puppet 5.0.0 → 6.0.0

data/lib/puppet/functions/new.rb

@@ -1,5 +1,982 @@
-# Returns a new instance of a data type.
-# (The documentation is maintained in the corresponding 3.x stub)
+# Creates a new instance/object of a given data type.
+#
+# This function makes it possible to create new instances of
+# concrete data types. If a block is given it is called with the
+# just created instance as an argument.
+#
+# Calling this function is equivalent to directly
+# calling the data type:
+#
+# @example `new` and calling type directly are equivalent
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $a = Integer.new("42")
+# $b = Integer("42")
+# ```
+#
+# These would both convert the string `"42"` to the decimal value `42`.
+#
+# @example arguments by position or by name
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $a = Integer.new("42", 8)
+# $b = Integer({from => "42", radix => 8})
+# ```
+#
+# This would convert the octal (radix 8) number `"42"` in string form
+# to the decimal value `34`.
+#
+# The new function supports two ways of giving the arguments:
+#
+# * by name (using a hash with property to value mapping)
+# * by position (as regular arguments)
+#
+# Note that it is not possible to create new instances of
+# some abstract data types (for example `Variant`). The data type `Optional[T]` is an
+# exception as it will create an instance of `T` or `undef` if the
+# value to convert is `undef`.
+#
+# The arguments that can be given is determined by the data type.
+#
+# > An assertion is always made that the produced value complies with the given type constraints.
+#
+# @example data type constraints are checked
+#
+# ```puppet
+# Integer[0].new("-100")
+# ```
+#
+# Would fail with an assertion error (since value is less than 0).
+#
+# The following sections show the arguments and conversion rules
+# per data type built into the Puppet Type System.
+#
+# ### Conversion to Optional[T] and NotUndef[T]
+#
+# Conversion to these data types is the same as a conversion to the type argument `T`.
+# In the case of `Optional[T]` it is accepted that the argument to convert may be `undef`.
+# It is however not acceptable to give other arguments (than `undef`) that cannot be
+# converted to `T`.
+#
+# ### Conversion to Integer
+#
+# A new `Integer` can be created from `Integer`, `Float`, `Boolean`, and `String` values.
+# For conversion from `String` it is possible to specify the radix (base).
+#
+# ```puppet
+# type Radix = Variant[Default, Integer[2,2], Integer[8,8], Integer[10,10], Integer[16,16]]
+#
+# function Integer.new(
+#   String $value,
+#   Radix $radix = 10,
+#   Boolean $abs = false
+# )
+#
+# function Integer.new(
+#   Variant[Numeric, Boolean] $value,
+#   Boolean $abs = false
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# * When converting from `String` the default radix is 10.
+# * If radix is not specified an attempt is made to detect the radix from the start of the string:
+#   * `0b` or `0B` is taken as radix 2.
+#   * `0x` or `0X` is taken as radix 16.
+#   * `0` as radix 8.
+#   * All others are decimal.
+# * Conversion from `String` accepts an optional sign in the string.
+# * For hexadecimal (radix 16) conversion an optional leading "0x", or "0X" is accepted.
+# * For octal (radix 8) an optional leading "0" is accepted.
+# * For binary (radix 2) an optional leading "0b" or "0B" is accepted.
+# * When `radix` is set to `default`, the conversion is based on the leading.
+#   characters in the string. A leading "0" for radix 8, a leading "0x", or "0X" for
+#   radix 16, and leading "0b" or "0B" for binary.
+# * Conversion from `Boolean` results in 0 for `false` and 1 for `true`.
+# * Conversion from `Integer`, `Float`, and `Boolean` ignores the radix.
+# * `Float` value fractions are truncated (no rounding).
+# * When `abs` is set to `true`, the result will be an absolute integer.
+#
+# @example Converting to Integer in multiple ways
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $a_number = Integer("0xFF", 16)    # results in 255
+# $a_number = Integer("010")         # results in 8
+# $a_number = Integer("010", 10)     # results in 10
+# $a_number = Integer(true)          # results in 1
+# $a_number = Integer(-38, 10, true) # results in 38
+# ```
+#
+# ### Conversion to Float
+#
+# A new `Float` can be created from `Integer`, `Float`, `Boolean`, and `String` values.
+# For conversion from `String` both float and integer formats are supported.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Float.new(
+#   Variant[Numeric, Boolean, String] $value,
+#   Boolean $abs = true
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# * For an integer, the floating point fraction of `.0` is added to the value.
+# * A `Boolean` `true` is converted to 1.0, and a `false` to 0.0
+# * In `String` format, integer prefixes for hex and binary are understood (but not octal since
+#   floating point in string format may start with a '0').
+# * When `abs` is set to `true`, the result will be an absolute floating point value.
