rb-gsl 1.15.3.1

data/rdoc/qrng.rdoc

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+#
+# = Quasi-Random Sequences
+#
+# This chapter describes the quasi-random sequence generator <tt>GSL::QRng</tt>
+# of arbitrary dimensions. A quasi-random sequence progressively covers 
+# a d-dimensional space with a set of points that are uniformly distributed. 
+# Quasi-random sequences are also known as low-discrepancy sequences.
+# The quasi-random sequence generators use an interface that is similar 
+# to the interface for random number generators.
+#
+# Contents:
+# 1. {Quasi-random number generator initialization}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html#1]
+# 1. {Sampling from a quasi-random number generator}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html#2]
+# 1. {Auxiliary quasi-random number generator functions}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html#3]
+# 1. {Saving and resorting quasi-random number generator state}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html#4]
+# 1. {Quasi-random number generator algorithms}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html#5]
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="1] Quasi-random number generator initialization
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng.alloc(T, d)
+#
+#   This returns a GSL::QRng object, a quasi-random sequence generator of type <tt>T</tt> and dimension <tt>d</tt>. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng::init
+#
+#   This reinitializes the generator to its starting point. 
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="2] Sampling from a quasi-random number generator 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng::get(x)
+#
+#   This calculate the next point <tt>x</tt> from the sequence generator. Here <tt>x</tt> is an instance of the {GSL::Vector}[link:files/rdoc/vector_rdoc.html] class. The space available for <tt>x</tt> must match the dimension of the generator. The point <tt>x</tt> will lie in the range 0 < x_i < 1 for each x_i. 
+#
+#   This is used as
+#     q = QRng.alloc(QRng::SOBOL, dim)
+#     v = Vector.alloc(dim)
+#     for i in 0..1024 do
+#       q.get(v)
+#       printf("%.5f %.5f\n", v[0], v[1])
+#     end
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="3] Auxiliary quasi-random number generator functions 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng::name
+#
+#   Returns the name of the generator <tt>self</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng::size
+#
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="4] Saving and resorting quasi-random number generator state
+# ---
+# * GSL::QRng::clone
+# * GSL::QRng::duplicate
+#
+#   Return a newly created generator which is an exact copy of the generator <tt>self</tt>.
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="5] Quasi-random number generator algorithms
+# In creating a generator by the method <tt>GSL::QRng.alloc(T, d)</tt>, 
+# the algorithm type <tt>T</tt> is given by a String or a Fixnum constant.
+# The following quasi-random sequence algorithms are available,
+#
+# * "<tt>niederreiter_2</tt>" (String)
+# * <tt>GSL::QRng::NIEDERREITER_2</tt> (Fixnum)
+#
+#   The generator of this type uses the algorithm described in Bratley, Fox, Niederreiter, ACM Trans. Model. Comp. Sim. 2, 195 (1992). It is valid up to 12 dimensions.
+#
+# * "<tt>sobol</tt>" (String)
+# * <tt>GSL::QRng::SOBOL</tt> (Fixnum)
+#
+#   This generator uses the Sobol sequence described in Antonov, Saleev, USSR Comput. Maths. Math. Phys. 19, 252 (1980). It is valid up to 40 dimensions.
+#
+# * "<tt>halton</tt>" (String)
+# * <tt>GSL::QRng::HALTON</tt> (Fixnum)
+# * "<tt>reversehalton</tt>" (String)
+# * <tt>GSL::QRng::REVERSEHALTON</tt> (Fixnum)
+#
+#   (GSL-1.11 or later) These generators use the Halton and reverse Halton sequences described in J.H. Halton, Numerische Mathematik 2, 84-90 (1960) and B. Vandewoestyne and R. Cools Computational and Applied Mathematics 189, 1&2, 341-361 (2006). They are valid up to 1229 dimensions.
