lateral_recommender 0.0.2 → 0.0.3
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- checksums.yaml +4 -4
- data/.editorconfig +27 -0
- data/.gitignore +2 -1
- data/.rubocop.yml +21 -0
- data/.travis.yml +1 -1
- data/README.md +33 -44
- data/lateral_recommender.gemspec +8 -10
- data/lib/lateral_recommender/version.rb +1 -1
- data/lib/lateral_recommender.rb +21 -113
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/add.yml +19 -15
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/invalid_key.yml +21 -19
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_id.yml +40 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_id_arxiv.yml +201 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_id_news.yml +379 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_id_sec.yml +12392 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_id_wikipedia.yml +125 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text.yml +40 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text_arxiv.yml +236 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text_news.yml +294 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text_pubmed.yml +251 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text_sec.yml +11469 -0
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/recommend_by_text_wikipedia.yml +118 -0
- data/spec/lateral_recommender_spec.rb +67 -101
- metadata +89 -78
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/add_user.yml +0 -56
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/add_user_document.yml +0 -879
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_id.yml +0 -47
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_id_arxiv.yml +0 -68
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text.yml +0 -47
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text_arxiv.yml +0 -91
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text_movies.yml +0 -1262
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text_news.yml +0 -400
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text_pubmed.yml +0 -70
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_text_wikipedia.yml +0 -55
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user.yml +0 -56
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user_arxiv.yml +0 -152
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user_movies.yml +0 -1262
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user_news.yml +0 -400
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user_pubmed.yml +0 -116
- data/spec/fixtures/tapes/near_user_wikipedia.yml +0 -88
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string: text=Space+exploration%0AJump+to%3A+navigation+%2C+search%0ASaturn+V+rocket%2C+used+for+the+American+manned+lunar+landing+missions%0AThe+Moon+as+seen+in+a+digitally+processed+image+from+data+collected+during+a+spacecraft+flyby%0ASpace+exploration+is+the+ongoing+discovery+and+exploration+of+celestial+structures+in+outer+space+by+means+of+continuously+evolving+and+growing+space+technology+.+While+the+study+of+space+is+carried+out+mainly+by+astronomers+with+telescopes+%2C+the+physical+exploration+of+space+is+conducted+both+by+unmanned+robotic+probes+and+human+spaceflight+.%0AWhile+the+observation+of+objects+in+space%2C+known+as+astronomy+%2C+predates+reliable+recorded+history+%2C+it+was+the+development+of+large+and+relatively+efficient+rockets+during+the+early+20th+century+that+allowed+physical+space+exploration+to+become+a+reality.+Common+rationales+for+exploring+space+include+advancing+scientific+research%2C+uniting+different+nations%2C+ensuring+the+future+survival+of+humanity+and+developing+military+and+strategic+advantages+against+other+countries.%0ASpace+exploration+has+often+been+used+as+a+proxy+competition+for+geopolitical+rivalries+such+as+the+Cold+War+.+The+early+era+of+space+exploration+was+driven+by+a+%22+Space+Race+%22+between+the+Soviet+Union+and+the+United+States+%2C+the+launch+of+the+first+manmade+object+to+orbit+the+Earth+%2C+the+USSR%27s+Sputnik+1+%2C+on+4+October+1957%2C+and+the+first+Moon+landing+by+the+American+Apollo+11+craft+on+20+July+1969+are+often+taken+as+landmarks+for+this+initial+period.+The+Soviet+space+program+achieved+many+of+the+first+milestones%2C+including+the+first+living+being+in+orbit+in+1957%2C+the+first+human+spaceflight+%28+Yuri+Gagarin+aboard+Vostok+1+%29+in+1961%2C+the+first+spacewalk+%28by+Aleksei+Leonov+%29+on+18+March+1965%2C+the+first+automatic+landing+on+another+celestial+body+in+1966%2C+and+the+launch+of+the+first+space+station+%28+Salyut+1+%29+in+1971.%0AAfter+the+first+20+years+of+exploration%2C+focus+shifted+from+oneoff+flights+to+renewable+hardware%2C+such+as+the+Space+Shuttle+program+%2C+and+from+competition+to+cooperation+as+with+the+International+Space+Station+%28ISS%29.%0AWith+the+substantial+completion+of+the+ISS+%5B1%5D+following+STS133+in+March+2011%2C+plans+for+space+exploration+by+the+USA+remain+in+flux.+Constellation+%2C+a+Bush+Administration+program+for+a+return+to+the+Moon+by+2020+%5B2%5D+was+judged+inadequately+funded+and+unrealistic+by+an+expert+review+panel+reporting+in+2009.+%5B3%5D+The+Obama+Administration+proposed+a+revision+of+Constellation+in+2010+to+focus+on+the+development+of+the+capability+for+crewed+missions+beyond+low+earth+orbit+%28LEO%29%2C+envisioning+extending+the+operation+of+the+ISS+beyond+2020%2C+transferring+the+development+of+launch+vehicles+for+human+crews+from+NASA+to+the+private+sector%2C+and+developing+technology+to+enable+missions+to+beyond+LEO%2C+such+as+Earth%2FMoon+L1+%2C+the+Moon%2C+Earth%2FSun+L2+%2C+nearearth+asteroids%2C+and+Phobos+or+Mars+orbit.+%5B4%5D+As+of+March+2011%2C+the+US+Senate+and+House+of+Representatives+are+still+working+towards+a+compromise+NASA+funding+bill%2C+which+will+probably+terminate+Constellation+and+fund+development+of+a+heavy+lift+launch+vehicle+%28HLLV%29.+%5B5%5D%0AIn+the+2000s%2C+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+initiated+a+successful+manned+spaceflight+program+%2C+while+the+European+Union+%2C+Japan%2C+and+India+have+also+planned+future+manned+space+missions.+China%2C+Russia%2C+Japan%2C+and+India+have+advocated+manned+missions+to+the+Moon+during+the+21st+century%2C+while+the+European+Union+has+advocated+manned+missions+to+both+the+Moon+and+Mars+during+the+21st+century.%0AFrom+the+1990s+onwards%2C+private+interests+began+promoting+space+tourism+and+then+private+space+exploration+of+the+Moon+%28see+Google+Lunar+X+Prize+%29.%0AContents%0ASee+also%3A+Timeline+of+space+exploration+%2C+History+of+astronomy+and+Timeline+of+first+orbital+launches+by+country%0AMost+orbital+flight+actually+takes+place+in+upper+layers+of+the+atmosphere%2C+especially+in+the+thermosphere+%28not+to+scale%29%0AIn+July+1950+the+first+Bumper+rocket+is+launched+from+Cape+Canaveral%2C+Florida.+The+Bumper+was+a+twostage+rocket+consisting+of+a+PostWar+V2+topped+by+a+WAC+Corporal+rocket.+It+could+reach+thenrecord+altitudes+of+almost+400+km.+Launched+by+General+Electric+Company%2C+this+Bumper+was+used+primarily+for+testing+rocket+systems+and+for+research+on+the+upper+atmosphere.+They+carried+small+payloads+that+allowed+them+to+measure+attributes+including+air+temperature+and+cosmic+ray+impacts.%0AThe+first+steps+of+putting+a+manmade+object+into+space+were+taken+by+German+scientists+during+World+War+II+while+testing+the+V2+rocket%2C+which+became+the+first+manmade+object+in+space+on+3+October+1942+with+the+launching+of+the+A4+.+After+the+war%2C+the+U.S.+used+German+scientists+and+their+captured+rockets+in+programs+for+both+military+and+civilian+research.+The+first+scientific+exploration+from+space+was+the+cosmic+radiation+experiment+launched+by+the+U.S.+on+a+V2+rocket+on+10+May+1946.+%5B6%5D+The+first+images+of+Earth+taken+from+space+followed+the+same+year+%5B7%5D+%5B8%5D+while+the+first+animal+experiment+saw+fruit+flies+lifted+into+space+in+1947%2C+both+also+on+modified+V2s+launched+by+Americans.+Starting+in+1947%2C+the+Soviets%2C+also+with+the+help+of+German+teams%2C+launched+suborbital+V2+rockets+and+their+own+variant%2C+the+R1+%2C+including+radiation+and+animal+experiments+on+some+flights.+These+suborbital+experiments+only+allowed+a+very+short+time+in+space+which+limited+their+usefulness.%0AFirst+flights%5B+edit+%5D%0ASputnik+1+%2C+the+first+artificial+satellite+orbited+earth+at+939+to+215+km+%28583+to+134+mi%29+in+1957%2C+and+was+soon+followed+by+Sputnik+2+.+See+First+satellite+by+country+%28Replica+Pictured%29%0AApollo+CSM+in+lunar+orbit%0AApollo+17+astronaut+Harrison+Schmitt+standing+next+to+a+boulder+at+TaurusLittrow.%0AThe+first+successful+orbital+launch+was+of+the+Soviet+unmanned+Sputnik+1+%28%22Satellite+1%22%29+mission+on+4+October+1957.+The+satellite+weighed+about+83+kg+%28183+lb%29%2C+and+is+believed+to+have+orbited+Earth+at+a+height+of+about+250+km+%28160+mi%29.+It+had+two+radio+transmitters+%2820+and+40+MHz%29%2C+which+emitted+%22beeps%22+that+could+be+heard+by+radios+around+the+globe.+Analysis+of+the+radio+signals+was+used+to+gather+information+about+the+electron+density+of+the+ionosphere%2C+while+temperature+and+pressure+data+was+encoded+in+the+duration+of+radio+beeps.+The+results+indicated+that+the+satellite+was+not+punctured+by+a+meteoroid+.+Sputnik+1+was+launched+by+an+R7+rocket.+It+burned+up+upon+reentry+on+3+January+1958.%0AThis+success+led+to+an+escalation+of+the+American+space+program+%2C+which+unsuccessfully+attempted+to+launch+a+Vanguard+satellite+into+orbit+two+months+later.+On+31+January+1958%2C+the+U.S.+successfully+orbited+Explorer+1+on+a+Juno+rocket.+In+the+meantime%2C+the+Soviet+dog+Laika+became+the+first+animal+in+orbit+on+3+November+1957.%0AFirst+human+flights%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+first+successful+human+spaceflight+was+Vostok+1+%28%22East+1%22%29%2C+carrying+27+year+old+Russian+cosmonaut+Yuri+Gagarin+on+12+April+1961.+The+spacecraft+completed+one+orbit+around+the+globe%2C+lasting+about+1+hour+and+48+minutes.+Gagarin%27s+flight+resonated+around+the+world%3B+it+was+a+demonstration+of+the+advanced+Soviet+space+program+and+it+opened+an+entirely+new+era+in+space+exploration%3A+human+spaceflight+.