+#
+# ### Conversion to Numeric
+#
+# A new `Integer` or `Float` can be created from `Integer`, `Float`, `Boolean` and
+# `String` values.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Numeric.new(
+#   Variant[Numeric, Boolean, String] $value,
+#   Boolean $abs = true
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# * If the value has a decimal period, or if given in scientific notation
+#   (e/E), the result is a `Float`, otherwise the value is an `Integer`. The
+#   conversion from `String` always uses a radix based on the prefix of the string.
+# * Conversion from `Boolean` results in 0 for `false` and 1 for `true`.
+# * When `abs` is set to `true`, the result will be an absolute `Float`or `Integer` value.
+#
+# @example Converting to Numeric in different ways
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $a_number = Numeric(true)        # results in 1
+# $a_number = Numeric("0xFF")      # results in 255
+# $a_number = Numeric("010")       # results in 8
+# $a_number = Numeric("3.14")      # results in 3.14 (a float)
+# $a_number = Numeric(-42.3, true) # results in 42.3
+# $a_number = Numeric(-42, true)   # results in 42
+# ```
+#
+# ### Conversion to Timespan
+#
+# A new `Timespan` can be created from `Integer`, `Float`, `String`, and `Hash` values. Several variants of the constructor are provided.
+#
+# **Timespan from seconds**
+#
+# When a Float is used, the decimal part represents fractions of a second.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timespan.new(
+#   Variant[Float, Integer] $value
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# **Timespan from days, hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions of a second**
+#
+# The arguments can be passed separately in which case the first four, days, hours, minutes, and seconds are mandatory and the rest are optional.
+# All values may overflow and/or be negative. The internal 128-bit nano-second integer is calculated as:
+#
+# ```
+# (((((days * 24 + hours) * 60 + minutes) * 60 + seconds) * 1000 + milliseconds) * 1000 + microseconds) * 1000 + nanoseconds
+# ```
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timespan.new(
+#   Integer $days, Integer $hours, Integer $minutes, Integer $seconds,
+#   Integer $milliseconds = 0, Integer $microseconds = 0, Integer $nanoseconds = 0
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# or, all arguments can be passed as a `Hash`, in which case all entries are optional:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timespan.new(
+#   Struct[{
+#     Optional[negative] => Boolean,
+#     Optional[days] => Integer,
+#     Optional[hours] => Integer,
+#     Optional[minutes] => Integer,
+#     Optional[seconds] => Integer,
+#     Optional[milliseconds] => Integer,
+#     Optional[microseconds] => Integer,
+#     Optional[nanoseconds] => Integer
+#   }] $hash
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# **Timespan from String and format directive patterns**
+#
+# The first argument is parsed using the format optionally passed as a string or array of strings. When an array is used, an attempt
+# will be made to parse the string using the first entry and then with each entry in succession until parsing succeeds. If the second
+# argument is omitted, an array of default formats will be used.
+#
+# An exception is raised when no format was able to parse the given string.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timespan.new(
+#   String $string, Variant[String[2],Array[String[2], 1]] $format = <default format>)
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# the arguments may also be passed as a `Hash`:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timespan.new(
+#   Struct[{
+#     string => String[1],
+#     Optional[format] => Variant[String[2],Array[String[2], 1]]
+#   }] $hash
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# The directive consists of a percent (%) character, zero or more flags, optional minimum field width and
+# a conversion specifier as follows:
+# ```
+# %[Flags][Width]Conversion
+# ```
+#
+# ##### Flags:
+#
+# | Flag  | Meaning
+# | ----  | ---------------
+# | -     | Don't pad numerical output
+# | _     | Use spaces for padding
+# | 0     | Use zeros for padding
+#
+# ##### Format directives:
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | D | Number of Days |
+# | H | Hour of the day, 24-hour clock |
+# | M | Minute of the hour (00..59) |
+# | S | Second of the minute (00..59) |
+# | L | Millisecond of the second (000..999) |
+# | N | Fractional seconds digits |
+#
+# The format directive that represents the highest magnitude in the format will be allowed to
+# overflow. I.e. if no "%D" is used but a "%H" is present, then the hours may be more than 23.
+#
+# The default array contains the following patterns:
+#
+# ```
+# ['%D-%H:%M:%S', '%D-%H:%M', '%H:%M:%S', '%H:%M']
+# ```
+#
+# Examples - Converting to Timespan
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $duration = Timespan(13.5)       # 13 seconds and 500 milliseconds
+# $duration = Timespan({days=>4})  # 4 days
+# $duration = Timespan(4, 0, 0, 2) # 4 days and 2 seconds
+# $duration = Timespan('13:20')    # 13 hours and 20 minutes (using default pattern)
+# $duration = Timespan('10:03.5', '%M:%S.%L') # 10 minutes, 3 seconds, and 5 milli-seconds
+# $duration = Timespan('10:03.5', '%M:%S.%N') # 10 minutes, 3 seconds, and 5 nano-seconds
+# ```
+#
+# ### Conversion to Timestamp
+#
+# A new `Timestamp` can be created from `Integer`, `Float`, `String`, and `Hash` values. Several variants of the constructor are provided.
