roebe 0.5.122

data/lib/roebe/www/genetics/genetics.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1115 @@
+english(:filename) {
+autoextend
+template1 '
+
+a       { text-decoration: none; color: steelblue; }
+a:link  { text-decoration: none; color: steelblue; }
+a:hover { text-decoration: none; color: royalblue; }
+
+p.default {
+  margin:  4px;
+  margin-left:  1em;
+  margin-right: 1em;
+  padding: 5px;
+}
+
+'
+ruby_favicon
+body_css_class 's12px padt4px marpad2px VERDANAs'
+body_css_style 'background-color: #d3d2d1;'
+font_size 'def'
+
+# =========================================================================== #
+# === header
+# =========================================================================== #
+def header(
+    i                  = '',
+    optional_css_class = ''
+  )
+  h2 i, optional_css_class
+end
+
+doc {
+  dimg2 'science/genetics/DNA_HELIX_UND_RATTE.png',
+        'https://i.imgur.com/tHpLvvL.jpg',
+        'bblack3 mars0_5em'
+  br
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Tabelle der Nukleoside
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Tabelle der Nukleoside'
+  br
+  table2('mars2em larger BOLD','','',
+    'Basen:','Nukleoside:',
+    'Adenin ←','→ Adenosin',
+    'Guanin ←','→ Guanosin',
+    'Thymin ←','→ Thymidin',
+    'Cytosin ←','→ Cytidin',
+    'Uracil ←','→ Uridin'
+  )
+  pretty_hsep
+  header 'Sigma-Faktoren','mart1px marb10px'
+  p_default {
+    e 'Sigma 32 bei E.coli erkennt eine andere Sequenz als (Standard) 
+    Sigma 70. Ich tausche einen Teil der Polymerase aus - und schon 
+    funktioniert sie komplett anders!'
+  }
+  pretty_hsep
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Nomenklatur von Genen
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Nomenklatur der Gene'
+  div('default martb1px') {
+    p('marb1px') {
+      e 'Die verschiedenen <b>Namen</b> für Gene entstammen oft der
+      Geschichte ihrer Entdeckung - sprich, wann, wie und von welcher
+      Person oder von welchen Personen sie entdeckt wurden:'
+      br
+      lem2 '- Ein Zellbiologie gibt den Namen anhand der zellulären Funktion.'
+      br
+      lem2 '- Ein Entwicklungsbiologe anhand von Mutanten die defekt sind.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === ESTs
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'ESTs'
+  div {
+    p {
+      e '<b>ESTs</b> (aka <b>expressed sequence tags</b> are short sequences
+      derived from messenger RNAs. These can, in turn, be hybridized to
+      chromosomal DNA. The advantage of this was that this allowed
+      scientists in the 1990s to easily identify open reading frames.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Historische Fakten tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Historische und kuriose Fakten'
+  div_default {
+    p_default {
+      e 'Im Jahre <b>1970</b> sequenzierte <b>Ray Wu</b> als erster ein DNA
+      Fragment - zwölf Basen am Ende eines Einzelstrangs entstanden aus
+      einem durch Enzyme geschnittenen Ring.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === DNA Microarrays tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'DNA Microarrays','mart1px'
+  div('default ind0 wid95 mart2px','dna_microarrays'){
+    e '<b>DNA Microarrays</b> make it possible to create a global profile
+    of all expressed RNA within a cell or cell homogenisate.'
+    br
+    e 'This pattern that will be capture is often very characteristic
+    of the given cell or tissue, which in turn allows characterization
+    of disease patterns (in theory).'
+    br
+    dimg 'science/DNA_MICROARRAY.png',
+         'mars3em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === MITOCHONDRIUM
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div(id: 'mitochondrium'){
+    h4 'Mitochondrium'
+    dimg 'science/biology/organelles/MITOCHONDRIUM_OVERVIEW.png',
+         'bblack3 marl1em'
+    dimg 'science/biology/organelles/TEM_Bild_eines_Mitochondriums.png',
+         'bblack3'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Thymidylat-Synthase Tag. dUMP -> dTMP
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div {
+    h2 'Thymidylat-Synthase'
+    p {
+      e 'dUMP wird durch <b>Thymidylat-Synthase</b> in dTMP umgewandelt,
+      indem eine Methylgruppe angeheftet wird.'
+    }
+  }
+  # =========================================================================== #
+  # === misc tag tidbits tag
+  # =========================================================================== #
+  div {
+    e 'Helikasen wurden im Jahre 1976 durch <b>Hoffman-Berling</b> entdeckt.'
+    br
+    e 'SSB ist auch insofern wichtig, da es <b>secondary structures</b> 
+    reduziert.'
+    br
+    e '<b>RecA</b> wird durch ATP "angeregt", die Affinität zu DNA
+    steigt.'
+    br
+    e 'Die <b>Shine-Dalgarno Sequenz</b> auf der mRNA ist AGG-AGG-U'
+    br
+    e 'Wo natürlicherweise Kalkstein auftritt, ist der Boden weniger sauer.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Gene Map Viewer
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Gene Map Viewers (Ensembl and others)'
+  div('ind0 wid95 mart2px'){
+    e 'The Ensemble Gene Map Viewer contains entries for humans, 
+    chicken, fugu, fruitfly and many other organisms.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.ensembl.org/index.html',
+         content: 'Ensembl Gene Map Viewer - Show different Animals '\
+                  'and Human Genomes',
+         css_class: 'BOLD mars1em'
+    br
+    e 'The above Ensembl Application has been written in perl.'
