+<a name="f426"><b>Q: Why using the -b option does not give me better accuracy?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+There is absolutely no reason the probability outputs guarantee
+you better accuracy. The main purpose of this option is
+to provide you the probability estimates, but not to boost
+prediction accuracy. From our experience, 
+after proper parameter selections, in general with
+and without -b have similar accuracy. Occasionally there
+are some differences.
+It is not recommended to compare the two under 
+just a fixed parameter
+set as more differences will be observed.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q5:_Probability_outputs"></a>
+<a name="f427"><b>Q: Why using svm-predict -b 0 and -b 1 gives different accuracy values?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Let's just consider two-class classification here. After probability information is obtained in training,
+we do not have
+<p>
+prob > = 0.5 if and only if decision value >= 0.
+<p>
+So predictions may be different with -b 0 and 1.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q6:_Graphic_interface"></a>
+<a name="f501"><b>Q: How can I save images drawn by svm-toy?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+For Microsoft windows, first press the "print screen" key on the keyboard.
+Open "Microsoft Paint" 
+(included in Windows) 
+and press "ctrl-v." Then you can clip
+the part of picture which you want.
+For X windows, you can 
+use the program "xv" or "import" to grab the picture of the svm-toy window.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q6:_Graphic_interface"></a>
+<a name="f502"><b>Q: I press the "load" button to load data points but why svm-toy does not draw them ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+The program svm-toy assumes both attributes (i.e. x-axis and y-axis
+values) are in (0,1). Hence you want to scale your 
+data to between a small positive number and 
+a number less than but very close to 1.
+Moreover, class labels must be 1, 2, or 3
+(not 1.0, 2.0 or anything else).
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q6:_Graphic_interface"></a>
+<a name="f503"><b>Q: I would like svm-toy to handle more than three classes of data, what should I do ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Taking windows/svm-toy.cpp as an example, you need to
+modify it and  the difference
+from the original file is as the following: (for five classes of
+data)
+<pre>
+30,32c30
+< 	RGB(200,0,200),
+< 	RGB(0,160,0),
+< 	RGB(160,0,0)
+---
+> 	RGB(200,0,200)
+39c37
+< HBRUSH brush1, brush2, brush3, brush4, brush5;
+---
+> HBRUSH brush1, brush2, brush3;
+113,114d110
+< 	brush4 = CreateSolidBrush(colors[7]);
+< 	brush5 = CreateSolidBrush(colors[8]);
+155,157c151
+< 	else if(v==3) return brush3;
+< 	else if(v==4) return brush4;
+< 	else return brush5;
+---
+> 	else return brush3;
+325d318
+< 	  int colornum = 5;
+327c320
+< 		svm_node *x_space = new svm_node[colornum * prob.l];
+---
+> 		svm_node *x_space = new svm_node[3 * prob.l];
+333,338c326,331
+< 			x_space[colornum * i].index = 1;
+< 			x_space[colornum * i].value = q->x;
+< 			x_space[colornum * i + 1].index = 2;
+< 			x_space[colornum * i + 1].value = q->y;
+< 			x_space[colornum * i + 2].index = -1;
+< 			prob.x[i] = &x_space[colornum * i];
+---
+> 			x_space[3 * i].index = 1;
+> 			x_space[3 * i].value = q->x;
+> 			x_space[3 * i + 1].index = 2;
+> 			x_space[3 * i + 1].value = q->y;
+> 			x_space[3 * i + 2].index = -1;
+> 			prob.x[i] = &x_space[3 * i];
+397c390
+< 				if(current_value > 5) current_value = 1;
+---
+> 				if(current_value > 3) current_value = 1;
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="f601"><b>Q: What is the difference between Java version and C++ version of libsvm?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+They are the same thing. We just rewrote the C++ code
+in Java.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="f602"><b>Q: Is the Java version significantly slower than the C++ version?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+This depends on the VM you used. We have seen good
+VM which leads the Java version to be quite competitive with
+the C++ code. (though still slower)
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="f603"><b>Q: While training I get the following error message: java.lang.OutOfMemoryError. What is wrong?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+You should try to increase the maximum Java heap size.
+For example,
+<pre>
+java -Xmx2048m -classpath libsvm.jar svm_train ...
+</pre>
+sets the maximum heap size to 2048M.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q7:_Java_version_of_libsvm"></a>
+<a name="f604"><b>Q: Why you have the main source file svm.m4 and then transform it to svm.java?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Unlike C, Java does not have a preprocessor built-in.
