nmatrix 0.0.8 → 0.0.9

data/ext/nmatrix/nmatrix.h

@@ -198,7 +198,6 @@
  */
 
 #define NM_NUM_DTYPES 13  // data/data.h
-#define NM_NUM_ITYPES 4   // data/data.h
 #define NM_NUM_STYPES 3   // storage/storage.h
 
 //#ifdef __cplusplus
@@ -225,12 +224,6 @@ NM_DEF_ENUM(dtype_t,	BYTE				=  0,  // unsigned char
                     	RATIONAL128	= 11,  // Rational128 class
                     	RUBYOBJ			= 12);  // Ruby VALUE type
 
-/* Index Type for Yale Matrices */
-NM_DEF_ENUM(itype_t,  UINT8  = 0,
-                      UINT16 = 1,
-                      UINT32 = 2,
-                      UINT64 = 3);
-
 NM_DEF_ENUM(symm_t,   NONSYMM   = 0,
                       SYMM      = 1,
                       SKEW      = 2,
@@ -253,11 +246,10 @@ NM_DEF_STORAGE_STRUCT_POST(DENSE_STORAGE);     // };
 
 /* Yale Storage */
 NM_DEF_STORAGE_CHILD_STRUCT_PRE(YALE_STORAGE);
-	void* a;      // should go first
-	size_t ndnz; // Strictly non-diagonal non-zero count!
+	void*   a;      // should go first
+	size_t  ndnz; // Strictly non-diagonal non-zero count!
 	size_t	capacity;
-	NM_DECL_ENUM(itype_t, itype);
-	void*		ija;
+	size_t* ija;
 NM_DEF_STORAGE_STRUCT_POST(YALE_STORAGE);
 
 // FIXME: NODE and LIST should be put in some kind of namespace or something, at least in C++.
@@ -306,14 +298,14 @@ NM_DEF_STRUCT_POST(NMATRIX);  // };
 #define NM_SRC(val)             (NM_STORAGE(val)->src)
 #define NM_DIM(val)             (NM_STORAGE(val)->dim)
 #define NM_DTYPE(val)           (NM_STORAGE(val)->dtype)
-#define NM_ITYPE(val)           (NM_STORAGE_YALE(val)->itype)
 #define NM_STYPE(val)           (NM_STRUCT(val)->stype)
 #define NM_SHAPE(val,i)         (NM_STORAGE(val)->shape[(i)])
 #define NM_SHAPE0(val)          (NM_STORAGE(val)->shape[0])
 #define NM_SHAPE1(val)          (NM_STORAGE(val)->shape[1])
 #define NM_DEFAULT_VAL(val)     (NM_STORAGE_LIST(val)->default_val)
 
-#define NM_DENSE_COUNT(val)     (storage_count_max_elements(NM_STORAGE_DENSE(val)))
+#define NM_DENSE_COUNT(val)     (nm_storage_count_max_elements(NM_STORAGE_DENSE(val)))
+#define NM_DENSE_ELEMENTS(val)  (NM_STORAGE_DENSE(val)->elements)
 #define NM_SIZEOF_DTYPE(val)    (DTYPE_SIZES[NM_DTYPE(val)])
 #define NM_REF(val,slice)      (RefFuncs[NM_STYPE(val)]( NM_STORAGE(val), slice, NM_SIZEOF_DTYPE(val) ))
     
@@ -333,6 +325,10 @@ NM_DEF_STRUCT_POST(NMATRIX);  // };
 #define NM_IsNVector(obj) \
   (rb_obj_is_kind_of(obj, cNVector) == Qtrue)
 
+#define RB_P(OBJ) \
+	rb_funcall(rb_stderr, rb_intern("print"), 1, rb_funcall(OBJ, rb_intern("object_id"), 0)); \
+	rb_funcall(rb_stderr, rb_intern("puts"), 1, rb_funcall(OBJ, rb_intern("inspect"), 0));
+
 
 #ifdef __cplusplus
 typedef VALUE (*METHOD)(...);
@@ -345,6 +341,7 @@ typedef VALUE (*METHOD)(...);
  */
 
 #ifdef __cplusplus
+
 extern "C" {
 #endif
 
@@ -359,8 +356,14 @@ extern "C" {
 
   // Non-API functions needed by other cpp files.
 	NMATRIX* nm_create(nm::stype_t stype, STORAGE* storage);
+  NMATRIX* nm_cast_with_ctype_args(NMATRIX* self, nm::stype_t new_stype, nm::dtype_t new_dtype, void* init_ptr);
+	VALUE    nm_cast(VALUE self, VALUE new_stype_symbol, VALUE new_dtype_symbol, VALUE init);
+	void     nm_mark(NMATRIX* mat);
 	void     nm_delete(NMATRIX* mat);
 	void     nm_delete_ref(NMATRIX* mat);
+  void     nm_mark(NMATRIX* mat);
+  void     nm_register_values(VALUE* vals, size_t n);
+  void     nm_unregister_values(VALUE* vals, size_t n);
 
 #ifdef __cplusplus
 }

data/ext/nmatrix/ruby_constants.cpp

@@ -35,7 +35,13 @@
  * Global Variables
  */
 
-ID	nm_rb_real,
+ID	nm_rb_dtype,
+    nm_rb_stype,
+
+    nm_rb_capacity,
+    nm_rb_default,
+
+    nm_rb_real,
 		nm_rb_imag,
 
 		nm_rb_numer,
@@ -93,6 +99,11 @@ VALUE cNMatrix,
  */
 
 void nm_init_ruby_constants(void) {
+  nm_rb_dtype             = rb_intern("dtype");
+  nm_rb_stype             = rb_intern("stype");
+
+  nm_rb_capacity          = rb_intern("capacity");
+  nm_rb_default           = rb_intern("default");
 
 	nm_rb_real							= rb_intern("real");
 	nm_rb_imag							= rb_intern("imag");

data/ext/nmatrix/ruby_constants.h

@@ -38,7 +38,13 @@
  * Data
  */
 
-extern ID nm_rb_real,
+extern ID nm_rb_dtype,
+          nm_rb_stype,
+
+          nm_rb_capacity,
+          nm_rb_default,
+
+          nm_rb_real,
 					nm_rb_imag,
 		
