lateral_recommender 0.0.6 → 0.0.7

data/spec/fixtures/tapes/add.yml

@@ -1,519 +0,0 @@
----
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craft%20into%20and%20through%20outer%20space.%0ASpaceflight%20is%20used%20in%20space%20exploration%2C%20and%20also%20in%20commercial%20activities%20like%20space%20tourism%20and%20satellite%20telecommunications%20.%20Additional%20noncommercial%20uses%20of%20spaceflight%20include%20space%20observatories%20%2C%20reconnaissance%20satellites%20and%20other%20earth%20observation%20satellites%20.%0AA%20spaceflight%20typically%20begins%20with%20a%20rocket%20launch%20%2C%20which%20provides%20the%20initial%20thrust%20to%20overcome%20the%20force%20of%20gravity%20and%20propels%20the%20spacecraft%20from%20the%20surface%20of%20the%20Earth.%20Once%20in%20space%2C%20the%20motion%20of%20a%20spacecraft%E2%80%94both%20when%20unpropelled%20and%20when%20under%20propulsion%E2%80%94is%20covered%20by%20the%20area%20of%20study%20called%20astrodynamics%20.%20Some%20spacecraft%20remain%20in%20space%20indefinitely%2C%20some%20disintegrate%20during%20atmospheric%20reentry%20%2C%20and%20others%20reach%20a%20planetary%20or%20lunar%20surface%20for%20landing%20or%20impact.%0AMain%20article%3A%20Satellite%0ASatellites%20are%20used%20for%20a%20large%20number%20of%20purposes.%20Common%20types%20include%20military%20%28spy%29%20and%20civilian%20Earth%20observation%20satellites%2C%20communication%20satellites%2C%20navigation%20satellites%2C%20weather%20satellites%2C%20and%20research%20satellites.%20Space%20stations%20and%20human%20spacecraft%20in%20orbit%20are%20also%20satellites.%0ACommercialization%20of%20space%5B%20edit%20%5D%0AMain%20articles%3A%20Astrobiology%20and%20Extraterrestrial%20life%0AAstrobiology%20is%20the%20interdisciplinary%20study%20of%20life%20in%20the%20universe%2C%20combining%20aspects%20of%20astronomy%20%2C%20biology%20and%20geology.%20%5B38%5D%20It%20is%20focused%20primarily%20on%20the%20study%20of%20the%20origin%20%2C%20distribution%20and%20evolution%20of%20life.%20It%20is%20also%20known%20as%20exobiology%20%28from%20Greek%3A%20%CE%AD%CE%BE%CF%89%2C%20exo%2C%20%22outside%22%29.%20%5B39%5D%20%5B40%5D%20%5B41%5D%20The%20term%20%22Xenobiology%22%20has%20been%20used%20as%20well%2C%20but%20this%20is%20technically%20incorrect%20because%20its%20terminology%20means%20%22biology%20of%20the%20foreigners%22.%20%5B42%5D%20Astrobiologists%20must%20also%20consider%20the%20possibility%20of%20life%20that%20is%20chemically%20entirely%20distinct%20from%20any%20life%20found%20on%20earth.%20%5B43%5D%20In%20the%20Solar%20System%20some%20of%20the%20prime%20locations%20for%20current%20or%20past%20astrobiology%20are%20on%20Enceladus%2C%20Europa%2C%20Mars%2C%20and%20Titan.%20%5B44%5D%0ALiving%20in%20space%5B%20edit%20%5D%0AThe%20European%20Space%20Agency%20%27s%20Columbus%20Module%20at%20the%20International%20Space%20Station%20%2C%20launched%20into%20space%20on%20the%20U.S.%20Space%20Shuttle%20mission%20STS122%20in%202008%0ASpace%20colonization%2C%20also%20called%20space%20settlement%20and%20space%20humanization%2C%20would%20be%20the%20permanent%20autonomous%20%28selfsufficient%29%20human%20habitation%20of%20locations%20outside%20Earth%2C%20especially%20of%20natural%20satellites%20or%20planets%20such%20as%20the%20Moon%20or%20Mars%20%2C%20using%20significant%20amounts%20of%20insitu%20resource%20utilization%20.%0ATo%20date%2C%20the%20longest%20human%20occupation%20of%20space%20is%20the%20International%20Space%20Station%20which%20has%20been%20in%20continuous%20use%20for%20700114000000000000014%20years%2C%20700136000000000000036%20days.%20Valeri%20Polyakov%20%27s%20record%20single%20spaceflight%20of%20almost%20438%20days%20aboard%20the%20Mir%20space%20station%20has%20not%20been%20surpassed.%20Longterm%20stays%20in%20space%20reveal%20issues%20with%20bone%20and%20muscle%20loss%20in%20low%20gravity%2C%20immune%20system%20suppression%2C%20and%20radiation%20exposure.%0AMany%20past%20and%20current%20concepts%20for%20the%20continued%20exploration%20and%20colonization%20of%20space%20focus%20on%20a%20return%20to%20the%20Moon%20as%20a%20%22stepping%20stone%22%20to%20the%20other%20planets%2C%20especially%20Mars.%20At%20the%20end%20of%202006%20NASA%20announced%20they%20were%20planning%20to%20build%20a%20permanent%20Moon%20base%20with%20continual%20presence%20by%202024.%20%5B45%5D%0ABeyond%20the%20technical%20factors%20that%20could%20make%20living%20in%20space%20more%20widespread%2C%20it%20has%20been%20suggested%20that%20the%20lack%20of%20private%20property%20%2C%20the%20inability%20or%20difficulty%20in%20establishing%20property%20rights%20in%20space%2C%20has%20been%20an%20impediment%20to%20the%20development%20of%20space%20for%20human%20habitation.%20Since%20the%20advent%20of%20space%20technology%20in%20the%20latter%20half%20of%20the%20twentieth%20century%2C%20the%20ownership%20of%20property%20in%20space%20has%20been%20murky%2C%20with%20strong%20arguments%20both%20for%20and%20against.%20In%20particular%2C%20the%20making%20of%20national%20territorial%20claims%20in%20outer%20space%20and%20on%20celestial%20bodies%20has%20been%20specifically%20proscribed%20by%20the%2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-      string: '{"text": "Space exploration\nJump to: navigation , search\nSaturn V