+#
+# **Timestamp from seconds since epoch (1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC)**
+#
+# When a Float is used, the decimal part represents fractions of a second.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timestamp.new(
+#   Variant[Float, Integer] $value
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# **Timestamp from String and patterns consisting of format directives**
+#
+# The first argument is parsed using the format optionally passed as a string or array of strings. When an array is used, an attempt
+# will be made to parse the string using the first entry and then with each entry in succession until parsing succeeds. If the second
+# argument is omitted, an array of default formats will be used.
+#
+# A third optional timezone argument can be provided. The first argument will then be parsed as if it represents a local time in that
+# timezone. The timezone can be any timezone that is recognized when using the '%z' or '%Z' formats, or the word 'current', in which
+# case the current timezone of the evaluating process will be used. The timezone argument is case insensitive.
+#
+# The default timezone, when no argument is provided, or when using the keyword `default`, is 'UTC'.
+#
+# It is illegal to provide a timezone argument other than `default` in combination with a format that contains '%z' or '%Z' since that
+# would introduce an ambiguity as to which timezone to use. The one extracted from the string, or the one provided as an argument.
+#
+# An exception is raised when no format was able to parse the given string.
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timestamp.new(
+#   String $string,
+#   Variant[String[2],Array[String[2], 1]] $format = <default format>,
+#   String $timezone = default)
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# the arguments may also be passed as a `Hash`:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# function Timestamp.new(
+#   Struct[{
+#     string => String[1],
+#     Optional[format] => Variant[String[2],Array[String[2], 1]],
+#     Optional[timezone] => String[1]
+#   }] $hash
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# The directive consists of a percent (%) character, zero or more flags, optional minimum field width and
+# a conversion specifier as follows:
+# ```
+# %[Flags][Width]Conversion
+# ```
+#
+# ##### Flags:
+#
+# | Flag  | Meaning
+# | ----  | ---------------
+# | -     | Don't pad numerical output
+# | _     | Use spaces for padding
+# | 0     | Use zeros for padding
+# | #     | Change names to upper-case or change case of am/pm
+# | ^     | Use uppercase
+# | :     | Use colons for %z
+#
+# ##### Format directives (names and padding can be altered using flags):
+#
+# **Date (Year, Month, Day):**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | Y | Year with century, zero-padded to at least 4 digits |
+# | C | year / 100 (rounded down such as 20 in 2009) |
+# | y | year % 100 (00..99) |
+# | m | Month of the year, zero-padded (01..12) |
+# | B | The full month name ("January") |
+# | b | The abbreviated month name ("Jan") |
+# | h | Equivalent to %b |
+# | d | Day of the month, zero-padded (01..31) |
+# | e | Day of the month, blank-padded ( 1..31) |
+# | j | Day of the year (001..366) |
+#
+# **Time (Hour, Minute, Second, Subsecond):**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | H | Hour of the day, 24-hour clock, zero-padded (00..23) |
+# | k | Hour of the day, 24-hour clock, blank-padded ( 0..23) |
+# | I | Hour of the day, 12-hour clock, zero-padded (01..12) |
+# | l | Hour of the day, 12-hour clock, blank-padded ( 1..12) |
+# | P | Meridian indicator, lowercase ("am" or "pm") |
+# | p | Meridian indicator, uppercase ("AM" or "PM") |
+# | M | Minute of the hour (00..59) |
+# | S | Second of the minute (00..60) |
+# | L | Millisecond of the second (000..999). Digits under millisecond are truncated to not produce 1000 |
+# | N | Fractional seconds digits, default is 9 digits (nanosecond). Digits under a specified width are truncated to avoid carry up |
+#
+# **Time (Hour, Minute, Second, Subsecond):**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | z   | Time zone as hour and minute offset from UTC (e.g. +0900) |
+# | :z  | hour and minute offset from UTC with a colon (e.g. +09:00) |
+# | ::z | hour, minute and second offset from UTC (e.g. +09:00:00) |
+# | Z   | Abbreviated time zone name or similar information.  (OS dependent) |
+#
+# **Weekday:**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | A | The full weekday name ("Sunday") |
+# | a | The abbreviated name ("Sun") |
+# | u | Day of the week (Monday is 1, 1..7) |
+# | w | Day of the week (Sunday is 0, 0..6) |
+#
+# **ISO 8601 week-based year and week number:**
+#
+# The first week of YYYY starts with a Monday and includes YYYY-01-04.