+However,  we need some macros (see first 3 lines of svm.m4).
+
+</ul>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q8:_Python_interface"></a>
+<a name="f704"><b>Q: Except the python-C++ interface provided, could I use Jython to call libsvm ?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p> Yes, here are some examples:
+
+<pre>
+$ export CLASSPATH=$CLASSPATH:~/libsvm-2.91/java/libsvm.jar
+$ ./jython
+Jython 2.1a3 on java1.3.0 (JIT: jitc)
+Type "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
+>>> from libsvm import *
+>>> dir()
+['__doc__', '__name__', 'svm', 'svm_model', 'svm_node', 'svm_parameter',
+'svm_problem']
+>>> x1 = [svm_node(index=1,value=1)]
+>>> x2 = [svm_node(index=1,value=-1)]
+>>> param = svm_parameter(svm_type=0,kernel_type=2,gamma=1,cache_size=40,eps=0.001,C=1,nr_weight=0,shrinking=1)
+>>> prob = svm_problem(l=2,y=[1,-1],x=[x1,x2])
+>>> model = svm.svm_train(prob,param)
+*
+optimization finished, #iter = 1
+nu = 1.0
+obj = -1.018315639346838, rho = 0.0
+nSV = 2, nBSV = 2
+Total nSV = 2
+>>> svm.svm_predict(model,x1)
+1.0
+>>> svm.svm_predict(model,x2)
+-1.0
+>>> svm.svm_save_model("test.model",model)
+
+</pre>
+
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f801"><b>Q: I compile the MATLAB interface without problem, but why errors occur while running it?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Your compiler version may not be supported/compatible for MATLAB.
+Please check <a href=http://www.mathworks.com/support/compilers/current_release>this MATLAB page</a> first and then specify the version
+number. For example, if g++ X.Y is supported, replace
+<pre>
+CXX = g++
+</pre>
+in the Makefile with
+<pre>
+CXX = g++-X.Y
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f8011"><b>Q: On 64bit Windows I compile the MATLAB interface without problem, but why errors occur while running it?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+
+Please make sure that you use
+the -largeArrayDims option in make.m. For example,
+<pre>
+mex -largeArrayDims -O -c svm.cpp
+</pre>
+
+Moreover, if you use Microsoft Visual Studio, 
+probabally it is not properly installed. 
+See the explanation 
+<a href=http://www.mathworks.com/support/compilers/current_release/win64.html#n7>here</a>.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f802"><b>Q: Does the MATLAB interface provide a function to do scaling?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+It is extremely easy to do scaling under MATLAB.
+The following one-line code scale each feature to the range
+of [0,1]:
+<pre>
+(data - repmat(min(data,[],1),size(data,1),1))*spdiags(1./(max(data,[],1)-min(data,[],1))',0,size(data,2),size(data,2))
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f803"><b>Q: How could I use MATLAB interface for parameter selection?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+One can do this by a simple loop. 
+See the following example:
+<pre>
+bestcv = 0;
+for log2c = -1:3,
+  for log2g = -4:1,
+    cmd = ['-v 5 -c ', num2str(2^log2c), ' -g ', num2str(2^log2g)];
+    cv = svmtrain(heart_scale_label, heart_scale_inst, cmd);
+    if (cv >= bestcv),
+      bestcv = cv; bestc = 2^log2c; bestg = 2^log2g;
+    end
+    fprintf('%g %g %g (best c=%g, g=%g, rate=%g)\n', log2c, log2g, cv, bestc, bestg, bestcv);
+  end
+end
+</pre>
+You may adjust the parameter range in the above loops.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f8031"><b>Q: I use MATLAB parallel programming toolbox on a multi-core environment for parameter selection. Why the program is even slower?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Fabrizio Lacalandra of University of Pisa reported this issue.
+It seems the problem is caused by the screen output.
+If you disable the <b>info</b> function
+using <pre>#if 0,</pre> then the problem
+may be solved.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f8032"><b>Q: How do I use LIBSVM with OpenMP under MATLAB?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+In Makefile,
+you need to add -fopenmp to CFLAGS and -lgomp to MEX_OPTION. For Octave, you need the same modification.
+
+<p> However, a minor problem is that
+the number of threads cannot
+be specified in MATLAB. We tried Version 7.12 (R2011a) and gcc-4.6.1.