+    br
+    e 'Especially these reviews may be helpful for anyone curious
+    to find out more about it:'
+    br
+    e 'James Stalker et al. The Ensembl Web Site: Mechanics of 
+    a Genome Browser Genome Res. 2004 14: 951-955.'
+    br
+    e 'It can be found here:'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.genome.org/cgi/content/abstract/14/5/951',
+        content: 'Review of the GeneMap Viewer',
+        css_class: 'BOLD mars1em'
+    abr 'https://www.ensembl.org/Docs/',
+        content: 'Good Documents for Ensembl',
+        css_class: 'BOLD mars1em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Die Terminale Transferase
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Die Terminale Transferase'
+  div {
+    lembre '<b>Terminale Tranferase</b> katalysiert die Addition von 
+    Nukleotiden an das <b>3-Strich Ende von DNA</b>.'
+    lembre "Interessanterweise arbeitet dieses Enzym an ssDNA und benötigt
+    keinen Primer. Es scheint auch Ribonucleotide an die 3' Enden von DNA
+    hinzufügen zu können."
+    lembre 'Cobalt ist ein Kofaktor dieses Enzyms.' 
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Cosuppression tag (ist NICHT Codominance!)
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Cosuppression'
+  div {
+    e '<b>Cosuppression</b> ist dann zu beobachten wenn sowohl das
+    <b>Transgen</b>, als auch das <b>homologe endogeneous Gene
+    gesilenced</b> werden.'
+    br
+    e 'Der Effekt wird durch <b>dsRNA</b> hervorgerufen.'
+    br
+    e 'Es wurde zuerst in Pflanzen, dann in Pilzen und auch in Tieren 
+    beobachtet - vor allem die Cosuppression in Petunias wurde bekannt:'
+    br
+    dimg 'science/biology/PLANTS/COSUPPRESSION_IN_PETUNIAS.gif',
+         'bblack3 marl2em'
+    br
+    e 'Picture above: A variegated petunia. Upon injection of the
+    gene responsible for purple colouring in petunias, the flowers
+    became variegated or white rather than deeper purple as was
+    expected.','italic marl2em smaller'
+    br       
+    e 'Cosuppression führt effektiv zur <b>Degradierung von RNA</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'Dies kann man dann auch "grafting-induced" Cosuppression nennen,
+    vor allem in Pflanzen.'
+    br
+    ee 'Man vermutet das dieser Mechanismus in eukaryotischen Organismen 
+    dadurch entstand um molekulare Parasiten wie Viren oder Transpososon 
+    zu "bekämpfen" (Kasschau, K.D. & Carrington, J.C. Cell 95, 461-470 (1998). '
+    abr_self 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9827799?dopt=Abstract&holding=npg)'
+    br
+    e 'Diese Vermutung wird unterstützt von der Tatsache das einige 
+    Pflanzen RNA-Viren <b>Cosuppression inhibieren</b> können.'
+    br
+    abr 'https://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v21/n2/full/ng0299_148.html',
+         content: 'Cosuppression'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === IMG TAG
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div(id: 'codon') {
+    dimg 'science/biology/RNA_BASE_CODE.png',
+         'bblack3'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Methylcytosin und Methyl.
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div('mart1em','methylcytosin') {
+    p {
+      e 'In eukaryotischer DNA liegen methylierte Cytosine immer neben
+      Guaninen desselben Stranges. (<b>CpG</b> Inseln, wobei p für
+      <b>Phosphodiesterbrücke</b> steht)'
+      br
+  	  e 'Häufig kann man in Bakterien methylierte Adenin-Rest finden - 
+  	  <b>6-Methylaminopurin</b>.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Meiose tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Meiose (griechisch: <b>meiono</b> = vermindern)'
+  div {
+    p {
+      e 'Die <b>Prophase I</b> der Meiose ist unterteilt in: (LeZyPaDip-Dia)'
+      br
+      cmd '  Leptotän'
+      cmd '  Zygotän'
+      cmd '  Pachytän'
+      cmd '  Diplotän'
+      cmd '  Diakinese'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === F-Plasmid PHAGE
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div(id: 'f_plasmid'){
+    h4 'F Plasmid'
+    p {
+      e 'Das F Plasmid insertiert mittels IS Sequenzen.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === CCA adding Enzyme
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'CCA adding Enzyme'
+  div {
+    p('default') {
+      lem 'An dieser Stelle werden einige Fakten zum <b>CCA-adding Enzyme</b>
+      erwähnt.'
+      br
+      lem "Dieses Enzym hängt an 3' Ende von tRNAs die Sequenz <b>CCA</b> an."
+      br
+      lem 'Interessanterweise will dieses Enzym lieber CCC hinzufügen,
+      die Anwesenheit von ATP verhindert dies jedoch, und so wird 
+      als letzter Schritt ein Adenin hinzugefügt.'
+      br
+      lem 'ATP scheint auch das weitere Hinzufügen von Cytosin zu verhindern.'
+      br
+      lem 'Mit anderen Worten - E. coli CCA enzyme ist eigentlich eine 
+      poly(C) Polymerase, aber dank der Gegenwart von ATP
+      wird die Spezifität geändert.'