+#
+# {prev}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html]
+# {next}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html]
+#
+# {Reference index}[link:files/rdoc/ref_rdoc.html]
+# {top}[link:files/rdoc/index_rdoc.html]
+#
+#

data/rdoc/randist.rdoc

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+#
+# = Random Number Distributions
+# This chapter describes functions for generating random variates and computing 
+# their probability distributions. Samples from the distributions described 
+# in this chapter can be obtained using any of the random number generators 
+# in the library as an underlying source of randomness. 
+#
+# In the simplest cases a non-uniform distribution can be obtained analytically 
+# from the uniform distribution of a random number generator by applying an 
+# appropriate transformation. This method uses one call to the random number
+# generator. More complicated distributions are created by the 
+# acceptance-rejection method, which compares the desired distribution against
+# a distribution which is similar and known analytically. This usually requires 
+# several samples from the generator. 
+#
+# The library also provides cumulative distribution functions and inverse 
+# cumulative distribution functions, sometimes referred to as quantile 
+# functions. The cumulative distribution functions and their inverses are 
+# computed separately for the upper and lower tails of the distribution, 
+# allowing full accuracy to be retained for small results. 
+#
+# Contents:
+# 1. {Introduction}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html#1]
+# 1. {The Gaussian Distribution}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html#2]
+# 1. {The Gaussian Tail Distribution}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html#3]
+#  ...
+# and more, see {the GSL reference}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/"target="_top]
+# 1. {Shuffling and Sampling}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html#7]
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="1] Introduction
+# Continuous random number distributions are defined by a probability density 
+# function, p(x), such that the probability of x occurring in the 
+# infinitesimal range x to x+dx is p dx. 
+#
+# The cumulative distribution function for the lower tail P(x) is defined by the 
+# integral, and gives the probability of a variate taking a value less than x. 
+#
+# The cumulative distribution function for the upper tail Q(x) is defined by the 
+# integral, and gives the probability of a variate taking a value greater than 
+# x. 
+#
+# The upper and lower cumulative distribution functions are related 
+# by P(x) + Q(x) = 1 and satisfy 0 <= P(x) <= 1, 0 <= Q(x) <= 1. 
+#
+# The inverse cumulative distributions, x=P^{-1}(P) and x=Q^{-1}(Q) give the 
+# values of x which correspond to a specific value of P or Q. They can be used 
+# to find confidence limits from probability values. 
+#
+# For discrete distributions the probability of sampling the integer value k is 
+# given by p(k), where \sum_k p(k) = 1. The cumulative distribution for the 
+# lower tail P(k) of a discrete distribution is defined as, where the sum is 
+# over the allowed range of the distribution less than or equal to k. 
+#
+# The cumulative distribution for the upper tail of a discrete distribution Q(k)
+# is defined as giving the sum of probabilities for all values greater than k. 
+# These two definitions satisfy the identity P(k)+Q(k)=1. 
+#
+# If the range of the distribution is 1 to n inclusive then P(n)=1, Q(n)=0 
+# while P(1) = p(1), Q(1)=1-p(1). 
+#
+#
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="2] The Gaussian Distribution
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#gaussian(sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Ran::gaussian(rng, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Rng#ugaussian
+# * GSL::Ran::ugaussian
+#
+#   These return a Gaussian random variate, with mean zero and standard 
+#   deviation <tt>sigma</tt>. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Ran::gaussian_pdf(x, sigma = 1)
+#
+#   Computes the probability density p(x) at <tt>x</tt> for a Gaussian distribution 
+#   with standard deviation <tt>sigma</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#gaussian_ratio_method(sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Ran::gaussian_ratio_method(rng, sigma = 1)
+#
+#   Use Kinderman-Monahan ratio method.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Cdf::gaussian_P(x, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Cdf::gaussian_Q(x, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Cdf::gaussian_Pinv(P, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Cdf::gaussian_Qinv(Q, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Cdf::ugaussian_P(x)
+# * GSL::Cdf::ugaussian_Q(x)
+# * GSL::Cdf::ugaussian_Pinv(P)
+# * GSL::Cdf::ugaussian_Qinv(Q)
+#
+#   These methods compute the cumulative distribution functions P(x), Q(x) 
+#   and their inverses for the Gaussian distribution with standard 
+#   deviation <tt>sigma</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="3] The Gaussian Tail Distribution
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#gaussian_tail(a, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Ran#gaussian_tail(rng, a, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Rng#ugaussian_tail(a)
+# * GSL::Ran#ugaussian_tail(rng)
+#
+#   These methods provide random variates from the upper tail of a Gaussian 
+#   distribution with standard deviation <tt>sigma</tt>. 