%0AThe+U.S.+first+launched+a+person+into+space+within+a+month+of+Vostok+1+with+Alan+Shepard+%27s+suborbital+flight+in+MercuryRedstone+3+.+Orbital+flight+was+achieved+by+the+United+States+when+John+Glenn+%27s+MercuryAtlas+6+orbited+the+Earth+on+20+February+1962.%0AValentina+Tereshkova+%2C+the+first+woman+in+space%2C+orbited+the+Earth+48+times+aboard+Vostok+6+on+16+June+1963.%0AChina+first+launched+a+person+into+space+42+years+after+the+launch+of+Vostok+1%2C+on+15+October+2003%2C+with+the+flight+of+Yang+Liwei+aboard+the+Shenzhou+5+%28Spaceboat+5%29+spacecraft.%0AFirst+planetary+explorations%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+first+artificial+object+to+reach+another+celestial+body+was+Luna+2+in+1959.+%5B9%5D+The+first+automatic+landing+on+another+celestial+body+was+performed+by+Luna+9+%5B10%5D+in+1966.+Luna+10+became+the+first+artificial+satellite+of+the+Moon.+%5B11%5D%0AThe+first+manned+landing+on+another+celestial+body+was+performed+by+Apollo+11+in+its+lunar+landing+on+20+July+1969.%0AThe+first+successful+interplanetary+flyby+was+the+1962+Mariner+2+flyby+of+Venus+%28closest+approach+34%2C773+kilometers%29.+Flybys+for+the+other+planets+were+first+achieved+in+1965+for+Mars+by+Mariner+4+%2C+1973+for+Jupiter+by+Pioneer+10+%2C+1974+for+Mercury+by+Mariner+10+%2C+1979+for+Saturn+by+Pioneer+11+%2C+1986+for+Uranus+by+Voyager+2+%2C+and+1989+for+Neptune+by+Voyager+2.%0AThe+first+interplanetary+surface+mission+to+return+at+least+limited+surface+data+from+another+planet+was+the+1970+landing+of+Venera+7+on+Venus+which+returned+data+to+earth+for+23+minutes.+In+1971+the+Mars+3+mission+achieved+the+first+soft+landing+on+Mars+returning+data+for+almost+20+seconds.+Later+much+longer+duration+surface+missions+were+achieved%2C+including+over+6+years+of+Mars+surface+operation+by+Viking+1+from+1975+to+1982+and+over+2+hours+of+transmission+from+the+surface+of+Venus+by+Venera+13+in+1982%2C+the+longest+ever+Soviet+planetary+surface+mission.%0AKey+people+in+early+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+dream+of+stepping+into+the+outer+reaches+of+the+Earth%27s+atmosphere+was+driven+by+the+fiction+of+Jules+Verne+%5B12%5D+%5B13%5D+%5B14%5D+and+H.G.Wells+%2C+%5B15%5D+and+rocket+technology+was+developed+to+try+to+realise+this+vision.+The+German+V2+was+the+first+rocket+to+travel+into+space%2C+overcoming+the+problems+of+thrust+and+material+failure.+During+the+final+days+of+World+War+II+this+technology+was+obtained+by+both+the+Americans+and+Soviets+as+were+its+designers.+The+initial+driving+force+for+further+development+of+the+technology+was+a+weapons+race+for+intercontinental+ballistic+missiles+%28+ICBMs+%29+to+be+used+as+longrange+carriers+for+fast+nuclear+weapon+delivery%2C+but+in+1961+when+USSR+launched+the+first+man+into+space%2C+the+U.S.+declared+itself+to+be+in+a+%22+Space+Race+%22+with+the+Soviets.%0AKonstantin+Tsiolkovsky+%2C+Robert+Goddard+%2C+Hermann+Oberth+%2C+and+Reinhold+Tiling+laid+the+groundwork+of+rocketry+in+the+early+years+of+the+20th+century.%0AWernher+von+Braun+was+the+lead+rocket+engineer+for+Nazi+Germany%27s+World+War+II+V2+rocket+project.+In+the+last+days+of+the+war+he+led+a+caravan+of+workers+in+the+German+rocket+program+to+the+American+lines%2C+where+they+surrendered+and+were+brought+to+the+USA+to+work+on+U.S.+rocket+development+%28%22+Operation+Paperclip+%22%29.+He+acquired+American+citizenship+and+led+the+team+that+developed+and+launched+Explorer+1+%2C+the+first+American+satellite.+Von+Braun+later+led+the+team+at+NASA+%27s+Marshall+Space+Flight+Center+which+developed+the+Saturn+V+moon+rocket.%0AInitially+the+race+for+space+was+often+led+by+Sergei+Korolyov+%2C+whose+legacy+includes+both+the+R7+and+Soyuz+%E2%80%94which+remain+in+service+to+this+day.+Korolev+was+the+mastermind+behind+the+first+satellite%2C+first+man+%28and+first+woman%29+in+orbit+and+first+spacewalk.+Until+his+death+his+identity+was+a+closely+guarded+state+secret%3B+not+even+his+mother+knew+that+he+was+responsible+for+creating+the+Soviet+space+program.%0AKerim+Kerimov+was+one+of+the+founders+of+the+Soviet+space+program+and+was+one+of+the+lead+architects+behind+the+first+human+spaceflight+%28+Vostok+1+%29+alongside+Sergey+Korolyov.+After+Korolyov%27s+death+in+1966%2C+Kerimov+became+the+lead+scientist+of+the+Soviet+space+program+and+was+responsible+for+the+launch+of+the+first+space+stations+from+1971+to+1991%2C+including+the+Salyut+and+Mir+series%2C+and+their+precursors+in+1967%2C+the+Cosmos+186+and+Cosmos+188+.+%5B16%5D+%5B17%5D%0AOther+key+people%5B+edit+%5D%0AValentin+Glushko+held+the+role+of+Chief+Engine+Designer+for+USSR.+Glushko+designed+many+of+the+engines+used+on+the+early+Soviet+rockets%2C+but+was+constantly+at+odds+with+Korolyov.%0AVasily+Mishin+was+Chief+Designer+working+under+Sergey+Korolyov+and+one+of+first+Soviets+to+inspect+the+captured+German+V2+design.+Following+the+death+of+Sergei+Korolev%2C+Mishin+was+held+responsible+for+the+Soviet+failure+to+be+first+country+to+place+a+man+on+the+moon.%0ARobert+Gilruth+was+the+NASA+head+of+the+Space+Task+Force+and+director+of+25+manned+space+flights.+Gilruth+was+the+person+who+suggested+to+John+F.+Kennedy+that+the+Americans+take+the+bold+step+of+reaching+the+Moon+in+an+attempt+to+reclaim+space+superiority+from+the+Soviets.%0AChristopher+C.+Kraft%2C+Jr.+was+NASA%27s+first+flight+director+%2C+who+oversaw+development+of+Mission+Control+and+associated+technologies+and+procedures.%0AMaxime+Faget+was+the+designer+of+the+Mercury+capsule%3B+he+played+a+key+role+in+designing+the+Gemini+and+Apollo+spacecraft%2C+and+contributed+to+the+design+of+the+Space+Shuttle+.%0ATargets+of+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+Sun%5B+edit+%5D%0AWhile+the+Sun+will+probably+not+be+physically+explored+in+the+close+future%2C+one+of+the+reasons+for+going+into+space+is+to+know+more+about+the+Sun.+Once+above+the+atmosphere+in+particular+and+the+Earth%27s+magnetic+field%2C+this+gives+access+to+the+Solar+wind+and+infrared+and+ultraviolet+radiations+that+cannot+reach+the+surface+of+the+Earth.+The+Sun+generates+most+space+weather+%2C+which+can+affect+power+generation+and+transmission+systems+on+Earth+and+interfere+with%2C+and+even+damage%2C+satellites+and+space+probes.%0AMESSENGER+image+of+Mercury%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Mercury%0AMercury+remains+the+least+explored+of+the+inner+planets+.+As+of+May+2013%2C+the+Mariner+10+and+MESSENGER+missions+have+been+the+only+missions+that+have+made+close+observations+of+Mercury.+MESSENGER+entered+orbit+around+Mercury+in+March+2011%2C+to+further+investigate+the+observations+made+by+Mariner+10+in+1975+%28Munsell%2C+2006b%29.%0AA+MESSENGER+image+from+18%2C000+km+showing+a+region+about+500+km+across%0AA+third+mission+to+Mercury%2C+scheduled+to+arrive+in+2020%2C+BepiColombo+is+to+include+two+probes+.+BepiColombo+is+a+joint+mission+between+Japan+and+the+European+Space+Agency+.+MESSENGER+and+BepiColombo+are+intended+to+gather+complementary+data+to+help+scientists+understand+many+of+the+mysteries+discovered+by+Mariner+10%27s+flybys+.%0AFlights+to+other+planets+within+the+Solar+System+are+accomplished+at+a+cost+in+energy%2C+which+is+described+by+the+net+change+in+velocity+of+the+spacecraft%2C+or+deltav+.+Due+to+the+relatively+high+deltav+to+reach+Mercury+and+its+proximity+to+the+Sun%2C+it+is+difficult+to+explore+and+orbits+around+it+are+rather+unstable.%0AMain+article%3A+Observations+and+explorations+of+Venus%0AVenus+was+the+first+target+of+interplanetary+flyby+and+lander+missions+and%2C+despite+one+of+the+most+hostile+surface+environments+in+the+solar+system%2C+has+had+more+landers+sent+to+it+%28nearly+all+from+the+Soviet+Union%29+than+any+other+planet+in+the+solar+system.+The+first+successful+Venus+flyby+was+the+American+Mariner+2+spacecraft%2C+which+flew+past+Venus+in+1962.+Mariner+2+has+been+followed+by+several+other+flybys+by+multiple+space+agencies+often+as+part+of+missions+using+a+Venus+flyby+to+provide+a+gravitational+assist+en+route+to+other+celestial+bodies.+In+1967+Venera+4+became+the+first+probe+to+enter+and+directly+examine+the+atmosphere+of+Venus.+In+1970+Venera+7+became+the+first+successful+lander+to+reach+the+surface+of+Venus+and+by+1985+it+had+been+followed+by+eight+additional+successful+Soviet+Venus+landers+which+provided+images+and+other+direct+surface+data.+Starting+in+1975+with+the+Soviet+orbiter+Venera+9+some+ten+successful+orbiter+missions+have+been+sent+to+Venus%2C+including+later+missions+which+were+able+to+map+the+surface+of+Venus+using+radar+to+pierce+the+obscuring+atmosphere.%0AThe+%22marble%22+Earth+picture+taken+by+Apollo+17%0AFirst+television+image+of+Earth+from+space%0AMain+article%3A+Earth+observation+satellite%0ASpace+exploration+has+been+used+as+a+tool+to+understand+the+Earth+as+a+celestial+object+in+its+own+right.+Orbital+missions+can+provide+data+for+the+Earth+that+can+be+difficult+or+impossible+to+obtain+from+a+purely+groundbased+point+of+reference.%0AFor+example%2C+the+existence+of+the+Van+Allen+belts+was+unknown+until+their+discovery+by+the+United+States%27+first+artificial+satellite%2C+Explorer+1+.+These+belts+contain+radiation+trapped+by+the+Earth%27s+magnetic+fields%2C+which+currently+renders+construction+of+habitable+space+stations+above+1000+km+impractical.+Following+this+early+unexpected+discovery%2C+a+large+number+of+Earth+observation+satellites+have+been+deployed+specifically+to+explore+the+Earth+from+a+space+based+perspective.+These+satellites+have+significantly+contributed+to+the+understanding+of+a+variety+of+earth+based+phenomena.+For+instance%2C+the+hole+in+the+ozone+layer+was+found+by+an+artificial+satellite+that+was+exploring+Earth%27s+atmosphere%2C+and+satellites+have+allowed+for+the+discovery+of+archeological+sites+or+geological+formations+that+were+difficult+or+impossible+to+otherwise+identify.%0AThe+Moon+as+seen+from+the+Earth%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+the+Moon%0AEarth%27s+Moon+was+the+first+celestial+body+to+be+the+object+of+space+exploration.