+# The days in the year before the first week are in the last week of
+# the previous year.
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | G | The week-based year |
+# | g | The last 2 digits of the week-based year (00..99) |
+# | V | Week number of the week-based year (01..53) |
+#
+# **Week number:**
+#
+# The first week of YYYY that starts with a Sunday or Monday (according to %U
+# or %W). The days in the year before the first week are in week 0.
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | U | Week number of the year. The week starts with Sunday. (00..53) |
+# | W | Week number of the year. The week starts with Monday. (00..53) |
+#
+# **Seconds since the Epoch:**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | s | Number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC. |
+#
+# **Literal string:**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | n | Newline character (\n) |
+# | t | Tab character (\t) |
+# | % | Literal "%" character |
+#
+# **Combination:**
+#
+# | Format | Meaning |
+# | ------ | ------- |
+# | c | date and time (%a %b %e %T %Y) |
+# | D | Date (%m/%d/%y) |
+# | F | The ISO 8601 date format (%Y-%m-%d) |
+# | v | VMS date (%e-%^b-%4Y) |
+# | x | Same as %D |
+# | X | Same as %T |
+# | r | 12-hour time (%I:%M:%S %p) |
+# | R | 24-hour time (%H:%M) |
+# | T | 24-hour time (%H:%M:%S) |
+#
+# The default array contains the following patterns:
+#
+# When a timezone argument (other than `default`) is explicitly provided:
+#
+# ```
+# ['%FT%T.L', '%FT%T', '%F']
+# ```
+#
+# otherwise:
+#
+# ```
+# ['%FT%T.%L %Z', '%FT%T %Z', '%F %Z', '%FT%T.L', '%FT%T', '%F']
+# ```
+#
+# Examples - Converting to Timestamp
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $ts = Timestamp(1473150899)                              # 2016-09-06 08:34:59 UTC
+# $ts = Timestamp({string=>'2015', format=>'%Y'})          # 2015-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
+# $ts = Timestamp('Wed Aug 24 12:13:14 2016', '%c')        # 2016-08-24 12:13:14 UTC
+# $ts = Timestamp('Wed Aug 24 12:13:14 2016 PDT', '%c %Z') # 2016-08-24 19:13:14.000 UTC
+# $ts = Timestamp('2016-08-24 12:13:14', '%F %T', 'PST')   # 2016-08-24 20:13:14.000 UTC
+# $ts = Timestamp('2016-08-24T12:13:14', default, 'PST')   # 2016-08-24 20:13:14.000 UTC
+#
+# ```
+#
+# ### Conversion to Type
+#
+# A new `Type` can be created from its `String` representation.
+#
+# @example Creating a type from a string
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $t = Type.new('Integer[10]')
+# ```
+#
+# ### Conversion to String
+#
+# Conversion to `String` is the most comprehensive conversion as there are many
+# use cases where a string representation is wanted. The defaults for the many options
+# have been chosen with care to be the most basic "value in textual form" representation.
+# The more advanced forms of formatting are intended to enable writing special purposes formatting
+# functions in the Puppet language.
+#
+# A new string can be created from all other data types. The process is performed in
+# several steps - first the data type of the given value is inferred, then the resulting data type
+# is used to find the most significant format specified for that data type. And finally,
+# the found format is used to convert the given value.
+#
+# The mapping from data type to format is referred to as the *format map*. This map
+# allows different formatting depending on type.
+#
+# @example Positive Integers in Hexadecimal prefixed with '0x', negative in Decimal
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $format_map = {
+#   Integer[default, 0] => "%d",
+#   Integer[1, default] => "%#x"
+# }
+# String("-1", $format_map)  # produces '-1'
+# String("10", $format_map)  # produces '0xa'
+# ```
+#
+# A format is specified on the form:
+#
+# ```
+# %[Flags][Width][.Precision]Format
+# ```
+#
+# `Width` is the number of characters into which the value should be fitted. This allocated space is
+# padded if value is shorter. By default it is space padded, and the flag `0` will cause padding with `0`
+# for numerical formats.
+#
+# `Precision` is the number of fractional digits to show for floating point, and the maximum characters
+# included in a string format.
+#
+# Note that all data type supports the formats `s` and `p` with the meaning "default string representation" and
+# "default programmatic string representation" (which for example means that a String is quoted in 'p' format).
