pnmatrix 1.2.4

data/ext/nmatrix/math.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1368 @@
+/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// = NMatrix
+//
+// A linear algebra library for scientific computation in Ruby.
+// NMatrix is part of SciRuby.
+//
+// NMatrix was originally inspired by and derived from NArray, by
+// Masahiro Tanaka: http://narray.rubyforge.org
+//
+// == Copyright Information
+//
+// SciRuby is Copyright (c) 2010 - present, Ruby Science Foundation
+// NMatrix is Copyright (c) 2012 - present, John Woods and the Ruby Science Foundation
+//
+// Please see LICENSE.txt for additional copyright notices.
+//
+// == Contributing
+//
+// By contributing source code to SciRuby, you agree to be bound by
+// our Contributor Agreement:
+//
+// * https://github.com/SciRuby/sciruby/wiki/Contributor-Agreement
+//
+// == math.cpp
+//
+// Ruby-exposed CBLAS and LAPACK functions that are available without
+// an external library.
+//
+// === Procedure for adding CBLAS functions to math.cpp/math.h:
+//
+// This procedure is written as if for a fictional function with double
+// version dbacon, which we'll say is from CBLAS.
+//
+// 1. Write a default templated version which probably returns a boolean.
+//    Call it bacon, and put it in math.h.
+//
+//    template <typename DType>
+//    bool bacon(const CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans, const int M, const int N, DType* A, ...) {
+//      rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "only implemented for ATLAS types (float32, float64, complex64, complex128)");
+//    }
+//
+//    Make sure this is in namespace nm::math
+//
+// 2. In math.cpp, add a templated inline static version of the function which takes
+//    only void* pointers and uses static_cast to convert them to the
+//    proper dtype. This should also be in namespace nm::math
+//
+//    This function may also need to switch m and n if these arguments are given.
+//
+//    For an example, see cblas_gemm. This function should do nothing other than cast
+//    appropriately. If cblas_dbacon, cblas_sbacon, cblas_cbacon, and cblas_zbacon
+//    all take void* only, and no other pointers that vary between functions, you can skip
+//    this particular step -- as we can call them directly using a custom function pointer
+//    array (same function signature!).
+//
+//    This version of the function will be the one exposed through NMatrix::BLAS. We
+//    want it to be as close to the actual BLAS version of the function as possible,
+//    and with as few checks as possible.
+//
+//    You will probably need a forward declaration in the extern "C" block.
+//
+//    Note: In that case, the function you wrote in Step 1 should also take exactly the
+//    same arguments as cblas_xbacon. Otherwise Bad Things will happen.
+//
+// 3. In cblas_templates_core.h, add a default template like in step 1 (which will just
+//    call nm::math::bacon()) and also
+//    inline specialized versions of bacon for the different BLAS types.
+//    This will allow both nmatrix-atlas and nmatrix-lapacke to use the optimized version
+//    of bacon from whatever external library is available, as well as the internal version
+//    if an external version is not available. These functions will end up in a namsespace
+//    like nm::math::atlas, but don't explicitly put them in a namespace, they will get
+//    put in the appropriate namespace when cblas_templates_core.h is included.
+//
+//    template <typename DType>
+//    inline bool bacon(const CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans, const int M, const int N, DType* A, ...) {
+//      nm::math::bacon(trans, M, N, A, ...);
+//    }
+//
+//    template <>
+//    inline bool bacon(const CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans, const int M, const int N, float* A, ...) {
+//      cblas_sbacon(trans, M, N, A, ...);
+//      return true;
+//    }
+//
+//    Note that you should do everything in your power here to parse any return values
+//    cblas_sbacon may give you. We're not trying very hard in this example, but you might
+//    look at getrf to see how it might be done.
+//
+// 4. Write the C function nm_cblas_bacon, which is what Ruby will call. Use the example
+//    of nm_cblas_gemm below. Also you must add a similar function in math_atlas.cpp
+//    and math_lapacke.cpp
+//
+// 5. Expose the function in nm_math_init_blas(), in math.cpp:
+//
+//    rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_bacon", (METHOD)nm_cblas_bacon, 5);
+//
+//    Do something similar in math_atlas.cpp and math_lapacke.cpp to add the function
+//    to the plugin gems.
+//
+//    Here, we're telling Ruby that nm_cblas_bacon takes five arguments as a Ruby function.
+//
+// 6. In blas.rb, write a bacon function which accesses cblas_bacon, but does all the
+//    sanity checks we left out in step 2.
+//
+// 7. Write tests for NMatrix::BLAS::bacon, confirming that it works for the ATLAS dtypes.
+//
+// 8. After you get it working properly with CBLAS, download dbacon.f from NETLIB, and use
+//    f2c to convert it to C. Clean it up so it's readable. Remove the extra indices -- f2c
+//    inserts a lot of unnecessary stuff.
+//
+//    Copy and paste the output into the default templated function you wrote in Step 1.
+//    Fix it so it works as a template instead of just for doubles.
+//
+//    Because of step 3, this will automatically also work for the nmatrix-atlas
+//    and nmatrix-lapacke implementations.
+//
+// 9. Write tests to confirm that it works for all data types.
+//
+// 10. See about adding a Ruby-like interface, such as matrix_matrix_multiply for cblas_gemm,
+//    or matrix_vector_multiply for cblas_gemv. This step is not mandatory.
+//
+// 11. Pull request!