+#   The values returned are larger than the lower limit <tt>a</tt>, which must be positive.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Ran::gaussian_tail_pdf(x, a, sigma = 1)
+# * GSL::Ran::ugaussian_tail_pdf(x, a)
+#
+#   These methods compute the probability density p(x) at <tt>x</tt> for a Gaussian 
+#   tail distribution with standard deviation <tt>sigma</tt> 
+#   and lower limit <tt>a</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="4] The Bivariate Gaussian Distribution
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#bivariate_gaussian(sigma_x, sigma_y, rho)
+# * GSL::Ran::bivariate_gaussian(rng, sigma_x, sigma_y, rho)
+#
+#   These methods generate a pair of correlated gaussian variates, 
+#   with mean zero, correlation coefficient <tt>rho</tt> and standard deviations 
+#   <tt>sigma_x</tt> and <tt>sigma_y</tt> in the x and y directions.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Ran::bivariate_gaussian_pdf(x, y, sigma_x, sigma_y, rho)
+#
+#   This method computes the probability density p(x,y) at <tt>(x,y)</tt> 
+#   for a bivariate gaussian distribution with standard deviations 
+#   <tt>sigma_x, sigma_y</tt> and correlation coefficient <tt>rho</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="5] The Exponential Distribution
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#exponential(mu)
+# * GSL::Ran::exponential(rng, mu)
+#
+#   These methods return a random variate from the exponential 
+#   distribution with mean <tt>mu</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Ran::exponential_pdf(x, mu)
+#
+#   This method computes the probability density p(x) at <tt>x</tt> 
+#   for an exponential distribution with mean <tt>mu</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Cdf::exponential_P(x, mu)
+# * GSL::Cdf::exponential_Q(x, mu)
+# * GSL::Cdf::exponential_Pinv(P, mu)
+# * GSL::Cdf::exponential_Qinv(Q, mu)
+#
+#   These methods compute the cumulative distribution functions P(x), Q(x) 
+#   and their inverses for the exponential distribution with mean <tt>mu</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="6] The Laplace Distribution
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#laplace(a)
+# * GSL::Ran::laplace(rng, a)
+#
+#   These methods return a random variate from the Laplace distribution 
+#   with width <tt>a</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Ran::laplace_pdf(x, a)
+#
+#   This method computes the probability density p(x) at <tt>x</tt> 
+#   for a Laplace distribution with width <tt>a</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Cdf::laplace_P(x, a)
+# * GSL::Cdf::laplace_Q(x, a)
+# * GSL::Cdf::laplace_Pinv(P, a)
+# * GSL::Cdf::laplace_Qinv(Q, a)
+#
+#   These methods compute the cumulative distribution functions P(x), Q(x) 
+#   and their inverses for the Laplace distribution with width <tt>a</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#exppow(a, b)
+# * GSL::Rng#cauchy(a)
+# * GSL::Rng#rayleigh(sigma)
+# * GSL::Rng#rayleigh_tail(a, sigma)
+# * GSL::Rng#landau()
+# * GSL::Rng#levy(c, alpha)
+# * GSL::Rng#levy_skew(c, alpha, beta)
+# * GSL::Rng#gamma(a, b)
+# * GSL::Rng#flat(a, b)
+# * GSL::Rng#lognormal(zeta, sigma)
+# * GSL::Rng#chisq(nu)
+# * GSL::Rng#fdist(nu1, nu2)
+# * GSL::Rng#tdist(nu)
+# * GSL::Rng#beta(a, b)
+# * GSL::Rng#logistic(a)
+# * GSL::Rng#pareto(a, b)
+#
+#
+# ...