+#
+# **Signatures of String conversion**
+#
+# ```puppet
+# type Format = Pattern[/^%([\s\+\-#0\[\{<\(\|]*)([1-9][0-9]*)?(?:\.([0-9]+))?([a-zA-Z])/]
+# type ContainerFormat = Struct[{
+#   format         => Optional[String],
+#   separator      => Optional[String],
+#   separator2     => Optional[String],
+#   string_formats => Hash[Type, Format]
+#   }]
+# type TypeMap = Hash[Type, Variant[Format, ContainerFormat]]
+# type Formats = Variant[Default, String[1], TypeMap]
+#
+# function String.new(
+#   Any $value,
+#   Formats $string_formats
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# Where:
+#
+# * `separator` is the string used to separate entries in an array, or hash (extra space should not be included at
+#   the end), defaults to `","`
+# * `separator2` is the separator between key and value in a hash entry (space padding should be included as
+#   wanted), defaults to `" => "`.
+# * `string_formats` is a data type to format map for values contained in arrays and hashes - defaults to `{Any => "%p"}`. Note that
+#   these nested formats are not applicable to data types that are containers; they are always formatted as per the top level
+#   format specification.
+#
+# @example Simple Conversion to String (using defaults)
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $str = String(10)      # produces '10'
+# $str = String([10])    # produces '["10"]'
+# ```
+#
+# @example Simple Conversion to String specifying the format for the given value directly
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $str = String(10, "%#x")    # produces '0x10'
+# $str = String([10], "%(a")  # produces '("10")'
+# ```
+#
+# @example Specifying type for values contained in an array
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $formats = {
+#   Array => {
+#     format => '%(a',
+#     string_formats => { Integer => '%#x' }
+#   }
+# }
+# $str = String([1,2,3], $formats) # produces '(0x1, 0x2, 0x3)'
+# ```
+#
+# The given formats are merged with the default formats, and matching of values to convert against format is based on
+# the specificity of the mapped type; for example, different formats can be used for short and long arrays.
+#
+# **Integer to String**
+#
+# | Format  | Integer Formats
+# | ------  | ---------------
+# | d       | Decimal, negative values produces leading '-'.
+# | x X     | Hexadecimal in lower or upper case. Uses ..f/..F for negative values unless + is also used. A `#` adds prefix 0x/0X.
+# | o       | Octal. Uses ..0 for negative values unless `+` is also used. A `#` adds prefix 0.
+# | b B     | Binary with prefix 'b' or 'B'. Uses ..1/..1 for negative values unless `+` is also used.
+# | c       | Numeric value representing a Unicode value, result is a one unicode character string, quoted if alternative flag # is used
+# | s       | Same as d, or d in quotes if alternative flag # is used.
+# | p       | Same as d.
+# | eEfgGaA | Converts integer to float and formats using the floating point rules.
+#
+# Defaults to `d`.
+#
+# **Float to String**
+#
+# | Format  | Float formats
+# | ------  | -------------
+# | f       | Floating point in non exponential notation.
+# | e E     | Exponential notation with 'e' or 'E'.
+# | g G     | Conditional exponential with 'e' or 'E' if exponent < -4 or >= the precision.
+# | a A     | Hexadecimal exponential form, using 'x'/'X' as prefix and 'p'/'P' before exponent.
+# | s       | Converted to string using format p, then applying string formatting rule, alternate form # quotes result.
+# | p       | Same as f format with minimum significant number of fractional digits, prec has no effect.
+# | dxXobBc | Converts float to integer and formats using the integer rules.
+#
+# Defaults to `p`.
+#
+# **String to String**
+#
+# | Format | String
+# | ------ | ------
+# | s      | Unquoted string, verbatim output of control chars.
+# | p      | Programmatic representation - strings are quoted, interior quotes and control chars are escaped.
+# | C      | Each `::` name segment capitalized, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | c      | Capitalized string, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | d      | Downcased string, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | u      | Upcased string, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | t      | Trims leading and trailing whitespace from the string, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+#
+# Defaults to `s` at top level and `p` inside array or hash.
+#
+# **Boolean to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Boolean Formats
+# | ----      | -------------------
+# | t T       | String 'true'/'false' or 'True'/'False', first char if alternate form is used (i.e. 't'/'f' or 'T'/'F').
+# | y Y       | String 'yes'/'no', 'Yes'/'No', 'y'/'n' or 'Y'/'N' if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | dxXobB    | Numeric value 0/1 in accordance with the given format which must be valid integer format.
+# | eEfgGaA   | Numeric value 0.0/1.0 in accordance with the given float format and flags.
+# | s         | String 'true' / 'false'.
+# | p         | String 'true' / 'false'.
+#
+# **Regexp to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Regexp Formats
+# | ----      | --------------
+# | s         | No delimiters, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | p         | Delimiters `/ /`.
+#
+# **Undef to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Undef formats
+# | ------    | -------------
+# | s         | Empty string, or quoted empty string if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | p         | String 'undef', or quoted '"undef"' if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | n         | String 'nil', or 'null' if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | dxXobB    | String 'NaN'.