+
+/*
+ * Project Includes
+ */
+
+
+#include <ruby.h>
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <limits>
+#include <cmath>
+
+#include "math/cblas_enums.h"
+
+#include "data/data.h"
+#include "math/magnitude.h"
+#include "math/imax.h"
+#include "math/scal.h"
+#include "math/laswp.h"
+#include "math/trsm.h"
+#include "math/gemm.h"
+#include "math/gemv.h"
+#include "math/asum.h"
+#include "math/nrm2.h"
+#include "math/getrf.h"
+#include "math/getrs.h"
+#include "math/rot.h"
+#include "math/rotg.h"
+#include "math/math.h"
+#include "math/util.h"
+#include "storage/dense/dense.h"
+
+#include "nmatrix.h"
+#include "ruby_constants.h"
+
+/*
+ * Forward Declarations
+ */
+
+extern "C" {
+  /* BLAS Level 1. */
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_scal(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE scale, VALUE vector, VALUE incx);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_nrm2(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_asum(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_rot(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx, VALUE y, VALUE incy, VALUE c, VALUE s);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_rotg(VALUE self, VALUE ab);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_imax(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx);
+
+  /* BLAS Level 2. */
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_gemv(VALUE self, VALUE trans_a, VALUE m, VALUE n, VALUE vAlpha, VALUE a, VALUE lda,
+                             VALUE x, VALUE incx, VALUE vBeta, VALUE y, VALUE incy);
+
+  /* BLAS Level 3. */
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_gemm(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE trans_a, VALUE trans_b, VALUE m, VALUE n, VALUE k, VALUE vAlpha,
+                             VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE b, VALUE ldb, VALUE vBeta, VALUE c, VALUE ldc);
+  static VALUE nm_cblas_trsm(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE side, VALUE uplo, VALUE trans_a, VALUE diag, VALUE m, VALUE n,
+                             VALUE vAlpha, VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE b, VALUE ldb);
+
+  /* LAPACK. */
+  static VALUE nm_has_clapack(VALUE self);
+  static VALUE nm_clapack_getrf(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE m, VALUE n, VALUE a, VALUE lda);
+  static VALUE nm_clapack_getrs(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE trans, VALUE n, VALUE nrhs, VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE ipiv, VALUE b, VALUE ldb);
+  static VALUE nm_clapack_laswp(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE k1, VALUE k2, VALUE ipiv, VALUE incx);
+} // end of extern "C" block
+
+////////////////////
+// Math Functions //
+////////////////////
+
+namespace nm {
+  namespace math {
+
+    /*
+     * Calculate the determinant for a dense matrix (A [elements]) of size 2 or 3. Return the result.
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void det_exact_from_dense(const int M, const void* A_elements, const int lda, void* result_arg) {
+      DType* result  = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(result_arg);
+      const DType* A = reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(A_elements);
+
+      typename LongDType<DType>::type x, y;
+
+      if (M == 2) {
+        *result = A[0] * A[lda+1] - A[1] * A[lda];
+      } else if (M == 3) {
+        x = A[lda+1] * A[2*lda+2] - A[lda+2] * A[2*lda+1]; // ei - fh
+        y = A[lda] * A[2*lda+2] -   A[lda+2] * A[2*lda];   // fg - di
+        x = A[0]*x - A[1]*y ; // a*(ei-fh) - b*(fg-di)
+
+        y = A[lda] * A[2*lda+1] - A[lda+1] * A[2*lda];    // dh - eg
+        *result = A[2]*y + x; // c*(dh-eg) + _
+      } else if (M < 2) {
+        rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "can only calculate exact determinant of a square matrix of size 2 or larger");
+      } else {
+        rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "exact determinant calculation needed for matrices larger than 3x3");
+      }
+    }
+
+    //we can't do det_exact on byte, because it will want to return a byte (unsigned), but determinants can be negative, even if all elements of the matrix are positive
+    template <>
+    void det_exact_from_dense<uint8_t>(const int M, const void* A_elements, const int lda, void* result_arg) {
+      rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "cannot call det_exact on unsigned type");
+    }
+    /*
+     * Calculate the determinant for a yale matrix (storage) of size 2 or 3. Return the result.
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void det_exact_from_yale(const int M, const YALE_STORAGE* storage, const int lda, void* result_arg) {
+      DType* result  = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(result_arg);
+      IType* ija = reinterpret_cast<IType *>(storage->ija);
+      DType* a = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(storage->a);
+      IType col_pos = storage->shape[0] + 1;
+      if (M == 2) {
+        if (ija[2] - ija[0] == 2) {
+          *result = a[0] * a[1] - a[col_pos] * a[col_pos+1];
+        }
+        else { *result = a[0] * a[1]; }
+      } else if (M == 3) {
+        DType m[3][3];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; ++i) {
+          m[i][i] = a[i];
+          switch(ija[i+1] - ija[i]) {
+          case 2:
+            m[i][ija[col_pos]] = a[col_pos];
+            m[i][ija[col_pos+1]] = a[col_pos+1];
+            col_pos += 2;
+            break;
+          case 1:
+            m[i][(i+1)%3] = m[i][(i+2)%3] = 0;
+            m[i][ija[col_pos]] = a[col_pos];
+            ++col_pos;
+            break;
+          case 0:
+            m[i][(i+1)%3] = m[i][(i+2)%3] = 0;
+            break;
+          default:
+            rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "some value in IJA is incorrect!");
+          }
+        }
+        *result =
+          m[0][0] * m[1][1] * m[2][2] + m[0][1] * m[1][2] * m[2][0] + m[0][2] * m[1][0] * m[2][1]
+        - m[0][0] * m[1][2] * m[2][1] - m[0][1] * m[1][0] * m[2][2] - m[0][2] * m[1][1] * m[2][0];
+
+      } else if (M < 2) {
+        rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "can only calculate exact determinant of a square matrix of size 2 or larger");
+      } else {
+        rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "exact determinant calculation needed for matrices larger than 3x3");
+      }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Solve a system of linear equations using forward-substution followed by
+     * back substution from the LU factorization of the matrix of co-efficients.
+     * Replaces x_elements with the result. Works only with non-integer, non-object
+     * data types.
+     *
+     * args - r           -> The number of rows of the matrix.
+     *        lu_elements -> Elements of the LU decomposition of the co-efficients
+     *                       matrix, as a contiguos array.
+     *        b_elements  -> Elements of the the right hand sides, as a contiguous array.
+     *        x_elements  -> The array that will contain the results of the computation.
+     *        pivot       -> Positions of permuted rows.
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void solve(const int r, const void* lu_elements, const void* b_elements, void* x_elements, const int* pivot) {
+      int ii = 0, ip;
+      DType sum;
+
+      const DType* matrix = reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(lu_elements);
+      const DType* b      = reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(b_elements);
+      DType* x            = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(x_elements);
+
+      for (int i = 0; i < r; ++i) { x[i] = b[i]; }
+      for (int i = 0; i < r; ++i) { // forward substitution loop
+        ip = pivot[i];
+        sum = x[ip];
+        x[ip] = x[i];
+
+        if (ii != 0) {
+          for (int j = ii - 1;j < i; ++j) { sum = sum - matrix[i * r + j] * x[j]; }
+        }
+        else if (sum != 0.0) {
+          ii = i + 1;
+        }
+        x[i] = sum;
+      }
+
+      for (int i = r - 1; i >= 0; --i) { // back substitution loop
+        sum = x[i];
+        for (int j = i + 1; j < r; j++) { sum = sum - matrix[i * r + j] * x[j]; }
+        x[i] = sum/matrix[i * r + i];
+      }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Calculates in-place inverse of A_elements. Uses Gauss-Jordan elimination technique.
+     * In-place inversion of the matrix saves on memory and time.