-        rocket, used for the American manned lunar landing missions\nThe Moon as seen
-        in a digitally processed image from data collected during a spacecraft flyby\nSpace
-        exploration is the ongoing discovery and exploration of celestial structures
-        in outer space by means of continuously evolving and growing space technology
-        . While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes
-        , the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic
-        probes and human spaceflight .\nWhile the observation of objects in space,
-        known as astronomy , predates reliable recorded history , it was the development
-        of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that
-        allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales
-        for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different
-        nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military
-        and strategic advantages against other countries.\nSpace exploration has often
-        been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold
-        War . The early era of space exploration was driven by a \" Space Race \"
-        between the Soviet Union and the United States , the launch of the first manmade
-        object to orbit the Earth , the USSR''s Sputnik 1 , on 4 October 1957, and
-        the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 craft on 20 July 1969 are
-        often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet space program
-        achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in
-        orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight ( Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1
-        ) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov ) on 18 March 1965, the
-        first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch
-        of the first space station ( Salyut 1 ) in 1971.\nAfter the first 20 years
-        of exploration, focus shifted from oneoff flights to renewable hardware, such
-        as the Space Shuttle program , and from competition to cooperation as with
-        the International Space Station (ISS).\nWith the substantial completion of
-        the ISS [1] following STS133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by
-        the USA remain in flux. Constellation , a Bush Administration program for
-        a return to the Moon by 2020 [2] was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic
-        by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. [3] The Obama Administration
-        proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of
-        the capability for crewed missions beyond low earth orbit (LEO), envisioning
-        extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development
-        of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing
-        technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth/Moon L1 , the Moon,
-        Earth/Sun L2 , nearearth asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit. [4] As of March
-        2011, the US Senate and House of Representatives are still working towards
-        a compromise NASA funding bill, which will probably terminate Constellation
-        and fund development of a heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV). [5]\nIn the 2000s,
-        the People''s Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight
-        program , while the European Union , Japan, and India have also planned future
-        manned space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated manned
-        missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has
-        advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 21st century.\nFrom
-        the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then
-        private space exploration of the Moon (see Google Lunar X Prize ).\nContents\nSee
-        also: Timeline of space exploration , History of astronomy and Timeline of
-        first orbital launches by country\nMost orbital flight actually takes place
-        in upper layers of the atmosphere, especially in the thermosphere (not to