+# | eEfgGaA   | String 'NaN'.
+# | v         | String 'n/a'.
+# | V         | String 'N/A'.
+# | u         | String 'undef', or 'undefined' if alternative `#` flag is used.
+#
+# **Default value to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Default formats
+# | ------    | ---------------
+# | d D       | String 'default' or 'Default', alternative form `#` causes value to be quoted.
+# | s         | Same as d.
+# | p         | Same as d.
+#
+# **Binary value to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Default formats
+# | ------    | ---------------
+# | s         | binary as unquoted UTF-8 characters (errors if byte sequence is invalid UTF-8). Alternate form escapes non ascii bytes.
+# | p         | 'Binary("<base64strict>")'
+# | b         | '<base64>' - base64 string with newlines inserted
+# | B         | '<base64strict>' - base64 strict string (without newlines inserted)
+# | u         | '<base64urlsafe>' - base64 urlsafe string
+# | t         | 'Binary' - outputs the name of the type only
+# | T         | 'BINARY' - output the name of the type in all caps only
+#
+# * The alternate form flag `#` will quote the binary or base64 text output.
+# * The format `%#s` allows invalid UTF-8 characters and outputs all non ascii bytes
+#   as hex escaped characters on the form `\\xHH` where `H` is a hex digit.
+# * The width and precision values are applied to the text part only in `%p` format.
+#
+# **Array & Tuple to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Array/Tuple Formats
+# | ------    | -------------
+# | a         | Formats with `[ ]` delimiters and `,`, alternate form `#` indents nested arrays/hashes.
+# | s         | Same as a.
+# | p         | Same as a.
+#
+# See "Flags" `<[({\|` for formatting of delimiters, and "Additional parameters for containers; Array and Hash" for
+# more information about options.
+#
+# The alternate form flag `#` will cause indentation of nested array or hash containers. If width is also set
+# it is taken as the maximum allowed length of a sequence of elements (not including delimiters). If this max length
+# is exceeded, each element will be indented.
+#
+# **Hash & Struct to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Hash/Struct Formats
+# | ------    | -------------
+# | h         | Formats with `{ }` delimiters, `,` element separator and ` => ` inner element separator unless overridden by flags.
+# | s         | Same as h.
+# | p         | Same as h.
+# | a         | Converts the hash to an array of [k,v] tuples and formats it using array rule(s).
+#
+# See "Flags" `<[({\|` for formatting of delimiters, and "Additional parameters for containers; Array and Hash" for
+# more information about options.
+#
+# The alternate form flag `#` will format each hash key/value entry indented on a separate line.
+#
+# **Type to String**
+#
+# | Format    | Array/Tuple Formats
+# | ------    | -------------
+# | s         | The same as `p`, quoted if alternative flag `#` is used.
+# | p         | Outputs the type in string form as specified by the Puppet Language.
+#
+# **Flags**
+#
+# | Flag     | Effect
+# | ------   | ------
+# | (space)  | A space instead of `+` for numeric output (`-` is shown), for containers skips delimiters.
+# | #        | Alternate format; prefix 0x/0x, 0 (octal) and 0b/0B for binary, Floats force decimal '.'. For g/G keep trailing 0.
+# | +        | Show sign +/- depending on value's sign, changes x, X, o, b, B format to not use 2's complement form.
+# | -        | Left justify the value in the given width.
+# | 0        | Pad with 0 instead of space for widths larger than value.
+# | <[({\|   | Defines an enclosing pair <> [] () {} or \| \| when used with a container type.
+#
+# ### Conversion to Boolean
+#
+# Accepts a single value as argument:
+#
+# * Float 0.0 is `false`, all other float values are `true`
+# * Integer 0 is `false`, all other integer values are `true`
+# * Strings
+#   * `true` if 'true', 'yes', 'y' (case independent compare)
+#   * `false` if 'false', 'no', 'n' (case independent compare)
+# * Boolean is already boolean and is simply returned
+#
+# ### Conversion to Array and Tuple
+#
+# When given a single value as argument:
+#
+# * A non empty `Hash` is converted to an array matching `Array[Tuple[Any,Any], 1]`.
+# * An empty `Hash` becomes an empty array.
+# * An `Array` is simply returned.
+# * An `Iterable[T]` is turned into an array of `T` instances.
+# * A `Binary` is converted to an `Array[Integer[0,255]]` of byte values
+#
+# When given a second Boolean argument:
+#
+# * if `true`, a value that is not already an array is returned as a one element array.
+# * if `false`, (the default), converts the first argument as shown above.
+#
+# @example Ensuring value is an array
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $arr = Array($value, true)
+# ```
+#
+# Conversion to a `Tuple` works exactly as conversion to an `Array`, only that the constructed array is
+# asserted against the given tuple type.