+      br
+      lem 'Dies erinnert an die poly(A) polymerase.'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # Chemische Struktur von DNA
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  header 'Chemische Struktur der DNA'
+  div {
+    dimg :chemische_struktur_dna,
+         'bblack1 marl1em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Wobble Regeln in der Genetik
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div {
+    h2 'Wobble Regeln in der Genetik',
+       'marb2px',
+       'wobble' # rf stdk wobble
+    table2('marl2em pad0_5em','','RANDOM_BORDER_2PX',
+      "<b>5' end of Anticodon (tRNA)</b>","<b>3' end of Codon (mRNA)</b>",
+      'G','C/U',
+      'A','U',
+      'C','G',
+      'U','A/G',
+      'I','U/C/A'
+    )
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Phenylthiocarbamide tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div {
+    h2 'PTC - Phenylthiocarbamide'
+    p {
+      dimg 'science/chemistry/PHENYLTHIOCARBAMIDE.png'
+      br
+      e '<b>Phenylthiocarbamide</b> ist eine organische Verbindung, die
+      entweder sehr bitter schmeckt, oder überhaupt nicht - je nachdem
+      welche Gene der Träger hat. (Die Fähigkeit PTC zu schmecken
+      ist ein dominante Eigenschaft des Gens, und der Test auf 
+      <b>PTC Sensitivity</b> ist einer der häufigsten genetischen 
+      Tests bei Menschen.)'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Hyperchromizität
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h4 'Hyperchromizität'
+  p {
+    e '<b>Einzelsträngige DNA</b> absorbiert Ultraviolettstrahlung anders
+    als doppelsträngige DNA. Bei einer Wellenlänge von <b>260nm</b>
+    absorbiert ssDNA diese Strahlung 1,4 mal mehr als dsDNA - dies
+    ist mit dem Begriff <b>Hyperchromizität</b> gemeint.'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === andi tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  div('default') {
+    h2 'ANDi','','andi'
+    dimg 'science/biology/ANIMALS/ANDi.jpg',
+         'bblack3'
+    e 'Der Affe ANDi - reverser Name, für <i class="BOLD ud">integrated 
+    DNA</i> wurde 2000 gezeugt.'
+    p {
+      e 'Im <b>Januar 2000</b> erblickte ANDi in einem Labor der <b>Oregon
+      Health Science University</b> das Licht der Welt: Als erster
+      transgener Rhesusaffe, der Erbinformationen einer anderen Art 
+      in seinen Zellen trägt.'
+      br
+      e 'Das aufwändige Experiment mit hoher Fehlerquote löste 
+      kontroverse Diskussionen aus.'
+    } 
+    p { 
+      e 'Leicht war der Weg zu diesem Erfolg nicht: <b>224 Eizellen</b> von 
+      Rhesus-Affen wurden mit dem Quallen-Gen manipuliert. Nach der künstlichen 
+      Befruchtung dieser Eizellen entstanden 40 Embryos. Die wurden wiederum in 
+      20 Leihmütter eingepflanzt, von denen nur fünf schwanger wurden. Nur 
+      drei Affenbabys kamen am Ende lebend zur Welt - ANDi und seine 
+      Spielkameraden. Doch nur ANDi trägt das Leuchtgen in seinem Erbgut.'
+    }
+    p { 
+      e '<b>Wie</b> wurde <b>ANDi</b> manipuliert?'
+      br
+      e 'Die Forscher injizieren <b>nicht-infektiöse Viren</b> in eine unbefruchtete 
+      Eizelle. Die DNA des Virus ist gleichzeitig Träger des Leuchtgens. Sie
+      dringt in die Chromosomen der unbefruchteten Eizelle ein. Dort baut sich
+      das fremde Gen in die DNA des Empfängers ein. Das Erbgut der Eizelle
+      trägt jetzt das Gen einer Qualle.'
+    }
+    p {
+      e 'Im nächsten Schritt wird das Ei künstlich befruchtet und der Embryo
+      einer Leihmutter eingepflanzt. Nach fünfeinhalb Monaten Schwangerschaft
+      wird Andi geboren. Unter dem Mikroskop wird sichtbar, dass das
+      Experiment geglückt ist:'
+      br
+      e 'Seine Körperzellen leuchten in fluoreszierendem Grün.','marl1em'
+      br
+      e 'Das Problem das Gerald Schatten von der Oregon Health University 
+      hatte war das es keine isolierten Affen ES Zellen gab.'
+      br
+      e 'Als Alternative musste man einen Retrovirus verwenden, um 
+      eine Integration der viralen DNA in die DNA der Zelle zu 
+      ermöglichen.'
+      br
+      e 'Die Form des Retrovirus war ein "pseudo-typed retrovirus" - 
+      es kann noch ins Genom integrieren, kann aber keine Krankheit 
+      mehr auslösen da die meisten anderen Gene entfernt wurden.'
+    }
+    p {
+      e 'By placing a foreign gene (transgene) into a pseudo-typed
+      retrovirus and injecting the virus into the ova of an
+      organism, the foreign gene is integrated into the eggs&#8217;
+      DNA.'
+      br 
+      e 'In vitro fertilization can then be used to produce embryos. Every cell in the resulting 
+      embryo carries the foreign gene because every cell comes from 
+      the original fertilized ovum.'
+      br
+      e 'This is the strategy used by the scientists to insert the GFP gene 
+      into a rhesus monkey.' 
+      br
+      e 'The problem with this strategy is that there is no control over the site 
+      of integration of the transgene.'