+#
+# and more, see {the GSL reference}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/gsl-ref_19.html#SEC286"target="_top].
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="7] Shuffling and Sampling
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#shuffle(v, n)
+#
+#   This randomly shuffles the order of <tt>n</tt> objects, 
+#   stored in the {GSL::Vector}[link:files/rdoc/vector_rdoc.html] object <tt>v</tt>. 
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#choose(v, k)
+#
+#   This returns a {GSL::Vector}[link:files/rdoc/vector_rdoc.html] object with <tt>k</tt> objects 
+#   taken randomly from the {GSL::Vector}[link:files/rdoc/vector_rdoc.html] object <tt>v</tt>. 
+#
+#   The objects are sampled without replacement, thus each object can only 
+#   appear once in the returned vector. It is required that <tt>k</tt> be less 
+#   than or equal to the length of the vector <tt>v</tt>. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#sample(v, k)
+#
+#   This method is like the method <tt>choose</tt> but samples <tt>k</tt> items 
+#   from the original vector <tt>v</tt> with replacement, so the same object 
+#   can appear more than once in the output sequence. There is no requirement 
+#   that <tt>k</tt> be less than the length of <tt>v</tt>.
+#
+# {prev}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html]
+# {next}[link:files/rdoc/stats_rdoc.html]
+#
+# {Reference index}[link:files/rdoc/ref_rdoc.html]
+# {top}[link:files/rdoc/index_rdoc.html]
+#   
+#

data/rdoc/ref.rdoc

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+#
+# = {Ruby/GSL Reference}[link:files/rdoc/ref_rdoc.html"target="_parent]
+# (See also {Gnu Scientific Library -- Reference Manual}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/"target="_top])
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="1] Front Matter
+# This document describes the modules, classes and the methods of Ruby/GSL.  This
+# includes cut-and-paste from the
+# {GNU Scientific Library -- Reference Manual}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/"target="_top],
+# and documents of the extention libraries.
+#
+# === {}[link:index.html"name="1.1] Copyright of the GSL Reference
+#
+# Copyright 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006,
+# 2007, 2008 The GSL Team.
+#
+# Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
+# terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version
+# published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being
+# "GNU General Public License" and "Free Software Needs Free Documentation", the
+# Front-Cover text being "A GNU Manual", and with the Back-Cover Text being (a)
+# (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
+# Free Documentation License".  (a) The Back-Cover Text is: "You have the freedom
+# to copy and modify this GNU Manual."