 					nm_rb_numer,

data/ext/nmatrix/ruby_nmatrix.c

@@ -0,0 +1,2169 @@
+/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// = NMatrix
+//
+// A linear algebra library for scientific computation in Ruby.
+// NMatrix is part of SciRuby.
+//
+// NMatrix was originally inspired by and derived from NArray, by
+// Masahiro Tanaka: http://narray.rubyforge.org
+//
+// == Copyright Information
+//
+// SciRuby is Copyright (c) 2010 - 2013, Ruby Science Foundation
+// NMatrix is Copyright (c) 2013, Ruby Science Foundation
+//
+// Please see LICENSE.txt for additional copyright notices.
+//
+// == Contributing
+//
+// By contributing source code to SciRuby, you agree to be bound by
+// our Contributor Agreement:
+//
+// * https://github.com/SciRuby/sciruby/wiki/Contributor-Agreement
+//
+// == ruby_nmatrix.c
+//
+// Ruby-facing NMatrix C functions. Not compiled directly -- included
+// into nmatrix.cpp.
+//
+
+/*
+ * Forward Declarations
+ */
+
+static VALUE nm_init(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE nm);
+static VALUE nm_init_copy(VALUE copy, VALUE original);
+static VALUE nm_init_transposed(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_read(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_write(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_init_yale_from_old_yale(VALUE shape, VALUE dtype, VALUE ia, VALUE ja, VALUE a, VALUE from_dtype, VALUE nm);
+static VALUE nm_alloc(VALUE klass);
+static VALUE nm_dtype(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_stype(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_default_value(VALUE self);
+static size_t effective_dim(STORAGE* s);
+static VALUE nm_effective_dim(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_dim(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_offset(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_shape(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_supershape(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_capacity(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_each_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix);
+static VALUE nm_each_stored_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix);
+static VALUE nm_each_ordered_stored_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix);
+
+static SLICE* get_slice(size_t dim, int argc, VALUE* arg, size_t* shape);
+static VALUE nm_xslice(int argc, VALUE* argv, void* (*slice_func)(const STORAGE*, SLICE*), void (*delete_func)(NMATRIX*), VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_mset(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_mget(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_mref(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_is_ref(VALUE self);
+
+static VALUE is_symmetric(VALUE self, bool hermitian);
+
+static VALUE nm_guess_dtype(VALUE self, VALUE v);
+static VALUE nm_min_dtype(VALUE self, VALUE v);
+
+/*
+ * Macro defines an element-wise accessor function for some operation.
+ *
+ * This is only responsible for the Ruby accessor! You still have to write the actual functions, obviously.
+ */
+#define DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(oper, name)                 \
+static VALUE nm_ew_##name(VALUE left_val, VALUE right_val) {  \
+  return elementwise_op(nm::EW_##oper, left_val, right_val);  \
+}
+
+/*
+ * Macro declares a corresponding accessor function prototype for some element-wise operation.
+ */
+#define DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(name)    static VALUE nm_ew_##name(VALUE left_val, VALUE right_val);
+
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(add)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(subtract)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(multiply)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(divide)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(power)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(mod)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(eqeq)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(neq)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(lt)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(gt)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(leq)
+DECL_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(geq)
+
+static VALUE elementwise_op(nm::ewop_t op, VALUE left_val, VALUE right_val);
+
+static VALUE nm_symmetric(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_hermitian(VALUE self);
+
+static VALUE nm_eqeq(VALUE left, VALUE right);
+
+static VALUE matrix_multiply_scalar(NMATRIX* left, VALUE scalar);
+static VALUE matrix_multiply(NMATRIX* left, NMATRIX* right);
+static VALUE nm_multiply(VALUE left_v, VALUE right_v);
+static VALUE nm_det_exact(VALUE self);
+static VALUE nm_complex_conjugate_bang(VALUE self);
+
+static nm::dtype_t	interpret_dtype(int argc, VALUE* argv, nm::stype_t stype);
+static void*		interpret_initial_value(VALUE arg, nm::dtype_t dtype);
+static size_t*	interpret_shape(VALUE arg, size_t* dim);
+static nm::stype_t	interpret_stype(VALUE arg);
+
+/* Singleton methods */
+static VALUE nm_upcast(VALUE self, VALUE t1, VALUE t2);
+
+
+#ifdef BENCHMARK
+static double get_time(void);
+#endif
+
+///////////////////
+// Ruby Bindings //
+///////////////////
+
+void Init_nmatrix() {
+
+
+	///////////////////////
+	// Class Definitions //
+	///////////////////////
+
+	cNMatrix = rb_define_class("NMatrix", rb_cObject);
+	//cNVector = rb_define_class("NVector", cNMatrix);
+
+	// Special exceptions
+
+	/*
+	 * Exception raised when there's a problem with data.
+	 */
+	nm_eDataTypeError    = rb_define_class("DataTypeError", rb_eStandardError);
+
+	/*
+	 * Exception raised when something goes wrong with the storage of a matrix.
+	 */
+	nm_eStorageTypeError = rb_define_class("StorageTypeError", rb_eStandardError);
+
+	///////////////////
+	// Class Methods //
+	///////////////////
+
+	rb_define_alloc_func(cNMatrix, nm_alloc);
+
+	///////////////////////
+  // Singleton Methods //
+  ///////////////////////
+
+	rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix, "upcast", (METHOD)nm_upcast, 2); /* in ext/nmatrix/nmatrix.cpp */
+	rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix, "guess_dtype", (METHOD)nm_guess_dtype, 1);
+	rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix, "min_dtype", (METHOD)nm_min_dtype, 1);
+
+	//////////////////////
+	// Instance Methods //
+	//////////////////////
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "initialize", (METHOD)nm_init, -1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "initialize_copy", (METHOD)nm_init_copy, 1);
+	rb_define_singleton_method(cNMatrix, "read", (METHOD)nm_read, -1);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "write", (METHOD)nm_write, -1);
+
+	// Technically, the following function is a copy constructor.
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "transpose", (METHOD)nm_init_transposed, 0);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "dtype", (METHOD)nm_dtype, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "stype", (METHOD)nm_stype, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "cast_full",  (METHOD)nm_cast, 3);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "default_value", (METHOD)nm_default_value, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__list_default_value__", (METHOD)nm_list_default_value, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_default_value__", (METHOD)nm_yale_default_value, 0);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "[]", (METHOD)nm_mref, -1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "slice", (METHOD)nm_mget, -1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "[]=", (METHOD)nm_mset, -1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "is_ref?", (METHOD)nm_is_ref, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "dimensions", (METHOD)nm_dim, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "effective_dimensions", (METHOD)nm_effective_dim, 0);
+
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__list_to_hash__", (METHOD)nm_to_hash, 0); // handles list and dense, which are n-dimensional
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "shape", (METHOD)nm_shape, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "supershape", (METHOD)nm_supershape, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "offset", (METHOD)nm_offset, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "det_exact", (METHOD)nm_det_exact, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "complex_conjugate!", (METHOD)nm_complex_conjugate_bang, 0);
+
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__dense_each__", (METHOD)nm_dense_each, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__dense_map__", (METHOD)nm_dense_map, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__dense_map_pair__", (METHOD)nm_dense_map_pair, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "each_with_indices", (METHOD)nm_each_with_indices, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "each_stored_with_indices", (METHOD)nm_each_stored_with_indices, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "each_ordered_stored_with_indices", (METHOD)nm_each_ordered_stored_with_indices, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__list_map_merged_stored__", (METHOD)nm_list_map_merged_stored, 2);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_map_merged_stored__", (METHOD)nm_yale_map_merged_stored, 2);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_map_stored__", (METHOD)nm_yale_map_stored, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_stored_diagonal_each_with_indices__", (METHOD)nm_yale_stored_diagonal_each_with_indices, 0);
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_stored_nondiagonal_each_with_indices__", (METHOD)nm_yale_stored_nondiagonal_each_with_indices, 0);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "==",	  (METHOD)nm_eqeq,				1);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "+",			(METHOD)nm_ew_add,			1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "-",			(METHOD)nm_ew_subtract,	1);
+  rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "*",			(METHOD)nm_ew_multiply,	1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "/",			(METHOD)nm_ew_divide,		1);
+  rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "**",    (METHOD)nm_ew_power,    1);
+  rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "%",     (METHOD)nm_ew_mod,      1);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "=~", (METHOD)nm_ew_eqeq, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "!~", (METHOD)nm_ew_neq, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "<=", (METHOD)nm_ew_leq, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, ">=", (METHOD)nm_ew_geq, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "<", (METHOD)nm_ew_lt, 1);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, ">", (METHOD)nm_ew_gt, 1);
+
+	/////////////////////////////
+	// Helper Instance Methods //
+	/////////////////////////////