+      e 'Integration into the genome is random, and this can have unwanted side-effects.'
+      e 'If the transgene inserts into another gene, the functioning of that gene can 
+      be altered or completely eliminated which may result in developmental defects.'
+    } 
+    p {
+      e 'Ein Hauptproblem dabei ist, das die Integration ins Genom zufällig erfolgen 
+      kann - und an manchen Stellen im Genom wird diese Information überhaupt 
+      nicht mehr aufgerufen, und damit auch nicht mehr produziert.' 
+    }
+    p {
+      e ' A. W. S. Chan, K. Y. Chong, C. Martinovich, C. Simerly, G. Schatten*, 
+      "Transgenic Monkeys Produced by Retroviral Gene Transfer into Mature Oocytes" 
+      Science, Vol. 291, pp. 309-312 (January 12, 2001).'
+      br
+      a 'https://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/291/5502/309',
+         content: 'Abstract',
+         css_class: 'BOLD mars1em'
+    }
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === pathways tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Genetic and Biochemical Pathways'
+  div('default') {
+    p {
+      e 'Neurospora Merksatz:'
+      br
+      e 'Ornithin-Citrullin-Arginin (<b>OCA</b>)',
+        'marl2em'
+    }
+  }
+  # ======================================================================= #
+  # === Das Werner Syndrom
+  # ======================================================================= #
+  header 'Werner Syndrom (WS)'
+  div {
+    e 'Werner Syndrome (WS) is a rare progeroid disorder that gives 
+    rise to <b class="ud">rapid aging phenotype</b> and increased cancer 
+    predisposition.'
+    br 
+    e 'WS is caused by mutations to a single gene, WRN, that was 
+    identified in 1997.'
+    br
+    e 'WRN encodes for a <b>1432 amino acid protein</b>, WRN, that is
+    known to contain both exonuclease and helicase activities.'
+    br
+    e 'WRN belongs to the <b>RecQ helicase</b> family of genes, the 
+    first member of which was discovered in E. coli. The family is 
+    quite ubiquitously spread throughout the three domains of life.'
+    br 
+    e 'A RecQ helicase is present as a single copy in most unicellular 
+    organisms and multiple copies in higher eukaryotes. Five RecQ 
+    helicases are present in humans, three of which give rise to 
+    genetic defects, WS, Bloom syndrome (BS) and Rothmund-Thomson 
+    syndrome (RTS).'
+    br
+    e 'However, WRN is unique among RecQ helicases  
+    in coupling an exonuclease domain coupled to a helicase 
+    domain, on the same polypeptide.'
+    br
+    dimg 'science/WERNER_SYNDROME.jpg',
+         'marl1em bblack1'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Pedigree symbols explained
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Pedigree symbols explained'
+  div('default') {
+    dimg 'science/genetics/pedigree_symbols_explained.png',
+         'bblack1 mars3em'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Slogans
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Slogans'
+  p_default {
+    e '- The minor DNA groove is less rich in chemical information
+    than is the major DNA groove.'
+    br
+    e '- Each gene discovery project begins with a hunt for mutants 
+    affecting the biological process that is the focus of the 
+    research.'
+    br
+    e '- In Bakterien kodiert <b>rpoH</b> für den Sigmafaktor 32.'
+    br
+    e '- Das Trockengewicht einer typischen Prokaryotenzelle 
+    besteht zu rund 50% aus Kohlenstoff.'
+    br
+    e '- In Textilien wird oft <b class="FI">Lindan</b> verwendet, 
+    ein Giftstoff.'
+    br
+    e '- <b>Aldosteron</b> scheint mitzuhelfen, das man im Alter besser hört.'
+    br
+    e '- DNA is the ultimate molecule.'
+    br
+    e '- Epigenetic silencing can be inherited from one cell 
+    generation to the next.'
+    br
+    e '- Can an organism be conceived of as a mere mosaic of 
+    traits determined by genes?'
+    br
+    e '- The genome is the living blueprint of an organism.'
+    br
+    e '- At around the time when the word genes was defined,
+    genes could be regarded as abstract elements in an
+    equally abstract space.'
+    br
+    e '- Conjugation is sex-like fusion.'
+    br
+    e '- RNA ist reaktiver als DNA, da der Zucker eine zusätzliche
+    OH-Gruppe am 2-prime C-Atom enthält.'
+    br
+    e '- One common grouping of transposable elements is whether
+    they have to make use of reverse transcription in order to
+    transpose or whether they do not.'
+    br
+    e 'Die verfügbare Anzahl an tRNAs in einer Zelle mag sich
+    auf die Geschwindigkeit der Translation auswirken. Wenn bestimmte
+    tRNAs nur selten vorkommen, dann wird das Ribosom bei
+    der Translation nicht zügig voranschreiten können.'
+    br
+    e '- As early as the 1920s, many geneticists ­came to believe
+    that genes must be mate­rial particles.'
+    br
+    e '- Autocatalysis in genetics refers to the capacity of genes 
+    to initiate synthetic processes that ultimately yield copies 
+    of the genes themselves in order to propagate the genetic 
+    material from cell to cell and from generation to generation.'
+    br
+    e '- The F-plasmid can assume both an autonomous and an
+    integrated state.'
+    br
+    e '- CpG (CG) in eukaryotic DNA acts as an <b>epigenetic
+    signal</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetically identical twings might still be epigenetically different.'