+     *
+     * args - M - Shape of the matrix
+     *        a_elements - A duplicate of the original expressed as a contiguos array
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void inverse(const int M, void* a_elements) {
+      DType* matrix   = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(a_elements);
+      int row_index[M]; // arrays for keeping track of column scrambling
+      int col_index[M];
+
+      for (int k = 0;k < M; ++k) {
+        typename MagnitudeDType<DType>::type akk;
+        akk = magnitude( matrix[k * (M + 1)] ); // diagonal element
+
+        int interchange = k;
+
+        for (int row = k + 1; row < M; ++row) {
+          typename MagnitudeDType<DType>::type big;
+          big = magnitude( matrix[M*row + k] ); // element below the temp pivot
+
+          if ( big > akk ) {
+            interchange = row;
+            akk = big;
+          }
+        }
+
+        if (interchange != k) { // check if rows need flipping
+          DType temp;
+
+          for (int col = 0; col < M; ++col) {
+            NM_SWAP(matrix[interchange*M + col], matrix[k*M + col], temp);
+          }
+        }
+
+        row_index[k] = interchange;
+        col_index[k] = k;
+
+        if (matrix[k * (M + 1)] == (DType)(0)) {
+          rb_raise(rb_eZeroDivError, "Expected Non-Singular Matrix.");
+        }
+
+        DType pivot = matrix[k * (M + 1)];
+        matrix[k * (M + 1)] = (DType)(1); // set diagonal as 1 for in-place inversion
+
+        for (int col = 0; col < M; ++col) {
+          // divide each element in the kth row with the pivot
+          matrix[k*M + col] = matrix[k*M + col] / pivot;
+        }
+
+        for (int kk = 0; kk < M; ++kk) { // iterate and reduce all rows
+          if (kk == k) continue;
+
+          DType dum = matrix[k + M*kk];
+          matrix[k + M*kk] = (DType)(0); // prepare for inplace inversion
+          for (int col = 0; col < M; ++col) {
+            matrix[M*kk + col] = matrix[M*kk + col] - matrix[M*k + col] * dum;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Unscramble columns
+      DType temp;
+
+      for (int k = M - 1; k >= 0; --k) {
+        if (row_index[k] != col_index[k]) {
+
+          for (int row = 0; row < M; ++row) {
+            NM_SWAP(matrix[row * M + row_index[k]], matrix[row * M + col_index[k]],
+              temp);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Reduce a square matrix to hessenberg form with householder transforms
+     *
+     * == Arguments
+     *
+     * nrows - The number of rows present in matrix a.
+     * a_elements - Elements of the matrix to be reduced in 1D array form.
+     *
+     * == References
+     *
+     * http://www.mymathlib.com/c_source/matrices/eigen/hessenberg_orthog.c
+     * This code has been included by permission of the author.
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void hessenberg(const int nrows, void* a_elements) {
+      DType* a = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(a_elements);
+      DType* u = new DType[nrows]; // auxillary storage for the chosen vector
+      DType sum_of_squares, *p_row, *psubdiag, *p_a, scale, innerproduct;
+      int i, k, col;
+
+      // For each column use a Householder transformation to zero all entries
+      // below the subdiagonal.
+      for (psubdiag = a + nrows, col = 0; col < nrows - 2; psubdiag += nrows + 1,
+        col++) {
+        // Calculate the signed square root of the sum of squares of the
+        // elements below the diagonal.
+
+        for (p_a = psubdiag, sum_of_squares = 0.0, i = col + 1; i < nrows;
+          p_a += nrows, i++) {
+          sum_of_squares += *p_a * *p_a;
+        }
+        if (sum_of_squares == 0.0) { continue; }
+        sum_of_squares = std::sqrt(sum_of_squares);
+
+        if ( *psubdiag >= 0.0 ) { sum_of_squares = -sum_of_squares; }
+
+        // Calculate the Householder transformation Q = I - 2uu'/u'u.
+        u[col + 1] = *psubdiag - sum_of_squares;
+        *psubdiag = sum_of_squares;
+
+        for (p_a = psubdiag + nrows, i = col + 2; i < nrows; p_a += nrows, i++) {
+          u[i] = *p_a;
+          *p_a = 0.0;
+        }
+
+        // Premultiply A by Q
+        scale = -1.0 / (sum_of_squares * u[col+1]);
+        for (p_row = psubdiag - col, i = col + 1; i < nrows; i++) {
+          p_a = a + nrows * (col + 1) + i;
+          for (innerproduct = 0.0, k = col + 1; k < nrows; p_a += nrows, k++) {
+            innerproduct += u[k] * *p_a;
+          }
+          innerproduct *= scale;
+          for (p_a = p_row + i, k = col + 1; k < nrows; p_a += nrows, k++) {
+            *p_a -= u[k] * innerproduct;
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Postmultiply QA by Q
+        for (p_row = a, i = 0; i < nrows; p_row += nrows, i++) {
+          for (innerproduct = 0.0, k = col + 1; k < nrows; k++) {
+            innerproduct += u[k] * *(p_row + k);
+          }
+          innerproduct *= scale;
+
+          for (k = col + 1; k < nrows; k++) {
+            *(p_row + k) -= u[k] * innerproduct;
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      delete[] u;
+    }
+
+    void raise_not_invertible_error() {
+        rb_raise(nm_eNotInvertibleError,
+            "matrix must have non-zero determinant to be invertible (not getting this error does not mean matrix is invertible if you're dealing with floating points)");
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Calculate the exact inverse for a dense matrix (A [elements]) of size 2 or 3. Places the result in B_elements.
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    void inverse_exact_from_dense(const int M, const void* A_elements,
+        const int lda, void* B_elements, const int ldb) {
+
+      const DType* A = reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(A_elements);
+      DType* B       = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(B_elements);
+
+      if (M == 2) {
+        DType det = A[0] * A[lda+1] - A[1] * A[lda];
+        if (det == 0) { raise_not_invertible_error(); }
+        B[0] = A[lda+1] / det;
+        B[1] = -A[1] / det;
+        B[ldb] = -A[lda] / det;
+        B[ldb+1] = A[0] / det;
+
+      } else if (M == 3) {
+        // Calculate the exact determinant.
