dec_number 0.0.0

data/ext/dec_number/decNumber/decCommon.c

@@ -0,0 +1,1835 @@
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCommon.c -- common code for all three fixed-size types          */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Copyright (c) IBM Corporation, 2000, 2010.  All rights reserved.   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This software is made available under the terms of the             */
+/* ICU License -- ICU 1.8.1 and later.                                */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The description and User's Guide ("The decNumber C Library") for   */
+/* this software is included in the package as decNumber.pdf.  This   */
+/* document is also available in HTML, together with specifications,  */
+/* testcases, and Web links, on the General Decimal Arithmetic page.  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Please send comments, suggestions, and corrections to the author:  */
+/*   mfc@uk.ibm.com                                                   */
+/*   Mike Cowlishaw, IBM Fellow                                       */
+/*   IBM UK, PO Box 31, Birmingham Road, Warwick CV34 5JL, UK         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises code that is shared between all the formats  */
+/* (decSingle, decDouble, and decQuad); it includes set and extract   */
+/* of format components, widening, narrowing, and string conversions. */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Unlike decNumber, parameterization takes place at compile time     */
+/* rather than at runtime.  The parameters are set in the decDouble.c */
+/* (etc.) files, which then include this one to produce the compiled  */
+/* code.  The functions here, therefore, are code shared between      */
+/* multiple formats.                                                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// Names here refer to decFloat rather than to decDouble, etc., and
+// the functions are in strict alphabetical order.
+// Constants, tables, and debug function(s) are included only for QUAD
+// (which will always be compiled if DOUBLE or SINGLE are used).
+//
+// Whenever a decContext is used, only the status may be set (using
+// OR) or the rounding mode read; all other fields are ignored and
+// untouched.
+
+// names for simpler testing and default context
+#if DECPMAX==7
+  #define SINGLE     1
+  #define DOUBLE     0
+  #define QUAD       0
+  #define DEFCONTEXT DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32
+#elif DECPMAX==16
+  #define SINGLE     0
+  #define DOUBLE     1
+  #define QUAD       0
+  #define DEFCONTEXT DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64
+#elif DECPMAX==34
+  #define SINGLE     0
+  #define DOUBLE     0
+  #define QUAD       1
+  #define DEFCONTEXT DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128
+#else
+  #error Unexpected DECPMAX value
+#endif
+
+/* Assertions */
+
+#if DECPMAX!=7 && DECPMAX!=16 && DECPMAX!=34
+  #error Unexpected Pmax (DECPMAX) value for this module
+#endif
+
+// Assert facts about digit characters, etc.
+#if ('9'&0x0f)!=9
+  #error This module assumes characters are of the form 0b....nnnn
+  // where .... are don't care 4 bits and nnnn is 0000 through 1001
+#endif
+#if ('9'&0xf0)==('.'&0xf0)
+  #error This module assumes '.' has a different mask than a digit
+#endif
+
+// Assert ToString lay-out conditions
+#if DECSTRING<DECPMAX+9
+  #error ToString needs at least 8 characters for lead-in and dot
+#endif
+#if DECPMAX+DECEMAXD+5 > DECSTRING
+  #error Exponent form can be too long for ToString to lay out safely
+#endif
+#if DECEMAXD > 4
+  #error Exponent form is too long for ToString to lay out
+  // Note: code for up to 9 digits exists in archives [decOct]
+#endif
+
+/* Private functions used here and possibly in decBasic.c, etc. */
+static decFloat * decFinalize(decFloat *, bcdnum *, decContext *);
+static Flag decBiStr(const char *, const char *, const char *);
+
+/* Macros and private tables; those which are not format-dependent    */
+/* are only included if decQuad is being built.                       */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Combination field lookup tables (uInts to save measurable work)    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   DECCOMBEXP  - 2 most-significant-bits of exponent (00, 01, or    */
+/*                 10), shifted left for format, or DECFLOAT_Inf/NaN  */
+/*   DECCOMBWEXP - The same, for the next-wider format (unless QUAD)  */
+/*   DECCOMBMSD  - 4-bit most-significant-digit                       */
+/*                 [0 if the index is a special (Infinity or NaN)]    */
+/*   DECCOMBFROM - 5-bit combination field from EXP top bits and MSD  */
+/*                 (placed in uInt so no shift is needed)             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* DECCOMBEXP, DECCOMBWEXP, and DECCOMBMSD are indexed by the sign    */
+/*   and 5-bit combination field (0-63, the second half of the table  */
+/*   identical to the first half)                                     */
+/* DECCOMBFROM is indexed by expTopTwoBits*16 + msd                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* DECCOMBMSD and DECCOMBFROM are not format-dependent and so are     */
+/* only included once, when QUAD is being built                       */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static const uInt DECCOMBEXP[64]={
+  0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+  1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL,
+  0,           0,           1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, DECFLOAT_Inf, DECFLOAT_NaN,