+It+holds+the+distinctions+of+being+the+first+remote+celestial+object+to+be+flown+by%2C+orbited%2C+and+landed+upon+by+spacecraft%2C+and+the+only+remote+celestial+object+ever+to+be+visited+by+humans.%0AIn+1959+the+Soviets+obtained+the+first+images+of+the+far+side+of+the+Moon+%2C+never+previously+visible+to+humans.+The+U.S.+exploration+of+the+Moon+began+with+the+Ranger+4+impactor+in+1962.+Starting+in+1966+the+Soviets+successfully+deployed+a+number+of+landers+to+the+Moon+which+were+able+to+obtain+data+directly+from+the+Moon%27s+surface%3B+just+four+months+later%2C+Surveyor+1+marked+the+debut+of+a+successful+series+of+U.S.+landers.+The+Soviet+unmanned+missions+culminated+in+the+Lunokhod+program+in+the+early+%2770s+which+included+the+first+unmanned+rovers+and+also+successfully+returned+lunar+soil+samples+to+the+Earth+for+study.+This+marked+the+first+%28and+to+date+the+only%29+automated+return+of+extraterrestrial+soil+samples+to+the+Earth.+Unmanned+exploration+of+the+Moon+continues+with+various+nations+periodically+deploying+lunar+orbiters%2C+and+in+2008+the+Indian+Moon+Impact+Probe+.%0AManned+exploration+of+the+Moon+began+in+1968+with+the+Apollo+8+mission+that+successfully+orbited+the+Moon%2C+the+first+time+any+extraterrestrial+object+was+orbited+by+humans.+In+1969+the+Apollo+11+mission+marked+the+first+time+humans+set+foot+upon+another+world.+Manned+exploration+of+the+Moon+did+not+continue+for+long%2C+however.+The+Apollo+17+mission+in+1972+marked+the+most+recent+human+visit+there%2C+and+the+next%2C+Exploration+Mission+2+%2C+is+due+to+orbit+the+Moon+in+2019.+Robotic+missions+are+still+pursued+vigorously.%0AMars+as+seen+by+the+HST%0ASurface+of+mars+by+the+Spirit+rover+in+2004%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Mars%0AThe+exploration+of+Mars+has+been+an+important+part+of+the+space+exploration+programs+of+the+Soviet+Union+%28later+Russia%29%2C+the+United+States%2C+Europe%2C+and+Japan.+Dozens+of+robotic+spacecraft+%2C+including+orbiters+%2C+landers+%2C+and+rovers+%2C+have+been+launched+toward+Mars+since+the+1960s.+These+missions+were+aimed+at+gathering+data+about+current+conditions+and+answering+questions+about+the+history+of+Mars.+The+questions+raised+by+the+scientific+community+are+expected+to+not+only+give+a+better+appreciation+of+the+red+planet+but+also+yield+further+insight+into+the+past%2C+and+possible+future%2C+of+Earth.%0AThe+exploration+of+Mars+has+come+at+a+considerable+financial+cost+with+roughly+twothirds+of+all+spacecraft+destined+for+Mars+failing+before+completing+their+missions%2C+with+some+failing+before+they+even+began.+Such+a+high+failure+rate+can+be+attributed+to+the+complexity+and+large+number+of+variables+involved+in+an+interplanetary+journey%2C+and+has+led+researchers+to+jokingly+speak+of+The+Great+Galactic+Ghoul+%5B18%5D+which+subsists+on+a+diet+of+Mars+probes.+This+phenomenon+is+also+informally+known+as+the+Mars+Curse+.+%5B19%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Phobos%0AThe+Russian+space+mission+FobosGrunt+%2C+which+launched+on+9+November+2011+experienced+a+failure+leaving+it+stranded+in+low+Earth+orbit+.+%5B20%5D+It+was+to+begin+exploration+of+the+Phobos+and+Martian+circumterrestrial+orbit%2C+and+study+whether+the+moons+of+Mars%2C+or+at+least+Phobos%2C+could+be+a+%22transshipment+point%22+for+spaceships+travelling+to+Mars.+%5B21%5D%0AImage+of+Io+taken+by+the+Galileo+spacecraft%0AThe+exploration+of+Jupiter+has+consisted+solely+of+a+number+of+automated+NASA+spacecraft+visiting+the+planet+since+1973.+A+large+majority+of+the+missions+have+been+%22flybys%22%2C+in+which+detailed+observations+are+taken+without+the+probe+landing+or+entering+orbit%3B+the+Galileo+spacecraft+is+the+only+one+to+have+orbited+the+planet.+As+Jupiter+is+believed+to+have+only+a+relatively+small+rocky+core+and+no+real+solid+surface%2C+a+landing+mission+is+nearly+impossible.%0AReaching+Jupiter+from+Earth+requires+a+deltav+of+9.2+km%2Fs%2C+%5B22%5D+which+is+comparable+to+the+9.7+km%2Fs+deltav+needed+to+reach+low+Earth+orbit.+%5B23%5D+Fortunately%2C+gravity+assists+through+planetary+flybys+can+be+used+to+reduce+the+energy+required+at+launch+to+reach+Jupiter%2C+albeit+at+the+cost+of+a+significantly+longer+flight+duration.+%5B22%5D%0AJupiter+has+over+60+known+moons+%2C+many+of+which+have+relatively+little+known+information+about+them.%0AA+picture+of+Saturn+taken+by+Voyager+2+.%0AHuygens+image+from+the+surface+of+Titan%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Saturn%0ASaturn+has+been+explored+only+through+unmanned+spacecraft+launched+by+NASA%2C+including+one+mission+%28+Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens+%29+planned+and+executed+in+cooperation+with+other+space+agencies.+These+missions+consist+of+flybys+in+1979+by+Pioneer+11+%2C+in+1980+by+Voyager+1+%2C+in+1982+by+Voyager+2+and+an+orbital+mission+by+the+Cassini+spacecraft+which+entered+orbit+in+2004+and+is+expected+to+continue+its+mission+well+into+2012.%0ASaturn+has+at+least+62+known+moons+%2C+although+the+exact+number+is+debatable+since+Saturn%27s+rings+are+made+up+of+vast+numbers+of+independently+orbiting+objects+of+varying+sizes.+The+largest+of+the+moons+is+Titan+.+Titan+holds+the+distinction+of+being+the+only+moon+in+the+solar+system+with+an+atmosphere+denser+and+thicker+than+that+of+the+Earth.+As+a+result+of+the+deployment+from+the+Cassini+spacecraft+of+the+Huygens+probe+and+its+successful+landing+on+Titan%2C+Titan+also+holds+the+distinction+of+being+the+only+moon+%28apart+from+Earth%27s+own+Moon%29+to+be+successfully+explored+with+a+lander.%0AUranus+from+Voyager+2%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Uranus%0AThe+exploration+of+Uranus+has+been+entirely+through+the+Voyager+2+spacecraft%2C+with+no+other+visits+currently+planned.+Given+its+axial+tilt+of+97.77%C2%B0%2C+with+its+polar+regions+exposed+to+sunlight+or+darkness+for+long+periods%2C+scientists+were+not+sure+what+to+expect+at+Uranus.+The+closest+approach+to+Uranus+occurred+on+24+January+1986.+Voyager+2+studied+the+planet%27s+unique+atmosphere+and+magnetosphere+.+Voyager+2+also+examined+its+ring+system+and+the+moons+of+Uranus+including+all+five+of+the+previously+known+moons%2C+while+discovering+an+additional+ten+previously+unknown+moons.%0AImages+of+Uranus+proved+to+have+a+very+uniform+appearance%2C+with+no+evidence+of+the+dramatic+storms+or+atmospheric+banding+evident+on+Jupiter+and+Saturn.+Great+effort+was+required+to+even+identify+a+few+clouds+in+the+images+of+the+planet.+The+magnetosphere+of+Uranus%2C+however%2C+proved+to+be+completely+unique+and+proved+to+be+profoundly+affected+by+the+planet%27s+unusual+axial+tilt.+In+contrast+to+the+bland+appearance+of+Uranus+itself%2C+striking+images+were+obtained+of+the+moons+of+Uranus%2C+including+evidence+that+Miranda+had+been+unusually+geologically+active.%0APicture+of+Neptune+taken+by+Voyager+2%0ATriton+as+imaged+by+Voyager+2%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Neptune%0AThe+exploration+of+Neptune+began+with+the+25+August+1989+Voyager+2+flyby%2C+the+sole+visit+to+the+system+as+of+2014.+The+possibility+of+a+Neptune+Orbiter+has+been+discussed%2C+but+no+other+missions+have+been+given+serious+thought.%0AAlthough+the+extremely+uniform+appearance+of+Uranus+during+Voyager+2%27s+visit+in+1986+had+led+to+expectations+that+Neptune+would+also+have+few+visible+atmospheric+phenomena%2C+Voyager+2+found+that+Neptune+had+obvious+banding%2C+visible+clouds%2C+auroras+%2C+and+even+a+conspicuous+anticyclone+storm+system+rivaled+in+size+only+by+Jupiter%27s+small+Spot.+Neptune+also+proved+to+have+the+fastest+winds+of+any+planet+in+the+solar+system%2C+measured+as+high+as+2%2C100+km%2Fh.+%5B24%5D+Voyager+2+also+examined+Neptune%27s+ring+and+moon+system.+It+discovered+900+complete+rings+and+additional+partial+ring+%22arcs%22+around+Neptune.+In+addition+to+examining+Neptune%27s+three+previously+known+moons%2C+Voyager+2+also+discovered+five+previously+unknown+moons%2C+one+of+which%2C+Proteus+%2C+proved+to+be+the+last+largest+moon+in+the+system.+Data+from+Voyager+further+reinforced+the+view+that+Neptune%27s+largest+moon%2C+Triton+%2C+is+a+captured+Kuiper+belt+object.+%5B25%5D%0AOther+objects+in+the+Solar+system%5B+edit+%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Pluto%0APluto+and+Charon+%281994%29%0AThe+dwarf+planet+Pluto+%28considered+a+planet+until+the+IAU+redefined+%22planet%22+in+October+2006+%5B26%5D+%29+presents+significant+challenges+for+spacecraft+because+of+its+great+distance+from+Earth+%28requiring+high+velocity+for+reasonable+trip+times%29+and+small+mass+%28making+capture+into+orbit+very+difficult+at+present%29.+Voyager+1+could+have+visited+Pluto%2C+but+controllers+opted+instead+for+a+close+flyby+of+Saturn%27s+moon+Titan%2C+resulting+in+a+trajectory+incompatible+with+a+Pluto+flyby.+Voyager+2+never+had+a+plausible+trajectory+for+reaching+Pluto.+%5B27%5D%0APluto+continues+to+be+of+great+interest%2C+despite+its+reclassification+as+the+lead+and+nearest+member+of+a+new+and+growing+class+of+distant+icy+bodies+of+intermediate+size%2C+in+mass+between+the+remaining+eight+planets+and+the+small+rocky+objects+historically+termed+asteroids+%28and+also+the+first+member+of+the+important+subclass%2C+defined+by+orbit+and+known+as+%22+Plutinos+%22%29.+After+an+intense+political+battle%2C+a+mission+to+Pluto+dubbed+New+Horizons+was+granted+funding+from+the+US+government+in+2003.+%5B28%5D+New+Horizons+was+launched+successfully+on+19+January+2006.+In+early+2007+the+craft+made+use+of+a+gravity+assist+from+Jupiter+.+Its+closest+approach+to+Pluto+will+be+on+14+July+2015%3B+scientific+observations+of+Pluto+will+begin+five+months+prior+to+closest+approach+and+will+continue+for+at+least+a+month+after+the+encounter.%0AAsteroids+and+comets%5B+edit+%5D%0AComet+103P%2FHartley%0AAsteroid+4+Vesta%2C+imaged+by+the+Dawn+spacecraft%0AUntil+the+advent+of+space+travel+%2C+objects+in+the+asteroid+belt+were+merely+pinpricks+of+light+in+even+the+largest+telescopes%2C+their+shapes+and+terrain+remaining+a+mystery.+Several+asteroids+have+now+been+visited+by+probes%2C+the+first+of+which+was+Galileo+%2C+which+flew+past+two%3A+951+Gaspra+in+1991%2C+followed+by+243+Ida+in+1993.