-        scale)\nIn July 1950 the first Bumper rocket is launched from Cape Canaveral,
-        Florida. The Bumper was a twostage rocket consisting of a PostWar V2 topped
-        by a WAC Corporal rocket. It could reach thenrecord altitudes of almost 400
-        km. Launched by General Electric Company, this Bumper was used primarily for
-        testing rocket systems and for research on the upper atmosphere. They carried
-        small payloads that allowed them to measure attributes including air temperature
-        and cosmic ray impacts.\nThe first steps of putting a manmade object into
-        space were taken by German scientists during World War II while testing the
-        V2 rocket, which became the first manmade object in space on 3 October 1942
-        with the launching of the A4 . After the war, the U.S. used German scientists
-        and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research.
-        The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment
-        launched by the U.S. on a V2 rocket on 10 May 1946. [6] The first images of
-        Earth taken from space followed the same year [7] [8] while the first animal
-        experiment saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified
-        V2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help
-        of German teams, launched suborbital V2 rockets and their own variant, the
-        R1 , including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These suborbital
-        experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.\nFirst
-        flights[ edit ]\nSputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite orbited earth
-        at 939 to 215 km (583 to 134 mi) in 1957, and was soon followed by Sputnik
-        2 . See First satellite by country (Replica Pictured)\nApollo CSM in lunar
-        orbit\nApollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt standing next to a boulder at
-        TaurusLittrow.\nThe first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned
-        Sputnik 1 (\"Satellite 1\") mission on 4 October 1957. The satellite weighed
-        about 83 kg (183 lb), and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of
-        about 250 km (160 mi). It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which
-        emitted \"beeps\" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis
-        of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density
-        of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the
-        duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not
-        punctured by a meteoroid . Sputnik 1 was launched by an R7 rocket. It burned
-        up upon reentry on 3 January 1958.\nThis success led to an escalation of the
-        American space program , which unsuccessfully attempted to launch a Vanguard
-        satellite into orbit two months later. On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully
-        orbited Explorer 1 on a Juno rocket. In the meantime, the Soviet dog Laika
-        became the first animal in orbit on 3 November 1957.\nFirst human flights[
-        edit ]\nThe first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 (\"East 1\"),
-        carrying 27 year old Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961. The
-        spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and
-        48 minutes. Gagarin''s flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration
-        of the advanced Soviet space program and it opened an entirely new era in
-        space exploration: human spaceflight .\nThe U.S. first launched a person into
-        space within a month of Vostok 1 with Alan Shepard ''s suborbital flight in
-        MercuryRedstone 3 . Orbital flight was achieved by the United States when
-        John Glenn ''s MercuryAtlas 6 orbited the Earth on 20 February 1962.\nValentina
-        Tereshkova , the first woman in space, orbited the Earth 48 times aboard Vostok
-        6 on 16 June 1963.\nChina first launched a person into space 42 years after
-        the launch of Vostok 1, on 15 October 2003, with the flight of Yang Liwei
-        aboard the Shenzhou 5 (Spaceboat 5) spacecraft.\nFirst planetary explorations[
-        edit ]\nThe first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna
-        2 in 1959. [9] The first automatic landing on another celestial body was performed
-        by Luna 9 [10] in 1966. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the
-        Moon. [11]\nThe first manned landing on another celestial body was performed
-        by Apollo 11 in its lunar landing on 20 July 1969.\nThe first successful interplanetary
-        flyby was the 1962 Mariner 2 flyby of Venus (closest approach 34,773 kilometers).