+	rb_define_protected_method(cNMatrix, "__yale_vector_set__", (METHOD)nm_vector_set, -1);
+
+	/////////////////////////
+	// Matrix Math Methods //
+	/////////////////////////
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "dot",		(METHOD)nm_multiply,		1);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "symmetric?", (METHOD)nm_symmetric, 0);
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "hermitian?", (METHOD)nm_hermitian, 0);
+
+	rb_define_method(cNMatrix, "capacity", (METHOD)nm_capacity, 0);
+
+	/////////////
+	// Aliases //
+	/////////////
+
+	rb_define_alias(cNMatrix, "dim", "dimensions");
+	rb_define_alias(cNMatrix, "effective_dim", "effective_dimensions");
+	rb_define_alias(cNMatrix, "equal?", "eql?");
+
+	///////////////////////
+	// Symbol Generation //
+	///////////////////////
+
+	nm_init_ruby_constants();
+
+	//////////////////////////
+	// YaleFunctions module //
+	//////////////////////////
+
+	nm_init_yale_functions();
+
+	/////////////////
+	// BLAS module //
+	/////////////////
+
+	nm_math_init_blas();
+
+	///////////////
+	// IO module //
+	///////////////
+	nm_init_io();
+
+	/////////////////////////////////////////////////
+	// Force compilation of necessary constructors //
+	/////////////////////////////////////////////////
+	nm_init_data();
+}
+
+
+//////////////////
+// Ruby Methods //
+//////////////////
+
+
+/*
+ * Slice constructor.
+ */
+static SLICE* alloc_slice(size_t dim) {
+  SLICE* slice = ALLOC(SLICE);
+  slice->coords = ALLOC_N(size_t, dim);
+  slice->lengths = ALLOC_N(size_t, dim);
+  return slice;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Slice destructor.
+ */
+static void free_slice(SLICE* slice) {
+  xfree(slice->coords);
+  xfree(slice->lengths);
+  xfree(slice);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Allocator.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_alloc(VALUE klass) {
+  NMATRIX* mat = ALLOC(NMATRIX);
+  mat->storage = NULL;
+
+  // DO NOT MARK This STRUCT. It has no storage allocated, and no stype, so mark will do an invalid something.
+  return Data_Wrap_Struct(klass, NULL, nm_delete, mat);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Find the capacity of an NMatrix. The capacity only differs from the size for
+ * Yale matrices, which occasionally allocate more space than they need. For
+ * list and dense, capacity gives the number of elements in the matrix.
+ *
+ * If you call this on a slice, it may behave unpredictably. Most likely it'll
+ * just return the original matrix's capacity.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_capacity(VALUE self) {
+  VALUE cap;
+
+  switch(NM_STYPE(self)) {
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    cap = UINT2NUM(reinterpret_cast<YALE_STORAGE*>(NM_STORAGE_YALE(self)->src)->capacity);
+    break;
+
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+    cap = UINT2NUM(nm_storage_count_max_elements( NM_STORAGE_DENSE(self) ));
+    break;
+
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    cap = UINT2NUM(nm_list_storage_count_elements( NM_STORAGE_LIST(self) ));
+    break;
+
+  default:
+    rb_raise(nm_eStorageTypeError, "unrecognized stype in nm_capacity()");
+  }
+
+  return cap;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Mark function.
+ */
+void nm_mark(NMATRIX* mat) {
+  STYPE_MARK_TABLE(mark)
+  mark[mat->stype](mat->storage);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Destructor.
+ */
+void nm_delete(NMATRIX* mat) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(STORAGE*) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_delete,
+    nm_list_storage_delete,
+    nm_yale_storage_delete
+  };
+  ttable[mat->stype](mat->storage);
+
+  xfree(mat);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Slicing destructor.
+ */
+void nm_delete_ref(NMATRIX* mat) {
+  static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(STORAGE*) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_delete_ref,
+    nm_list_storage_delete_ref,
+    nm_yale_storage_delete_ref
+  };
+  ttable[mat->stype](mat->storage);
+
+  xfree(mat);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Register the addresses of an array of VALUEs with the gc to avoid collection
+ * while using them internally.
+ */
+void nm_register_values(VALUE* values, size_t n) {
+  if (values) {
+    for (size_t i = n; i-- > 0;) {
+      rb_gc_register_address(values + i);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Unregister the addresses of an array of VALUEs with the gc to allow normal
+ * garbage collection to occur again.
+ */
+void nm_unregister_values(VALUE* values, size_t n) {
+  if (values) {
+    for (size_t i = n; i-- > 0;) {
+      rb_gc_unregister_address(values + i);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     dtype -> Symbol
+ *
+ * Get the data type (dtype) of a matrix, e.g., :byte, :int8, :int16, :int32,
+ * :int64, :float32, :float64, :complex64, :complex128, :rational32,
+ * :rational64, :rational128, or :object (the last is a Ruby object).
+ */
+static VALUE nm_dtype(VALUE self) {
+  ID dtype = rb_intern(DTYPE_NAMES[NM_DTYPE(self)]);
+  return ID2SYM(dtype);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     upcast(first_dtype, second_dtype) -> Symbol
+ *
+ * Given a binary operation between types t1 and t2, what type will be returned?
+ *
+ * This is a singleton method on NMatrix, e.g., NMatrix.upcast(:int32, :int64)
+ */
+static VALUE nm_upcast(VALUE self, VALUE t1, VALUE t2) {
+
+  nm::dtype_t d1    = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(t1),
+              d2    = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(t2);
+
+  return ID2SYM(rb_intern( DTYPE_NAMES[ Upcast[d1][d2] ] ));
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+       default_value -> ...
+ *
+ * Get the default value for the matrix. For dense, this is undefined and will return Qnil. For list, it is user-defined.
+ * For yale, it's going to be some variation on zero, but may be Qfalse or Qnil.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_default_value(VALUE self) {
+  switch(NM_STYPE(self)) {
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    return nm_yale_default_value(self);
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    return nm_list_default_value(self);
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+  default:
+    return Qnil;
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     each_with_indices -> Enumerator
+ *
+ * Iterate over all entries of any matrix in standard storage order (as with #each), and include the indices.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_each_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix) {
+  volatile VALUE nm = nmatrix;
+
+  switch(NM_STYPE(nm)) {
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    return nm_yale_each_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+    return nm_dense_each_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    return nm_list_each_with_indices(nm, false);
+  default:
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "Not a proper storage type");
+  }
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     each_stored_with_indices -> Enumerator
+ *
+ * Iterate over the stored entries of any matrix. For dense and yale, this iterates over non-zero
+ * entries; for list, this iterates over non-default entries. Yields dim+1 values for each entry:
+ * i, j, ..., and the entry itself.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_each_stored_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix) {
+  volatile VALUE nm = nmatrix;
+
+  switch(NM_STYPE(nm)) {
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    return nm_yale_each_stored_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+    return nm_dense_each_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    return nm_list_each_with_indices(nm, true);
+  default:
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "Not a proper storage type");
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     each_ordered_stored_with_indices -> Enumerator
+ *
+ * Very similar to #each_stored_with_indices. The key difference is that it enforces matrix ordering rather
+ * than storage ordering, which only matters if your matrix is Yale.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_each_ordered_stored_with_indices(VALUE nmatrix) {
+  volatile VALUE nm = nmatrix;
+
+  switch(NM_STYPE(nm)) {
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    return nm_yale_each_ordered_stored_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+    return nm_dense_each_with_indices(nm);
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    return nm_list_each_with_indices(nm, true);
+  default:
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "Not a proper storage type");
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Equality operator. Returns a single true or false value indicating whether
+ * the matrices are equivalent.
+ *
+ * For elementwise, use =~ instead.
+ *
+ * This method will raise an exception if dimensions do not match.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_eqeq(VALUE left, VALUE right) {
+  NMATRIX *l, *r;
+
+  CheckNMatrixType(left);
+  CheckNMatrixType(right);
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix(left, l);
+  UnwrapNMatrix(right, r);
+
+  if (l->stype != r->stype)
+    rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "comparison between different matrix stypes not yet implemented");
+
+  bool result = false;
+
+  switch(l->stype) {
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+    result = nm_dense_storage_eqeq(l->storage, r->storage);
+    break;
+  case nm::LIST_STORE:
+    result = nm_list_storage_eqeq(l->storage, r->storage);
+    break;
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    result = nm_yale_storage_eqeq(l->storage, r->storage);
+    break;
+  }
+
+  return result ? Qtrue : Qfalse;
+}
+
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(ADD, add)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(SUB, subtract)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(MUL, multiply)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(DIV, divide)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(POW, power)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(MOD, mod)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(EQEQ, eqeq)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(NEQ, neq)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(LEQ, leq)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(GEQ, geq)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(LT, lt)
+DEF_ELEMENTWISE_RUBY_ACCESSOR(GT, gt)
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     hermitian? -> Boolean
+ *
+ * Is this matrix hermitian?
+ *
+ * Definition: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix
+ *
+ * For non-complex matrices, this function should return the same result as symmetric?.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_hermitian(VALUE self) {