+        DType det;
+        det_exact_from_dense<DType>(M, A_elements, lda, reinterpret_cast<void*>(&det));
+        if (det == 0) { raise_not_invertible_error(); }
+
+        B[0]      = (  A[lda+1] * A[2*lda+2] - A[lda+2] * A[2*lda+1]) / det; // A = ei - fh
+        B[1]      = (- A[1]     * A[2*lda+2] + A[2]     * A[2*lda+1]) / det; // D = -bi + ch
+        B[2]      = (  A[1]     * A[lda+2]   - A[2]     * A[lda+1])   / det; // G = bf - ce
+        B[ldb]    = (- A[lda]   * A[2*lda+2] + A[lda+2] * A[2*lda])   / det; // B = -di + fg
+        B[ldb+1]  = (  A[0]     * A[2*lda+2] - A[2]     * A[2*lda])   / det; // E = ai - cg
+        B[ldb+2]  = (- A[0]     * A[lda+2]   + A[2]     * A[lda])     / det; // H = -af + cd
+        B[2*ldb]  = (  A[lda]   * A[2*lda+1] - A[lda+1] * A[2*lda])   / det; // C = dh - eg
+        B[2*ldb+1]= ( -A[0]     * A[2*lda+1] + A[1]     * A[2*lda])   / det; // F = -ah + bg
+        B[2*ldb+2]= (  A[0]     * A[lda+1]   - A[1]     * A[lda])     / det; // I = ae - bd
+      } else if (M == 1) {
+        B[0] = 1 / A[0];
+      } else {
+        rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "exact inverse calculation needed for matrices larger than 3x3");
+      }
+    }
+
+    template <typename DType>
+    void inverse_exact_from_yale(const int M, const YALE_STORAGE* storage,
+        const int lda, YALE_STORAGE* inverse, const int ldb) {
+
+      // inverse is a clone of storage
+      const DType* a = reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(storage->a);
+      const IType* ija = reinterpret_cast<const IType *>(storage->ija);
+      DType* b       = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(inverse->a);
+      IType* ijb = reinterpret_cast<IType *>(inverse->ija);
+      IType col_pos = storage->shape[0] + 1;
+      // Calculate the exact determinant.
+      DType det;
+
+      if (M == 2) {
+        IType ndnz = ija[2] - ija[0];
+        if (ndnz == 2) {
+          det = a[0] * a[1] - a[col_pos] * a[col_pos+1];
+        }
+        else { det = a[0] * a[1]; }
+        if (det == 0) { raise_not_invertible_error(); }
+        b[0] = a[1] / det;
+        b[1] = a[0] / det;
+        if (ndnz == 2) {
+          b[col_pos] = -a[col_pos] / det;
+          b[col_pos+1] = -a[col_pos+1] / det;
+        }
+        else if (ndnz == 1) {
+          b[col_pos] = -a[col_pos] / det;
+        }
+
+      } else if (M == 3) {
+        DType *A = new DType[lda*3];
+        for (int i = 0; i < lda; ++i) {
+          A[i*3+i] = a[i];
+          switch (ija[i+1] - ija[i]) {
+          case 2:
+            A[i*3 + ija[col_pos]] = a[col_pos];
+            A[i*3 + ija[col_pos+1]] = a[col_pos+1];
+            col_pos += 2;
+            break;
+          case 1:
+            A[i*3 + (i+1)%3] = A[i*3 + (i+2)%3] = 0;
+            A[i*3 + ija[col_pos]] = a[col_pos];
+            col_pos += 1;
+            break;
+          case 0:
+            A[i*3 + (i+1)%3] = A[i*3 + (i+2)%3] = 0;
+            break;
+          default:
+            rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "some value in IJA is incorrect!");
+          }
+        }
+        det =
+          A[0] * A[lda+1] * A[2*lda+2] + A[1] * A[lda+2] * A[2*lda] + A[2] * A[lda] * A[2*lda+1]
+        - A[0] * A[lda+2] * A[2*lda+1] - A[1] * A[lda] * A[2*lda+2] - A[2] * A[lda+1] * A[2*lda];
+        if (det == 0) { raise_not_invertible_error(); }
+
+        DType *B = new DType[3*ldb];
+        B[0]      = (  A[lda+1] * A[2*lda+2] - A[lda+2] * A[2*lda+1]) / det; // A = ei - fh
+        B[1]      = (- A[1]     * A[2*lda+2] + A[2]     * A[2*lda+1]) / det; // D = -bi + ch
+        B[2]      = (  A[1]     * A[lda+2]   - A[2]     * A[lda+1])   / det; // G = bf - ce
+        B[ldb]    = (- A[lda]   * A[2*lda+2] + A[lda+2] * A[2*lda])   / det; // B = -di + fg
+        B[ldb+1]  = (  A[0]     * A[2*lda+2] - A[2]     * A[2*lda])   / det; // E = ai - cg
+        B[ldb+2]  = (- A[0]     * A[lda+2]   + A[2]     * A[lda])     / det; // H = -af + cd
+        B[2*ldb]  = (  A[lda]   * A[2*lda+1] - A[lda+1] * A[2*lda])   / det; // C = dh - eg
+        B[2*ldb+1]= ( -A[0]     * A[2*lda+1] + A[1]     * A[2*lda])   / det; // F = -ah + bg
+        B[2*ldb+2]= (  A[0]     * A[lda+1]   - A[1]     * A[lda])     / det; // I = ae - bd
+
+        // Calculate the size of ijb and b, then reallocate them.
+        IType ndnz = 0;
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; ++i) {
+          for (int j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {
+            if (j != i && B[i*ldb + j] != 0) { ++ndnz; }
+          }
+        }
+        inverse->ndnz = ndnz;
+        col_pos = 4; // shape[0] + 1
+        inverse->capacity = 4 + ndnz;
+        NM_REALLOC_N(inverse->a, DType, 4 + ndnz);
+        NM_REALLOC_N(inverse->ija, IType, 4 + ndnz);
+        b = reinterpret_cast<DType*>(inverse->a);
+        ijb = reinterpret_cast<IType *>(inverse->ija);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < 3; ++i) {
+          ijb[i] = col_pos;
+          for (int j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {
+            if (j == i) {
+              b[i] = B[i*ldb + j];
+            }
+            else if (B[i*ldb + j] != 0) {
+              b[col_pos] = B[i*ldb + j];
+              ijb[col_pos] = j;
+              ++col_pos;
+            }
+          }
+        }
+        b[3] = 0;
+        ijb[3] = col_pos;
+        delete [] B;
+        delete [] A;
+      } else if (M == 1) {
+        b[0] = 1 / a[0];
+      } else {
+        rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "exact inverse calculation needed for matrices larger than 3x3");
+      }
+    }
+
+    /*
+     * Function signature conversion for calling CBLAS' gemm functions as directly as possible.