-        Flybys for the other planets were first achieved in 1965 for Mars by Mariner
-        4 , 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10 , 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10 , 1979
-        for Saturn by Pioneer 11 , 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2 , and 1989 for Neptune
-        by Voyager 2.\nThe first interplanetary surface mission to return at least
-        limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of Venera 7
-        on Venus which returned data to earth for 23 minutes. In 1971 the Mars 3 mission
-        achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds.
-        Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over
-        6 years of Mars surface operation by Viking 1 from 1975 to 1982 and over 2
-        hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by Venera 13 in 1982, the
-        longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission.\nKey people in early space
-        exploration[ edit ]\nThe dream of stepping into the outer reaches of the Earth''s
-        atmosphere was driven by the fiction of Jules Verne [12] [13] [14] and H.G.Wells
-        , [15] and rocket technology was developed to try to realise this vision.
-        The German V2 was the first rocket to travel into space, overcoming the problems
-        of thrust and material failure. During the final days of World War II this
-        technology was obtained by both the Americans and Soviets as were its designers.
-        The initial driving force for further development of the technology was a
-        weapons race for intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) to be used
-        as longrange carriers for fast nuclear weapon delivery, but in 1961 when USSR
-        launched the first man into space, the U.S. declared itself to be in a \"
-        Space Race \" with the Soviets.\nKonstantin Tsiolkovsky , Robert Goddard ,
-        Hermann Oberth , and Reinhold Tiling laid the groundwork of rocketry in the
-        early years of the 20th century.\nWernher von Braun was the lead rocket engineer
-        for Nazi Germany''s World War II V2 rocket project. In the last days of the
-        war he led a caravan of workers in the German rocket program to the American
-        lines, where they surrendered and were brought to the USA to work on U.S.
-        rocket development (\" Operation Paperclip \"). He acquired American citizenship
-        and led the team that developed and launched Explorer 1 , the first American
-        satellite. Von Braun later led the team at NASA ''s Marshall Space Flight
-        Center which developed the Saturn V moon rocket.\nInitially the race for space
-        was often led by Sergei Korolyov , whose legacy includes both the R7 and Soyuz
-        \u2014which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind
-        the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk.
-        Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even
-        his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.\nKerim
-        Kerimov was one of the founders of the Soviet space program and was one of
-        the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight ( Vostok 1 ) alongside
-        Sergey Korolyov. After Korolyov''s death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead
-        scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of
-        the first space stations from 1971 to 1991, including the Salyut and Mir series,
-        and their precursors in 1967, the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188 . [16] [17]\nOther
-        key people[ edit ]\nValentin Glushko held the role of Chief Engine Designer
-        for USSR. Glushko designed many of the engines used on the early Soviet rockets,
-        but was constantly at odds with Korolyov.\nVasily Mishin was Chief Designer
-        working under Sergey Korolyov and one of first Soviets to inspect the captured
-        German V2 design. Following the death of Sergei Korolev, Mishin was held responsible
-        for the Soviet failure to be first country to place a man on the moon.\nRobert
-        Gilruth was the NASA head of the Space Task Force and director of 25 manned
-        space flights. Gilruth was the person who suggested to John F. Kennedy that
-        the Americans take the bold step of reaching the Moon in an attempt to reclaim
-        space superiority from the Soviets.\nChristopher C. Kraft, Jr. was NASA''s
-        first flight director , who oversaw development of Mission Control and associated
-        technologies and procedures.\nMaxime Faget was the designer of the Mercury
-        capsule; he played a key role in designing the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft,
-        and contributed to the design of the Space Shuttle .\nTargets of exploration[
-        edit ]\nThe Sun[ edit ]\nWhile the Sun will probably not be physically explored
-        in the close future, one of the reasons for going into space is to know more
-        about the Sun. Once above the atmosphere in particular and the Earth''s magnetic
-        field, this gives access to the Solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations
-        that cannot reach the surface of the Earth. The Sun generates most space weather
-        , which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and
-        interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes.\nMESSENGER image
-        of Mercury\nMain article: Exploration of Mercury\nMercury remains the least
-        explored of the inner planets . As of May 2013, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER
-        missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of
-        Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March 2011, to further
-        investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b).\nA
-        MESSENGER image from 18,000 km showing a region about 500 km across\nA third
-        mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2020, BepiColombo is to include
-        two probes . BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European
-        Space Agency . MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary
-        data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner
-        10''s flybys .\nFlights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished
-        at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the
-        spacecraft, or deltav . Due to the relatively high deltav to reach Mercury
-        and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around
-        it are rather unstable.\nMain article: Observations and explorations of Venus\nVenus
-        was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite
-        one of the most hostile surface environments in the solar system, has had
-        more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other
-        planet in the solar system. The first successful Venus flyby was the American
-        Mariner 2 spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962. Mariner 2 has been followed
-        by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions
-        using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial
-        bodies. In 1967 Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine
-        the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970 Venera 7 became the first successful lander
-        to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional
-        successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface
-        data. Starting in 1975 with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9 some ten successful
-        orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were
-        able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere.\nThe
-        \"marble\" Earth picture taken by Apollo 17\nFirst television image of Earth
-        from space\nMain article: Earth observation satellite\nSpace exploration has
-        been used as a tool to understand the Earth as a celestial object in its own
-        right. Orbital missions can provide data for the Earth that can be difficult
-        or impossible to obtain from a purely groundbased point of reference.\nFor
-        example, the existence of the Van Allen belts was unknown until their discovery
-        by the United States'' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1 . These belts
-        contain radiation trapped by the Earth''s magnetic fields, which currently
-        renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.
-        Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation
-        satellites have been deployed specifically to explore the Earth from a space
-        based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the
-        understanding of a variety of earth based phenomena. For instance, the hole
-        in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring
-        Earth''s atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological
-        sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise
-        identify.\nThe Moon as seen from the Earth\nMain article: Exploration of the
-        Moon\nEarth''s Moon was the first celestial body to be the object of space
-        exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial
-        object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only
-        remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans.\nIn 1959 the Soviets
-        obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon , never previously visible
-        to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor
-        in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers
-        to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon''s surface;
-        just four months later, Surveyor 1 marked the debut of a successful series
-        of U.S. landers. The Soviet unmanned missions culminated in the Lunokhod program
-        in the early ''70s which included the first unmanned rovers and also successfully
-        returned lunar soil samples to the Earth for study. This marked the first
-        (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to
-        the Earth. Unmanned exploration of the Moon continues with various nations
-        periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian Moon Impact
-        Probe .\nManned exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission
-        that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object
-        was orbited by humans. In 1969 the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time
-        humans set foot upon another world. Manned exploration of the Moon did not
-        continue for long, however. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the most
-        recent human visit there, and the next, Exploration Mission 2 , is due to
-        orbit the Moon in 2019. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously.\nMars
-        as seen by the HST\nSurface of mars by the Spirit rover in 2004\nMain article:
-        Exploration of Mars\nThe exploration of Mars has been an important part of
-        the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United
-        States, Europe, and Japan. Dozens of robotic spacecraft , including orbiters
-        , landers , and rovers , have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These
-        missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering
-        questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific
-        community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the red planet
-        but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth.\nThe
-        exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly
-        twothirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their
-        missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate
-        can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved
-        in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of
-        The Great Galactic Ghoul [18] which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This
-        phenomenon is also informally known as the Mars Curse . [19]\nMain article:
-        Exploration of Phobos\nThe Russian space mission FobosGrunt , which launched
-        on 9 November 2011 experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low Earth