+Both+of+these+lay+near+enough+to+Galileo%27s+planned+trajectory+to+Jupiter+that+they+could+be+visited+at+acceptable+cost.+The+first+landing+on+an+asteroid+was+performed+by+the+NEAR+Shoemaker+probe+in+2000%2C+following+an+orbital+survey+of+the+object.+The+dwarf+planet+Ceres+and+the+asteroid+4+Vesta+%2C+two+of+the+three+largest+asteroids%2C+are+targets+of+NASA%27s+Dawn+mission+%2C+launched+in+2007.%0AWhile+many+comets+have+been+closely+studied+from+Earth+sometimes+with+centuriesworth+of+observations%2C+only+a+few+comets+have+been+closely+visited.+In+1985%2C+the+International+Cometary+Explorer+conducted+the+first+comet+flyby+%28+21P%2FGiacobiniZinner+%29+before+joining+the+Halley+Armada+studying+the+famous+comet.+The+Deep+Impact+probe+smashed+into+9P%2FTempel+to+learn+more+about+its+structure+and+composition+while+the+Stardust+mission+returned+samples+of+another+comet%27s+tail.+The+Philae+lander+successfully+landed+on+comet+67P%2FChuryumov%E2%80%93Gerasimenko+in+2014+as+part+of+the+broader+Rosetta+mission.%0AHayabusa+was+an+unmanned+spacecraft+developed+by+the+Japan+Aerospace+Exploration+Agency+to+return+a+sample+of+material+from+a+small+nearEarth+asteroid+named+25143+Itokawa+to+Earth+for+further+analysis.+Hayabusa+was+launched+on+9+May+2003+and+rendezvoused+with+Itokawa+in+midSeptember+2005.+After+arriving+at+Itokawa%2C+Hayabusa+studied+the+asteroid%27s+shape%2C+spin%2C+topography%2C+colour%2C+composition%2C+density%2C+and+history.+In+November+2005%2C+it+landed+on+the+asteroid+to+collect+samples.+The+spacecraft+returned+to+Earth+on+13+June+2010.%0ADeep+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AFuture+of+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AConcept+art+for+a+NASA+Vision+mission%0AThe+examples+and+perspective+in+this+section+may+not+represent+a+worldwide+view+of+the+subject.+Please+improve+this+article+and+discuss+the+issue+on+the+talk+page+.%0A%28September+2013%29%0AIn+the+2000s%2C+several+plans+for+space+exploration+were+announced%3B+both+government+entities+and+the+private+sector+have+space+exploration+objectives.+China+has+announced+plans+to+have+a+60ton+multimodule+space+station+in+orbit+by+2020.%0AThe+NASA+Authorization+Act+of+2010+provides+objectives+for+American+space+exploration.+NASA+proposes+to+move+forward+with+the+development+of+the+Space+Launch+System+%28SLS%29%2C+which+will+be+designed+to+carry+the+Orion+MultiPurpose+Crew+Vehicle%2C+as+well+as+important+cargo%2C+equipment%2C+and+science+experiments+to+Earth%27s+orbit+and+destinations+beyond.+Additionally%2C+the+SLS+will+serve+as+a+back+up+for+commercial+and+international+partner+transportation+services+to+the+International+Space+Station.+The+SLS+rocket+will+incorporate+technological+investments+from+the+Space+Shuttle+program+and+the+Constellation+program+in+order+to+take+advantage+of+proven+hardware+and+reduce+development+and+operations+costs.+The+first+developmental+flight+is+targeted+for+the+end+of+2017.+%5B29%5D%0AAI+in+Space+Exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+idea+of+using+high+level+automated+systems+for+space+missions+has+become+a+desirable+goal+to+space+agencies+all+around+the+world.+Such+systems+are+believed+to+yield+benefits+such+as+lower+cost%2C+less+human+oversight%2C+and+ability+to+explore+deeper+in+space+which+is+usually+restricted+by+long+communications+with+human+controllers.+%5B30%5D%0AAutonomous+System%5B+edit+%5D%0AAutonomy+is+defined+by+3+requirements%3A+%5B30%5D%0ABeing+able+to+sense+the+world+and+their+state%2C+make+decisions%2C+and+carry+them+out+on+their+own%0ACan+interpret+the+given+goal+as+a+list+of+actions+to+take%0AFail+flexibly%0ABenefits%5B+edit+%5D%0AAutonomed+technologies+would+be+able+to+perform+beyond+predetermined+actions.+It+would+analyze+all+possible+states+and+events+happening+around+them+and+come+up+with+a+safe+response.+In+addition%2C+such+technologies+can+reduce+launch+cost+and+ground+involvement.+Performance+would+increase+as+well.+Autonomy+would+be+able+to+quickly+respond+upon+encountering+an+unforeseen+event%2C+especially+in+deep+space+exploration+where+communication+back+to+Earth+would+take+too+long.+%5B30%5D%0ANASA%E2%80%99s+Autonomous+Science+Experiment%5B+edit+%5D%0ANASA+began+its+autonomous+science+experiment+%28ASE%29+on+the+Earth+Observing+1+%28EO1%29+which+is+NASA%E2%80%99s+first+satellite+in+the+new+millennium+program+Earth+observing+series+launched+on+21+November+2000.+The+autonomy+of+ASE+is+capable+of+onboard+science+analysis%2C+replanning%2C+robust+execution%2C+and+later+the+addition+of+modelbased+diagnostic.+Images+obtained+by+the+EO1+are+analyzed+onboard+and+downlinked+when+a+change+or+an+interesting+event+occur.+The+ASE+software+has+successfully+provided+over+10%2C000+science+images.+%5B30%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Space+advocacy%0AAstronaut+Buzz+Aldrin+%2C+had+a+personal+Communion+service+when+he+first+arrived+on+the+surface+of+the+Moon+.%0AThe+research+that+is+conducted+by+national+space+exploration+agencies%2C+such+as+NASA+and+Roscosmos+%2C+is+one+of+the+reasons+supporters+cite+to+justify+government+expenses.+Economic+analyses+of+the+NASA+programs+often+showed+ongoing+economic+benefits+%28such+as+NASA+spinoffs+%29%2C+generating+many+times+the+revenue+of+the+cost+of+the+program.+%5B31%5D+It+is+also+argued+that+space+exploration+would+lead+to+the+extraction+of+resources+on+other+planets+and+especially+asteroids%2C+which+contain+billions+of+dollars+worth+of+minerals+and+metals.+The+revenue+generated+from+such+expeditions+could+generate+a+lot+of+revenue.+%5B32%5D+As+well%2C+it+has+been+argued+that+space+exploration+programs+help+inspire+youth+to+study+in+science+and+engineering.+%5B33%5D%0AAnother+claim+is+that+space+exploration+is+a+necessity+to+mankind+and+that+staying+on+Earth+will+lead+to+extinction+.+Some+of+the+reasons+are+lack+of+natural+resources%2C+comets%2C+nuclear+war%2C+and+worldwide+epidemic.+Stephen+Hawking+%2C+renowned+British+theoretical+physicist%2C+said+that+%22I+don%27t+think+the+human+race+will+survive+the+next+thousand+years%2C+unless+we+spread+into+space.+There+are+too+many+accidents+that+can+befall+life+on+a+single+planet.+But+I%27m+an+optimist.+We+will+reach+out+to+the+stars.%22+%5B34%5D%0ANASA+has+produced+a+series+of+public+service+announcement+videos+supporting+the+concept+of+space+exploration.+%5B35%5D%0AOverall%2C+the+public+remains+largely+supportive+of+both+manned+and+unmanned+space+exploration.+According+to+an+Associated+Press+Poll+conducted+in+July+2003%2C+71%25+of+U.S.+citizens+agreed+with+the+statement+that+the+space+program+is+%22a+good+investment%22%2C+compared+to+21%25+who+did+not.+%5B36%5D%0AArthur+C.+Clarke+%281950%29+presented+a+summary+of+motivations+for+the+human+exploration+of+space+in+his+nonfiction+semitechnical+monograph+Interplanetary+Flight.+%5B37%5D+He+argued+that+humanity%27s+choice+is+essentially+between+expansion+off+the+Earth+into+space%2C+versus+cultural+%28and+eventually+biological%29+stagnation+and+death.%0AMain+article%3A+Spaceflight%0ASpaceflight+is+the+use+of+space+technology+to+achieve+the+flight+of+spacecraft+into+and+through+outer+space.%0ASpaceflight+is+used+in+space+exploration%2C+and+also+in+commercial+activities+like+space+tourism+and+satellite+telecommunications+.+Additional+noncommercial+uses+of+spaceflight+include+space+observatories+%2C+reconnaissance+satellites+and+other+earth+observation+satellites+.%0AA+spaceflight+typically+begins+with+a+rocket+launch+%2C+which+provides+the+initial+thrust+to+overcome+the+force+of+gravity+and+propels+the+spacecraft+from+the+surface+of+the+Earth.+Once+in+space%2C+the+motion+of+a+spacecraft%E2%80%94both+when+unpropelled+and+when+under+propulsion%E2%80%94is+covered+by+the+area+of+study+called+astrodynamics+.+Some+spacecraft+remain+in+space+indefinitely%2C+some+disintegrate+during+atmospheric+reentry+%2C+and+others+reach+a+planetary+or+lunar+surface+for+landing+or+impact.%0AMain+article%3A+Satellite%0ASatellites+are+used+for+a+large+number+of+purposes.+Common+types+include+military+%28spy%29+and+civilian+Earth+observation+satellites%2C+communication+satellites%2C+navigation+satellites%2C+weather+satellites%2C+and+research+satellites.+Space+stations+and+human+spacecraft+in+orbit+are+also+satellites.%0ACommercialization+of+space%5B+edit+%5D%0AMain+articles%3A+Astrobiology+and+Extraterrestrial+life%0AAstrobiology+is+the+interdisciplinary+study+of+life+in+the+universe%2C+combining+aspects+of+astronomy+%2C+biology+and+geology.+%5B38%5D+It+is+focused+primarily+on+the+study+of+the+origin+%2C+distribution+and+evolution+of+life.+It+is+also+known+as+exobiology+%28from+Greek%3A+%CE%AD%CE%BE%CF%89%2C+exo%2C+%22outside%22%29.+%5B39%5D+%5B40%5D+%5B41%5D+The+term+%22Xenobiology%22+has+been+used+as+well%2C+but+this+is+technically+incorrect+because+its+terminology+means+%22biology+of+the+foreigners%22.+%5B42%5D+Astrobiologists+must+also+consider+the+possibility+of+life+that+is+chemically+entirely+distinct+from+any+life+found+on+earth.+%5B43%5D+In+the+Solar+System+some+of+the+prime+locations+for+current+or+past+astrobiology+are+on+Enceladus%2C+Europa%2C+Mars%2C+and+Titan.+%5B44%5D%0ALiving+in+space%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+European+Space+Agency+%27s+Columbus+Module+at+the+International+Space+Station+%2C+launched+into+space+on+the+U.S.+Space+Shuttle+mission+STS122+in+2008%0ASpace+colonization%2C+also+called+space+settlement+and+space+humanization%2C+would+be+the+permanent+autonomous+%28selfsufficient%29+human+habitation+of+locations+outside+Earth%2C+especially+of+natural+satellites+or+planets+such+as+the+Moon+or+Mars+%2C+using+significant+amounts+of+insitu+resource+utilization+.%0ATo+date%2C+the+longest+human+occupation+of+space+is+the+International+Space+Station+which+has+been+in+continuous+use+for+700114000000000000014+years%2C+700136000000000000036+days.+Valeri+Polyakov+%27s+record+single+spaceflight+of+almost+438+days+aboard+the+Mir+space+station+has+not+been+surpassed.+Longterm+stays+in+space+reveal+issues+with+bone+and+muscle+loss+in+low+gravity%2C+immune+system+suppression%2C+and+radiation+exposure.%0AMany+past+and+current+concepts+for+the+continued+exploration+and+colonization+of+space+focus+on+a+return+to+the+Moon+as+a+%22stepping+stone%22+to+the+other+planets%2C+especially+Mars.+At+the+end+of+2006+NASA+announced+they+were+planning+to+build+a+permanent+Moon+base+with+continual+presence+by+2024.+%5B45%5D%0ABeyond+the+technical+factors+that+could+make+living+in+space+more+widespread%2C+it+has+been+suggested+that+the+lack+of+private+property+%2C+the+inability+or+difficulty+in+establishing+property+rights+in+space%2C+has+been+an+impediment+to+the+development+of+space+for+human+habitation.+Since+the+advent+of+space+technology+in+the+latter+half+of+the+twentieth+century%2C+the+ownership+of+property+in+space+has+been+murky%2C+with+strong+arguments+both+for+and+against.+In+particular%2C+the+making+of+national+territorial+claims+in+outer+space+and+on+celestial+bodies+has+been+specifically+proscribed+by+the+Outer+Space+Treaty+%2C+which+had+been%2C+as+of+2012+%5Bupdate%5D+%2C+ratified+by+all+spacefaring+nations+.+%5B46%5D%0A