+     *
+     * For documentation: http://www.netlib.org/blas/dgemm.f
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    inline static void cblas_gemm(const enum CBLAS_ORDER order,
+                                  const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans_a, const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans_b,
+                                  int m, int n, int k,
+                                  void* alpha,
+                                  void* a, int lda,
+                                  void* b, int ldb,
+                                  void* beta,
+                                  void* c, int ldc)
+    {
+      gemm<DType>(order, trans_a, trans_b, m, n, k, reinterpret_cast<DType*>(alpha),
+                  reinterpret_cast<DType*>(a), lda,
+                  reinterpret_cast<DType*>(b), ldb, reinterpret_cast<DType*>(beta),
+                  reinterpret_cast<DType*>(c), ldc);
+    }
+
+
+    /*
+     * Function signature conversion for calling CBLAS's gemv functions as directly as possible.
+     *
+     * For documentation: http://www.netlib.org/lapack/double/dgetrf.f
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    inline static bool cblas_gemv(const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans,
+                                  const int m, const int n,
+                                  const void* alpha,
+                                  const void* a, const int lda,
+                                  const void* x, const int incx,
+                                  const void* beta,
+                                  void* y, const int incy)
+    {
+      return gemv<DType>(trans,
+                         m, n, reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(alpha),
+                         reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(a), lda,
+                         reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(x), incx, reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(beta),
+                         reinterpret_cast<DType*>(y), incy);
+    }
+
+
+    /*
+     * Function signature conversion for calling CBLAS' trsm functions as directly as possible.
+     *
+     * For documentation: http://www.netlib.org/blas/dtrsm.f
+     */
+    template <typename DType>
+    inline static void cblas_trsm(const enum CBLAS_ORDER order, const enum CBLAS_SIDE side, const enum CBLAS_UPLO uplo,
+                                   const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans_a, const enum CBLAS_DIAG diag,
+                                   const int m, const int n, const void* alpha, const void* a,
+                                   const int lda, void* b, const int ldb)
+    {
+      trsm<DType>(order, side, uplo, trans_a, diag, m, n, *reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(alpha),
+                  reinterpret_cast<const DType*>(a), lda, reinterpret_cast<DType*>(b), ldb);
+    }
+
+  }
+} // end of namespace nm::math
+
+
+extern "C" {
+
+///////////////////
+// Ruby Bindings //
+///////////////////
+
+void nm_math_init_blas() {
+  VALUE cNMatrix_Internal = rb_define_module_under(cNMatrix, "Internal");
+
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix, "has_clapack?", (METHOD)nm_has_clapack, 0);
+
+  VALUE cNMatrix_Internal_LAPACK = rb_define_module_under(cNMatrix_Internal, "LAPACK");
+
+  /* ATLAS-CLAPACK Functions that are implemented internally */
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_LAPACK, "clapack_getrf", (METHOD)nm_clapack_getrf, 5);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_LAPACK, "clapack_getrs", (METHOD)nm_clapack_getrs, 9);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_LAPACK, "clapack_laswp", (METHOD)nm_clapack_laswp, 7);
+
+  VALUE cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS = rb_define_module_under(cNMatrix_Internal, "BLAS");
+
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_scal", (METHOD)nm_cblas_scal, 4);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_nrm2", (METHOD)nm_cblas_nrm2, 3);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_asum", (METHOD)nm_cblas_asum, 3);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_rot",  (METHOD)nm_cblas_rot,  7);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_rotg", (METHOD)nm_cblas_rotg, 1);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_imax", (METHOD)nm_cblas_imax, 3);
+
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_gemm", (METHOD)nm_cblas_gemm, 14);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_gemv", (METHOD)nm_cblas_gemv, 11);
+  rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix_Internal_BLAS, "cblas_trsm", (METHOD)nm_cblas_trsm, 12);
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     NMatrix::BLAS.cblas_scal(n, alpha, vector, inc) -> NMatrix
+ *
+ * BLAS level 1 function +scal+. Works with all dtypes.
+ *
+ * Scale +vector+ in-place by +alpha+ and also return it. The operation is as
+ * follows:
+ *  x <- alpha * x
+ *
+ * - +n+ -> Number of elements of +vector+.
+ * - +alpha+ -> Scalar value used in the operation.
+ * - +vector+ -> NMatrix of shape [n,1] or [1,n]. Modified in-place.
+ * - +inc+ -> Increment used in the scaling function. Should generally be 1.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_scal(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE alpha, VALUE vector, VALUE incx) {
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(vector);
+
+  void* scalar = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+  rubyval_to_cval(alpha, dtype, scalar);
+
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::cblas_scal, void, const int n,
+      const void* scalar, void* x, const int incx);
+
+  ttable[dtype](FIX2INT(n), scalar, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(vector)->elements,
+      FIX2INT(incx));
+
+  return vector;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the cblas_xrotg functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * xROTG computes the elements of a Givens plane rotation matrix such that:
+ *
+ *  |  c s |   | a |   | r |
+ *  | -s c | * | b | = | 0 |
+ *
+ * where r = +- sqrt( a**2 + b**2 ) and c**2 + s**2 = 1.
+ *
+ * The Givens plane rotation can be used to introduce zero elements into a matrix selectively.
+ *
+ * This function differs from most of the other raw BLAS accessors. Instead of
+ * providing a, b, c, s as arguments, you should only provide a and b (the
+ * inputs), and you should provide them as the first two elements of any dense
+ * NMatrix type.
+ *
+ * The outputs [c,s] will be returned in a Ruby Array at the end; the input
+ * NMatrix will also be modified in-place.
+ *
+ * This function, like the other cblas_ functions, does minimal type-checking.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_rotg(VALUE self, VALUE ab) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(void* a, void* b, void* c, void* s) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // can't represent c and s as integers, so no point in having integer operations.
+      nm::math::cblas_rotg<float>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rotg<double>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rotg<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rotg<nm::Complex128>,
+      NULL //nm::math::cblas_rotg<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(ab);
+
+  if (!ttable[dtype]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this operation undefined for integer vectors");
+    return Qnil;
+
+  } else {
+    NM_CONSERVATIVE(nm_register_value(&self));
+    NM_CONSERVATIVE(nm_register_value(&ab));
+    void *pC = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]),
+         *pS = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+
+    // extract A and B from the NVector (first two elements)
+    void* pA = NM_STORAGE_DENSE(ab)->elements;
+    void* pB = (char*)(NM_STORAGE_DENSE(ab)->elements) + DTYPE_SIZES[dtype];
+    // c and s are output
+
+    ttable[dtype](pA, pB, pC, pS);
+
+    VALUE result = rb_ary_new2(2);
+
+    if (dtype == nm::RUBYOBJ) {
+      rb_ary_store(result, 0, *reinterpret_cast<VALUE*>(pC));
+      rb_ary_store(result, 1, *reinterpret_cast<VALUE*>(pS));
+    } else {
+      rb_ary_store(result, 0, nm::rubyobj_from_cval(pC, dtype).rval);
+      rb_ary_store(result, 1, nm::rubyobj_from_cval(pS, dtype).rval);
+    }
+    NM_CONSERVATIVE(nm_unregister_value(&ab));
+    NM_CONSERVATIVE(nm_unregister_value(&self));
+    return result;
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the cblas_xrot functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * xROT is a BLAS level 1 routine (taking two vectors) which applies a plane rotation.