+    br
+    e '- Centromeres are epigenetically defined.'
+    br
+    e '- Chromatin structure is able to regulate the expression of genes.'
+    br
+    e '- Classical genetics was a method to expand biological knowledge.'
+    br
+    e '- Geneticists make a large proportion of their inferences by
+    manipulating the system and observing the effects.'
+    br
+    e '- Maternal imprinting means that a copy of a gene derived from
+    the mother will become inactivated.'
+    br
+    e '- The highly efficient system of homologous recombination in
+    Yeast allows the alteration of any chosen chromosomal
+    sequence at will.'
+    br
+    e '- AUGA ist eine besondere Sequenz, da sie sowohl ein Startcodon
+    (AUG) als auch ein Stopcodon (UGA) besitzt.'
+    br
+    e '- The hunt for the molecular basis of heredity began in earnest
+    with an experiment by Frederick Griffith, who was wirking with
+    a virulent strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae.'
+    br
+    e '- The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment in 1944 showed that
+    the "transforming principle" is in fact DNA.'
+    br
+    e '- Crossovers können sich gegenseitig inhibieren, das heisst
+    das in unmittelbarer Nähe eines Crossovers kein weiteres
+    auftritt.'
+    br
+    e '- All cells are unified by the facts that their genetic
+    blueprints are encoded in DNA.'
+    br
+    e "- Alfred Sturtevant's experiments showed that the phenotypic
+    expression of a mutation could be affected by the loca­tion of
+    the mutated gene on the chromosome."
+    br
+    e '- Chromatin loops are a higher level of chromatin structure.'
+    br
+    e '- RNA folds up by intramolecular base pairing.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Aufgabe von mTORC1 ist es die Translation von
+    Proteinen zu aktivieren.'
+    br
+    e '- Imprinted genes can often be found to be clustered together,
+    aka aggregated as a unit.'
+    br
+    e '- Plasmids are often important for virulence; for
+    instance, <i>Bacillus</i> anthracis has 2 plasmids required
+    for is virulence properties.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Modifikation von Histonen verändert die
+    Chromatinfunktion.'
+    br
+    e '- The diploid character of the eukaryotic cell allows for
+    a mutation in one gene to be masked by a second, unmutated
+    gene copy.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Telomerase regeneriert die Telomere.'
+    br
+    e '- Die SRY-Region kann sich "bewegen", zum Beispiel auf
+    das X-Chromosom.'
+    br
+    e '- Heterochromatin propagates from a nucleation event.'
+    br
+    e '- Perizentrische Inversionen kann man oft daran
+    erkennen, das das Centromer seine Position im
+    Chromosom ändert.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Funktion des Zellkerns ist die Aufbewahrung
+    der DNA.'
+    br
+    e '- HP-1, heterochromatin protein-1, is required in
+    some way to generate the higher order chromatin
+    structure associated with heterochromatin.'
+    br
+    e '- DNA Methylation acts as an epigenetic mark.'
+    br
+    e '- Der Unterschied zwischen dem Menschen- und Schimpansengenom
+    liegt hauptsächlich in der chromosomalen Organisation (und
+    nicht in der DNA Sequenz)'
+    br
+    e '- Der Spindel-Checkpoint arretiert die Teilung bis alle
+    Chromosomen richtig in der Spindel angeordnet sind.'
+    br
+    e '- Transposons create mutations and can thusly be considered to
+    be one of the raw materials for evolution.'
+    br
+    e '- The dark-staining bands in polytene chromosomes act as
+    useful chromosomal landmarks.'
+    br
+    e '- In most diploid eukaryotes, sexual reproduction is the
+    only natural mechanism for producing new members of the
+    species.'
+    br
+    e '- The total gene content of all organisms inhabiting an
+    environment is known as its metagenome.'
+    br
+    e '- In Eukaryoten ist die Termination der Transkription
+    eng gekoppelt mit dem <b>Poly-Adenylierungssignal</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Hfq acts as a RNA chaperone.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Behinderung der Segregation nur eines Chromosoms
+    vereitelt die Segregation auch aller anderen Chromosomen.'
+    br
+    e '- Overlapping genes are coupled, meaning that if you
+    manipulate one gene, the other coupled gene might be
+    affected by this change as well. Thus, this constitutes
+    a design constraint.'
+    br
+    e '- Eine Gensequenz ohne Promotor bleibt stumm.'
+    br
+    e '- RNA-Moleküle haben nur eine begrenzte Lebensdauer
+    ("half-life") in der Zelle.'
+    br
+    e '- Exon to Intron comparison revealed that exons happen
+    to have a low "signal-to-noise" ratio in the human genome.'
+    br
+    e '- Exons can be skipped in alternative splicing.'
+    br
+    e '- Die Verteilung des Spo11 Proteins entlang der Chromosomen
+    korreliert mit dem Auftreten meiotischer Doppelstrangbrüche.'
+    br
+    e '- H2AX becomes phosphorylated at sites of DNA-strand
+    breakage.'
+    br
+    e "- Whereas prokaryotic genes are generally accessible and
+    'on' unless repressed, eukaryotic genes are inaccessible
+    and 'off' unless activated."
+    br
+    e '- Transcription is repressed when the promoter is wound
+    up in a nucleosome.'
+    br
+    e '- Ein "scaffold complex" beschleunigt die Reinitiation
+    der DNA-Replikation, die dadurch schneller ablaufen kann.'