+#
+# === {}[link:index.html"name="1.2] Copyright of this reference
+#
+# 2009,2010 Yoshiki Tsunesada, David MacMahon
+#
+# Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under
+# the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="2] Ruby/GSL Reference
+#
+# 1. {Introduction}[link:files/rdoc/intro_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Using Ruby/GSL}[link:files/rdoc/use_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Error Handling}[link:files/rdoc/ehandling_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Mathematical Functions}[link:files/rdoc/math_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Complex Numbers}[link:files/rdoc/complex_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Polynomials}[link:files/rdoc/poly_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Special Functions}[link:files/rdoc/sf_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Vectors}[link:files/rdoc/vector_rdoc.html] and {Matrices}[link:files/rdoc/matrix_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Permutations}[link:files/rdoc/perm_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Combinations}[link:files/rdoc/combi_rdoc.html]
+--
+# 1. {Multiset}[link:files/rdoc/sort_rdoc.html] (GSL-1.14)
+++
+# 1. {Sorting}[link:files/rdoc/sort_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {BLAS Support}[link:files/rdoc/blas_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Linear Algebra}[link:files/rdoc/linalg_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Eigen Systems}[link:files/rdoc/eigen_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Fast Fourier Transform}[link:files/rdoc/fft_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Numerical Integration}[link:files/rdoc/integration_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Random Number Generation}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Quasi-Random Sequences}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Random Number Distributions}[link:files/rdoc/randist_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Statistics}[link:files/rdoc/stats_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {1d-Histograms}[link:files/rdoc/hist_rdoc.html], {2d-Histograms}[link:files/rdoc/hist2d_rdoc.html] and {3d-Histograms}[link:files/rdoc/hist3d_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {N-tuples}[link:files/rdoc/ntuple_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Monte-Carlo Integration}[link:files/rdoc/monte_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Simulated Annealing}[link:files/rdoc/siman_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Ordinary Differential Equations}[link:files/rdoc/odeiv_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Interpolation}[link:files/rdoc/interp_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Numerical Differentiation}[link:files/rdoc/diff_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Chebyshev Approximations}[link:files/rdoc/cheb_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Series Acceleration}[link:files/rdoc/sum_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Wavelet Transforms}[link:files/rdoc/wavelet_rdoc.html] (GSL-1.6 feature)
+# 1. {Discrete Hankel Transforms}[link:files/rdoc/dht_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {One dimensional Root-Finding}[link:files/rdoc/roots_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {One dimensional Minimization}[link:files/rdoc/min_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Multidimensional Root-Finding}[link:files/rdoc/multiroot_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Multidimensional Minimization}[link:files/rdoc/multimin_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Least-Squares Fitting}[link:files/rdoc/fit_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Nonlinear Least-Squares Fitting}[link:files/rdoc/nonlinearfit_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Basis Splines}[link:files/rdoc/bspline_rdoc.html]  
+# 1. {Physical Constants}[link:files/rdoc/const_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Graphics}[link:files/rdoc/graph_rdoc.html]
+# 1. Supported GSL add-on packages
+#    1. {rngextra}[link:files/rdoc/rngextra_rdoc.html]
+#    1. {Tensor manipulations}[link:files/rdoc/tensor_rdoc.html]
+#    1. OOL: Open Optimization library (see examples/ool/*.rb)
+#    1. CQP and Bundle (see examples/multimin/cqp.rb, bundle.rb)
+#    1. quartic
+#    1. jacobi (see examples/jacobi/*.rb)
+#    1. {NDLINEAR: multi-linear, multi-parameter least squares fitting}[link:files/rdoc/ndlinear_rdoc.html]
+#    1. {ALF: associated Legendre polynomials}[link:files/rdoc/alf_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {NArray compatibilities}[link:files/rdoc/narray_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {Changes since Ruby/GSL 1.10.3}[link:files/rdoc/changes_rdoc.html]
+# 1. {GNU Free Documentation Licence}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/GNU-Free-Documentation-License.html"target="_top]
+#
+# {next}[link:files/rdoc/intro_rdoc.html]
+#
+# {top}[link:files/rdoc/index_rdoc.html]
+#

data/rdoc/rng.rdoc

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+#
+# = Random Number Generation
+# The library provides a large collection of random number generators which 
+# can be accessed through a uniform interface. Environment variables allow you 
+# to select different generators and seeds at runtime, so that you can easily 
+# switch between generators without needing to recompile your program. 
+# Each instance of a generator keeps track of its own state, allowing the 
+# generators to be used in multi-threaded programs. Additional functions are 
+# available for transforming uniform random numbers into samples from 
+# continuous or discrete probability distributions such as the Gaussian, 
+# log-normal or Poisson distributions. 