+ *
+ * It's tough to find documentation on xROT. Here are what we think the arguments are for:
+ *  * n     :: number of elements to consider in x and y
+ *  * x     :: a vector (expects an NVector)
+ *  * incx  :: stride of x
+ *  * y     :: a vector (expects an NVector)
+ *  * incy  :: stride of y
+ *  * c     :: cosine of the angle of rotation
+ *  * s     :: sine of the angle of rotation
+ *
+ * Note that c and s will be the same dtype as x and y, except when x and y are complex. If x and y are complex, c and s
+ * will be float for Complex64 or double for Complex128.
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try rot, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_rot(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx, VALUE y, VALUE incy, VALUE c, VALUE s) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const int N, void*, const int, void*, const int, const void*, const void*) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // can't represent c and s as integers, so no point in having integer operations.
+      nm::math::cblas_rot<float,float>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rot<double,double>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rot<nm::Complex64,float>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rot<nm::Complex128,double>,
+      nm::math::cblas_rot<nm::RubyObject,nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(x);
+
+
+  if (!ttable[dtype]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this operation undefined for integer vectors");
+    return Qfalse;
+  } else {
+    void *pC, *pS;
+
+    // We need to ensure the cosine and sine arguments are the correct dtype -- which may differ from the actual dtype.
+    if (dtype == nm::COMPLEX64) {
+      pC = NM_ALLOCA_N(float,1);
+      pS = NM_ALLOCA_N(float,1);
+      rubyval_to_cval(c, nm::FLOAT32, pC);
+      rubyval_to_cval(s, nm::FLOAT32, pS);
+    } else if (dtype == nm::COMPLEX128) {
+      pC = NM_ALLOCA_N(double,1);
+      pS = NM_ALLOCA_N(double,1);
+      rubyval_to_cval(c, nm::FLOAT64, pC);
+      rubyval_to_cval(s, nm::FLOAT64, pS);
+    } else {
+      pC = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+      pS = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+      rubyval_to_cval(c, dtype, pC);
+      rubyval_to_cval(s, dtype, pS);
+    }
+
+
+    ttable[dtype](FIX2INT(n), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, FIX2INT(incx), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(y)->elements, FIX2INT(incy), pC, pS);
+
+    return Qtrue;
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the cblas_xnrm2 functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * xNRM2 is a BLAS level 1 routine which calculates the 2-norm of an n-vector x.
+ *
+ * Arguments:
+ *  * n     :: length of x, must be at least 0
+ *  * x     :: pointer to first entry of input vector
+ *  * incx  :: stride of x, must be POSITIVE (ATLAS says non-zero, but 3.8.4 code only allows positive)
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try nrm2, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_nrm2(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx) {
+
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const int N, const void* X, const int incX, void* sum) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // no help for integers
+      nm::math::cblas_nrm2<float32_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_nrm2<float64_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_nrm2<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::cblas_nrm2<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::cblas_nrm2<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype  = NM_DTYPE(x);
+
+  if (!ttable[dtype]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this operation undefined for integer vectors");
+    return Qnil;
+
+  } else {
+    // Determine the return dtype and allocate it
+    nm::dtype_t rdtype = dtype;
+    if      (dtype == nm::COMPLEX64)  rdtype = nm::FLOAT32;
+    else if (dtype == nm::COMPLEX128) rdtype = nm::FLOAT64;
+
+    void *Result = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[rdtype]);
+
+    ttable[dtype](FIX2INT(n), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, FIX2INT(incx), Result);
+
+    return nm::rubyobj_from_cval(Result, rdtype).rval;
+  }
+}
+
+
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the cblas_xasum functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * xASUM is a BLAS level 1 routine which calculates the sum of absolute values of the entries
+ * of a vector x.
+ *
+ * Arguments:
+ *  * n     :: length of x, must be at least 0
+ *  * x     :: pointer to first entry of input vector
+ *  * incx  :: stride of x, must be POSITIVE (ATLAS says non-zero, but 3.8.4 code only allows positive)
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try asum, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_asum(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx) {
+
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const int N, const void* X, const int incX, void* sum) = {
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<uint8_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<int8_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<int16_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<int32_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<int64_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<float32_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<float64_t>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::cblas_asum<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype  = NM_DTYPE(x);
+
+  // Determine the return dtype and allocate it
+  nm::dtype_t rdtype = dtype;
+  if      (dtype == nm::COMPLEX64)  rdtype = nm::FLOAT32;
+  else if (dtype == nm::COMPLEX128) rdtype = nm::FLOAT64;
+
+  void *Result = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[rdtype]);
+
+  ttable[dtype](FIX2INT(n), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, FIX2INT(incx), Result);
+
+  return nm::rubyobj_from_cval(Result, rdtype).rval;
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *    NMatrix::BLAS.cblas_imax(n, vector, inc) -> Fixnum
+ *
+ * BLAS level 1 routine.
+ *
+ * Return the index of the largest element of +vector+.
+ *
+ * - +n+ -> Vector's size. Generally, you can use NMatrix#rows or NMatrix#cols.
+ * - +vector+ -> A NMatrix of shape [n,1] or [1,n] with any dtype.
+ * - +inc+ -> It's the increment used when searching. Use 1 except if you know
+ *   what you're doing.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_imax(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE x, VALUE incx) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::cblas_imax, int, const int n, const void* x, const int incx);
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(x);
+
+  int index = ttable[dtype](FIX2INT(n), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, FIX2INT(incx));
+
+  // Convert to Ruby's Int value.
+  return INT2FIX(index);
+}
+
+
+/* Call any of the cblas_xgemm functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * The cblas_xgemm functions (dgemm, sgemm, cgemm, and zgemm) define the following operation:
+ *
+ *    C = alpha*op(A)*op(B) + beta*C
+ *
+ * where op(X) is one of <tt>op(X) = X</tt>, <tt>op(X) = X**T</tt>, or the complex conjugate of X.
+ *
+ * Note that this will only work for dense matrices that are of types :float32, :float64, :complex64, and :complex128.
+ * Other types are not implemented in BLAS, and while they exist in NMatrix, this method is intended only to
+ * expose the ultra-optimized ATLAS versions.
