j1-template 2022.5.0.rc1 → 2022.5.0.rc4

data/lib/starter_web/pages/public/_jupyter/notebooks/textbooks/nbi_docs_examples_empirical_distributions.html

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+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># HIDDEN</span>
+
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datascience</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">matplotlib</span>
+<span class="c1"># matplotlib.use(&#39;Agg&#39;, warn=False)</span>
+<span class="n">matplotlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">use</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Agg&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="o">%</span><span class="k">matplotlib</span> inline
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">matplotlib.pyplot</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">plots</span>
+<span class="n">plots</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">use</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;fivethirtyeight&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">numpy</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">np</span>
+
+<span class="c1"># Interaction</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">IPython.display</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">display</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">partial</span>
+<span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ipywidgets</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">interact</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">interactive</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fixed</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">interact_manual</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ipywidgets</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">widgets</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">nbinteract</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">nbi</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<h3 id="Empirical-Distribution">Empirical Distribution<a class="anchor-link" href="#Empirical-Distribution">&#182;</a></h3><p>Much of data science involves data from large random samples. In this section we will examine some properties of such samples.</p>
+<p>We will start with a simple experiment: rolling a die multiple times and keeping track of which face appears. The table <code>die</code> contains the numbers of spots on the faces of a die. All the numbers appear exactly once, as we are assuming that the die is fair.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
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+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
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+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">die</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Table</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">with_column</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Face&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">np</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">arange</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">))</span>
+<span class="n">die</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
+
+
+<div class="output_area">
+
+    
+
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+<div class="output_html rendered_html output_subarea output_execute_result">
+<table border="1" class="dataframe">
+    <thead>
+        <tr>
+            <th>Face</th>
+        </tr>
+    </thead>
+    <tbody>
+        <tr>
+            <td>1   </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td>2   </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td>3   </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td>4   </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td>5   </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td>6   </td>
+        </tr>
+    </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<h4 id="A-Probability-Distribution">A Probability Distribution<a class="anchor-link" href="#A-Probability-Distribution">&#182;</a></h4><p>The histogram below helps us visualize the fact that every face appears with probability 1/6. We say that the histogram shows the <em>distribution</em> of probabilities over all the possible faces. Since all the bars represent the same percent chance, the distribution is called <em>uniform on the integers 1 through 6.</em></p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
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+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
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+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">die_options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;bins&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;xlim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ylim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.2</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+
+<span class="n">nbi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">die</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">column</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Face&#39;</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">die_options</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
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+<div class="output_area">
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+  <div class="output_subarea output_widget_view ">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
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+  </div>
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+</div>
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+</div>
+</div>
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+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<p>Variables whose successive values are separated by the same fixed amount, such as the values on rolls of a die (successive values separated by 1), are called <em>discrete</em>. The histogram above is called a <em>discrete</em> histogram. Its bins are specified by the array <code>die_bins</code> and ensure that each bar is centered over the corresponding integer value.</p>
+<p>It is important to remember that the die can't show 1.3 spots, or 5.2 spots – it always shows an integer number of spots. But our visualization spreads the probability of each value over the area of a bar. While this might seem a bit arbitrary at this stage of the course, it will become important later when we overlay smooth curves over discrete histograms.</p>
+<p>Before going further, let's make sure that the numbers on the axes make sense. The probability of each face is 1/6, which is 16.67% when rounded to two decimal places. The width of each bin is 1 unit. So the height of each bar is 16.67% per unit. This agrees with the horizontal and vertical scales of the graph.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<h4 id="Empirical-Distributions">Empirical Distributions<a class="anchor-link" href="#Empirical-Distributions">&#182;</a></h4><p>The distribution above consists of the theoretical probability of each face. It is not based on data. It can be studied and understood without any dice being rolled.</p>
+<p><em>Empirical distributions,</em> on the other hand, are distributions of observed data. They can be visualized by <em>empirical histograms</em>.</p>
+<p>Let us get some data by simulating rolls of a die. This can be done by sampling at random with replacement from the integers 1 through 6. To do this using Python, we will use the Table method <code>sample</code>, which draws at random with replacement from the rows of a table. Its argument is the sample size, and it returns a table consisting of the rows that were selected. An optional argument <code>with_replacement=False</code> specifies that the sample should be drawn without replacement, but that does not apply to rolling a die.</p>
+<p>Here are some results of 10 rolls of a die. Drag the slider right
+to see different samples.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  
+
+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
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+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">die_sample_10</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sample_num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">die</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="n">_</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">interact</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">die_sample_10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sample_num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
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+<div class="output_area">
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+  <div class="output_subarea output_widget_view ">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
+    </button>
+  </div>
+
+</div>
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+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<p>We can use the same method to simulate as many rolls as we like, and then draw empirical histograms of the results. Because we are going to do this repeatedly, we define a function <code>empirical_die_rolls</code> that takes as its argument the sample size; the function rolls the die as many times as its argument and then returns the die rolls in an array.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  
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+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
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+<div class="inner_cell">
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+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">empirical_die_rolls</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n_rolls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sample_num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">):</span>
+    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">die</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">sample</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n_rolls</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">column</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;Face&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<h4 id="Empirical-Histograms">Empirical Histograms<a class="anchor-link" href="#Empirical-Histograms">&#182;</a></h4><p>Here is an empirical histogram of 10 rolls. It doesn't look very much like the probability histogram above. Drag the slider to look at different sets of 10 rolls.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  
+
+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
+
+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">die_options</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;bins&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">&#39;xlim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="s1">&#39;ylim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.3</span><span class="p">)}</span>
+
+<span class="n">nbi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">empirical_die_rolls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">die_options</span><span class="p">,</span>
+         <span class="n">n_rolls</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">fixed</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="n">sample_num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
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+<div class="output_area">
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+    
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+  <div class="output_subarea output_widget_view ">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
+    </button>
+  </div>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<p>When the sample size increases, the empirical histogram begins to look more like the histogram of theoretical probabilities. Try it out!</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  
+
+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
+
+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">nbi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">empirical_die_rolls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">die_options</span><span class="p">,</span>
+         <span class="n">n_rolls</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">),</span>
+         <span class="n">sample_num</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">))</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
+
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+<div class="output_area">
+
+    
+
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+  <div class="output_subarea output_widget_view ">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
+    </button>
+  </div>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<p>As we increase the number of rolls in the simulation, the area of each bar gets closer to 16.67%, which is the area of each bar in the probability histogram.</p>
+<p>What we have observed in an instance of a general rule:</p>
+<h4 id="The-Law-of-Averages">The Law of Averages<a class="anchor-link" href="#The-Law-of-Averages">&#182;</a></h4><p>If a chance experiment is repeated independently and under identical conditions, then, in the long run, the proportion of times that an event occurs gets closer and closer to the theoretical probability of the event.</p>
+<p>For example, in the long run, the proportion of times the face with four spots appears gets closer and closer to 1/6.</p>
+<p>Here "independently and under identical conditions" means that every repetition is performed in the same way regardless of the results of all the other repetitions.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+