+
+<pre>
+% export OMP_NUM_THREADS=4; matlab
+>> setenv('OMP_NUM_THREADS', '1');
+</pre>
+
+Then OMP_NUM_THREADS is still 4 while running the program. Please contact us if you 
+see how to solve this problem. You can, however,
+specify the number in the source code (thanks
+to comments from Ricardo Santiago-mozos):
+<pre>
+#pragma omp parallel  for private(i) num_threads(4)
+</pre>
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f804"><b>Q: How could I generate the primal variable w of linear SVM?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Let's start from the binary class and
+assume you have two labels -1 and +1.
+After obtaining the model from calling svmtrain,
+do the following to have w and b:
+<pre>
+w = model.SVs' * model.sv_coef;
+b = -model.rho;
+
+if model.Label(1) == -1
+  w = -w;
+  b = -b;
+end
+</pre>
+If you do regression or one-class SVM, then the if statement is not needed.
+
+<p> For multi-class SVM, we illustrate the setting
+in the following example of running the iris
+data, which have 3 classes
+<pre>  
+> [y, x] = libsvmread('../../htdocs/libsvmtools/datasets/multiclass/iris.scale');
+> m = svmtrain(y, x, '-t 0')
+
+m = 
+
+    Parameters: [5x1 double]
+      nr_class: 3
+       totalSV: 42
+           rho: [3x1 double]
+         Label: [3x1 double]
+         ProbA: []
+         ProbB: []
+           nSV: [3x1 double]
+       sv_coef: [42x2 double]
+           SVs: [42x4 double]
+</pre>
+sv_coef is like:
+<pre>
++-+-+--------------------+
+|1|1|                    |
+|v|v|  SVs from class 1  |
+|2|3|                    |
++-+-+--------------------+
+|1|2|                    |
+|v|v|  SVs from class 2  |
+|2|3|                    |
++-+-+--------------------+
+|1|2|                    |
+|v|v|  SVs from class 3  |
+|3|3|                    |
++-+-+--------------------+
+</pre>
+so we need to see nSV of each classes.
+<pre>  
+> m.nSV
+
+ans =
+
+     3
+    21
+    18
+</pre>
+Suppose the goal is to find the vector w of classes 
+1 vs 3. Then
+y_i alpha_i of training 1 vs 3 are
+<pre>  
+> coef = [m.sv_coef(1:3,2); m.sv_coef(25:42,1)];
+</pre>
+and SVs are:
+<pre>  
+> SVs = [m.SVs(1:3,:); m.SVs(25:42,:)];
+</pre>
+Hence, w is
+<pre>
+> w = SVs'*coef;
+</pre>  
+For rho,
+<pre>
+> m.rho
+
+ans =
+
+    1.1465
+    0.3682
+   -1.9969
+> b = -m.rho(2);
+</pre>
+because rho is arranged by 1vs2 1vs3 2vs3.
+
+
+  
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f805"><b>Q: Is there an OCTAVE interface for libsvm?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+Yes, after libsvm 2.86, the matlab interface
+works on OCTAVE as well. Please type
+<pre>
+make octave
+</pre>
+for installation.
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f806"><b>Q: How to handle the name conflict between svmtrain in the libsvm matlab interface and that in MATLAB bioinformatics toolbox?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+The easiest way is to rename the svmtrain binary 
+file (e.g., svmtrain.mexw32 on 32-bit windows) 
+to a different
+name (e.g., svmtrain2.mexw32).
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <a name="/Q9:_MATLAB_interface"></a>
+<a name="f807"><b>Q: On Windows I got an error message "Invalid MEX-file: Specific module not found" when running the pre-built MATLAB interface in the windows sub-directory. What should I do?</b></a>
+<br/>                                                                                
+<p>
+
+The error usually happens
+when there are missing runtime components
+such as MSVCR100.dll on your Windows platform.
+You can use tools such as 
+<a href=http://www.dependencywalker.com/>Dependency 
+Walker</a> to find missing library files.
+
+<p>
+Because the pre-built MEX files are compiled by
+Visual C++ 2010,
+please make sure that you have installed
+Microsoft Visual C++ Redistributable Package 2010
+(vcredist_x86.exe). You can easily find the freely
+available file from Microsoft's web site. 
+
+<p>
+For 64bit Windows, the pre-built files are by
+Visual C++ 2008, so please install
+Microsoft Visual C++ Redistributable Package 2008
+(vcredist_x64.exe).
+<p align="right">
+<a href="#_TOP">[Go Top]</a>  
+<hr/>
+  <p align="middle">
+<a href="http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/libsvm">LIBSVM home page</a>
+</p>
+</body>
+</html>