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text=Space+exploration%0AJump+to%3A+navigation+%2C+search%0ASaturn+V+rocket%2C+used+for+the+American+manned+lunar+landing+missions%0AThe+Moon+as+seen+in+a+digitally+processed+image+from+data+collected+during+a+spacecraft+flyby%0ASpace+exploration+is+the+ongoing+discovery+and+exploration+of+celestial+structures+in+outer+space+by+means+of+continuously+evolving+and+growing+space+technology+.+While+the+study+of+space+is+carried+out+mainly+by+astronomers+with+telescopes+%2C+the+physical+exploration+of+space+is+conducted+both+by+unmanned+robotic+probes+and+human+spaceflight+.%0AWhile+the+observation+of+objects+in+space%2C+known+as+astronomy+%2C+predates+reliable+recorded+history+%2C+it+was+the+development+of+large+and+relatively+efficient+rockets+during+the+early+20th+century+that+allowed+physical+space+exploration+to+become+a+reality.+Common+rationales+for+exploring+space+include+advancing+scientific+research%2C+uniting+different+nations%2C+ensuring+the+future+survival+of+humanity+and+developing+military+and+strategic+advantages+against+other+countries.%0ASpace+exploration+has+often+been+used+as+a+proxy+competition+for+geopolitical+rivalries+such+as+the+Cold+War+.+The+early+era+of+space+exploration+was+driven+by+a+%22+Space+Race+%22+between+the+Soviet+Union+and+the+United+States+%2C+the+launch+of+the+first+manmade+object+to+orbit+the+Earth+%2C+the+USSR%27s+Sputnik+1+%2C+on+4+October+1957%2C+and+the+first+Moon+landing+by+the+American+Apollo+11+craft+on+20+July+1969+are+often+taken+as+landmarks+for+this+initial+period.+The+Soviet+space+program+achieved+many+of+the+first+milestones%2C+including+the+first+living+being+in+orbit+in+1957%2C+the+first+human+spaceflight+%28+Yuri+Gagarin+aboard+Vostok+1+%29+in+1961%2C+the+first+spacewalk+%28by+Aleksei+Leonov+%29+on+18+March+1965%2C+the+first+automatic+landing+on+another+celestial+body+in+1966%2C+and+the+launch+of+the+first+space+station+%28+Salyut+1+%29+in+1971.%0AAfter+the+first+20+years+of+exploration%2C+focus+shifted+from+oneoff+flights+to+renewable+hardware%2C+such+as+the+Space+Shuttle+program+%2C+and+from+competition+to+cooperation+as+with+the+International+Space+Station+%28ISS%29.%0AWith+the+substantial+completion+of+the+ISS+%5B1%5D+following+STS133+in+March+2011%2C+plans+for+space+exploration+by+the+USA+remain+in+flux.+Constellation+%2C+a+Bush+Administration+program+for+a+return+to+the+Moon+by+2020+%5B2%5D+was+judged+inadequately+funded+and+unrealistic+by+an+expert+review+panel+reporting+in+2009.+%5B3%5D+The+Obama+Administration+proposed+a+revision+of+Constellation+in+2010+to+focus+on+the+development+of+the+capability+for+crewed+missions+beyond+low+earth+orbit+%28LEO%29%2C+envisioning+extending+the+operation+of+the+ISS+beyond+2020%2C+transferring+the+development+of+launch+vehicles+for+human+crews+from+NASA+to+the+private+sector%2C+and+developing+technology+to+enable+missions+to+beyond+LEO%2C+such+as+Earth%2FMoon+L1+%2C+the+Moon%2C+Earth%2FSun+L2+%2C+nearearth+asteroids%2C+and+Phobos+or+Mars+orbit.+%5B4%5D+As+of+March+2011%2C+the+US+Senate+and+House+of+Representatives+are+still+working+towards+a+compromise+NASA+funding+bill%2C+which+will+probably+terminate+Constellation+and+fund+development+of+a+heavy+lift+launch+vehicle+%28HLLV%29.+%5B5%5D%0AIn+the+2000s%2C+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+initiated+a+successful+manned+spaceflight+program+%2C+while+the+European+Union+%2C+Japan%2C+and+India+have+also+planned+future+manned+space+missions.+China%2C+Russia%2C+Japan%2C+and+India+have+advocated+manned+missions+to+the+Moon+during+the+21st+century%2C+while+the+European+Union+has+advocated+manned+missions+to+both+the+Moon+and+Mars+during+the+21st+century.%0AFrom+the+1990s+onwards%2C+private+interests+began+promoting+space+tourism+and+then+private+space+exploration+of+the+Moon+%28see+Google+Lunar+X+Prize+%29.%0AContents%0ASee+also%3A+Timeline+of+space+exploration+%2C+History+of+astronomy+and+Timeline+of+first+orbital+launches+by+country%0AMost+orbital+flight+actually+takes+place+in+upper+layers+of+the+atmosphere%2C+especially+in+the+thermosphere+%28not+to+scale%29%0AIn+July+1950+the+first+Bumper+rocket+is+launched+from+Cape+Canaveral%2C+Florida.+The+Bumper+was+a+twostage+rocket+consisting+of+a+PostWar+V2+topped+by+a+WAC+Corporal+rocket.+It+could+reach+thenrecord+altitudes+of+almost+400+km.+Launched+by+General+Electric+Company%2C+this+Bumper+was+used+primarily+for+testing+rocket+systems+and+for+research+on+the+upper+atmosphere.+They+carried+small+payloads+that+allowed+them+to+measure+attributes+including+air+temperature+and+cosmic+ray+impacts.%0AThe+first+steps+of+putting+a+manmade+object+into+space+were+taken+by+German+scientists+during+World+War+II+while+testing+the+V2+rocket%2C+which+became+the+first+manmade+object+in+space+on+3+October+1942+with+the+launching+of+the+A4+.+After+the+war%2C+the+U.S.+used+German+scientists+and+their+captured+rockets+in+programs+for+both+military+and+civilian+research.+The+first+scientific+exploration+from+space+was+the+cosmic+radiation+experiment+launched+by+the+U.S.+on+a+V2+rocket+on+10+May+1946.+%5B6%5D+The+first+images+of+Earth+taken+from+space+followed+the+same+year+%5B7%5D+%5B8%5D+while+the+first+animal+experiment+saw+fruit+flies+lifted+into+space+in+1947%2C+both+also+on+modified+V2s+launched+by+Americans.+Starting+in+1947%2C+the+Soviets%2C+also+with+the+help+of+German+teams%2C+launched+suborbital+V2+rockets+and+their+own+variant%2C+the+R1+%2C+including+radiation+and+animal+experiments+on+some+flights.+These+suborbital+experiments+only+allowed+a+very+short+time+in+space+which+limited+their+usefulness.%0AFirst+flights%5B+edit+%5D%0ASputnik+1+%2C+the+first+artificial+satellite+orbited+earth+at+939+to+215+km+%28583+to+134+mi%29+in+1957%2C+and+was+soon+followed+by+Sputnik+2+.+See+First+satellite+by+country+%28Replica+Pictured%29%0AApollo+CSM+in+lunar+orbit%0AApollo+17+astronaut+Harrison+Schmitt+standing+next+to+a+boulder+at+TaurusLittrow.%0AThe+first+successful+orbital+launch+was+of+the+Soviet+unmanned+Sputnik+1+%28%22Satellite+1%22%29+mission+on+4+October+1957.+The+satellite+weighed+about+83+kg+%28183+lb%29%2C+and+is+believed+to+have+orbited+Earth+at+a+height+of+about+250+km+%28160+mi%29.+It+had+two+radio+transmitters+%2820+and+40+MHz%29%2C+which+emitted+%22beeps%22+that+could+be+heard+by+radios+around+the+globe.+Analysis+of+the+radio+signals+was+used+to+gather+information+about+the+electron+density+of+the+ionosphere%2C+while+temperature+and+pressure+data+was+encoded+in+the+duration+of+radio+beeps.+The+results+indicated+that+the+satellite+was+not+punctured+by+a+meteoroid+.+Sputnik+1+was+launched+by+an+R7+rocket.+It+burned+up+upon+reentry+on+3+January+1958.%0AThis+success+led+to+an+escalation+of+the+American+space+program+%2C+which+unsuccessfully+attempted+to+launch+a+Vanguard+satellite+into+orbit+two+months+later.+On+31+January+1958%2C+the+U.S.+successfully+orbited+Explorer+1+on+a+Juno+rocket.+In+the+meantime%2C+the+Soviet+dog+Laika+became+the+first+animal+in+orbit+on+3+November+1957.%0AFirst+human+flights%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+first+successful+human+spaceflight+was+Vostok+1+%28%22East+1%22%29%2C+carrying+27+year+old+Russian+cosmonaut+Yuri+Gagarin+on+12+April+1961.+The+spacecraft+completed+one+orbit+around+the+globe%2C+lasting+about+1+hour+and+48+minutes.+Gagarin%27s+flight+resonated+around+the+world%3B+it+was+a+demonstration+of+the+advanced+Soviet+space+program+and+it+opened+an+entirely+new+era+in+space+exploration%3A+human+spaceflight+.%0AThe+U.S.+first+launched+a+person+into+space+within+a+month+of+Vostok+1+with+Alan+Shepard+%27s+suborbital+flight+in+MercuryRedstone+3+.+Orbital+flight+was+achieved+by+the+United+States+when+John+Glenn+%27s+MercuryAtlas+6+orbited+the+Earth+on+20+February+1962.%0AValentina+Tereshkova+%2C+the+first+woman+in+space%2C+orbited+the+Earth+48+times+aboard+Vostok+6+on+16+June+1963.%0AChina+first+launched+a+person+into+space+42+years+after+the+launch+of+Vostok+1%2C+on+15+October+2003%2C+with+the+flight+of+Yang+Liwei+aboard+the+Shenzhou+5+%28Spaceboat+5%29+spacecraft.%0AFirst+planetary+explorations%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+first+artificial+object+to+reach+another+celestial+body+was+Luna+2+in+1959.+%5B9%5D+The+first+automatic+landing+on+another+celestial+body+was+performed+by+Luna+9+%5B10%5D+in+1966.+Luna+10+became+the+first+artificial+satellite+of+the+Moon.+%5B11%5D%0AThe+first+manned+landing+on+another+celestial+body+was+performed+by+Apollo+11+in+its+lunar+landing+on+20+July+1969.%0AThe+first+successful+interplanetary+flyby+was+the+1962+Mariner+2+flyby+of+Venus+%28closest+approach+34%2C773+kilometers%29.+Flybys+for+the+other+planets+were+first+achieved+in+1965+for+Mars+by+Mariner+4+%2C+1973+for+Jupiter+by+Pioneer+10+%2C+1974+for+Mercury+by+Mariner+10+%2C+1979+for+Saturn+by+Pioneer+11+%2C+1986+for+Uranus+by+Voyager+2+%2C+and+1989+for+Neptune+by+Voyager+2.