data/lib/starter_web/pages/public/_jupyter/notebooks/textbooks/nbi_docs_examples_linear_regression.html

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+  <div class="cell text_cell">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
+    </button>
+  </div>
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+  <div class="nbinteract-hide_in
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
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+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># HIDDEN</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">nbinteract</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">nbi</span>
+<span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">numpy</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">np</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="cell border-box-sizing text_cell rendered"><div class="inner_cell">
+<div class="text_cell_render border-box-sizing rendered_html">
+<h3 id="Linear-Regression">Linear Regression<a class="anchor-link" href="#Linear-Regression">&#182;</a></h3><p>In this tutorial, we're going to learn about regression, one of the the most important concepts in machine learning. Simply stated, regression allows us to take some data and make predictions for future data.</p>
+<p>Let's suppose we want to figure out whether a new ice cream flavor will be popular. Here, we have some data on past ice cream flavors. Each point is a flavor. The x-axis shows how highly the ice cream texture was rated. The y-axis shows how the highly the flavor was rated overall.</p>
+<p>We can expect that the better the texture, the higher the overall rating. We want to fit a line to the data to show that. Regression chooses the best line for us. Try dragging the points around and see how the regression line changes!</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  
+
+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
+
+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">texture_rating</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">np</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mf">4.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.1</span><span class="p">])</span>
+<span class="n">overall_rating</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">np</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">3.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">6.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.9</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">5.4</span><span class="p">])</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+  </div>
+
+  
+
+  <div class="
+      cell border-box-sizing code_cell rendered">
+    <div class="input">
+
+<div class="inner_cell">
+    <div class="input_area">
+<div class=" highlight hl-ipython3"><pre><span></span><span class="n">nbi</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">scatter_drag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">texture_rating</span><span class="p">,</span> 
+                 <span class="n">overall_rating</span><span class="p">,</span> 
+                 <span class="n">options</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">&#39;xlim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> 
+                          <span class="s1">&#39;ylim&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">),</span> 
+                          <span class="s1">&#39;xlabel&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s2">&quot;Texture Rating&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> 
+                          <span class="s1">&#39;ylabel&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="s2">&quot;Overall Rating&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> 
+                          <span class="s1">&#39;title&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">&quot;Simple Linear Regression&quot;</span><span class="p">})</span>
+</pre></div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="output_wrapper">
+<div class="output">
+
+
+<div class="output_area">
+
+    
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+  <div class="output_subarea output_widget_view ">
+    <button class="js-nbinteract-widget">
+      Loading widgets...
+    </button>
+  </div>
+
+</div>
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+</div>
+</div>
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+  </div>
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+<p>That equation above is our regression line. We can use it to make predictions for data we haven't seen before. For example, if I gave you a ice cream that someone rated a 5.0 for texture, you could use the equation above the graph to predict the overall rating.</p>
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