+  return is_symmetric(self, true);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     complex_conjugate -> NMatrix
+ *
+ * Transform the matrix (in-place) to its complex conjugate. Only works on complex matrices.
+ *
+ * FIXME: For non-complex matrices, someone needs to implement a non-in-place complex conjugate (which doesn't use a bang).
+ * Bang should imply that no copy is being made, even temporarily.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_complex_conjugate_bang(VALUE self) {
+  NMATRIX* m;
+  void* elem;
+  size_t size, p;
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix(self, m);
+
+  if (m->stype == nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+
+    size = nm_storage_count_max_elements(NM_STORAGE(self));
+    elem = NM_STORAGE_DENSE(self)->elements;
+
+  } else if (m->stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+
+    size = nm_yale_storage_get_size(NM_STORAGE_YALE(self));
+    elem = NM_STORAGE_YALE(self)->a;
+
+  } else {
+    rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "please cast to yale or dense (complex) first");
+  }
+
+  // Walk through and negate the imaginary component
+  if (NM_DTYPE(self) == nm::COMPLEX64) {
+
+    for (p = 0; p < size; ++p) {
+      reinterpret_cast<nm::Complex64*>(elem)[p].i = -reinterpret_cast<nm::Complex64*>(elem)[p].i;
+    }
+
+  } else if (NM_DTYPE(self) == nm::COMPLEX128) {
+
+    for (p = 0; p < size; ++p) {
+      reinterpret_cast<nm::Complex128*>(elem)[p].i = -reinterpret_cast<nm::Complex128*>(elem)[p].i;
+    }
+
+  } else {
+    rb_raise(nm_eDataTypeError, "can only calculate in-place complex conjugate on matrices of type :complex64 or :complex128");
+  }
+
+  return self;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Helper function for creating a matrix. You have to create the storage and pass it in, but you don't
+ * need to worry about deleting it.
+ */
+NMATRIX* nm_create(nm::stype_t stype, STORAGE* storage) {
+  NMATRIX* mat = ALLOC(NMATRIX);
+
+  mat->stype   = stype;
+  mat->storage = storage;
+
+  return mat;
+}
+
+/*
+ * @see nm_init
+ */
+static VALUE nm_init_new_version(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  VALUE shape_ary, initial_ary, hash;
+  //VALUE shape_ary, default_val, capacity, initial_ary, dtype_sym, stype_sym;
+  // Mandatory args: shape, dtype, stype
+  // FIXME: This is the one line of code standing between Ruby 1.9.2 and 1.9.3.
+#ifndef OLD_RB_SCAN_ARGS // Ruby 1.9.3 and higher
+  rb_scan_args(argc, argv, "11:", &shape_ary, &initial_ary, &hash); // &stype_sym, &dtype_sym, &default_val, &capacity);
+#else // Ruby 1.9.2 and lower
+  if (argc == 3)
+    rb_scan_args(argc, argv, "12", &shape_ary, &initial_ary, &hash);
+  else if (argc == 2) {
+    VALUE unknown_arg;
+    rb_scan_args(argc, argv, "11", &shape_ary, &unknown_arg);
+    if (!NIL_P(unknown_arg) && TYPE(unknown_arg) == T_HASH) {
+      hash        = unknown_arg;
+      initial_ary = Qnil;
+    } else {
+      initial_ary  = unknown_arg;
+      hash        = Qnil;
+    }
+  }
+#endif
+
+  // Get the shape.
+  size_t  dim;
+  size_t* shape = interpret_shape(shape_ary, &dim);
+  void*   init;
+  void*   v = NULL;
+  size_t  v_size = 0;
+
+  nm::stype_t stype = nm::DENSE_STORE;
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = nm::RUBYOBJ;
+  VALUE dtype_sym = Qnil, stype_sym = Qnil, default_val_num = Qnil, capacity_num = Qnil;
+  size_t capacity = 0;
+  if (!NIL_P(hash)) {
+    dtype_sym       = rb_hash_aref(hash, ID2SYM(nm_rb_dtype));
+    stype_sym       = rb_hash_aref(hash, ID2SYM(nm_rb_stype));
+    capacity_num    = rb_hash_aref(hash, ID2SYM(nm_rb_capacity));
+    default_val_num = rb_hash_aref(hash, ID2SYM(nm_rb_default));
+  }
+
+  //     stype ||= :dense
+  stype = !NIL_P(stype_sym) ? nm_stype_from_rbsymbol(stype_sym) : nm::DENSE_STORE;
+
+  //     dtype ||= h[:dtype] || guess_dtype(initial_ary) || :object
+  if (NIL_P(initial_ary) && NIL_P(dtype_sym))
+    dtype = nm::RUBYOBJ;
+  else if (NIL_P(dtype_sym))
+    dtype = nm_dtype_guess(initial_ary);
+  else
+    dtype = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(dtype_sym);
+
+  //   if stype != :dense
+  //     if initial_ary.nil?
+  //       init = h[:default] || 0
+  //     elsif initial_ary.is_a?(Array)
+  //       init = initial_ary.size > 1 ? (h[:default] || 0) : initial_ary[0]
+  //     else
+  //       init = initial_ary # not an array, just a value
+  //     end
+  //   end
+  if (stype != nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+    if (!NIL_P(default_val_num))
+      init = rubyobj_to_cval(default_val_num, dtype);
+    else if (NIL_P(initial_ary))
+      init = NULL;
+    else if (TYPE(initial_ary) == T_ARRAY)
+      init = RARRAY_LEN(initial_ary) == 1 ? rubyobj_to_cval(rb_ary_entry(initial_ary, 0), dtype) : NULL;
+    else
+      init = rubyobj_to_cval(initial_ary, dtype);
+  }
+
+  // capacity = h[:capacity] || 0
+  if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+    if (!NIL_P(capacity_num)) capacity = FIX2INT(capacity_num);
+  }
+
+  if (!NIL_P(initial_ary)) {
+    v = interpret_initial_value(initial_ary, dtype);
+
+    if (TYPE(initial_ary) == T_ARRAY) 	v_size = RARRAY_LEN(initial_ary);
+    else                                v_size = 1;
+  }
+
+  // :object matrices MUST be initialized.
+  else if (stype == nm::DENSE_STORE && dtype == nm::RUBYOBJ) {
+    // Pretend [nil] was passed for RUBYOBJ.
+    v          = ALLOC(VALUE);
+    *(VALUE*)v = Qnil;
+
+    v_size = 1;
+
+  }
+
+	NMATRIX* nmatrix;
+  UnwrapNMatrix(self, nmatrix);
+
+  nmatrix->stype = stype;
+
+  switch (stype) {
+  	case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_dense_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, v, v_size);
+  		break;
+
+  	case nm::LIST_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_list_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, init);
+  		break;
+
+  	case nm::YALE_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_yale_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, capacity);
+  		nm_yale_storage_init((YALE_STORAGE*)(nmatrix->storage), init);
+  		break;
+  }
+
+  // If we're not creating a dense, and an initial array was provided, use that and multi-slice-set
+  // to set the contents of the matrix right now.
+  if (stype != nm::DENSE_STORE && v_size > 1) {
+    VALUE* slice_argv = ALLOCA_N(VALUE, dim);
+    size_t* tmp_shape = ALLOC_N(size_t, dim);
+    for (size_t m = 0; m < dim; ++m) {
+      slice_argv[m] = ID2SYM(nm_rb_mul); // :* -- full range
+      tmp_shape[m]  = shape[m];
+    }
+
+    SLICE* slice = get_slice(dim, dim, slice_argv, shape);
+    // Create a temporary dense matrix and use it to do a slice assignment on self.
+    NMATRIX* tmp          = nm_create(nm::DENSE_STORE, (STORAGE*)nm_dense_storage_create(dtype, tmp_shape, dim, v, v_size));
+    volatile VALUE rb_tmp = Data_Wrap_Struct(CLASS_OF(self), nm_mark, nm_delete, tmp);
+    if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE)  nm_yale_storage_set(self, slice, rb_tmp);
+    else                          nm_list_storage_set(self, slice, rb_tmp);
+
+    free_slice(slice);
+
+    // We need to free v if it's not the same size as tmp -- because tmp will have made a copy instead.
+    if (nm_storage_count_max_elements(tmp->storage) != v_size)
+      xfree(v);
+
+    // nm_delete(tmp); // This seems to enrage the garbage collector (because rb_tmp is still available). It'd be better if we could force it to free immediately, but no sweat.
+  }
+
+  return self;
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     new(shape) -> NMatrix
+ *     new(shape, initial_value) -> NMatrix
+ *     new(shape, initial_array) -> NMatrix
+ *     new(shape, initial_value, options) -> NMatrix
+ *     new(shape, initial_array, options) -> NMatrix
+ *
+ * Create a new NMatrix.
+ *
+ * The only mandatory argument is shape, which may be a positive integer or an array of positive integers.
+ *
+ * It is recommended that you supply an initialization value or array of values. Without one, Yale and List matrices will
+ * be initialized to 0; and dense matrices will be undefined.
+ *
+ * Additional options may be provided using keyword arguments. The keywords are +:dtype, +:stype+, +:capacity+, and
+ * +:default+. Only Yale uses a capacity argument, which is used to reserve the initial size of its storage vectors.
+ * List and Yale both accept a default value (which itself defaults to 0). This default is taken from the initial value
+ * if such a value is given; it is more likely to be required when an initial array is provided.
+ *
+ * The storage type, or stype, is used to specify whether we want a +:dense+, +:list+, or +:yale+ matrix; dense is the
+ * default.
+ *
+ * The data type, or dtype, can be one of: :byte, :int8, :int16, :int32, :int64, :float32, :float64, :complex64,
+ * :complex128, :rational128, or :object. The constructor will attempt to guess it from the initial value/array/default
+ * provided, if any. Otherwise, the default is :object, which stores any type of Ruby object.
+ *
+ * In addition to the above, there is a legacy constructor from the alpha version. To use that version, you must be
+ * providing exactly four arguments. It is now deprecated.
+ *
+ * There is one additional constructor for advanced users, which takes seven arguments and is only for creating Yale
+ * matrices with known IA, JA, and A arrays. This is used primarily internally for IO, e.g., reading Matlab matrices,
+ * which are stored in old Yale (not our Yale) format. But be careful; there are no overflow warnings. All of these
+ * constructors are defined for power-users. Everyone else should probably resort to the shortcut functions defined in
+ * shortcuts.rb.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_init(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE nm) {
+
+  if (argc <= 3) { // Call the new constructor unless all four arguments are given (or the 7-arg version is given)
+  	return nm_init_new_version(argc, argv, nm);
+  }
+
+  /* First, determine stype (dense by default) */
+  nm::stype_t stype;
+  size_t  offset = 0;
+
+  if (!SYMBOL_P(argv[0]) && TYPE(argv[0]) != T_STRING) {
+    stype = nm::DENSE_STORE;
+
+  } else {
+    // 0: String or Symbol
+    stype  = interpret_stype(argv[0]);
+    offset = 1;
+  }
+
+  // If there are 7 arguments and Yale, refer to a different init function with fewer sanity checks.
+  if (argc == 7) {
+  	if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+			return nm_init_yale_from_old_yale(argv[1], argv[2], argv[3], argv[4], argv[5], argv[6], nm);
+
+		} else {
+			rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Expected 2-4 arguments (or 7 for internal Yale creation)");
+		}
+  }
+
+	// 1: Array or Fixnum
+	size_t dim;
+  size_t* shape = interpret_shape(argv[offset], &dim);
+
+  // 2-3: dtype
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = interpret_dtype(argc-1-offset, argv+offset+1, stype);
+
+  size_t init_cap = 0, init_val_len = 0;
+  void* init_val  = NULL;
+  if (!SYMBOL_P(argv[1+offset]) || TYPE(argv[1+offset]) == T_ARRAY) {