+    br
+    e '- In mammals, X chromosome inactivation begins at the
+    XIC (X-Inactivation Center).'
+    br
+    e '- siRNA ultimately helps protect the integrity of
+    genomes.'
+    br
+    e '- A phosphorylation / dephosphorylation cycle controls
+    transription and RNA maturation.'
+    br
+    e '- Die 30nm DNA-Fiber entsteht in dem der Histon-DNA
+    Komplex sich zu zu dieser Faser windet.'
+    br
+    e '- Chiasmen sind die cytologisch sichtbare Folge
+    von Crossovers in Diplotän und Diakinese.'
+    br
+    e '- Eine Chromodomäne kann methylierte Histone erkennen.'
+    br
+    e '- "Crossing over" durchbricht die chromosomale Kopplung
+    von Genen.'
+    br
+    e '- Jede aktive Polymerase führt zur Entstehung einer
+    "<i>transcription bubble</i>".'
+    br
+    e '- XIC constitutes a genomic locus for non-coding RNAs
+    that orchestrate the inactivation of extra X chromosomes
+    in mammalian cells.'
+    br
+    e '- Verschiedene Abschnitte im Chromosom werden zu
+    unterschiedlichen Zeiten in der S-Phase repliziert.'
+    br
+    e '- To maintain the stability of a species, replication
+    of the DNA of a given organism must be almost free of
+    error.'
+    br
+    e '- Jedes Bivalent hat mindestens immer ein
+    Crossover-Ereignis, so klein dies auch immer sein
+    mag. Dies ist unbedingt nötig, da ansonsten homologe
+    Chromosomen nicht voneinander segregieren können.'
+    br
+    e '- Bei Kälte mögen Sekundärstrukturen in der RNA zu stabil
+    werden.'
+    br
+    e '- Pol III Promoters are located downstream from
+    the transcription start site.'
+    br
+    e '- Alternatives Splicing führt zur Diversifizierung des
+    Proteoms.'
+    br
+    e '- In eukaryotes, transcription levels are made finely
+    adjustable in a chromatin environment by clustering
+    binding sites into enhancers.'
+    br
+    e '- Epigenetic Mechanisms lead to heritable changes in
+    gene functions which are not based on changes in the
+    DNA Sequence itself.'
+    br
+    e '- <b>IRES</b> are RNA sequences that function like
+    <b>prokaryotic RBS</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- In contrast with the customary picture of DNA as
+    an extended double helix, structural deformation of
+    DNA to bend or fold into a more compact form is the
+    rule rather than an exception.'
+    br
+    e '- Wenn sich neu synthetisierte DNA-Moleküle (die
+    Chromatiden) nicht auf Tochterkerne aufteilen können
+    entstehen polyploide Zellkerne.'
+    br
+    e '- Eine wahrscheinliche Ursache für die Entstehung
+    von Aneuploidien ist die verminderte Cohäsion der
+    Schwesterchromatiden.'
+    br
+    e '- Innerhalb der Chromosomendomänen ("chromosomal
+    territories") im Zellkern ist das Chromatin 
+    <b>nicht</b> zufällig angeordnet.'
+    br
+    e '- Ein Sigmafaktor steuert die Fähigkeit der RNA
+    Polymerase Promoter-DNA von anderer DNA zu
+    unterscheiden; man spricht hierbei von
+    "Diskriminierung von DNA Elementen".'
+    br
+    e '- The SWI-SNF complex can <b>reposition nucleosomes</b>
+    in a test-tube assay if ATP is provided as an
+    energy source.'
+    br
+    e '- Elongation, Termination of Transcription and RNA
+    processing are interconnected to one another.'
+    br
+    e '- Incorporation of Histone H3.3 serves as an
+    epigenetic mark for <b>transcriptionally active
+    chromatin</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Ligand binding of RNA often produces a change in
+    the secondary structure of RNA.'
+    br
+    e '- DNA functions as <b>a template for biological
+    complexity</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- The ribosome behaves like a small, migrating 
+    factory.'
+    br
+    e '- mRNA nonsense mutation may trigger degradation of mRNA.'
+    br
+    e '- mRNA dient als Template für protein synthesis und
+    wird als Ribonucleprotein exportiert.'
+    br
+    e '- Signaling Pathways are the superhighways of the cell.'
+    br
+    e '- All tRNAs must conform to the same structure (in 3D).'
+    br
+    e '- Nucleosomes are inhibitors of transcription because
+    DNA is packed very tightly and is not accessible for
+    RNA polymerases while condensed.'
+    br
+    e '- DNA Melting im Zuge der Transkription geschieht am
+    -10 Bereich; somit ist die -10 Region wichtiger als die
+    -35 Region in Bezug auf die Genexpression.'
+    br
+    e '- tRNA-Synthetases provide a docking platform for
+    aminoacids and their cognate tRNAs.'
+    br
+    e '- TFIIH controls the ATP-dependent transition of the
+    preinitiation complex to the open complex.'
+    br
+    e '- Sobald mehr als 10 Nukleotide synthetisiert worden
+    sind, escaped die Polymerase vom Promoter.'
+    br
+    e '- Nucleosomes are an invariant component of euchromatic
+    and heterochromatin in the interphase nucles and of
+    mitotic chromosomes.'
+    br
+    e '- Heterochromatin can serve as a defense mechanism
+    against foreign DNA, by silencing transposons.'