+  0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+  1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL,
+  0,           0,           1<<DECECONL, 1<<DECECONL,
+  2<<DECECONL, 2<<DECECONL, DECFLOAT_Inf, DECFLOAT_NaN};
+#if !QUAD
+static const uInt DECCOMBWEXP[64]={
+  0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+  1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL,
+  0,            0,            1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, DECFLOAT_Inf, DECFLOAT_NaN,
+  0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+  1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL,
+  0,            0,            1<<DECWECONL, 1<<DECWECONL,
+  2<<DECWECONL, 2<<DECWECONL, DECFLOAT_Inf, DECFLOAT_NaN};
+#endif
+
+#if QUAD
+const uInt DECCOMBMSD[64]={
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8, 9, 8, 9, 0, 0,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8, 9, 8, 9, 0, 0};
+
+const uInt DECCOMBFROM[48]={
+  0x00000000, 0x04000000, 0x08000000, 0x0C000000, 0x10000000, 0x14000000,
+  0x18000000, 0x1C000000, 0x60000000, 0x64000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
+  0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x20000000, 0x24000000,
+  0x28000000, 0x2C000000, 0x30000000, 0x34000000, 0x38000000, 0x3C000000,
+  0x68000000, 0x6C000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
+  0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x40000000, 0x44000000, 0x48000000, 0x4C000000,
+  0x50000000, 0x54000000, 0x58000000, 0x5C000000, 0x70000000, 0x74000000,
+  0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000};
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Request and include the tables to use for conversions              */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#define DEC_BCD2DPD  1        // 0-0x999 -> DPD
+#define DEC_BIN2DPD  1        // 0-999 -> DPD
+#define DEC_BIN2BCD8 1        // 0-999 -> ddd, len
+#define DEC_DPD2BCD8 1        // DPD -> ddd, len
+#define DEC_DPD2BIN  1        // DPD -> 0-999
+#define DEC_DPD2BINK 1        // DPD -> 0-999000
+#define DEC_DPD2BINM 1        // DPD -> 0-999000000
+#include "decDPD.h"           // source of the lookup tables
+
+#endif
+
+/* ----------------------------------------------------------------- */
+/* decBiStr -- compare string with pairwise options                  */
+/*                                                                   */
+/*   targ is the string to compare                                   */
+/*   str1 is one of the strings to compare against (length may be 0) */
+/*   str2 is the other; it must be the same length as str1           */
+/*                                                                   */
+/*   returns 1 if strings compare equal, (that is, targ is the same  */
+/*   length as str1 and str2, and each character of targ is in one   */
+/*   of str1 or str2 in the corresponding position), or 0 otherwise  */
+/*                                                                   */
+/* This is used for generic caseless compare, including the awkward  */
+/* case of the Turkish dotted and dotless Is.  Use as (for example): */
+/*   if (decBiStr(test, "mike", "MIKE")) ...                         */
+/* ----------------------------------------------------------------- */
+static Flag decBiStr(const char *targ, const char *str1, const char *str2) {
+  for (;;targ++, str1++, str2++) {
+    if (*targ!=*str1 && *targ!=*str2) return 0;
+    // *targ has a match in one (or both, if terminator)
+    if (*targ=='\0') break;
+    } // forever
+  return 1;
+  } // decBiStr
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFinalize -- adjust and store a final result                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df  is the decFloat format number which gets the final result     */
+/*  num is the descriptor of the number to be checked and encoded     */
+/*         [its values, including the coefficient, may be modified]   */
+/*  set is the context to use                                         */
+/*  returns df                                                        */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The num descriptor may point to a bcd8 string of any length; this  */
+/* string may have leading insignificant zeros.  If it has more than  */
+/* DECPMAX digits then the final digit can be a round-for-reround     */
+/* digit (i.e., it may include a sticky bit residue).                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The exponent (q) may be one of the codes for a special value and   */
+/* can be up to 999999999 for conversion from string.                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, but Inexact, Underflow, and/or Overflow may  */
+/* be set.                                                            */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// Constant whose size varies with format; also the check for surprises
+static uByte allnines[DECPMAX]=
+#if SINGLE
+  {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9};
+#elif DOUBLE
+  {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9};
+#elif QUAD
+  {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9,
+   9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9};
+#endif
+
+static decFloat * decFinalize(decFloat *df, bcdnum *num,
+                              decContext *set) {
+  uByte *ub;                  // work
+  uInt   dpd;                 // ..
+  uInt   uiwork;              // for macros
+  uByte *umsd=num->msd;       // local copy
+  uByte *ulsd=num->lsd;       // ..