-        orbit . [20] It was to begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial
-        orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a
-        \"transshipment point\" for spaceships travelling to Mars. [21]\nImage of
-        Io taken by the Galileo spacecraft\nThe exploration of Jupiter has consisted
-        solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since
-        1973. A large majority of the missions have been \"flybys\", in which detailed
-        observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; the Galileo
-        spacecraft is the only one to have orbited the planet. As Jupiter is believed
-        to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing
-        mission is nearly impossible.\nReaching Jupiter from Earth requires a deltav
-        of 9.2 km/s, [22] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s deltav needed to reach
-        low Earth orbit. [23] Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys
-        can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit
-        at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration. [22]\nJupiter has over
-        60 known moons , many of which have relatively little known information about
-        them.\nA picture of Saturn taken by Voyager 2 .\nHuygens image from the surface
-        of Titan\nMain article: Exploration of Saturn\nSaturn has been explored only
-        through unmanned spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission ( Cassini\u2013Huygens
-        ) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions
-        consist of flybys in 1979 by Pioneer 11 , in 1980 by Voyager 1 , in 1982 by
-        Voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft which entered orbit
-        in 2004 and is expected to continue its mission well into 2012.\nSaturn has
-        at least 62 known moons , although the exact number is debatable since Saturn''s
-        rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying
-        sizes. The largest of the moons is Titan . Titan holds the distinction of
-        being the only moon in the solar system with an atmosphere denser and thicker
-        than that of the Earth. As a result of the deployment from the Cassini spacecraft
-        of the Huygens probe and its successful landing on Titan, Titan also holds
-        the distinction of being the only moon (apart from Earth''s own Moon) to be
-        successfully explored with a lander.\nUranus from Voyager 2\nMain article:
-        Exploration of Uranus\nThe exploration of Uranus has been entirely through
-        the Voyager 2 spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its
-        axial tilt of 97.77\u00b0, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness
-        for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest
-        approach to Uranus occurred on 24 January 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planet''s
-        unique atmosphere and magnetosphere . Voyager 2 also examined its ring system
-        and the moons of Uranus including all five of the previously known moons,
-        while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons.\nImages of Uranus
-        proved to have a very uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic
-        storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort
-        was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The
-        magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be completely unique and proved
-        to be profoundly affected by the planet''s unusual axial tilt. In contrast
-        to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of
-        the moons of Uranus, including evidence that Miranda had been unusually geologically
-        active.\nPicture of Neptune taken by Voyager 2\nTriton as imaged by Voyager
-        2\nMain article: Exploration of Neptune\nThe exploration of Neptune began
-        with the 25 August 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the sole visit to the system as of
-        2014. The possibility of a Neptune Orbiter has been discussed, but no other
-        missions have been given serious thought.\nAlthough the extremely uniform
-        appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2''s visit in 1986 had led to expectations
-        that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, Voyager 2
-        found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, auroras , and even
-        a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by Jupiter''s
-        small Spot. Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in
-        the solar system, measured as high as 2,100 km/h. [24] Voyager 2 also examined
-        Neptune''s ring and moon system. It discovered 900 complete rings and additional
-        partial ring \"arcs\" around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptune''s
-        three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown
-        moons, one of which, Proteus , proved to be the last largest moon in the system.
-        Data from Voyager further reinforced the view that Neptune''s largest moon,
-        Triton , is a captured Kuiper belt object. [25]\nOther objects in the Solar
-        system[ edit ]\nMain article: Exploration of Pluto\nPluto and Charon (1994)\nThe
-        dwarf planet Pluto (considered a planet until the IAU redefined \"planet\"
-        in October 2006 [26] ) presents significant challenges for spacecraft because
-        of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip
-        times) and small mass (making capture into orbit very difficult at present).
-        Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close
-        flyby of Saturn''s moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with
-        a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.
-        [27]\nPluto continues to be of great interest, despite its reclassification
-        as the lead and nearest member of a new and growing class of distant icy bodies
-        of intermediate size, in mass between the remaining eight planets and the
-        small rocky objects historically termed asteroids (and also the first member
-        of the important subclass, defined by orbit and known as \" Plutinos \").