+    br
+    e '- Point mutations in the promoter and promoter-proximal
+    elements hinder transcription of the Beta-globin gene.'
+    br
+    e '- LCRs und Insulator-Sequenzen können transkribierte
+    und nicht-transkribierte Bereiche durch die Bildung von
+    "chromatin-hubs" voneinander trennen.'
+    br
+    e '- Histone N-terminal tails provide a molecular handle
+    to manipulate DNA accessibility in chromatin.'
+    br
+    e '- CTD Phosphorylierung bestimmt bestimmen wann
+    Proteine an den Polymerasekomplex binden können im
+    Zuge der Transkription.'
+    br
+    e '- Barrier insulators prevent the spreading of
+    heterochromatin by creating a local environment
+    unfavourable to heterochromatin formation.'
+    br
+    e '- Inactivation spreads from heterochromatin
+    into the adjacent region for a variable distance.'
+    br
+    e '- Bei <b>Translokations-Trisomien</b> ist der Grund für
+    die Entstehung eines aneuploiden Gameten eine Fusion
+    von Chromosomen, gefolgt von einem meiotischen
+    Paarungs- und Segregations-Defekt des in der Regel
+    kleineren Fusionspartners.'
+    br
+    e '- A barrier insulator can recruit HATs (Histone
+    Acetyltransferases) and, in doing so, ensure that
+    the adjacent histones are hyperacetylated.'
+    br
+    e '- Historically DNA seemed to be far too simple and
+    too unspecific to support complex biological functions.'
+    br
+    e '- The stereochemical fit between A=T and C☰G in
+    dsDNA is mediated by hydrogen bonds.'
+    br
+    e '- Sister chromatids are held together by the multi-subunit
+    protein complex called <b>cohesin</b>.'
+    br
+    e 'Shugoshin protects cohesin from being degraded by
+    separase at the centromeric regions.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetic information is ultimately equivalent to
+    biochemical function.'
+    br
+    e '- Molecular genes are not solely confined to being separate "units"
+    of inheritance. More importantly they act as a complex assemblages
+    of diverse activating and inhibiting mechanisms, acting in concert
+    to transcribe and translate DNA templates of various makeup into
+    functional protein products.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetics proceeds from the realm of DNA and its
+    replication, to the realm of its transcription, and 
+    finally to that of its translation.'
+    br
+    e '- The molecular gene is not defined by its physical and
+    chemical materiality on the level of DNA, but rather by 
+    the products that result from its activity.'
+    br
+    e '- The capacity for autocatalysis is inherent not only in
+    "ordinary" genes but in other DNA elements as well, thus
+    questioning the original (historic) definition of the gene
+    concept.'
+    br
+    e '- In 1956, Arthur Kornberg isolated the first DNA polymerase.'
+    br
+    e '- Gene technology allowed genetic engineers to modify model
+    organism with new characteristics. Bacteria could serve as
+    some kind of bioreactor.'
+    br
+    e '- By virtue of being patented, genes additionally assumed
+    the character of commodities.'
+    br
+    e '- The Human Genome Project (HGP) stressed the
+    detrimental, but curable role of genes in disease
+    for its promotion.'
+    br
+    e '- Efforts to automate DNA sequencing began in the
+    early 1980s.'
+    br
+    e '- The promise of medical salvation was very effective
+    in convincing politicians to support the Human Genome
+    Project.'
+    br
+    e '- An example for genetic polmorphism is the fact that
+    the genomes of different human individuals exhibit
+    considerable differences.'
+    br
+    e '- Some epigenetic factors can be named as an example
+    that allows for information to pass from the environment
+    to the genome, at the least in some organisms.'
+    br
+    e '- The pax6 gene product is multifunctional as well as 
+    redundant, to some extent. The Drosophila genome, for
+    instance, contains several isoforms with virtually identical
+    effects on eye formation.'
+    br
+    e '- Not every feature of a genome may carry some function
+    that is essential to the survival of the organism.'
+    br
+    e '- The sequences that are annotated as "genes" represent
+    only one set of the components of complex genomic ensembles.
+    Thus, what is a gene is not necessarily an intrinsic property
+    of the DNA sequence at hand, but subject to interpretation
+    and evaluation by the genetic "decipher" system in use, by
+    the corresponding cell at hand.'
+    br
+    e '- In regards to genetic mutations that affect an individual
+    human being negatively, we can state that each embryo is 
+    (indirectly) playing "a game of genomic Russian roulette".'
+    br
+    e '- Many of these diseases that will afflict children are
+    knowable in advance, before a couple even conceives.'
+    br
+    e '- Most genomic changes outside of protein-coding regions are
+    not incompatible with vital (living) functions of a complex
+    organism - such as a human being - at hand.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetics is a form of information science.'
+    br
+    e '- The old blending theory of inheritance in genetics can be
+    roughly summarized as "the belief that inheritance worked like
+    the mixing of fluids, such as paints".'
+    br
+    e '- Genetic defects can create chemical individuality among
+    humans.'
+    br
+    e '- The shorter the generation time, the sooner the experiments
+    can be completed.'
+    br
+    e '- An ethical dilemma in regards to engineering human beings
+    in the future may be that any genetically engineered,
+    homogeneous children will be scrubbed of genomic individuality.'
+    br
+    e '- It would be a great feat of engineering to reduce the
+    burden of genetic disease while preserving the genomic
+    diversity of the human species.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetic variation is any difference between two copies of
+    the same gene or DNA molecule.'