+#
+#
+#
+# Contents:
+# 1. {General comments on random numbers}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#1]
+# 1. {The Random Number Generator Interface: GSL::Rng class}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#2]
+# 1. {Random number generator initialization}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#3]
+# 1. {Sampling from a random number generator}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#4]
+# 1. {Auxiliary random number generator functions}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#5]
+# 1. {Random number environment variables}[link:files/rdoc/rng_rdoc.html#6]
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="1] General comments on random numbers
+# In 1988, Park and Miller wrote a paper entitled "Random number generators: 
+# good ones are hard to find." [Commun. ACM, 31, 1192-1201]. Fortunately, some
+# excellent random number generators are available, though poor ones are still 
+# in common use. You may be happy with the system-supplied random number 
+# generator on your computer, but you should be aware that as computers get 
+# faster, requirements on random number generators increase. Nowadays, a 
+# simulation that calls a random number generator millions of times can often 
+# finish before you can make it down the hall to the coffee machine and back. 
+#
+# A very nice review of random number generators was written by Pierre L'Ecuyer, 
+# as Chapter 4 of the book: Handbook on Simulation, Jerry Banks, ed.
+# (Wiley, 1997). The chapter is available in postscript from L'Ecuyer's 
+# ftp site (see references). Knuth's volume on Seminumerical Algorithms 
+# (originally published in 1968) devotes 170 pages to random number generators,
+# and has recently been updated in its 3rd edition (1997). It is brilliant, 
+# a classic. If you don't own it, you should stop reading right now, run to the 
+# nearest bookstore, and buy it. 
+#
+# A good random number generator will satisfy both theoretical and statistical 
+# properties. Theoretical properties are often hard to obtain (they require real 
+# math!), but one prefers a random number generator with a long period, 
+# low serial correlation, and a tendency not to "fall mainly on the planes." 
+# Statistical tests are performed with numerical simulations. Generally,
+# a random number generator is used to estimate some quantity for which the 
+# theory of probability provides an exact answer. Comparison to this exact 
+# answer provides a measure of "randomness". 
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="2] The Random Number Generator Interface 
+# It is important to remember that a random number generator is not a "real" 
+# function like sine or cosine. Unlike real functions, successive calls to a 
+# random number generator yield different return values. Of course that is just 
+# what you want for a random number generator, but to achieve this effect, 
+# the generator must keep track of some kind of "state" variable. Sometimes this 
+# state is just an integer (sometimes just the value of the previously generated 
+# random number), but often it is more complicated than that and may involve a 
+# whole array of numbers, possibly with some indices thrown in. To use the 
+# random number generators, you do not need to know the details of what 
+# comprises the state, and besides that varies from algorithm to algorithm. 
+#
+# The random number generator library uses <tt>GSL::Rng</tt> class for the interface.
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="3] Random number generator initialization 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng.alloc(rng_type[, seed])
+#
+#   This method returns a GSL::Rng object of a random number generator of type 
+#   <tt>rng_type</tt> with a seed <tt>seed</tt>. These two arguments can be omitted, 
+#   and the generator 'gsl_rng_mt19937' and a seed 0 are used as defaults.
+#   The GSL library provides a number of random number generator types, 
+#   and one can choose with a constant <tt>GSL::RNG_xxx</tt> or a String, as
+#
+#   * <tt>GSL::Rng::MT19937</tt> or <tt>"gsl_rng_mt19937"</tt> or <tt>"mt19937"</tt>
+#   * <tt>GSL::Rng::RANLXS0</tt>  or <tt>"gsl_rng_ranlsx0"</tt>  or <tt>"ranlxs0"</tt> 
+#   * <tt>GSL::Rng::ZUF</tt>  or <tt>"gsl_rng_zuf"</tt>  or <tt>"zuf"</tt> 
+#   * ...
+#
+#   See the {GSL reference manual}[http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/html_node/Random-number-generator-algorithms.html#Random-number-generator-algorithms"target="_top] for the complete list. 