-        After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons
-        was granted funding from the US government in 2003. [28] New Horizons was
-        launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use
-        of a gravity assist from Jupiter . Its closest approach to Pluto will be on
-        14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto will begin five months prior
-        to closest approach and will continue for at least a month after the encounter.\nAsteroids
-        and comets[ edit ]\nComet 103P/Hartley\nAsteroid 4 Vesta, imaged by the Dawn
-        spacecraft\nUntil the advent of space travel , objects in the asteroid belt
-        were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes
-        and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by
-        probes, the first of which was Galileo , which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in
-        1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo''s
-        planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost.
-        The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe
-        in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object. The dwarf planet Ceres
-        and the asteroid 4 Vesta , two of the three largest asteroids, are targets
-        of NASA''s Dawn mission , launched in 2007.\nWhile many comets have been closely
-        studied from Earth sometimes with centuriesworth of observations, only a few
-        comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer
-        conducted the first comet flyby ( 21P/GiacobiniZinner ) before joining the
-        Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into
-        9P/Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition while the Stardust
-        mission returned samples of another comet''s tail. The Philae lander successfully
-        landed on comet 67P/Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader
-        Rosetta mission.\nHayabusa was an unmanned spacecraft developed by the Japan
-        Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from a small nearEarth
-        asteroid named 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched
-        on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in midSeptember 2005. After arriving
-        at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroid''s shape, spin, topography, colour,
-        composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid
-        to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010.\nDeep
-        space exploration[ edit ]\nFuture of space exploration[ edit ]\nConcept art
-        for a NASA Vision mission\nThe examples and perspective in this section may
-        not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article
-        and discuss the issue on the talk page .\n(September 2013)\nIn the 2000s,
-        several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities
-        and the private sector have space exploration objectives. China has announced
-        plans to have a 60ton multimodule space station in orbit by 2020.\nThe NASA
-        Authorization Act of 2010 provides objectives for American space exploration.
-        NASA proposes to move forward with the development of the Space Launch System
-        (SLS), which will be designed to carry the Orion MultiPurpose Crew Vehicle,
-        as well as important cargo, equipment, and science experiments to Earth''s
-        orbit and destinations beyond. Additionally, the SLS will serve as a back
-        up for commercial and international partner transportation services to the
-        International Space Station. The SLS rocket will incorporate technological
-        investments from the Space Shuttle program and the Constellation program in
-        order to take advantage of proven hardware and reduce development and operations
-        costs. The first developmental flight is targeted for the end of 2017. [29]\nAI
-        in Space Exploration[ edit ]\nThe idea of using high level automated systems
-        for space missions has become a desirable goal to space agencies all around
-        the world. Such systems are believed to yield benefits such as lower cost,
-        less human oversight, and ability to explore deeper in space which is usually
-        restricted by long communications with human controllers. [30]\nAutonomous
-        System[ edit ]\nAutonomy is defined by 3 requirements: [30]\nBeing able to
-        sense the world and their state, make decisions, and carry them out on their
-        own\nCan interpret the given goal as a list of actions to take\nFail flexibly\nBenefits[
-        edit ]\nAutonomed technologies would be able to perform beyond predetermined
-        actions. It would analyze all possible states and events happening around
-        them and come up with a safe response. In addition, such technologies can
-        reduce launch cost and ground involvement. Performance would increase as well.
-        Autonomy would be able to quickly respond upon encountering an unforeseen
-        event, especially in deep space exploration where communication back to Earth
-        would take too long. [30]\nNASA\u2019s Autonomous Science Experiment[ edit
-        ]\nNASA began its autonomous science experiment (ASE) on the Earth Observing
-        1 (EO1) which is NASA\u2019s first satellite in the new millennium program
-        Earth observing series launched on 21 November 2000. The autonomy of ASE is
-        capable of onboard science analysis, replanning, robust execution, and later
-        the addition of modelbased diagnostic. Images obtained by the EO1 are analyzed
-        onboard and downlinked when a change or an interesting event occur. The ASE
-        software has successfully provided over 10,000 science images. [30]\nMain
-        article: Space advocacy\nAstronaut Buzz Aldrin , had a personal Communion
-        service when he first arrived on the surface of the Moon .\nThe research that
-        is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos
-        , is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic
-        analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such
-        as NASA spinoffs ), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program.