+ *
+ * == Arguments
+ * See: http://www.netlib.org/blas/dgemm.f
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try gemm, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_gemm(VALUE self,
+                           VALUE order,
+                           VALUE trans_a, VALUE trans_b,
+                           VALUE m, VALUE n, VALUE k,
+                           VALUE alpha,
+                           VALUE a, VALUE lda,
+                           VALUE b, VALUE ldb,
+                           VALUE beta,
+                           VALUE c, VALUE ldc)
+{
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::cblas_gemm, void, const enum CBLAS_ORDER Order, const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans_a, const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE trans_b, int m, int n, int k, void* alpha, void* a, int lda, void* b, int ldb, void* beta, void* c, int ldc);
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(a);
+
+  void *pAlpha = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]),
+       *pBeta  = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+  rubyval_to_cval(alpha, dtype, pAlpha);
+  rubyval_to_cval(beta, dtype, pBeta);
+
+  ttable[dtype](blas_order_sym(order), blas_transpose_sym(trans_a), blas_transpose_sym(trans_b), FIX2INT(m), FIX2INT(n), FIX2INT(k), pAlpha, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(b)->elements, FIX2INT(ldb), pBeta, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(c)->elements, FIX2INT(ldc));
+
+  return c;
+}
+
+
+/* Call any of the cblas_xgemv functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * The cblas_xgemv functions (dgemv, sgemv, cgemv, and zgemv) define the following operation:
+ *
+ *    y = alpha*op(A)*x + beta*y
+ *
+ * where op(A) is one of <tt>op(A) = A</tt>, <tt>op(A) = A**T</tt>, or the complex conjugate of A.
+ *
+ * Note that this will only work for dense matrices that are of types :float32, :float64, :complex64, and :complex128.
+ * Other types are not implemented in BLAS, and while they exist in NMatrix, this method is intended only to
+ * expose the ultra-optimized ATLAS versions.
+ *
+ * == Arguments
+ * See: http://www.netlib.org/blas/dgemm.f
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try cblas_gemv, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ */
+static VALUE nm_cblas_gemv(VALUE self,
+                           VALUE trans_a,
+                           VALUE m, VALUE n,
+                           VALUE alpha,
+                           VALUE a, VALUE lda,
+                           VALUE x, VALUE incx,
+                           VALUE beta,
+                           VALUE y, VALUE incy)
+{
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::cblas_gemv, bool, const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE, const int, const int, const void*, const void*, const int, const void*, const int, const void*, void*, const int)
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(a);
+
+  void *pAlpha = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]),
+       *pBeta  = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+  rubyval_to_cval(alpha, dtype, pAlpha);
+  rubyval_to_cval(beta, dtype, pBeta);
+
+  return ttable[dtype](blas_transpose_sym(trans_a), FIX2INT(m), FIX2INT(n), pAlpha, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, FIX2INT(incx), pBeta, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(y)->elements, FIX2INT(incy)) ? Qtrue : Qfalse;
+}
+
+
+static VALUE nm_cblas_trsm(VALUE self,
+                           VALUE order,
+                           VALUE side, VALUE uplo,
+                           VALUE trans_a, VALUE diag,
+                           VALUE m, VALUE n,
+                           VALUE alpha,
+                           VALUE a, VALUE lda,
+                           VALUE b, VALUE ldb)
+{
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const enum CBLAS_ORDER, const enum CBLAS_SIDE, const enum CBLAS_UPLO,
+                                        const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE, const enum CBLAS_DIAG,
+                                        const int m, const int n, const void* alpha, const void* a,
+                                        const int lda, void* b, const int ldb) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // integers not allowed due to division
+      nm::math::cblas_trsm<float>,
+      nm::math::cblas_trsm<double>,
+      nm::math::cblas_trsm<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::cblas_trsm<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::cblas_trsm<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = NM_DTYPE(a);
+
+  if (!ttable[dtype]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this matrix operation undefined for integer matrices");
+  } else {
+    void *pAlpha = NM_ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+    rubyval_to_cval(alpha, dtype, pAlpha);
+
+    ttable[dtype](blas_order_sym(order), blas_side_sym(side), blas_uplo_sym(uplo), blas_transpose_sym(trans_a), blas_diag_sym(diag), FIX2INT(m), FIX2INT(n), pAlpha, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(b)->elements, FIX2INT(ldb));
+  }
+
+  return Qtrue;
+}
+
+/* Call any of the clapack_xgetrf functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * The clapack_getrf functions (dgetrf, sgetrf, cgetrf, and zgetrf) compute an LU factorization of a general M-by-N
+ * matrix A using partial pivoting with row interchanges.
+ *
+ * The factorization has the form:
+ *    A = P * L * U
+ * where P is a permutation matrix, L is lower triangular with unit diagonal elements (lower trapezoidal if m > n),
+ * and U is upper triangular (upper trapezoidal if m < n).
+ *
+ * This is the right-looking level 3 BLAS version of the algorithm.
+ *
+ * == Arguments
+ * See: http://www.netlib.org/lapack/double/dgetrf.f
+ * (You don't need argument 5; this is the value returned by this function.)
+ *
+ * You probably don't want to call this function. Instead, why don't you try clapack_getrf, which is more flexible
+ * with its arguments?
+ *
+ * This function does almost no type checking. Seriously, be really careful when you call it! There's no exception
+ * handling, so you can easily crash Ruby!
+ *
+ * Returns an array giving the pivot indices (normally these are argument #5).
+ */
+static VALUE nm_clapack_getrf(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE m, VALUE n, VALUE a, VALUE lda) {
+  static int (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const enum CBLAS_ORDER, const int m, const int n, void* a, const int lda, int* ipiv) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // integers not allowed due to division
+      nm::math::clapack_getrf<float>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrf<double>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrf<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrf<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrf<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  int M = FIX2INT(m),
+      N = FIX2INT(n);
+
+  // Allocate the pivot index array, which is of size MIN(M, N).
+  size_t ipiv_size = std::min(M,N);
+  int* ipiv = NM_ALLOCA_N(int, ipiv_size);
+
+  if (!ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this matrix operation undefined for integer matrices");
+  } else {
+    // Call either our version of getrf or the LAPACK version.
+    ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)](blas_order_sym(order), M, N, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda), ipiv);
+  }
+
+  // Result will be stored in a. We return ipiv as an array.