%0AThe+first+interplanetary+surface+mission+to+return+at+least+limited+surface+data+from+another+planet+was+the+1970+landing+of+Venera+7+on+Venus+which+returned+data+to+earth+for+23+minutes.+In+1971+the+Mars+3+mission+achieved+the+first+soft+landing+on+Mars+returning+data+for+almost+20+seconds.+Later+much+longer+duration+surface+missions+were+achieved%2C+including+over+6+years+of+Mars+surface+operation+by+Viking+1+from+1975+to+1982+and+over+2+hours+of+transmission+from+the+surface+of+Venus+by+Venera+13+in+1982%2C+the+longest+ever+Soviet+planetary+surface+mission.%0AKey+people+in+early+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+dream+of+stepping+into+the+outer+reaches+of+the+Earth%27s+atmosphere+was+driven+by+the+fiction+of+Jules+Verne+%5B12%5D+%5B13%5D+%5B14%5D+and+H.G.Wells+%2C+%5B15%5D+and+rocket+technology+was+developed+to+try+to+realise+this+vision.+The+German+V2+was+the+first+rocket+to+travel+into+space%2C+overcoming+the+problems+of+thrust+and+material+failure.+During+the+final+days+of+World+War+II+this+technology+was+obtained+by+both+the+Americans+and+Soviets+as+were+its+designers.+The+initial+driving+force+for+further+development+of+the+technology+was+a+weapons+race+for+intercontinental+ballistic+missiles+%28+ICBMs+%29+to+be+used+as+longrange+carriers+for+fast+nuclear+weapon+delivery%2C+but+in+1961+when+USSR+launched+the+first+man+into+space%2C+the+U.S.+declared+itself+to+be+in+a+%22+Space+Race+%22+with+the+Soviets.%0AKonstantin+Tsiolkovsky+%2C+Robert+Goddard+%2C+Hermann+Oberth+%2C+and+Reinhold+Tiling+laid+the+groundwork+of+rocketry+in+the+early+years+of+the+20th+century.%0AWernher+von+Braun+was+the+lead+rocket+engineer+for+Nazi+Germany%27s+World+War+II+V2+rocket+project.+In+the+last+days+of+the+war+he+led+a+caravan+of+workers+in+the+German+rocket+program+to+the+American+lines%2C+where+they+surrendered+and+were+brought+to+the+USA+to+work+on+U.S.+rocket+development+%28%22+Operation+Paperclip+%22%29.+He+acquired+American+citizenship+and+led+the+team+that+developed+and+launched+Explorer+1+%2C+the+first+American+satellite.+Von+Braun+later+led+the+team+at+NASA+%27s+Marshall+Space+Flight+Center+which+developed+the+Saturn+V+moon+rocket.%0AInitially+the+race+for+space+was+often+led+by+Sergei+Korolyov+%2C+whose+legacy+includes+both+the+R7+and+Soyuz+%E2%80%94which+remain+in+service+to+this+day.+Korolev+was+the+mastermind+behind+the+first+satellite%2C+first+man+%28and+first+woman%29+in+orbit+and+first+spacewalk.+Until+his+death+his+identity+was+a+closely+guarded+state+secret%3B+not+even+his+mother+knew+that+he+was+responsible+for+creating+the+Soviet+space+program.%0AKerim+Kerimov+was+one+of+the+founders+of+the+Soviet+space+program+and+was+one+of+the+lead+architects+behind+the+first+human+spaceflight+%28+Vostok+1+%29+alongside+Sergey+Korolyov.+After+Korolyov%27s+death+in+1966%2C+Kerimov+became+the+lead+scientist+of+the+Soviet+space+program+and+was+responsible+for+the+launch+of+the+first+space+stations+from+1971+to+1991%2C+including+the+Salyut+and+Mir+series%2C+and+their+precursors+in+1967%2C+the+Cosmos+186+and+Cosmos+188+.+%5B16%5D+%5B17%5D%0AOther+key+people%5B+edit+%5D%0AValentin+Glushko+held+the+role+of+Chief+Engine+Designer+for+USSR.+Glushko+designed+many+of+the+engines+used+on+the+early+Soviet+rockets%2C+but+was+constantly+at+odds+with+Korolyov.%0AVasily+Mishin+was+Chief+Designer+working+under+Sergey+Korolyov+and+one+of+first+Soviets+to+inspect+the+captured+German+V2+design.+Following+the+death+of+Sergei+Korolev%2C+Mishin+was+held+responsible+for+the+Soviet+failure+to+be+first+country+to+place+a+man+on+the+moon.%0ARobert+Gilruth+was+the+NASA+head+of+the+Space+Task+Force+and+director+of+25+manned+space+flights.+Gilruth+was+the+person+who+suggested+to+John+F.+Kennedy+that+the+Americans+take+the+bold+step+of+reaching+the+Moon+in+an+attempt+to+reclaim+space+superiority+from+the+Soviets.%0AChristopher+C.+Kraft%2C+Jr.+was+NASA%27s+first+flight+director+%2C+who+oversaw+development+of+Mission+Control+and+associated+technologies+and+procedures.%0AMaxime+Faget+was+the+designer+of+the+Mercury+capsule%3B+he+played+a+key+role+in+designing+the+Gemini+and+Apollo+spacecraft%2C+and+contributed+to+the+design+of+the+Space+Shuttle+.%0ATargets+of+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+Sun%5B+edit+%5D%0AWhile+the+Sun+will+probably+not+be+physically+explored+in+the+close+future%2C+one+of+the+reasons+for+going+into+space+is+to+know+more+about+the+Sun.+Once+above+the+atmosphere+in+particular+and+the+Earth%27s+magnetic+field%2C+this+gives+access+to+the+Solar+wind+and+infrared+and+ultraviolet+radiations+that+cannot+reach+the+surface+of+the+Earth.+The+Sun+generates+most+space+weather+%2C+which+can+affect+power+generation+and+transmission+systems+on+Earth+and+interfere+with%2C+and+even+damage%2C+satellites+and+space+probes.%0AMESSENGER+image+of+Mercury%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Mercury%0AMercury+remains+the+least+explored+of+the+inner+planets+.+As+of+May+2013%2C+the+Mariner+10+and+MESSENGER+missions+have+been+the+only+missions+that+have+made+close+observations+of+Mercury.+MESSENGER+entered+orbit+around+Mercury+in+March+2011%2C+to+further+investigate+the+observations+made+by+Mariner+10+in+1975+%28Munsell%2C+2006b%29.%0AA+MESSENGER+image+from+18%2C000+km+showing+a+region+about+500+km+across%0AA+third+mission+to+Mercury%2C+scheduled+to+arrive+in+2020%2C+BepiColombo+is+to+include+two+probes+.+BepiColombo+is+a+joint+mission+between+Japan+and+the+European+Space+Agency+.+MESSENGER+and+BepiColombo+are+intended+to+gather+complementary+data+to+help+scientists+understand+many+of+the+mysteries+discovered+by+Mariner+10%27s+flybys+.%0AFlights+to+other+planets+within+the+Solar+System+are+accomplished+at+a+cost+in+energy%2C+which+is+described+by+the+net+change+in+velocity+of+the+spacecraft%2C+or+deltav+.+Due+to+the+relatively+high+deltav+to+reach+Mercury+and+its+proximity+to+the+Sun%2C+it+is+difficult+to+explore+and+orbits+around+it+are+rather+unstable.%0AMain+article%3A+Observations+and+explorations+of+Venus%0AVenus+was+the+first+target+of+interplanetary+flyby+and+lander+missions+and%2C+despite+one+of+the+most+hostile+surface+environments+in+the+solar+system%2C+has+had+more+landers+sent+to+it+%28nearly+all+from+the+Soviet+Union%29+than+any+other+planet+in+the+solar+system.+The+first+successful+Venus+flyby+was+the+American+Mariner+2+spacecraft%2C+which+flew+past+Venus+in+1962.+Mariner+2+has+been+followed+by+several+other+flybys+by+multiple+space+agencies+often+as+part+of+missions+using+a+Venus+flyby+to+provide+a+gravitational+assist+en+route+to+other+celestial+bodies.+In+1967+Venera+4+became+the+first+probe+to+enter+and+directly+examine+the+atmosphere+of+Venus.+In+1970+Venera+7+became+the+first+successful+lander+to+reach+the+surface+of+Venus+and+by+1985+it+had+been+followed+by+eight+additional+successful+Soviet+Venus+landers+which+provided+images+and+other+direct+surface+data.+Starting+in+1975+with+the+Soviet+orbiter+Venera+9+some+ten+successful+orbiter+missions+have+been+sent+to+Venus%2C+including+later+missions+which+were+able+to+map+the+surface+of+Venus+using+radar+to+pierce+the+obscuring+atmosphere.%0AThe+%22marble%22+Earth+picture+taken+by+Apollo+17%0AFirst+television+image+of+Earth+from+space%0AMain+article%3A+Earth+observation+satellite%0ASpace+exploration+has+been+used+as+a+tool+to+understand+the+Earth+as+a+celestial+object+in+its+own+right.+Orbital+missions+can+provide+data+for+the+Earth+that+can+be+difficult+or+impossible+to+obtain+from+a+purely+groundbased+point+of+reference.%0AFor+example%2C+the+existence+of+the+Van+Allen+belts+was+unknown+until+their+discovery+by+the+United+States%27+first+artificial+satellite%2C+Explorer+1+.+These+belts+contain+radiation+trapped+by+the+Earth%27s+magnetic+fields%2C+which+currently+renders+construction+of+habitable+space+stations+above+1000+km+impractical.+Following+this+early+unexpected+discovery%2C+a+large+number+of+Earth+observation+satellites+have+been+deployed+specifically+to+explore+the+Earth+from+a+space+based+perspective.+These+satellites+have+significantly+contributed+to+the+understanding+of+a+variety+of+earth+based+phenomena.+For+instance%2C+the+hole+in+the+ozone+layer+was+found+by+an+artificial+satellite+that+was+exploring+Earth%27s+atmosphere%2C+and+satellites+have+allowed+for+the+discovery+of+archeological+sites+or+geological+formations+that+were+difficult+or+impossible+to+otherwise+identify.%0AThe+Moon+as+seen+from+the+Earth%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+the+Moon%0AEarth%27s+Moon+was+the+first+celestial+body+to+be+the+object+of+space+exploration.+It+holds+the+distinctions+of+being+the+first+remote+celestial+object+to+be+flown+by%2C+orbited%2C+and+landed+upon+by+spacecraft%2C+and+the+only+remote+celestial+object+ever+to+be+visited+by+humans.%0AIn+1959+the+Soviets+obtained+the+first+images+of+the+far+side+of+the+Moon+%2C+never+previously+visible+to+humans.+The+U.S.+exploration+of+the+Moon+began+with+the+Ranger+4+impactor+in+1962.+Starting+in+1966+the+Soviets+successfully+deployed+a+number+of+landers+to+the+Moon+which+were+able+to+obtain+data+directly+from+the+Moon%27s+surface%3B+just+four+months+later%2C+Surveyor+1+marked+the+debut+of+a+successful+series+of+U.S.+landers.+The+Soviet+unmanned+missions+culminated+in+the+Lunokhod+program+in+the+early+%2770s+which+included+the+first+unmanned+rovers+and+also+successfully+returned+lunar+soil+samples+to+the+Earth+for+study.+This+marked+the+first+%28and+to+date+the+only%29+automated+return+of+extraterrestrial+soil+samples+to+the+Earth.+Unmanned+exploration+of+the+Moon+continues+with+various+nations+periodically+deploying+lunar+orbiters%2C+and+in+2008+the+Indian+Moon+Impact+Probe+.%0AManned+exploration+of+the+Moon+began+in+1968+with+the+Apollo+8+mission+that+successfully+orbited+the+Moon%2C+the+first+time+any+extraterrestrial+object+was+orbited+by+humans.+In+1969+the+Apollo+11+mission+marked+the+first+time+humans+set+foot+upon+another+world.+Manned+exploration+of+the+Moon+did+not+continue+for+long%2C+however.+The+Apollo+17+mission+in+1972+marked+the+most+recent+human+visit+there%2C+and+the+next%2C+Exploration+Mission+2+%2C+is+due+to+orbit+the+Moon+in+2019.