-        [31] It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction
-        of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions
-        of dollars worth of minerals and metals. The revenue generated from such expeditions
-        could generate a lot of revenue. [32] As well, it has been argued that space
-        exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering.
-        [33]\nAnother claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and
-        that staying on Earth will lead to extinction . Some of the reasons are lack
-        of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen
-        Hawking , renowned British theoretical physicist, said that \"I don''t think
-        the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into
-        space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet.
-        But I''m an optimist. We will reach out to the stars.\" [34]\nNASA has produced
-        a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space
-        exploration. [35]\nOverall, the public remains largely supportive of both
-        manned and unmanned space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll
-        conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that
-        the space program is \"a good investment\", compared to 21% who did not. [36]\nArthur
-        C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration
-        of space in his nonfiction semitechnical monograph Interplanetary Flight.
-        [37] He argued that humanity''s choice is essentially between expansion off
-        the Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation
-        and death.\nMain article: Spaceflight\nSpaceflight is the use of space technology
-        to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space.\nSpaceflight
-        is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space
-        tourism and satellite telecommunications . Additional noncommercial uses of
-        spaceflight include space observatories , reconnaissance satellites and other
-        earth observation satellites .\nA spaceflight typically begins with a rocket
-        launch , which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity
-        and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the
-        motion of a spacecraft\u2014both when unpropelled and when under propulsion\u2014is
-        covered by the area of study called astrodynamics . Some spacecraft remain
-        in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry , and
-        others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.\nMain article:
-        Satellite\nSatellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types
-        include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication
-        satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites.
-        Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.\nCommercialization
-        of space[ edit ]\nMain articles: Astrobiology and Extraterrestrial life\nAstrobiology
-        is the interdisciplinary study of life in the universe, combining aspects
-        of astronomy , biology and geology. [38] It is focused primarily on the study
-        of the origin , distribution and evolution of life. It is also known as exobiology
-        (from Greek: \u03ad\u03be\u03c9, exo, \"outside\"). [39] [40] [41] The term
-        \"Xenobiology\" has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because
-        its terminology means \"biology of the foreigners\". [42] Astrobiologists
-        must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct
-        from any life found on earth. [43] In the Solar System some of the prime locations
-        for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan.
-        [44]\nLiving in space[ edit ]\nThe European Space Agency ''s Columbus Module
-        at the International Space Station , launched into space on the U.S. Space
-        Shuttle mission STS122 in 2008\nSpace colonization, also called space settlement
-        and space humanization, would be the permanent autonomous (selfsufficient)
-        human habitation of locations outside Earth, especially of natural satellites
-        or planets such as the Moon or Mars , using significant amounts of insitu
-        resource utilization .\nTo date, the longest human occupation of space is
-        the International Space Station which has been in continuous use for 700114000000000000014
-        years, 700136000000000000036 days. Valeri Polyakov ''s record single spaceflight
-        of almost 438 days aboard the Mir space station has not been surpassed. Longterm
-        stays in space reveal issues with bone and muscle loss in low gravity, immune
-        system suppression, and radiation exposure.\nMany past and current concepts
-        for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return
-        to the Moon as a \"stepping stone\" to the other planets, especially Mars.
-        At the end of 2006 NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent
-        Moon base with continual presence by 2024. [45]\nBeyond the technical factors
-        that could make living in space more widespread, it has been suggested that
-        the lack of private property , the inability or difficulty in establishing
-        property rights in space, has been an impediment to the development of space
-        for human habitation. Since the advent of space technology in the latter half
-        of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky,
-        with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of national
-        territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically
-        proscribed by the Outer Space Treaty , which had been, as of 2012 [update]
-        , ratified by all spacefaring nations . [46]", "created_at": "2015-05-14 09:32:20.111004",
-        "meta": "{}", "document_id": "doc_id"}'
-    http_version: 
-  recorded_at: Thu, 14 May 2015 09:35:59 GMT
-recorded_with: VCR 2.9.3