+  	// Initial value provided (could also be initial capacity, if yale).
+
+    if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE && NM_RUBYVAL_IS_NUMERIC(argv[1+offset])) {
+      init_cap = FIX2UINT(argv[1+offset]);
+
+    } else {
+    	// 4: initial value / dtype
+      init_val = interpret_initial_value(argv[1+offset], dtype);
+
+      if (TYPE(argv[1+offset]) == T_ARRAY) 	init_val_len = RARRAY_LEN(argv[1+offset]);
+      else                                  init_val_len = 1;
+    }
+
+  } else {
+  	// DType is RUBYOBJ.
+
+    if (stype == nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+    	/*
+    	 * No need to initialize dense with any kind of default value unless it's
+    	 * an RUBYOBJ matrix.
+    	 */
+      if (dtype == nm::RUBYOBJ) {
+      	// Pretend [nil] was passed for RUBYOBJ.
+      	init_val = ALLOC(VALUE);
+        *(VALUE*)init_val = Qnil;
+
+        init_val_len = 1;
+
+      } else {
+      	init_val = NULL;
+      }
+    } else if (stype == nm::LIST_STORE) {
+    	init_val = ALLOC_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+      std::memset(init_val, 0, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // TODO: Update to allow an array as the initial value.
+	NMATRIX* nmatrix;
+  UnwrapNMatrix(nm, nmatrix);
+
+  nmatrix->stype = stype;
+
+  switch (stype) {
+  	case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_dense_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, init_val, init_val_len);
+  		break;
+
+  	case nm::LIST_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_list_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, init_val);
+  		break;
+
+  	case nm::YALE_STORE:
+  		nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_yale_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, init_cap);
+  		nm_yale_storage_init((YALE_STORAGE*)(nmatrix->storage), NULL);
+  		break;
+  }
+
+  return nm;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Helper for nm_cast which uses the C types instead of the Ruby objects. Called by nm_cast.
+ */
+NMATRIX* nm_cast_with_ctype_args(NMATRIX* self, nm::stype_t new_stype, nm::dtype_t new_dtype, void* init_ptr) {
+  NMATRIX* lhs = ALLOC(NMATRIX);
+  lhs->stype   = new_stype;
+
+  // Copy the storage
+  CAST_TABLE(cast_copy);
+  lhs->storage = cast_copy[lhs->stype][self->stype](self->storage, new_dtype, init_ptr);
+
+  return lhs;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     cast_full(stype) -> NMatrix
+ *     cast_full(stype, dtype, sparse_basis) -> NMatrix
+ *
+ * Copy constructor for changing dtypes and stypes.
+ */
+VALUE nm_cast(VALUE self, VALUE new_stype_symbol, VALUE new_dtype_symbol, VALUE init) {
+  nm::dtype_t new_dtype = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(new_dtype_symbol);
+  nm::stype_t new_stype = nm_stype_from_rbsymbol(new_stype_symbol);
+
+  CheckNMatrixType(self);
+  NMATRIX *rhs;
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix( self, rhs );
+
+  void* init_ptr = ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[new_dtype]);
+  rubyval_to_cval(init, new_dtype, init_ptr);
+
+  return Data_Wrap_Struct(CLASS_OF(self), nm_mark, nm_delete, nm_cast_with_ctype_args(rhs, new_stype, new_dtype, init_ptr));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Copy constructor for transposing.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_init_transposed(VALUE self) {
+  static STORAGE* (*storage_copy_transposed[nm::NUM_STYPES])(const STORAGE* rhs_base) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_copy_transposed,
+    nm_list_storage_copy_transposed,
+    nm_yale_storage_copy_transposed
+  };
+
+  NMATRIX* lhs = nm_create( NM_STYPE(self),
+                            storage_copy_transposed[NM_STYPE(self)]( NM_STORAGE(self) )
+                          );
+
+  return Data_Wrap_Struct(CLASS_OF(self), nm_mark, nm_delete, lhs);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Copy constructor for no change of dtype or stype (used for #initialize_copy hook).
+ */
+static VALUE nm_init_copy(VALUE copy, VALUE original) {
+  NMATRIX *lhs, *rhs;
+
+  CheckNMatrixType(original);
+
+  if (copy == original) return copy;
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix( original, rhs );
+  UnwrapNMatrix( copy,     lhs );
+
+  lhs->stype = rhs->stype;
+
+  // Copy the storage
+  CAST_TABLE(ttable);
+  lhs->storage = ttable[lhs->stype][rhs->stype](rhs->storage, rhs->storage->dtype, NULL);
+
+  return copy;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get major, minor, and release components of NMatrix::VERSION. Store in function parameters.
+ */
+static void get_version_info(uint16_t& major, uint16_t& minor, uint16_t& release) {
+  // Get VERSION and split it on periods. Result is an Array.
+  VALUE version = rb_funcall(rb_const_get(cNMatrix, rb_intern("VERSION")), rb_intern("split"), 1, rb_str_new_cstr("."));
+  VALUE* ary    = RARRAY_PTR(version); // major, minor, and release
+
+  // Convert each to an integer
+  VALUE  maj    = rb_funcall(ary[0], rb_intern("to_i"), 0);
+  VALUE  min    = rb_funcall(ary[1], rb_intern("to_i"), 0);
+  VALUE  rel    = rb_funcall(ary[2], rb_intern("to_i"), 0);
+
+  major   = static_cast<uint16_t>(nm::RubyObject(maj));
+  minor   = static_cast<uint16_t>(nm::RubyObject(min));
+  release = static_cast<uint16_t>(nm::RubyObject(rel));
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Interpret the NMatrix::write symmetry argument (which should be nil or a symbol). Return a symm_t (enum).
+ */
+static nm::symm_t interpret_symm(VALUE symm) {
+  if (symm == Qnil) return nm::NONSYMM;
+
+  ID rb_symm = rb_intern("symmetric"),
+     rb_skew = rb_intern("skew"),
+     rb_herm = rb_intern("hermitian");
+     // nm_rb_upper, nm_rb_lower already set
+
+  ID symm_id = rb_to_id(symm);
+
+  if (symm_id == rb_symm)            return nm::SYMM;
+  else if (symm_id == rb_skew)       return nm::SKEW;
+  else if (symm_id == rb_herm)       return nm::HERM;
+  else if (symm_id == nm_rb_upper)   return nm::UPPER;
+  else if (symm_id == nm_rb_lower)   return nm::LOWER;
+  else                            rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "unrecognized symmetry argument");
+
+  return nm::NONSYMM;
+}
+
+
+
+void read_padded_shape(std::ifstream& f, size_t dim, size_t* shape) {
+  nm::read_padded_shape(f, dim, shape);
+}
+
+
+void write_padded_shape(std::ofstream& f, size_t dim, size_t* shape) {
+  nm::write_padded_shape(f, dim, shape);
+}
+
+
+void read_padded_yale_elements(std::ifstream& f, YALE_STORAGE* storage, size_t length, nm::symm_t symm, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE_NO_ROBJ(ttable, nm::read_padded_yale_elements, void, std::ifstream&, YALE_STORAGE*, size_t, nm::symm_t)
+
+  ttable[dtype](f, storage, length, symm);
+}
+
+
+void write_padded_yale_elements(std::ofstream& f, YALE_STORAGE* storage, size_t length, nm::symm_t symm, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE_NO_ROBJ(ttable, nm::write_padded_yale_elements, void, std::ofstream& f, YALE_STORAGE*, size_t, nm::symm_t)
+
+  ttable[dtype](f, storage, length, symm);
+}
+
+
+void read_padded_dense_elements(std::ifstream& f, DENSE_STORAGE* storage, nm::symm_t symm, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE_NO_ROBJ(ttable, nm::read_padded_dense_elements, void, std::ifstream&, DENSE_STORAGE*, nm::symm_t)
+
+  ttable[dtype](f, storage, symm);
+}
+
+
+void write_padded_dense_elements(std::ofstream& f, DENSE_STORAGE* storage, nm::symm_t symm, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  NAMED_DTYPE_TEMPLATE_TABLE_NO_ROBJ(ttable, nm::write_padded_dense_elements, void, std::ofstream& f, DENSE_STORAGE*, nm::symm_t)
+
+  ttable[dtype](f, storage, symm);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Helper function to get exceptions in the module Errno (e.g., ENOENT). Example:
+ *
+ *     rb_raise(rb_get_errno_exc("ENOENT"), RSTRING_PTR(filename));
+ */
+static VALUE rb_get_errno_exc(const char* which) {
+  return rb_const_get(rb_const_get(rb_cObject, rb_intern("Errno")), rb_intern(which));
+}
+
+
+
+/*
+ * Binary file writer for NMatrix standard format. file should be a path, which we aren't going to
+ * check very carefully (in other words, this function should generally be called from a Ruby
+ * helper method). Function also takes a symmetry argument, which allows us to specify that we only want to
+ * save the upper triangular portion of the matrix (or if the matrix is a lower triangular matrix, only
+ * the lower triangular portion). nil means regular storage.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_write(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  using std::ofstream;
+
+  if (argc < 1 || argc > 2) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Expected one or two arguments");
+  }
+  VALUE file = argv[0],
+        symm = argc == 1 ? Qnil : argv[1];
+
+  NMATRIX* nmatrix;
+  UnwrapNMatrix( self, nmatrix );
+
+  nm::symm_t symm_ = interpret_symm(symm);
+
+  if (nmatrix->storage->dtype == nm::RUBYOBJ) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "Ruby Object writing is not implemented yet");
+  }
+
+  // Get the dtype, stype, itype, and symm and ensure they're the correct number of bytes.
+  uint8_t st = static_cast<uint8_t>(nmatrix->stype),
+          dt = static_cast<uint8_t>(nmatrix->storage->dtype),
+          sm = static_cast<uint8_t>(symm_);
+  uint16_t dim = nmatrix->storage->dim;
+
+  //FIXME: Cast the matrix to the smallest possible index type. Write that in the place of IType.
+
+  // Check arguments before starting to write.
+  if (nmatrix->stype == nm::LIST_STORE) rb_raise(nm_eStorageTypeError, "cannot save list matrix; cast to yale or dense first");
+  if (symm_ != nm::NONSYMM) {
+    if (dim != 2) rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "symmetry/triangularity not defined for a non-2D matrix");
+    if (nmatrix->storage->shape[0] != nmatrix->storage->shape[1])
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "symmetry/triangularity not defined for a non-square matrix");
+    if (symm_ == nm::HERM &&
+          dt != static_cast<uint8_t>(nm::COMPLEX64) && dt != static_cast<uint8_t>(nm::COMPLEX128) && dt != static_cast<uint8_t>(nm::RUBYOBJ))
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "cannot save a non-complex matrix as hermitian");
+  }
+
+  ofstream f(RSTRING_PTR(file), std::ios::out | std::ios::binary);
+
+  // Get the NMatrix version information.
+  uint16_t major, minor, release, null16 = 0;
+  get_version_info(major, minor, release);
+
+  // WRITE FIRST 64-BIT BLOCK
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&major),   sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&minor),   sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&release), sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&null16),  sizeof(uint16_t));
+
+  uint8_t ZERO = 0;
+  // WRITE SECOND 64-BIT BLOCK