+Robotic+missions+are+still+pursued+vigorously.%0AMars+as+seen+by+the+HST%0ASurface+of+mars+by+the+Spirit+rover+in+2004%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Mars%0AThe+exploration+of+Mars+has+been+an+important+part+of+the+space+exploration+programs+of+the+Soviet+Union+%28later+Russia%29%2C+the+United+States%2C+Europe%2C+and+Japan.+Dozens+of+robotic+spacecraft+%2C+including+orbiters+%2C+landers+%2C+and+rovers+%2C+have+been+launched+toward+Mars+since+the+1960s.+These+missions+were+aimed+at+gathering+data+about+current+conditions+and+answering+questions+about+the+history+of+Mars.+The+questions+raised+by+the+scientific+community+are+expected+to+not+only+give+a+better+appreciation+of+the+red+planet+but+also+yield+further+insight+into+the+past%2C+and+possible+future%2C+of+Earth.%0AThe+exploration+of+Mars+has+come+at+a+considerable+financial+cost+with+roughly+twothirds+of+all+spacecraft+destined+for+Mars+failing+before+completing+their+missions%2C+with+some+failing+before+they+even+began.+Such+a+high+failure+rate+can+be+attributed+to+the+complexity+and+large+number+of+variables+involved+in+an+interplanetary+journey%2C+and+has+led+researchers+to+jokingly+speak+of+The+Great+Galactic+Ghoul+%5B18%5D+which+subsists+on+a+diet+of+Mars+probes.+This+phenomenon+is+also+informally+known+as+the+Mars+Curse+.+%5B19%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Phobos%0AThe+Russian+space+mission+FobosGrunt+%2C+which+launched+on+9+November+2011+experienced+a+failure+leaving+it+stranded+in+low+Earth+orbit+.+%5B20%5D+It+was+to+begin+exploration+of+the+Phobos+and+Martian+circumterrestrial+orbit%2C+and+study+whether+the+moons+of+Mars%2C+or+at+least+Phobos%2C+could+be+a+%22transshipment+point%22+for+spaceships+travelling+to+Mars.+%5B21%5D%0AImage+of+Io+taken+by+the+Galileo+spacecraft%0AThe+exploration+of+Jupiter+has+consisted+solely+of+a+number+of+automated+NASA+spacecraft+visiting+the+planet+since+1973.+A+large+majority+of+the+missions+have+been+%22flybys%22%2C+in+which+detailed+observations+are+taken+without+the+probe+landing+or+entering+orbit%3B+the+Galileo+spacecraft+is+the+only+one+to+have+orbited+the+planet.+As+Jupiter+is+believed+to+have+only+a+relatively+small+rocky+core+and+no+real+solid+surface%2C+a+landing+mission+is+nearly+impossible.%0AReaching+Jupiter+from+Earth+requires+a+deltav+of+9.2+km%2Fs%2C+%5B22%5D+which+is+comparable+to+the+9.7+km%2Fs+deltav+needed+to+reach+low+Earth+orbit.+%5B23%5D+Fortunately%2C+gravity+assists+through+planetary+flybys+can+be+used+to+reduce+the+energy+required+at+launch+to+reach+Jupiter%2C+albeit+at+the+cost+of+a+significantly+longer+flight+duration.+%5B22%5D%0AJupiter+has+over+60+known+moons+%2C+many+of+which+have+relatively+little+known+information+about+them.%0AA+picture+of+Saturn+taken+by+Voyager+2+.%0AHuygens+image+from+the+surface+of+Titan%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Saturn%0ASaturn+has+been+explored+only+through+unmanned+spacecraft+launched+by+NASA%2C+including+one+mission+%28+Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens+%29+planned+and+executed+in+cooperation+with+other+space+agencies.+These+missions+consist+of+flybys+in+1979+by+Pioneer+11+%2C+in+1980+by+Voyager+1+%2C+in+1982+by+Voyager+2+and+an+orbital+mission+by+the+Cassini+spacecraft+which+entered+orbit+in+2004+and+is+expected+to+continue+its+mission+well+into+2012.%0ASaturn+has+at+least+62+known+moons+%2C+although+the+exact+number+is+debatable+since+Saturn%27s+rings+are+made+up+of+vast+numbers+of+independently+orbiting+objects+of+varying+sizes.+The+largest+of+the+moons+is+Titan+.+Titan+holds+the+distinction+of+being+the+only+moon+in+the+solar+system+with+an+atmosphere+denser+and+thicker+than+that+of+the+Earth.+As+a+result+of+the+deployment+from+the+Cassini+spacecraft+of+the+Huygens+probe+and+its+successful+landing+on+Titan%2C+Titan+also+holds+the+distinction+of+being+the+only+moon+%28apart+from+Earth%27s+own+Moon%29+to+be+successfully+explored+with+a+lander.%0AUranus+from+Voyager+2%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Uranus%0AThe+exploration+of+Uranus+has+been+entirely+through+the+Voyager+2+spacecraft%2C+with+no+other+visits+currently+planned.+Given+its+axial+tilt+of+97.77%C2%B0%2C+with+its+polar+regions+exposed+to+sunlight+or+darkness+for+long+periods%2C+scientists+were+not+sure+what+to+expect+at+Uranus.+The+closest+approach+to+Uranus+occurred+on+24+January+1986.+Voyager+2+studied+the+planet%27s+unique+atmosphere+and+magnetosphere+.+Voyager+2+also+examined+its+ring+system+and+the+moons+of+Uranus+including+all+five+of+the+previously+known+moons%2C+while+discovering+an+additional+ten+previously+unknown+moons.%0AImages+of+Uranus+proved+to+have+a+very+uniform+appearance%2C+with+no+evidence+of+the+dramatic+storms+or+atmospheric+banding+evident+on+Jupiter+and+Saturn.+Great+effort+was+required+to+even+identify+a+few+clouds+in+the+images+of+the+planet.+The+magnetosphere+of+Uranus%2C+however%2C+proved+to+be+completely+unique+and+proved+to+be+profoundly+affected+by+the+planet%27s+unusual+axial+tilt.+In+contrast+to+the+bland+appearance+of+Uranus+itself%2C+striking+images+were+obtained+of+the+moons+of+Uranus%2C+including+evidence+that+Miranda+had+been+unusually+geologically+active.%0APicture+of+Neptune+taken+by+Voyager+2%0ATriton+as+imaged+by+Voyager+2%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Neptune%0AThe+exploration+of+Neptune+began+with+the+25+August+1989+Voyager+2+flyby%2C+the+sole+visit+to+the+system+as+of+2014.+The+possibility+of+a+Neptune+Orbiter+has+been+discussed%2C+but+no+other+missions+have+been+given+serious+thought.%0AAlthough+the+extremely+uniform+appearance+of+Uranus+during+Voyager+2%27s+visit+in+1986+had+led+to+expectations+that+Neptune+would+also+have+few+visible+atmospheric+phenomena%2C+Voyager+2+found+that+Neptune+had+obvious+banding%2C+visible+clouds%2C+auroras+%2C+and+even+a+conspicuous+anticyclone+storm+system+rivaled+in+size+only+by+Jupiter%27s+small+Spot.+Neptune+also+proved+to+have+the+fastest+winds+of+any+planet+in+the+solar+system%2C+measured+as+high+as+2%2C100+km%2Fh.+%5B24%5D+Voyager+2+also+examined+Neptune%27s+ring+and+moon+system.+It+discovered+900+complete+rings+and+additional+partial+ring+%22arcs%22+around+Neptune.+In+addition+to+examining+Neptune%27s+three+previously+known+moons%2C+Voyager+2+also+discovered+five+previously+unknown+moons%2C+one+of+which%2C+Proteus+%2C+proved+to+be+the+last+largest+moon+in+the+system.+Data+from+Voyager+further+reinforced+the+view+that+Neptune%27s+largest+moon%2C+Triton+%2C+is+a+captured+Kuiper+belt+object.+%5B25%5D%0AOther+objects+in+the+Solar+system%5B+edit+%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Exploration+of+Pluto%0APluto+and+Charon+%281994%29%0AThe+dwarf+planet+Pluto+%28considered+a+planet+until+the+IAU+redefined+%22planet%22+in+October+2006+%5B26%5D+%29+presents+significant+challenges+for+spacecraft+because+of+its+great+distance+from+Earth+%28requiring+high+velocity+for+reasonable+trip+times%29+and+small+mass+%28making+capture+into+orbit+very+difficult+at+present%29.+Voyager+1+could+have+visited+Pluto%2C+but+controllers+opted+instead+for+a+close+flyby+of+Saturn%27s+moon+Titan%2C+resulting+in+a+trajectory+incompatible+with+a+Pluto+flyby.+Voyager+2+never+had+a+plausible+trajectory+for+reaching+Pluto.+%5B27%5D%0APluto+continues+to+be+of+great+interest%2C+despite+its+reclassification+as+the+lead+and+nearest+member+of+a+new+and+growing+class+of+distant+icy+bodies+of+intermediate+size%2C+in+mass+between+the+remaining+eight+planets+and+the+small+rocky+objects+historically+termed+asteroids+%28and+also+the+first+member+of+the+important+subclass%2C+defined+by+orbit+and+known+as+%22+Plutinos+%22%29.+After+an+intense+political+battle%2C+a+mission+to+Pluto+dubbed+New+Horizons+was+granted+funding+from+the+US+government+in+2003.+%5B28%5D+New+Horizons+was+launched+successfully+on+19+January+2006.+In+early+2007+the+craft+made+use+of+a+gravity+assist+from+Jupiter+.+Its+closest+approach+to+Pluto+will+be+on+14+July+2015%3B+scientific+observations+of+Pluto+will+begin+five+months+prior+to+closest+approach+and+will+continue+for+at+least+a+month+after+the+encounter.%0AAsteroids+and+comets%5B+edit+%5D%0AComet+103P%2FHartley%0AAsteroid+4+Vesta%2C+imaged+by+the+Dawn+spacecraft%0AUntil+the+advent+of+space+travel+%2C+objects+in+the+asteroid+belt+were+merely+pinpricks+of+light+in+even+the+largest+telescopes%2C+their+shapes+and+terrain+remaining+a+mystery.+Several+asteroids+have+now+been+visited+by+probes%2C+the+first+of+which+was+Galileo+%2C+which+flew+past+two%3A+951+Gaspra+in+1991%2C+followed+by+243+Ida+in+1993.+Both+of+these+lay+near+enough+to+Galileo%27s+planned+trajectory+to+Jupiter+that+they+could+be+visited+at+acceptable+cost.+The+first+landing+on+an+asteroid+was+performed+by+the+NEAR+Shoemaker+probe+in+2000%2C+following+an+orbital+survey+of+the+object.+The+dwarf+planet+Ceres+and+the+asteroid+4+Vesta+%2C+two+of+the+three+largest+asteroids%2C+are+targets+of+NASA%27s+Dawn+mission+%2C+launched+in+2007.%0AWhile+many+comets+have+been+closely+studied+from+Earth+sometimes+with+centuriesworth+of+observations%2C+only+a+few+comets+have+been+closely+visited.+In+1985%2C+the+International+Cometary+Explorer+conducted+the+first+comet+flyby+%28+21P%2FGiacobiniZinner+%29+before+joining+the+Halley+Armada+studying+the+famous+comet.+The+Deep+Impact+probe+smashed+into+9P%2FTempel+to+learn+more+about+its+structure+and+composition+while+the+Stardust+mission+returned+samples+of+another+comet%27s+tail.+The+Philae+lander+successfully+landed+on+comet+67P%2FChuryumov%E2%80%93Gerasimenko+in+2014+as+part+of+the+broader+Rosetta+mission.%0AHayabusa+was+an+unmanned+spacecraft+developed+by+the+Japan+Aerospace+Exploration+Agency+to+return+a+sample+of+material+from+a+small+nearEarth+asteroid+named+25143+Itokawa+to+Earth+for+further+analysis.+Hayabusa+was+launched+on+9+May+2003+and+rendezvoused+with+Itokawa+in+midSeptember+2005.+After+arriving+at+Itokawa%2C+Hayabusa+studied+the+asteroid%27s+shape%2C+spin%2C+topography%2C+colour%2C+composition%2C+density%2C+and+history.