+    br
+    e '- In vitro fertilization (IVF) could be used to eliminate
+    (some) genetic disease, such as via <b>pre-implantation
+    genetic testing</b> (PGT).'
+    br
+    e '- Genomic design in humans, aside from ethical considerations
+    in regards to similar problems faced by eugenics, may considerably
+    reduce the burden of recessive genetic diseases and some forms
+    of dominant genetic disease.'
+    br
+    e '- Fathers contribute four times as many new mutations to their
+    offspring as do mothers.'
+    br
+    e '- Intronic sequences found in DNA are spliced out to produce a
+    mature mRNA.'
+    br
+    e '- Mitochondrial disorders can result from alterations in nuclear
+    or mitochondrial genes.'
+    br
+    e '- Mutants allow a geneticist to <i>zero in on any genetic 
+    property</i>.'
+    br
+    e '- Translocation events can disrupt critical and essential genes.'
+    br
+    e "- Biological organisms can be viewed as nature's versatile
+    engines of creation."
+    br
+    e '- In haploids, all alleles are expressed in the phenotype
+    because there is no masking of recessives by dominant alleles
+    on the other homolog.'
+    br
+    e '- In a diploid organism, a sterile recessive mutant can be
+    propagated as a heterozygote.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetics is to turn the inorganic into the organic.'
+    br
+    e '- Alternatives Spleißen vermehrt die Codierungsmöglichkeiten
+    eines Gens.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetics, respectively genomics, is <b>the tale of the
+    genome</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- The story of DNA and RNA replication is that of
+    <b>complementary surfaces</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Diagnostic breast cancer genetic diagnostics, such as for
+    the BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene, is owned by <b>Myriad Genetics</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- With the expression <b>a gene for a disease</b> we typically
+    refer to a <b>mutation</b> in a gene that would plays a role in
+    a specific disease.'
+    br
+    e '- Some geneticists may say that <b>the genes may load the
+    gun but the environment pulls the trigger</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Different RNA molecules replicate at differing rates, at the
+    least in a test tube. The logical implication of this is that
+    descendants of the swifter replicators naturally grow more
+    common in a population.'
+    br
+    e '- Genes resemble manuscripts written in a four-letter alphabet.'
+    br
+    e '- Genes built ever more elaborate survival machines to aid
+    their own replication.'
+    br
+    e '- RNA replicating in test tubes shows how the idea of purpose
+    can apply to "mindless molecules".'
+    br
+    e '- Genetik ist die universelle biologische Disziplin.'
+    br
+    e '- DNA is at the center of the mystery of heredity.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetic evolution prefers to refine and extend existing
+    information rather than create genuinely new information.'
+    br
+    e '- Genetic engineering yields the power to shape life.'
+    br
+    e '- Erbliche Eigenschaften legen einen Bereich fest, in dem
+    <b>Variabilität</b> möglich ist.'
+    br
+    e '- Synthesized mRNA is interesting because it represents
+    all active genes of a given cell or tissue. It also forms
+    the basis for the creation of <b>cDNA libraries</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- The <b>telomerase</b> is <b>an unusual type of reverse
+    transcriptase</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Sequences in regions adjacent to the gene itself
+    are called <b>cis-acting elements</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- Die komplexere Organisation eines Organismus schlägt sich
+    jedoch in einer höheren Anzahl von Proteinen nieder.'
+    br
+    e '- '+squotes('It has not escaped our notice that the specific
+    pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible
+    copying mechanism for the genetic material.')
+    br
+    e '- <b>DNA</b> is <b>the master recipe for life</b>.'
+    br
+    e '- The offspring of sexually reproducing multi-cellular
+    organism receive a brand-new book that melds together
+    recipes from both individual parents.'
+    br
+    e '- Antagnoistic pleiotropy refers to the concept of
+    genes that do beneficial things early and harmful things
+    later.'
+    br
+    e '- Extended survival means that the diseases in
+    the genetic dustbin have the opportunity
+    to be seen or expressed in a greater number of 
+    people.'
+    br
+    e '- Every human alive today is the most recent link in an
+    unbroken chain of survivors that extends back not only to
+    the originas of modern humans but to the origins of life
+    on earth.'
+    br
+    e '- Genes play a central role in maintaining the biological
+    integrity of the organism that carries them.'
+    br
+    e '- Natural selection is an imperfect genetic sieve that
+    inevitably allows some harmful genes to leak through to
+    the next generation by hitching a ride with the many genes
+    that have either a neutral or beneficial effect on the
+    survival and reproductive success of the individual.'
+    br
+  } # End of slogans tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Links
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 'Links (remote)',
+     'mart1px'
+  dot104 = dot104?
+  p('mars1em') {
+    abr 'https://www.onmeda.de/krankheiten/krankheiten_az.html',
+         content: dot104+'Verschiedene Krankheiten (auf onmeda.de)',
+         css_class: 'slateblue'
+    abr 'https://www.embl.org/sites/heidelberg/',
+         content: dot104+'EMBL in Heidelberg',
+         css_class: 'slateblue'
+  }
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  # === Local Links tag
+  # ========================================================================= #
+  h2 sg(:square_yellow, 'bblack1 marr4px')+
+     'Local Links',
+     'martb2px'
+  div('default martb1px') {
+    p('ind0px marl2em mart1px padt1px') {
+      abr_self :local_science
+    }
+  }
+}}