+#
+# ### Conversion to Hash and Struct
+#
+# Accepts a single value as argument:
+#
+# * An empty `Array` becomes an empty `Hash`
+# * An `Array` matching `Array[Tuple[Any,Any], 1]` is converted to a hash where each tuple describes a key/value entry
+# * An `Array` with an even number of entries is interpreted as `[key1, val1, key2, val2, ...]`
+# * An `Iterable` is turned into an `Array` and then converted to hash as per the array rules
+# * A `Hash` is simply returned
+#
+# Alternatively, a tree can be constructed by giving two values; an array of tuples on the form `[path, value]`
+# (where the `path` is the path from the root of a tree, and `value` the value at that position in the tree), and
+# either the option `'tree'` (do not convert arrays to hashes except the top level), or
+# `'hash_tree'` (convert all arrays to hashes).
+#
+# The tree/hash_tree forms of Hash creation are suited for transforming the result of an iteration
+# using `tree_each` and subsequent filtering or mapping.
+#
+# @example Mapping a hash tree
+#
+# Mapping an arbitrary structure in a way that keeps the structure, but where some values are replaced
+# can be done by using the `tree_each` function, mapping, and then constructing a new Hash from the result:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# # A hash tree with 'water' at different locations
+# $h = { a => { b => { x => 'water'}}, b => { y => 'water'} }
+# # a helper function that turns water into wine
+# function make_wine($x) { if $x == 'water' { 'wine' } else { $x } }
+# # create a flattened tree with water turned into wine
+# $flat_tree = $h.tree_each.map |$entry| { [$entry[0], make_wine($entry[1])] }
+# # create a new Hash and log it
+# notice Hash($flat_tree, 'hash_tree')
+# ```
+#
+# Would notice the hash `{a => {b => {x => wine}}, b => {y => wine}}`
+#
+# Conversion to a `Struct` works exactly as conversion to a `Hash`, only that the constructed hash is
+# asserted against the given struct type.
+#
+# ### Conversion to a Regexp
+#
+# A `String` can be converted into a `Regexp`
+#
+# **Example**: Converting a String into a Regexp
+# ```puppet
+# $s = '[a-z]+\.com'
+# $r = Regexp($s)
+# if('foo.com' =~ $r) {
+#   ...
+# }
+# ```
+#
+# ### Creating a SemVer
+#
+# A SemVer object represents a single [Semantic Version](http://semver.org/).
+# It can be created from a String, individual values for its parts, or a hash specifying the value per part.
+# See the specification at [semver.org](http://semver.org/) for the meaning of the SemVer's parts.
+#
+# The signatures are:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# type PositiveInteger = Integer[0,default]
+# type SemVerQualifier = Pattern[/\A(?<part>[0-9A-Za-z-]+)(?:\.\g<part>)*\Z/]
+# type SemVerString = String[1]
+# type SemVerHash =Struct[{
+#   major                => PositiveInteger,
+#   minor                => PositiveInteger,
+#   patch                => PositiveInteger,
+#   Optional[prerelease] => SemVerQualifier,
+#   Optional[build]      => SemVerQualifier
+# }]
+#
+# function SemVer.new(SemVerString $str)
+#
+# function SemVer.new(
+#         PositiveInteger           $major
+#         PositiveInteger           $minor
+#         PositiveInteger           $patch
+#         Optional[SemVerQualifier] $prerelease = undef
+#         Optional[SemVerQualifier] $build = undef
+#         )
+#
+# function SemVer.new(SemVerHash $hash_args)
+# ```
+#
+# @example SemVer and SemVerRange usage
+#
+# ```puppet
+# # As a type, SemVer can describe disjunct ranges which versions can be
+# # matched against - here the type is constructed with two
+# # SemVerRange objects.
+# #
+# $t = SemVer[
+#   SemVerRange('>=1.0.0 <2.0.0'),
+#   SemVerRange('>=3.0.0 <4.0.0')
+# ]
+# notice(SemVer('1.2.3') =~ $t) # true
+# notice(SemVer('2.3.4') =~ $t) # false
+# notice(SemVer('3.4.5') =~ $t) # true
+# ```
+#
+# ### Creating a SemVerRange
+#
+# A `SemVerRange` object represents a range of `SemVer`. It can be created from
+# a `String`, or from two `SemVer` instances, where either end can be given as
+# a literal `default` to indicate infinity. The string format of a `SemVerRange` is specified by
+# the [Semantic Version Range Grammar](https://github.com/npm/node-semver#ranges).
+#
+# > Use of the comparator sets described in the grammar (joining with `||`) is not supported.