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&dt), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&st), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&ZERO),sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&sm), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&null16), sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&dim), sizeof(uint16_t));
+
+  // Write shape (in 64-bit blocks)
+  write_padded_shape(f, nmatrix->storage->dim, nmatrix->storage->shape);
+
+  if (nmatrix->stype == nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+    write_padded_dense_elements(f, reinterpret_cast<DENSE_STORAGE*>(nmatrix->storage), symm_, nmatrix->storage->dtype);
+  } else if (nmatrix->stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+    YALE_STORAGE* s = reinterpret_cast<YALE_STORAGE*>(nmatrix->storage);
+    uint32_t ndnz   = s->ndnz,
+             length = nm_yale_storage_get_size(s);
+    f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&ndnz),   sizeof(uint32_t));
+    f.write(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&length), sizeof(uint32_t));
+
+    write_padded_yale_elements(f, s, length, symm_, s->dtype);
+  }
+
+  f.close();
+
+  return Qtrue;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Binary file reader for NMatrix standard format. file should be a path, which we aren't going to
+ * check very carefully (in other words, this function should generally be called from a Ruby
+ * helper method).
+ *
+ * Note that currently, this function will by default refuse to read files that are newer than
+ * your version of NMatrix. To force an override, set the second argument to anything other than nil.
+ *
+ * Returns an NMatrix Ruby object.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_read(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  using std::ifstream;
+
+  VALUE file, force_;
+
+  // Read the arguments
+  rb_scan_args(argc, argv, "11", &file, &force_);
+  bool force   = (force_ != Qnil && force_ != Qfalse);
+
+
+  if (!RB_FILE_EXISTS(file)) { // FIXME: Errno::ENOENT
+    rb_raise(rb_get_errno_exc("ENOENT"), "%s", RSTRING_PTR(file));
+  }
+
+  // Open a file stream
+  ifstream f(RSTRING_PTR(file), std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);
+
+  uint16_t major, minor, release;
+  get_version_info(major, minor, release); // compare to NMatrix version
+
+  uint16_t fmajor, fminor, frelease, null16;
+
+  // READ FIRST 64-BIT BLOCK
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&fmajor),   sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&fminor),   sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&frelease), sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&null16),   sizeof(uint16_t));
+
+  int ver  = major * 10000 + minor * 100 + release,
+      fver = fmajor * 10000 + fminor * 100 + release;
+  if (fver > ver && force == false) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eIOError, "File was created in newer version of NMatrix than current");
+  }
+  if (null16 != 0) fprintf(stderr, "Warning: Expected zero padding was not zero\n");
+
+  uint8_t dt, st, it, sm;
+  uint16_t dim;
+
+  // READ SECOND 64-BIT BLOCK
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&dt), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&st), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&it), sizeof(uint8_t)); // FIXME: should tell how few bytes indices are stored as
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&sm), sizeof(uint8_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&null16), sizeof(uint16_t));
+  f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&dim), sizeof(uint16_t));
+
+  if (null16 != 0) fprintf(stderr, "Warning: Expected zero padding was not zero\n");
+  nm::stype_t stype = static_cast<nm::stype_t>(st);
+  nm::dtype_t dtype = static_cast<nm::dtype_t>(dt);
+  nm::symm_t  symm  = static_cast<nm::symm_t>(sm);
+  //nm::itype_t itype = static_cast<nm::itype_t>(it);
+
+  // READ NEXT FEW 64-BIT BLOCKS
+  size_t* shape = ALLOC_N(size_t, dim);
+  read_padded_shape(f, dim, shape);
+
+  STORAGE* s;
+  if (stype == nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+    s = nm_dense_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, NULL, 0);
+
+    read_padded_dense_elements(f, reinterpret_cast<DENSE_STORAGE*>(s), symm, dtype);
+
+  } else if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+    uint32_t ndnz, length;
+
+    // READ YALE-SPECIFIC 64-BIT BLOCK
+    f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&ndnz),     sizeof(uint32_t));
+    f.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&length),   sizeof(uint32_t));
+
+    s = nm_yale_storage_create(dtype, shape, dim, length); // set length as init capacity
+
+    read_padded_yale_elements(f, reinterpret_cast<YALE_STORAGE*>(s), length, symm, dtype);
+  } else {
+    rb_raise(nm_eStorageTypeError, "please convert to yale or dense before saving");
+  }
+
+  NMATRIX* nm = nm_create(stype, s);
+
+  // Return the appropriate matrix object (Ruby VALUE)
+  // FIXME: This should probably return CLASS_OF(self) instead of cNMatrix, but I don't know how that works for
+  // FIXME: class methods.
+  switch(stype) {
+  case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+  case nm::YALE_STORE:
+    return Data_Wrap_Struct(cNMatrix, nm_mark, nm_delete, nm);
+  default: // this case never occurs (due to earlier rb_raise)
+    return Qnil;
+  }
+
+}
+
+
+
+/*
+ * Create a new NMatrix helper for handling internal ia, ja, and a arguments.
+ *
+ * This constructor is only called by Ruby code, so we can skip most of the
+ * checks.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_init_yale_from_old_yale(VALUE shape, VALUE dtype, VALUE ia, VALUE ja, VALUE a, VALUE from_dtype, VALUE nm) {
+  size_t dim     = 2;
+  size_t* shape_  = interpret_shape(shape, &dim);
+  nm::dtype_t dtype_  = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(dtype);
+  char *ia_       = RSTRING_PTR(ia),
+       *ja_       = RSTRING_PTR(ja),
+       *a_        = RSTRING_PTR(a);
+  nm::dtype_t from_dtype_ = nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(from_dtype);
+  NMATRIX* nmatrix;
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix( nm, nmatrix );
+
+  nmatrix->stype   = nm::YALE_STORE;
+  nmatrix->storage = (STORAGE*)nm_yale_storage_create_from_old_yale(dtype_, shape_, ia_, ja_, a_, from_dtype_);
+
+  return nm;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Check to determine whether matrix is a reference to another matrix.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_is_ref(VALUE self) {
+  if (NM_SRC(self) == NM_STORAGE(self)) return Qfalse;
+  else                                  return Qtrue;
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     slice -> ...
+ *
+ * Access the contents of an NMatrix at given coordinates, using copying.
+ *
+ *     n.slice(3,3)  # => 5.0
+ *     n.slice(0..1,0..1) #=> matrix [2,2]
+ *
+ */
+static VALUE nm_mget(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  static void* (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(const STORAGE*, SLICE*) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_get,
+    nm_list_storage_get,
+    nm_yale_storage_get
+  };
+  return nm_xslice(argc, argv, ttable[NM_STYPE(self)], nm_delete, self);
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     matrix[indices] -> ...
+ *
+ * Access the contents of an NMatrix at given coordinates by reference.
+ *
+ *     n[3,3]  # => 5.0
+ *     n[0..1,0..1] #=> matrix [2,2]
+ *
+ */
+static VALUE nm_mref(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  static void* (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(const STORAGE*, SLICE*) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_ref,
+    nm_list_storage_ref,
+    nm_yale_storage_ref
+  };
+  return nm_xslice(argc, argv, ttable[NM_STYPE(self)], nm_delete_ref, self);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Modify the contents of an NMatrix in the given cell
+ *
+ *     n[3,3] = 5.0
+ *
+ * Also returns the new contents, so you can chain:
+ *
+ *     n[3,3] = n[2,3] = 5.0
+ */
+static VALUE nm_mset(int argc, VALUE* argv, VALUE self) {
+  size_t dim = NM_DIM(self); // last arg is the value
+
+  if ((size_t)(argc) > NM_DIM(self)+1) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "wrong number of arguments (%d for %u)", argc, effective_dim(NM_STORAGE(self))+1);
+  } else {
+    SLICE* slice = get_slice(dim, argc-1, argv, NM_STORAGE(self)->shape);
+
+    static void (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(VALUE, SLICE*, VALUE) = {
+      nm_dense_storage_set,
+      nm_list_storage_set,
+      nm_yale_storage_set
+    };
+
+    ttable[NM_STYPE(self)](self, slice, argv[argc-1]);
+
+    free_slice(slice);
+
+    return argv[argc-1];
+  }
+  return Qnil;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Matrix multiply (dot product): against another matrix or a vector.
+ *
+ * For elementwise, use * instead.
+ *
+ * The two matrices must be of the same stype (for now). If dtype differs, an upcast will occur.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_multiply(VALUE left_v, VALUE right_v) {
+  NMATRIX *left, *right;
+
+  UnwrapNMatrix( left_v, left );
+
+  if (NM_RUBYVAL_IS_NUMERIC(right_v))
+    return matrix_multiply_scalar(left, right_v);
+
+  else if (TYPE(right_v) == T_ARRAY)
+    rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "please convert array to nx1 or 1xn NMatrix first");
+
+  else { // both are matrices (probably)
+    CheckNMatrixType(right_v);
+    UnwrapNMatrix( right_v, right );
+
+    if (left->storage->shape[1] != right->storage->shape[0])
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "incompatible dimensions");
+
+    if (left->stype != right->stype)
+      rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "matrices must have same stype");
+
+    return matrix_multiply(left, right);
+
+  }
+
+  return Qnil;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     dim -> Integer
+ *
+ * Get the number of dimensions of a matrix.
+ *
+ * In other words, if you set your matrix to be 3x4, the dim is 2. If the
+ * matrix was initialized as 3x4x3, the dim is 3.
+ *
+ * Use #effective_dim to get the dimension of an NMatrix which acts as a vector (e.g., a column or row).
+ */
+static VALUE nm_dim(VALUE self) {
+  return INT2FIX(NM_STORAGE(self)->dim);
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     shape -> Array
+ *
+ * Get the shape (dimensions) of a matrix.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_shape(VALUE self) {
+  STORAGE* s   = NM_STORAGE(self);
+
+  // Copy elements into a VALUE array and then use those to create a Ruby array with rb_ary_new4.
+  VALUE* shape = ALLOCA_N(VALUE, s->dim);
+  for (size_t index = 0; index < s->dim; ++index)
+    shape[index] = INT2FIX(s->shape[index]);
+
+  return rb_ary_new4(s->dim, shape);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     offset -> Array
+ *
+ * Get the offset (slice position) of a matrix. Typically all zeros, unless you have a reference slice.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_offset(VALUE self) {