+In+November+2005%2C+it+landed+on+the+asteroid+to+collect+samples.+The+spacecraft+returned+to+Earth+on+13+June+2010.%0ADeep+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AFuture+of+space+exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AConcept+art+for+a+NASA+Vision+mission%0AThe+examples+and+perspective+in+this+section+may+not+represent+a+worldwide+view+of+the+subject.+Please+improve+this+article+and+discuss+the+issue+on+the+talk+page+.%0A%28September+2013%29%0AIn+the+2000s%2C+several+plans+for+space+exploration+were+announced%3B+both+government+entities+and+the+private+sector+have+space+exploration+objectives.+China+has+announced+plans+to+have+a+60ton+multimodule+space+station+in+orbit+by+2020.%0AThe+NASA+Authorization+Act+of+2010+provides+objectives+for+American+space+exploration.+NASA+proposes+to+move+forward+with+the+development+of+the+Space+Launch+System+%28SLS%29%2C+which+will+be+designed+to+carry+the+Orion+MultiPurpose+Crew+Vehicle%2C+as+well+as+important+cargo%2C+equipment%2C+and+science+experiments+to+Earth%27s+orbit+and+destinations+beyond.+Additionally%2C+the+SLS+will+serve+as+a+back+up+for+commercial+and+international+partner+transportation+services+to+the+International+Space+Station.+The+SLS+rocket+will+incorporate+technological+investments+from+the+Space+Shuttle+program+and+the+Constellation+program+in+order+to+take+advantage+of+proven+hardware+and+reduce+development+and+operations+costs.+The+first+developmental+flight+is+targeted+for+the+end+of+2017.+%5B29%5D%0AAI+in+Space+Exploration%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+idea+of+using+high+level+automated+systems+for+space+missions+has+become+a+desirable+goal+to+space+agencies+all+around+the+world.+Such+systems+are+believed+to+yield+benefits+such+as+lower+cost%2C+less+human+oversight%2C+and+ability+to+explore+deeper+in+space+which+is+usually+restricted+by+long+communications+with+human+controllers.+%5B30%5D%0AAutonomous+System%5B+edit+%5D%0AAutonomy+is+defined+by+3+requirements%3A+%5B30%5D%0ABeing+able+to+sense+the+world+and+their+state%2C+make+decisions%2C+and+carry+them+out+on+their+own%0ACan+interpret+the+given+goal+as+a+list+of+actions+to+take%0AFail+flexibly%0ABenefits%5B+edit+%5D%0AAutonomed+technologies+would+be+able+to+perform+beyond+predetermined+actions.+It+would+analyze+all+possible+states+and+events+happening+around+them+and+come+up+with+a+safe+response.+In+addition%2C+such+technologies+can+reduce+launch+cost+and+ground+involvement.+Performance+would+increase+as+well.+Autonomy+would+be+able+to+quickly+respond+upon+encountering+an+unforeseen+event%2C+especially+in+deep+space+exploration+where+communication+back+to+Earth+would+take+too+long.+%5B30%5D%0ANASA%E2%80%99s+Autonomous+Science+Experiment%5B+edit+%5D%0ANASA+began+its+autonomous+science+experiment+%28ASE%29+on+the+Earth+Observing+1+%28EO1%29+which+is+NASA%E2%80%99s+first+satellite+in+the+new+millennium+program+Earth+observing+series+launched+on+21+November+2000.+The+autonomy+of+ASE+is+capable+of+onboard+science+analysis%2C+replanning%2C+robust+execution%2C+and+later+the+addition+of+modelbased+diagnostic.+Images+obtained+by+the+EO1+are+analyzed+onboard+and+downlinked+when+a+change+or+an+interesting+event+occur.+The+ASE+software+has+successfully+provided+over+10%2C000+science+images.+%5B30%5D%0AMain+article%3A+Space+advocacy%0AAstronaut+Buzz+Aldrin+%2C+had+a+personal+Communion+service+when+he+first+arrived+on+the+surface+of+the+Moon+.%0AThe+research+that+is+conducted+by+national+space+exploration+agencies%2C+such+as+NASA+and+Roscosmos+%2C+is+one+of+the+reasons+supporters+cite+to+justify+government+expenses.+Economic+analyses+of+the+NASA+programs+often+showed+ongoing+economic+benefits+%28such+as+NASA+spinoffs+%29%2C+generating+many+times+the+revenue+of+the+cost+of+the+program.+%5B31%5D+It+is+also+argued+that+space+exploration+would+lead+to+the+extraction+of+resources+on+other+planets+and+especially+asteroids%2C+which+contain+billions+of+dollars+worth+of+minerals+and+metals.+The+revenue+generated+from+such+expeditions+could+generate+a+lot+of+revenue.+%5B32%5D+As+well%2C+it+has+been+argued+that+space+exploration+programs+help+inspire+youth+to+study+in+science+and+engineering.+%5B33%5D%0AAnother+claim+is+that+space+exploration+is+a+necessity+to+mankind+and+that+staying+on+Earth+will+lead+to+extinction+.+Some+of+the+reasons+are+lack+of+natural+resources%2C+comets%2C+nuclear+war%2C+and+worldwide+epidemic.+Stephen+Hawking+%2C+renowned+British+theoretical+physicist%2C+said+that+%22I+don%27t+think+the+human+race+will+survive+the+next+thousand+years%2C+unless+we+spread+into+space.+There+are+too+many+accidents+that+can+befall+life+on+a+single+planet.+But+I%27m+an+optimist.+We+will+reach+out+to+the+stars.%22+%5B34%5D%0ANASA+has+produced+a+series+of+public+service+announcement+videos+supporting+the+concept+of+space+exploration.+%5B35%5D%0AOverall%2C+the+public+remains+largely+supportive+of+both+manned+and+unmanned+space+exploration.+According+to+an+Associated+Press+Poll+conducted+in+July+2003%2C+71%25+of+U.S.+citizens+agreed+with+the+statement+that+the+space+program+is+%22a+good+investment%22%2C+compared+to+21%25+who+did+not.+%5B36%5D%0AArthur+C.+Clarke+%281950%29+presented+a+summary+of+motivations+for+the+human+exploration+of+space+in+his+nonfiction+semitechnical+monograph+Interplanetary+Flight.+%5B37%5D+He+argued+that+humanity%27s+choice+is+essentially+between+expansion+off+the+Earth+into+space%2C+versus+cultural+%28and+eventually+biological%29+stagnation+and+death.%0AMain+article%3A+Spaceflight%0ASpaceflight+is+the+use+of+space+technology+to+achieve+the+flight+of+spacecraft+into+and+through+outer+space.%0ASpaceflight+is+used+in+space+exploration%2C+and+also+in+commercial+activities+like+space+tourism+and+satellite+telecommunications+.+Additional+noncommercial+uses+of+spaceflight+include+space+observatories+%2C+reconnaissance+satellites+and+other+earth+observation+satellites+.%0AA+spaceflight+typically+begins+with+a+rocket+launch+%2C+which+provides+the+initial+thrust+to+overcome+the+force+of+gravity+and+propels+the+spacecraft+from+the+surface+of+the+Earth.+Once+in+space%2C+the+motion+of+a+spacecraft%E2%80%94both+when+unpropelled+and+when+under+propulsion%E2%80%94is+covered+by+the+area+of+study+called+astrodynamics+.+Some+spacecraft+remain+in+space+indefinitely%2C+some+disintegrate+during+atmospheric+reentry+%2C+and+others+reach+a+planetary+or+lunar+surface+for+landing+or+impact.%0AMain+article%3A+Satellite%0ASatellites+are+used+for+a+large+number+of+purposes.+Common+types+include+military+%28spy%29+and+civilian+Earth+observation+satellites%2C+communication+satellites%2C+navigation+satellites%2C+weather+satellites%2C+and+research+satellites.+Space+stations+and+human+spacecraft+in+orbit+are+also+satellites.%0ACommercialization+of+space%5B+edit+%5D%0AMain+articles%3A+Astrobiology+and+Extraterrestrial+life%0AAstrobiology+is+the+interdisciplinary+study+of+life+in+the+universe%2C+combining+aspects+of+astronomy+%2C+biology+and+geology.+%5B38%5D+It+is+focused+primarily+on+the+study+of+the+origin+%2C+distribution+and+evolution+of+life.+It+is+also+known+as+exobiology+%28from+Greek%3A+%CE%AD%CE%BE%CF%89%2C+exo%2C+%22outside%22%29.+%5B39%5D+%5B40%5D+%5B41%5D+The+term+%22Xenobiology%22+has+been+used+as+well%2C+but+this+is+technically+incorrect+because+its+terminology+means+%22biology+of+the+foreigners%22.+%5B42%5D+Astrobiologists+must+also+consider+the+possibility+of+life+that+is+chemically+entirely+distinct+from+any+life+found+on+earth.+%5B43%5D+In+the+Solar+System+some+of+the+prime+locations+for+current+or+past+astrobiology+are+on+Enceladus%2C+Europa%2C+Mars%2C+and+Titan.+%5B44%5D%0ALiving+in+space%5B+edit+%5D%0AThe+European+Space+Agency+%27s+Columbus+Module+at+the+International+Space+Station+%2C+launched+into+space+on+the+U.S.+Space+Shuttle+mission+STS122+in+2008%0ASpace+colonization%2C+also+called+space+settlement+and+space+humanization%2C+would+be+the+permanent+autonomous+%28selfsufficient%29+human+habitation+of+locations+outside+Earth%2C+especially+of+natural+satellites+or+planets+such+as+the+Moon+or+Mars+%2C+using+significant+amounts+of+insitu+resource+utilization+.%0ATo+date%2C+the+longest+human+occupation+of+space+is+the+International+Space+Station+which+has+been+in+continuous+use+for+700114000000000000014+years%2C+700136000000000000036+days.+Valeri+Polyakov+%27s+record+single+spaceflight+of+almost+438+days+aboard+the+Mir+space+station+has+not+been+surpassed.+Longterm+stays+in+space+reveal+issues+with+bone+and+muscle+loss+in+low+gravity%2C+immune+system+suppression%2C+and+radiation+exposure.%0AMany+past+and+current+concepts+for+the+continued+exploration+and+colonization+of+space+focus+on+a+return+to+the+Moon+as+a+%22stepping+stone%22+to+the+other+planets%2C+especially+Mars.+At+the+end+of+2006+NASA+announced+they+were+planning+to+build+a+permanent+Moon+base+with+continual+presence+by+2024.+%5B45%5D%0ABeyond+the+technical+factors+that+could+make+living+in+space+more+widespread%2C+it+has+been+suggested+that+the+lack+of+private+property+%2C+the+inability+or+difficulty+in+establishing+property+rights+in+space%2C+has+been+an+impediment+to+the+development+of+space+for+human+habitation.+Since+the+advent+of+space+technology+in+the+latter+half+of+the+twentieth+century%2C+the+ownership+of+property+in+space+has+been+murky%2C+with+strong+arguments+both+for+and+against.+In+particular%2C+the+making+of+national+territorial+claims+in+outer+space+and+on+celestial+bodies+has+been+specifically+proscribed+by+the+Outer+Space+Treaty+%2C+which+had+been%2C+as+of+2012+%5Bupdate%5D+%2C+ratified+by+all+spacefaring+nations+.+%5B46%5D%0A
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Teleoperated Lander/Rover", "url": "http://arxiv.org/abs/1211.3462", "authors":
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An Overview with Historical Context", "url": "http://arxiv.org/abs/0709.4417",
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C.", "M\u00e9tris, G.", "Rasel, E.", "Samain, E.", "Vrancken, P.", "Christophe,
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