+  VALUE ipiv_array = rb_ary_new2(ipiv_size);
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < ipiv_size; ++i) {
+    rb_ary_store(ipiv_array, i, INT2FIX(ipiv[i]));
+  }
+
+  return ipiv_array;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the clapack_xgetrs functions as directly as possible.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_clapack_getrs(VALUE self, VALUE order, VALUE trans, VALUE n, VALUE nrhs, VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE ipiv, VALUE b, VALUE ldb) {
+  static int (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const enum CBLAS_ORDER Order, const enum CBLAS_TRANSPOSE Trans, const int N,
+                                       const int NRHS, const void* A, const int lda, const int* ipiv, void* B,
+                                       const int ldb) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // integers not allowed due to division
+      nm::math::clapack_getrs<float>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrs<double>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrs<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrs<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::clapack_getrs<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  // Allocate the C version of the pivot index array
+  int* ipiv_;
+  if (!RB_TYPE_P(ipiv, T_ARRAY)) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "ipiv must be of type Array");
+  } else {
+    ipiv_ = NM_ALLOCA_N(int, RARRAY_LEN(ipiv));
+    for (int index = 0; index < RARRAY_LEN(ipiv); ++index) {
+      ipiv_[index] = FIX2INT( RARRAY_AREF(ipiv, index) );
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (!ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)]) {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "this matrix operation undefined for integer matrices");
+  } else {
+
+    // Call either our version of getrs or the LAPACK version.
+    ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)](blas_order_sym(order), blas_transpose_sym(trans), FIX2INT(n), FIX2INT(nrhs), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda),
+                        ipiv_, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(b)->elements, FIX2INT(ldb));
+  }
+
+  // b is both returned and modified directly in the argument list.
+  return b;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Simple way to check from within Ruby code if clapack functions are available, without
+ * having to wait around for an exception to be thrown.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_has_clapack(VALUE self) {
+  return Qfalse;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Call any of the clapack_xlaswp functions as directly as possible.
+ *
+ * Note that LAPACK's xlaswp functions accept a column-order matrix, but NMatrix uses row-order. Thus, n should be the
+ * number of rows and lda should be the number of columns, no matter what it says in the documentation for dlaswp.f.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_clapack_laswp(VALUE self, VALUE n, VALUE a, VALUE lda, VALUE k1, VALUE k2, VALUE ipiv, VALUE incx) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const int n, void* a, const int lda, const int k1, const int k2, const int* ipiv, const int incx) = {
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<uint8_t>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<int8_t>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<int16_t>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<int32_t>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<int64_t>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<float>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<double>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<nm::Complex64>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<nm::Complex128>,
+      nm::math::clapack_laswp<nm::RubyObject>
+  };
+
+  // Allocate the C version of the pivot index array
+  int* ipiv_;
+  if (!RB_TYPE_P(ipiv, T_ARRAY)) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "ipiv must be of type Array");
+  } else {
+    ipiv_ = NM_ALLOCA_N(int, RARRAY_LEN(ipiv));
+    for (int index = 0; index < RARRAY_LEN(ipiv); ++index) {
+      ipiv_[index] = FIX2INT( RARRAY_AREF(ipiv, index) );
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Call either our version of laswp or the LAPACK version.
+  ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)](FIX2INT(n), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements, FIX2INT(lda), FIX2INT(k1), FIX2INT(k2), ipiv_, FIX2INT(incx));
+
+  // a is both returned and modified directly in the argument list.
+  return a;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for calculating an exact determinant. Dense matrix version.
+ */
+void nm_math_det_exact_from_dense(const int M, const void* elements, const int lda,
+        nm::dtype_t dtype, void* result) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::det_exact_from_dense, void, const int M,
+          const void* A_elements, const int lda, void* result_arg);
+
+  ttable[dtype](M, elements, lda, result);
+}
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for calculating an exact determinant. Yale matrix version.
+ */
+void nm_math_det_exact_from_yale(const int M, const YALE_STORAGE* storage, const int lda,
+        nm::dtype_t dtype, void* result) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::det_exact_from_yale, void, const int M,
+          const YALE_STORAGE* storage, const int lda, void* result_arg);
+
+  ttable[dtype](M, storage, lda, result);
+}
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for solving a system of linear equations.
+ */
+void nm_math_solve(VALUE lu, VALUE b, VALUE x, VALUE ipiv) {
+  int* pivot = new int[RARRAY_LEN(ipiv)];
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < RARRAY_LEN(ipiv); ++i) {
+    pivot[i] = FIX2INT(rb_ary_entry(ipiv, i));
+  }
+
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::solve, void, const int, const void*, const void*, void*, const int*);
+
+  ttable[NM_DTYPE(x)](NM_SHAPE0(b), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(lu)->elements,
+    NM_STORAGE_DENSE(b)->elements, NM_STORAGE_DENSE(x)->elements, pivot);
+}
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for reducing a matrix to hessenberg form.
+ */
+void nm_math_hessenberg(VALUE a) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_DTYPES])(const int, void*) = {
+      NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, // does not support ints
+      nm::math::hessenberg<float>,
+      nm::math::hessenberg<double>,
+      NULL, NULL, // does not support Complex
+      NULL // no support for Ruby Object
+  };
+
+  ttable[NM_DTYPE(a)](NM_SHAPE0(a), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(a)->elements);
+}
+/*
+ * C accessor for calculating an in-place inverse.
+ */
+void nm_math_inverse(const int M, void* a_elements, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::inverse, void, const int, void*);
+
+  ttable[dtype](M, a_elements);
+}
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for calculating an exact inverse. Dense matrix version.
+ */
+void nm_math_inverse_exact_from_dense(const int M, const void* A_elements,
+    const int lda, void* B_elements, const int ldb, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::inverse_exact_from_dense, void,
+      const int, const void*, const int, void*, const int);
+
+  ttable[dtype](M, A_elements, lda, B_elements, ldb);
+}
+
+/*
+ * C accessor for calculating an exact inverse. Yale matrix version.
+ */
+void nm_math_inverse_exact_from_yale(const int M, const YALE_STORAGE* storage,
+    const int lda, YALE_STORAGE* inverse, const int ldb, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE(ttable, nm::math::inverse_exact_from_yale, void,
+      const int, const YALE_STORAGE*, const int, YALE_STORAGE*, const int);
+
+  ttable[dtype](M, storage, lda, inverse, ldb);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Transpose an array of elements that represent a row-major dense matrix. Does not allocate anything, only does an memcpy.
+ */
+void nm_math_transpose_generic(const size_t M, const size_t N, const void* A, const int lda, void* B, const int ldb, size_t element_size) {
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < N; ++i) {
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < M; ++j) {
+
+      memcpy(reinterpret_cast<char*>(B) + (i*ldb+j)*element_size,
+             reinterpret_cast<const char*>(A) + (j*lda+i)*element_size,
+             element_size);
+
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+
+} // end of extern "C" block