+  STORAGE* s   = NM_STORAGE(self);
+
+  // Copy elements into a VALUE array and then use those to create a Ruby array with rb_ary_new4.
+  VALUE* offset = ALLOCA_N(VALUE, s->dim);
+  for (size_t index = 0; index < s->dim; ++index)
+    offset[index] = INT2FIX(s->offset[index]);
+
+  return rb_ary_new4(s->dim, offset);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     supershape -> Array
+ *
+ * Get the shape of a slice's parent.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_supershape(VALUE self) {
+
+  STORAGE* s   = NM_STORAGE(self);
+  if (s->src == s) return nm_shape(self); // easy case (not a slice)
+  else s = s->src;
+
+  VALUE* shape = ALLOCA_N(VALUE, s->dim);
+  for (size_t index = 0; index < s->dim; ++index)
+    shape[index] = INT2FIX(s->shape[index]);
+
+  return rb_ary_new4(s->dim, shape);
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     stype -> Symbol
+ *
+ * Get the storage type (stype) of a matrix, e.g., :yale, :dense, or :list.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_stype(VALUE self) {
+  ID stype = rb_intern(STYPE_NAMES[NM_STYPE(self)]);
+  return ID2SYM(stype);
+}
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     symmetric? -> Boolean
+ *
+ * Is this matrix symmetric?
+ */
+static VALUE nm_symmetric(VALUE self) {
+  return is_symmetric(self, false);
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Gets the dimension of a matrix which might be a vector (have one or more shape components of size 1).
+ */
+static size_t effective_dim(STORAGE* s) {
+  size_t d = 0;
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < s->dim; ++i) {
+    if (s->shape[i] != 1) d++;
+  }
+  return d;
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * call-seq:
+ *     effective_dim -> Fixnum
+ *
+ * Returns the number of dimensions that don't have length 1. Guaranteed to be less than or equal to #dim.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_effective_dim(VALUE self) {
+  return INT2FIX(effective_dim(NM_STORAGE(self)));
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Get a slice of an NMatrix.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_xslice(int argc, VALUE* argv, void* (*slice_func)(const STORAGE*, SLICE*), void (*delete_func)(NMATRIX*), VALUE self) {
+  VALUE result = Qnil;
+  STORAGE* s = NM_STORAGE(self);
+
+  if (NM_DIM(self) < (size_t)(argc)) {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "wrong number of arguments (%d for %u)", argc, effective_dim(s));
+  } else {
+    SLICE* slice = get_slice(NM_DIM(self), argc, argv, s->shape);
+
+    if (slice->single) {
+      static void* (*ttable[nm::NUM_STYPES])(const STORAGE*, SLICE*) = {
+        nm_dense_storage_ref,
+        nm_list_storage_ref,
+        nm_yale_storage_ref
+      };
+
+      if (NM_DTYPE(self) == nm::RUBYOBJ)  result = *reinterpret_cast<VALUE*>( ttable[NM_STYPE(self)](s, slice) );
+      else                                result = rubyobj_from_cval( ttable[NM_STYPE(self)](s, slice), NM_DTYPE(self) ).rval;
+
+    } else {
+
+      NMATRIX* mat  = ALLOC(NMATRIX);
+      mat->stype    = NM_STYPE(self);
+      mat->storage  = (STORAGE*)((*slice_func)( s, slice ));
+
+      result        = Data_Wrap_Struct(CLASS_OF(self), nm_mark, delete_func, mat);
+    }
+
+    free_slice(slice);
+  }
+
+  return result;
+}
+
+//////////////////////
+// Helper Functions //
+//////////////////////
+
+static VALUE elementwise_op(nm::ewop_t op, VALUE left_val, VALUE right_val) {
+
+	NMATRIX* left;
+	NMATRIX* result;
+
+	CheckNMatrixType(left_val);
+	UnwrapNMatrix(left_val, left);
+
+  if (TYPE(right_val) != T_DATA || (RDATA(right_val)->dfree != (RUBY_DATA_FUNC)nm_delete && RDATA(right_val)->dfree != (RUBY_DATA_FUNC)nm_delete_ref)) {
+    // This is a matrix-scalar element-wise operation.
+    std::string sym;
+    switch(left->stype) {
+    case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+      sym = "__dense_scalar_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+      break;
+    case nm::YALE_STORE:
+      sym = "__yale_scalar_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+      break;
+    case nm::LIST_STORE:
+      sym = "__list_scalar_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+      break;
+    default:
+      rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "unknown storage type requested scalar element-wise operation");
+    }
+    return rb_funcall(left_val, rb_intern(sym.c_str()), 1, right_val);
+
+  } else {
+
+    // Check that the left- and right-hand sides have the same dimensionality.
+    if (NM_DIM(left_val) != NM_DIM(right_val)) {
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "The left- and right-hand sides of the operation must have the same dimensionality.");
+    }
+
+    // Check that the left- and right-hand sides have the same shape.
+    if (memcmp(&NM_SHAPE(left_val, 0), &NM_SHAPE(right_val, 0), sizeof(size_t) * NM_DIM(left_val)) != 0) {
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "The left- and right-hand sides of the operation must have the same shape.");
+    }
+
+    NMATRIX* right;
+    UnwrapNMatrix(right_val, right);
+
+    if (left->stype == right->stype) {
+      std::string sym;
+
+      switch(left->stype) {
+      case nm::DENSE_STORE:
+        sym = "__dense_elementwise_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+        break;
+      case nm::YALE_STORE:
+        sym = "__yale_elementwise_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+        break;
+      case nm::LIST_STORE:
+        sym = "__list_elementwise_" + nm::EWOP_NAMES[op] + "__";
+        break;
+      default:
+        rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "unknown storage type requested element-wise operation");
+      }
+      return rb_funcall(left_val, rb_intern(sym.c_str()), 1, right_val);
+
+    } else {
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Element-wise operations are not currently supported between matrices with differing stypes.");
+    }
+  }
+
+	return Data_Wrap_Struct(CLASS_OF(left_val), nm_mark, nm_delete, result);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Check to determine whether matrix is a reference to another matrix.
+ */
+bool is_ref(const NMATRIX* matrix) {
+  return matrix->storage->src != matrix->storage;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Helper function for nm_symmetric and nm_hermitian.
+ */
+static VALUE is_symmetric(VALUE self, bool hermitian) {
+  NMATRIX* m;
+  UnwrapNMatrix(self, m);
+
+  if (m->storage->shape[0] == m->storage->shape[1] and m->storage->dim == 2) {
+		if (NM_STYPE(self) == nm::DENSE_STORE) {
+      if (hermitian) {
+        nm_dense_storage_is_hermitian((DENSE_STORAGE*)(m->storage), m->storage->shape[0]);
+
+      } else {
+      	nm_dense_storage_is_symmetric((DENSE_STORAGE*)(m->storage), m->storage->shape[0]);
+      }
+
+    } else {
+      // TODO: Implement, at the very least, yale_is_symmetric. Model it after yale/transp.template.c.
+      rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "symmetric? and hermitian? only implemented for dense currently");
+    }
+
+  }
+
+  return Qfalse;
+}
+
+///////////////////////
+// Utility Functions //
+///////////////////////
+
+/*
+ * Guess the dtype given a Ruby VALUE and return it as a symbol.
+ *
+ * Not to be confused with nm_dtype_guess, which returns an nm::dtype_t. (This calls that.)
+ */
+static VALUE nm_guess_dtype(VALUE self, VALUE v) {
+  return ID2SYM(rb_intern(DTYPE_NAMES[nm_dtype_guess(v)]));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the minimum allowable dtype for a Ruby VALUE and return it as a symbol.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_min_dtype(VALUE self, VALUE v) {
+  return ID2SYM(rb_intern(DTYPE_NAMES[nm_dtype_min(v)]));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Helper for nm_dtype_min(), handling integers.
+ */
+nm::dtype_t nm_dtype_min_fixnum(int64_t v) {
+  if (v >= 0 && v <= UCHAR_MAX) return nm::BYTE;
+  else {
+    v = std::abs(v);
+    if (v <= CHAR_MAX) return nm::INT8;
+    else if (v <= SHRT_MAX) return nm::INT16;
+    else if (v <= INT_MAX) return nm::INT32;
+    else return nm::INT64;
+  }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Helper for nm_dtype_min(), handling rationals.
+ */
+nm::dtype_t nm_dtype_min_rational(VALUE vv) {
+  nm::Rational128* v = ALLOCA_N(nm::Rational128, 1);
+  rubyval_to_cval(vv, nm::RATIONAL128, v);
+
+  int64_t i = std::max(std::abs(v->n), v->d);
+  if (i <= SHRT_MAX) return nm::INT16;
+  else if (i <= INT_MAX) return nm::INT32;
+  else return nm::INT64;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Return the minimum dtype required to store a given value.
+ *
+ * This is kind of arbitrary. For Float, it always returns :float32 for example, since in some cases neither :float64
+ * not :float32 are sufficient.
+ *
+ * This function is used in upcasting for scalar math. We want to ensure that :int8 + 1 does not return an :int64, basically.
+ *
+ * FIXME: Eventually, this function should actually look at the value stored in Fixnums (for example), so that it knows
+ * whether to return :int64 or :int32.
+ */
+nm::dtype_t nm_dtype_min(VALUE v) {
+
+  switch(TYPE(v)) {
+  case T_FIXNUM:
+    return nm_dtype_min_fixnum(FIX2LONG(v));
+  case T_BIGNUM:
+    return nm::INT64;
+  case T_FLOAT:
+    return nm::FLOAT32;
+  case T_COMPLEX:
+    return nm::COMPLEX64;
+  case T_RATIONAL:
+    return nm_dtype_min_rational(v);
+  case T_STRING:
+    return RSTRING_LEN(v) == 1 ? nm::BYTE : nm::RUBYOBJ;
+  case T_TRUE:
+  case T_FALSE:
+  case T_NIL:
+  default:
+    return nm::RUBYOBJ;
+  }
+}
+
+
+/*
+ * Guess the data type given a value.
+ *
+ * TODO: Probably needs some work for Bignum.
+ */
+nm::dtype_t nm_dtype_guess(VALUE v) {
+  switch(TYPE(v)) {
+  case T_TRUE:
+  case T_FALSE:
+  case T_NIL:
+    return nm::RUBYOBJ;
+  case T_STRING:
+    return RSTRING_LEN(v) == 1 ? nm::BYTE : nm::RUBYOBJ;
+
+#if SIZEOF_INT == 8
+  case T_FIXNUM:
+    return nm::INT64;
+
+  case T_RATIONAL:
+    return nm::RATIONAL128;
+
+#else
+# if SIZEOF_INT == 4
+  case T_FIXNUM:
+    return nm::INT32;
+
+  case T_RATIONAL:
+    return nm::RATIONAL64;
+
+#else
+  case T_FIXNUM:
+    return nm::INT16;
+
+  case T_RATIONAL:
+    return nm::RATIONAL32;
+# endif
+#endif
+
+  case T_BIGNUM:
+    return nm::INT64;
+
+#if SIZEOF_FLOAT == 4
+  case T_COMPLEX:
+    return nm::COMPLEX128;
+
+  case T_FLOAT:
+    return nm::FLOAT64;
+
+#else
+# if SIZEOF_FLOAT == 2
+  case T_COMPLEX:
+    return nm::COMPLEX64;
+
+  case T_FLOAT:
+    return nm::FLOAT32;
+# endif
+#endif
+
+  case T_ARRAY:
+  	/*
+  	 * May be passed for dense -- for now, just look at the first element.
+     *
+  	 * TODO: Look at entire array for most specific type.
+  	 */
+
+    return nm_dtype_guess(RARRAY_PTR(v)[0]);
+
+  default:
+    RB_P(v);
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Unable to guess a data type from provided parameters; data type must be specified manually.");
+  }
+}
+
+
+
+/*
+ * Allocate and return a SLICE object, which will contain the appropriate coordinate and length information for