+#   The following demonstrates how to use this class,
+#
+#     require 'gsl'
+#
+#     r = Rng.alloc(Rng::TAUS, 1)
+#     r2 = Rng.alloc("ran0", 2)
+#     p r.name                <- "taus"
+#     p r.get                 <- get an integer
+#     p r2.uniform            <- get a float of [0, 1)
+#
+#   A generator of the type <tt>gsl_rng_taus</tt> is created with seed 1,
+#   and <tt>gsl_rng_ran0</tt> with seed 2. The
+#   method <tt>get</tt> returns a random integer. 
+#   The method <tt>uniform</tt> returns
+#   a floating number uniformly distributed in the range [0, 1).
+#
+#   If the package {rngextra}[http://www.network-theory.co.uk/download/rngextra/"target="_top] is installed, additional
+#   two generators are available, 
+#   * <tt>GSL::Rng::RNGEXTRA_RNG1</tt>, <tt>"rngextra_rng1"</tt>
+#   * <tt>GSL::Rng::RNGEXTRA_RNG2</tt>, <tt>"rngextra_rng2"</tt>
+#
+#   They are created as
+#
+#     r1 = Rng.alloc(Rng::RNGEXTRA_RNG1)
+#     p r1.name                <- "rng1"
+#
+#     r2 = Rng.alloc("rngextra_rng2")
+#     p r2.name                <- "rng2"
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng.default_seed
+#
+#   Returns the default seed
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng.set_default_seed(seed)
+# * GSL::Rng.default_seed=(seed)
+#
+#   Override the default seed by <tt>seed</tt>.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng.types_setup()
+#
+#   Returns an array of all the available generators' names. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSK::Rng.memcpy(dest, src)
+#
+#   Copies the random number generator <tt>src</tt>) into the pre-existing generator 
+#   <tt>dest</tt>, making dest into an exact copy of <tt>src</tt>. 
+#   The two generators must be of the same type.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#set(s)
+#
+#   This method initializes the random number generator with a given seed <tt>s</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="4] Sampling from a random number generator
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#get
+#
+#   This returns a random integer from the reciever generator.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#uniform
+#
+#   This method returns a double precision floating point number uniformly 
+#   distributed in the range [0,1). 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#uniform_pos
+#
+#   This returns a positive double precision floating point number uniformly 
+#   distributed in the range (0,1), excluding both 0.0 and 1.0.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#uniform_int(n)
+#
+#   This method returns a random integer from 0 to n-1 inclusive. 
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="5] Auxiliary random number generator functions
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#name
+#
+#   This method returns a Sting object of the name of the generator.
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#max
+# * GSL::Rng#min
+#
+#   These method return the largest/smallest value that the method 
+#   <tt>get</tt> can return. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng#clone
+# * GSL::Rng#duplicate
+#
+#   Return a newly created generator which is an exact copy of the generator <tt>self</tt>.
+#
+# == {}[link:index.html"name="6] Random number environment variables 
+# The library allows you to choose a default generator and seed from the 
+# environment variables <tt>GSL_RNG_TYPE</tt> and <tt>GSL_RNG_SEED</tt> 
+# and the method <tt>GSL::Rng::env_setup</tt>. 
+#
+# ---
+# * GSL::Rng.env_setup()
+#
+#   Reads the environment variables <tt>GSL_RNG_TYPE</tt> and 
+#   <tt>GSL_RNG_SEED</tt> and uses their values to set the corresponding 
+#   library variables.
+#
+#   If you don't specify a generator for <tt>GSL_RNG_TYPE</tt> 
+#   then "mt19937" is used as the default. 
+#   The initial value of the default seed is zero. 
+#
+#
+# {prev}[link:files/rdoc/integration_rdoc.html]
+# {next}[link:files/rdoc/qrng_rdoc.html]
+#
+# {Reference index}[link:files/rdoc/ref_rdoc.html]
+# {top}[link:files/rdoc/index_rdoc.html]
+#