+#
+# The signatures are:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# type SemVerRangeString = String[1]
+# type SemVerRangeHash = Struct[{
+#   min                   => Variant[Default, SemVer],
+#   Optional[max]         => Variant[Default, SemVer],
+#   Optional[exclude_max] => Boolean
+# }]
+#
+# function SemVerRange.new(
+#   SemVerRangeString $semver_range_string
+# )
+#
+# function SemVerRange.new(
+#   Variant[Default,SemVer] $min
+#   Variant[Default,SemVer] $max
+#   Optional[Boolean]       $exclude_max = undef
+# )
+#
+# function SemVerRange.new(
+#   SemVerRangeHash $semver_range_hash
+# )
+# ```
+#
+# For examples of `SemVerRange` use see "Creating a SemVer"
+#
+# ### Creating a Binary
+#
+# A `Binary` object represents a sequence of bytes and it can be created from a String in Base64 format,
+# an Array containing byte values. A Binary can also be created from a Hash containing the value to convert to
+# a `Binary`.
+#
+# The signatures are:
+#
+# ```puppet
+# type ByteInteger = Integer[0,255]
+# type Base64Format = Enum["%b", "%u", "%B", "%s"]
+# type StringHash = Struct[{value => String, "format" => Optional[Base64Format]}]
+# type ArrayHash = Struct[{value => Array[ByteInteger]}]
+# type BinaryArgsHash = Variant[StringHash, ArrayHash]
+#
+# function Binary.new(
+#   String $base64_str,
+#   Optional[Base64Format] $format
+# )
+#
+#
+# function Binary.new(
+#   Array[ByteInteger] $byte_array
+# }
+#
+# # Same as for String, or for Array, but where arguments are given in a Hash.
+# function Binary.new(BinaryArgsHash $hash_args)
+# ```
+#
+# The formats have the following meaning:
+#
+# | format | explanation |
+# | ----   | ----        |
+# | B | The data is in base64 strict encoding
+# | u | The data is in URL safe base64 encoding
+# | b | The data is in base64 encoding, padding as required by base64 strict, is added by default
+# | s | The data is a puppet string. The string must be valid UTF-8, or convertible to UTF-8 or an error is raised.
+# | r | (Ruby Raw) the byte sequence in the given string is used verbatim irrespective of possible encoding errors
+#
+# * The default format is `%B`.
+# * Note that the format `%r` should be used sparingly, or not at all. It exists for backwards compatibility reasons when someone receiving
+#   a string from some function and that string should be treated as Binary. Such code should be changed to return a Binary instead of a String.
+#
+# @example Creating a Binary
+#
+# ```puppet
+# # create the binary content "abc"
+# $a = Binary('YWJj')
+#
+# # create the binary content from content in a module's file
+# $b = binary_file('mymodule/mypicture.jpg')
+# ```
+#
+# * Since 4.5.0
+# * Binary type since 4.8.0
+#
+# ### Creating an instance of a `Type` using the `Init` type
+#
+# The type `Init[T]` describes a value that can be used when instantiating a type. When used as the first argument in a call to `new`, it
+# will dispatch the call to its contained type and optionally augment the parameter list with additional arguments.
+#
+# @example Creating an instance of Integer using Init[Integer]
+#
+# ```puppet
+# # The following declaration
+# $x = Init[Integer].new('128')
+# # is exactly the same as
+# $x = Integer.new('128')
+# ```
+#
+# or, with base 16 and using implicit new
+#
+# ```puppet
+# # The following declaration
+# $x = Init[Integer,16]('80')
+# # is exactly the same as
+# $x = Integer('80', 16)
+# ```
+#
+# @example Creating an instance of String using a predefined format
+#
+# ```puppet
+# $fmt = Init[String,'%#x']
+# notice($fmt(256)) # will notice '0x100'
+# ```
 #
 # @since 4.5.0
 #
@@ -13,15 +990,13 @@ Puppet::Functions.create_function(:new, Puppet::Functions::InternalFunction) do
   end
 
   def new_instance(scope, t, *args)
-    result = catch :undefined_value do
-      new_function_for_type(t, scope).call(scope, *args)
-    end
-    assert_type(t, result)
+    return args[0] if args.size == 1 && !t.is_a?(Puppet::Pops::Types::PInitType) && t.instance?(args[0])
+    result = assert_type(t, new_function_for_type(t, scope).call(scope, *args))
     return block_given? ? yield(result) : result
   end
 
   def new_function_for_type(t, scope)
-    @new_function_cache ||= Hash.new() {|hsh, key| hsh[key] = key.new_function(loader).new(scope, loader) }
+    @new_function_cache ||= Hash.new() {|hsh, key| hsh[key] = key.new_function.new(scope, loader) }
     @new_function_cache[t]
   end