+ * accessing some part of a matrix.
+ */
+static SLICE* get_slice(size_t dim, int argc, VALUE* arg, size_t* shape) {
+  VALUE beg, end;
+  int excl;
+
+  SLICE* slice = alloc_slice(dim);
+  slice->single = true;
+
+  // r is the shape position; t is the slice position. They may differ when we're dealing with a
+  // matrix where the effective dimension is less than the dimension (e.g., a vector).
+  for (size_t r = 0, t = 0; r < dim; ++r) {
+    VALUE v = t == argc ? Qnil : arg[t];
+
+    // if the current shape indicates a vector and fewer args were supplied than necessary, just use 0
+    if (argc - t + r < dim && shape[r] == 1) {
+      slice->coords[r]  = 0;
+      slice->lengths[r] = 1;
+
+    } else if (FIXNUM_P(v)) { // this used CLASS_OF before, which is inefficient for fixnum
+
+      slice->coords[r]  = FIX2UINT(v);
+      slice->lengths[r] = 1;
+      t++;
+
+    } else if (SYMBOL_P(v) && rb_to_id(v) == nm_rb_mul) { // :* means the whole possible range
+
+      slice->coords[r]  = 0;
+      slice->lengths[r] = shape[r];
+      slice->single     = false;
+
+    } else if (TYPE(arg[t]) == T_HASH) { // 3:5 notation (inclusive)
+      VALUE begin_end   = rb_funcall(v, rb_intern("shift"), 0); // rb_hash_shift
+      slice->coords[r]  = FIX2UINT(rb_ary_entry(begin_end, 0));
+      slice->lengths[r] = FIX2UINT(rb_ary_entry(begin_end, 1)) - slice->coords[r];
+
+      if (RHASH_EMPTY_P(v)) t++; // go on to the next
+
+      slice->single = false;
+
+    } else if (CLASS_OF(v) == rb_cRange) {
+      rb_range_values(arg[t], &beg, &end, &excl);
+      slice->coords[r]  = FIX2UINT(beg);
+      // Exclude last element for a...b range
+      slice->lengths[r] = FIX2UINT(end) - slice->coords[r] + (excl ? 0 : 1);
+
+      slice->single     = false;
+
+      t++;
+
+    } else {
+      rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "expected Fixnum, Range, or Hash for slice component instead of %s", rb_obj_classname(v));
+    }
+
+    if (slice->coords[r] > shape[r] || slice->coords[r] + slice->lengths[r] > shape[r])
+      rb_raise(rb_eRangeError, "slice is larger than matrix in dimension %u (slice component %u)", r, t);
+  }
+
+  return slice;
+}
+
+#ifdef BENCHMARK
+/*
+ * A simple function used when benchmarking NMatrix.
+ */
+static double get_time(void) {
+  struct timeval t;
+  struct timezone tzp;
+
+  gettimeofday(&t, &tzp);
+
+  return t.tv_sec + t.tv_usec*1e-6;
+}
+#endif
+
+/*
+ * The argv parameter will be either 1 or 2 elements.  If 1, could be either
+ * initial or dtype.  If 2, is initial and dtype. This function returns the
+ * dtype.
+ */
+static nm::dtype_t interpret_dtype(int argc, VALUE* argv, nm::stype_t stype) {
+  int offset;
+
+  switch (argc) {
+  	case 1:
+  		offset = 0;
+  		break;
+
+  	case 2:
+  		offset = 1;
+  		break;
+
+  	default:
+  		rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Need an initial value or a dtype.");
+  		break;
+  }
+
+  if (SYMBOL_P(argv[offset])) {
+  	return nm_dtype_from_rbsymbol(argv[offset]);
+
+  } else if (TYPE(argv[offset]) == T_STRING) {
+  	return nm_dtype_from_rbstring(StringValue(argv[offset]));
+
+  } else if (stype == nm::YALE_STORE) {
+  	rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Yale storage class requires a dtype.");
+
+  } else {
+  	return nm_dtype_guess(argv[0]);
+  }
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert an Ruby value or an array of Ruby values into initial C values.
+ */
+static void* interpret_initial_value(VALUE arg, nm::dtype_t dtype) {
+  unsigned int index;
+  void* init_val;
+
+  if (TYPE(arg) == T_ARRAY) {
+  	// Array
+    init_val = ALLOC_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype] * RARRAY_LEN(arg));
+    NM_CHECK_ALLOC(init_val);
+    for (index = 0; index < RARRAY_LEN(arg); ++index) {
+    	rubyval_to_cval(RARRAY_PTR(arg)[index], dtype, (char*)init_val + (index * DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]));
+    }
+
+  } else {
+  	// Single value
+    init_val = rubyobj_to_cval(arg, dtype);
+  }
+
+  return init_val;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert the shape argument, which may be either a Ruby value or an array of
+ * Ruby values, into C values.  The second argument is where the dimensionality
+ * of the matrix will be stored.  The function itself returns a pointer to the
+ * array describing the shape, which must be freed manually.
+ */
+static size_t* interpret_shape(VALUE arg, size_t* dim) {
+  size_t* shape;
+
+  if (TYPE(arg) == T_ARRAY) {
+    *dim = RARRAY_LEN(arg);
+    shape = ALLOC_N(size_t, *dim);
+
+    for (size_t index = 0; index < *dim; ++index) {
+      shape[index] = FIX2UINT( RARRAY_PTR(arg)[index] );
+    }
+
+  } else if (FIXNUM_P(arg)) {
+    *dim = 2;
+    shape = ALLOC_N(size_t, *dim);
+
+    shape[0] = FIX2UINT(arg);
+    shape[1] = FIX2UINT(arg);
+
+  } else {
+    rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Expected an array of numbers or a single Fixnum for matrix shape");
+  }
+
+  return shape;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert a Ruby symbol or string into an storage type.
+ */
+static nm::stype_t interpret_stype(VALUE arg) {
+  if (SYMBOL_P(arg)) {
+  	return nm_stype_from_rbsymbol(arg);
+
+  } else if (TYPE(arg) == T_STRING) {
+  	return nm_stype_from_rbstring(StringValue(arg));
+
+  } else {
+  	rb_raise(rb_eArgError, "Expected storage type");
+  }
+}
+
+//////////////////
+// Math Helpers //
+//////////////////
+
+STORAGE* matrix_storage_cast_alloc(NMATRIX* matrix, nm::dtype_t new_dtype) {
+  if (matrix->storage->dtype == new_dtype && !is_ref(matrix))
+    return matrix->storage;
+
+  CAST_TABLE(cast_copy_storage);
+  return cast_copy_storage[matrix->stype][matrix->stype](matrix->storage, new_dtype, NULL);
+}
+
+STORAGE_PAIR binary_storage_cast_alloc(NMATRIX* left_matrix, NMATRIX* right_matrix) {
+  STORAGE_PAIR casted;
+  nm::dtype_t new_dtype = Upcast[left_matrix->storage->dtype][right_matrix->storage->dtype];
+
+  casted.left  = matrix_storage_cast_alloc(left_matrix, new_dtype);
+  casted.right = matrix_storage_cast_alloc(right_matrix, new_dtype);
+
+  return casted;
+}
+
+static VALUE matrix_multiply_scalar(NMATRIX* left, VALUE scalar) {
+  rb_raise(rb_eNotImpError, "matrix-scalar multiplication not implemented yet");
+  return Qnil;
+}
+
+static VALUE matrix_multiply(NMATRIX* left, NMATRIX* right) {
+  ///TODO: multiplication for non-dense and/or non-decimal matrices
+
+  // Make sure both of our matrices are of the correct type.
+  STORAGE_PAIR casted = binary_storage_cast_alloc(left, right);
+
+  size_t*  resulting_shape   = ALLOC_N(size_t, 2);
+  resulting_shape[0] = left->storage->shape[0];
+  resulting_shape[1] = right->storage->shape[1];
+
+  // Sometimes we only need to use matrix-vector multiplication (e.g., GEMM versus GEMV). Find out.
+  bool vector = false;
+  if (resulting_shape[1] == 1) vector = true;
+
+  static STORAGE* (*storage_matrix_multiply[nm::NUM_STYPES])(const STORAGE_PAIR&, size_t*, bool) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_matrix_multiply,
+    nm_list_storage_matrix_multiply,
+    nm_yale_storage_matrix_multiply
+  };
+
+  STORAGE* resulting_storage = storage_matrix_multiply[left->stype](casted, resulting_shape, vector);
+  NMATRIX* result = nm_create(left->stype, resulting_storage);
+
+  // Free any casted-storage we created for the multiplication.
+  // TODO: Can we make the Ruby GC take care of this stuff now that we're using it?
+  // If we did that, we night not have to re-create these every time, right? Or wrong? Need to do
+  // more research.
+  static void (*free_storage[nm::NUM_STYPES])(STORAGE*) = {
+    nm_dense_storage_delete,
+    nm_list_storage_delete,
+    nm_yale_storage_delete
+  };
+
+  if (left->storage != casted.left)   free_storage[result->stype](casted.left);
+  if (right->storage != casted.right) free_storage[result->stype](casted.right);
+
+  if (result) return Data_Wrap_Struct(cNMatrix, nm_mark, nm_delete, result);
+  return Qnil; // Only if we try to multiply list matrices should we return Qnil.
+}
+
+/*
+ * Calculate the exact determinant of a dense matrix.
+ *
+ * Returns nil for dense matrices which are not square or number of dimensions other than 2.
+ *
+ * Note: Currently only implemented for 2x2 and 3x3 matrices.
+ */
+static VALUE nm_det_exact(VALUE self) {
+  if (NM_STYPE(self) != nm::DENSE_STORE) rb_raise(nm_eStorageTypeError, "can only calculate exact determinant for dense matrices");
+
+  if (NM_DIM(self) != 2 || NM_SHAPE0(self) != NM_SHAPE1(self)) return Qnil;
+
+  // Calculate the determinant and then assign it to the return value
+  void* result = ALLOCA_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[NM_DTYPE(self)]);
+  nm_math_det_exact(NM_SHAPE0(self), NM_STORAGE_DENSE(self)->elements, NM_SHAPE0(self), NM_DTYPE(self), result);
+
+  return rubyobj_from_cval(result, NM_DTYPE(self)).rval;
+}
+
+/////////////////
+// Exposed API //
+/////////////////
+
+/*
+ * Create a dense matrix. Used by the NMatrix GSL fork. Unlike nm_create, this one copies all of the
+ * arrays and such passed in -- so you don't have to allocate and pass a new shape object for every
+ * matrix you want to create, for example. Same goes for elements.
+ *
+ * Returns a properly-wrapped Ruby object as a VALUE.
+ *
+ * *** Note that this function is for API only. Please do not use it internally.
+ *
+ * TODO: Add a column-major option for libraries that use column-major matrices.
+ */
+VALUE rb_nmatrix_dense_create(nm::dtype_t dtype, size_t* shape, size_t dim, void* elements, size_t length) {
+  NMATRIX* nm;
+  size_t nm_dim;
+  size_t* shape_copy;
+
+  // Do not allow a dim of 1. Treat it as a column or row matrix.
+  if (dim == 1) {
+    nm_dim				= 2;
+    shape_copy		= ALLOC_N(size_t, nm_dim);
+    shape_copy[0]	= shape[0];
+    shape_copy[1]	= 1;
+
+  } else {
+    nm_dim			= dim;
+    shape_copy	= ALLOC_N(size_t, nm_dim);
+    memcpy(shape_copy, shape, sizeof(size_t)*nm_dim);
+  }
+
+  // Copy elements
+  void* elements_copy = ALLOC_N(char, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]*length);
+  memcpy(elements_copy, elements, DTYPE_SIZES[dtype]*length);
+
+  // allocate and create the matrix and its storage
+  nm = nm_create(nm::DENSE_STORE, nm_dense_storage_create(dtype, shape_copy, dim, elements_copy, length));
+
+  // tell Ruby about the matrix and its storage, particularly how to garbage collect it.
+  return Data_Wrap_Struct(cNMatrix, nm_mark, nm_delete, nm);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Create a dense vector. Used by the NMatrix GSL fork.
+ *
+ * Basically just a convenience wrapper for rb_nmatrix_dense_create().
+ *
+ * Returns a properly-wrapped Ruby NMatrix object as a VALUE. Included for backwards compatibility
+ * for when NMatrix had an NVector class.
+ */
+VALUE rb_nvector_dense_create(nm::dtype_t dtype, void* elements, size_t length) {
+  size_t dim = 1, shape = length;
+  return rb_nmatrix_dense_create(dtype, &shape, dim, elements, length);
+}