+  uInt   encode;              // encoding accumulator
+  Int    length;              // coefficient length
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  Int clen=ulsd-umsd+1;
+  #if QUAD
+    #define COEXTRA 2                        // extra-long coefficent
+  #else
+    #define COEXTRA 0
+  #endif
+  if (clen<1 || clen>DECPMAX*3+2+COEXTRA)
+    printf("decFinalize: suspect coefficient [length=%ld]\n", (LI)clen);
+  if (num->sign!=0 && num->sign!=DECFLOAT_Sign)
+    printf("decFinalize: bad sign [%08lx]\n", (LI)num->sign);
+  if (!EXPISSPECIAL(num->exponent)
+      && (num->exponent>1999999999 || num->exponent<-1999999999))
+    printf("decFinalize: improbable exponent [%ld]\n", (LI)num->exponent);
+  // decShowNum(num, "final");
+  #endif
+
+  // A special will have an 'exponent' which is very positive and a
+  // coefficient < DECPMAX
+  length=(uInt)(ulsd-umsd+1);                // coefficient length
+
+  if (!NUMISSPECIAL(num)) {
+    Int   drop;                              // digits to be dropped
+    // skip leading insignificant zeros to calculate an exact length
+    // [this is quite expensive]
+    if (*umsd==0) {
+      for (; umsd+3<ulsd && UBTOUI(umsd)==0;) umsd+=4;
+      for (; *umsd==0 && umsd<ulsd;) umsd++;
+      length=ulsd-umsd+1;                    // recalculate
+      }
+    drop=MAXI(length-DECPMAX, DECQTINY-num->exponent);
+    // drop can now be > digits for bottom-clamp (subnormal) cases
+    if (drop>0) {                            // rounding needed
+      // (decFloatQuantize has very similar code to this, so any
+      // changes may need to be made there, too)
+      uByte *roundat;                        // -> re-round digit
+      uByte reround;                         // reround value
+      // printf("Rounding; drop=%ld\n", (LI)drop);
+
+      num->exponent+=drop;                   // always update exponent
+
+      // Three cases here:
+      //   1. new LSD is in coefficient (almost always)
+      //   2. new LSD is digit to left of coefficient (so MSD is
+      //      round-for-reround digit)
+      //   3. new LSD is to left of case 2 (whole coefficient is sticky)
+      // [duplicate check-stickies code to save a test]
+      // [by-digit check for stickies as runs of zeros are rare]
+      if (drop<length) {                     // NB lengths not addresses
+        roundat=umsd+length-drop;
+        reround=*roundat;
+        for (ub=roundat+1; ub<=ulsd; ub++) {
+          if (*ub!=0) {                      // non-zero to be discarded
+            reround=DECSTICKYTAB[reround];   // apply sticky bit
+            break;                           // [remainder don't-care]
+            }
+          } // check stickies
+        ulsd=roundat-1;                      // new LSD
+        }
+       else {                                // edge case
+        if (drop==length) {
+          roundat=umsd;
+          reround=*roundat;
+          }
+         else {
+          roundat=umsd-1;
+          reround=0;
+          }
+        for (ub=roundat+1; ub<=ulsd; ub++) {
+          if (*ub!=0) {                      // non-zero to be discarded
+            reround=DECSTICKYTAB[reround];   // apply sticky bit
+            break;                           // [remainder don't-care]
+            }
+          } // check stickies
+        *umsd=0;                             // coefficient is a 0
+        ulsd=umsd;                           // ..
+        }
+
+      if (reround!=0) {                      // discarding non-zero
+        uInt bump=0;
+        set->status|=DEC_Inexact;
+        // if adjusted exponent [exp+digits-1] is < EMIN then num is
+        // subnormal -- so raise Underflow
+        if (num->exponent<DECEMIN && (num->exponent+(ulsd-umsd+1)-1)<DECEMIN)
+          set->status|=DEC_Underflow;
+
+        // next decide whether increment of the coefficient is needed
+        if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN) {    // fastpath slowest case
+          if (reround>5) bump=1;                  // >0.5 goes up
+           else if (reround==5)                   // exactly 0.5000 ..
+            bump=*ulsd & 0x01;                    // .. up iff [new] lsd is odd
+          } // r-h-e
+         else switch (set->round) {
+          case DEC_ROUND_DOWN: {
+            // no change
+            break;} // r-d
+          case DEC_ROUND_HALF_DOWN: {
+            if (reround>5) bump=1;
+            break;} // r-h-d
+          case DEC_ROUND_HALF_UP: {
+            if (reround>=5) bump=1;
+            break;} // r-h-u
+          case DEC_ROUND_UP: {
+            if (reround>0) bump=1;
+            break;} // r-u
+          case DEC_ROUND_CEILING: {
+            // same as _UP for positive numbers, and as _DOWN for negatives
+            if (!num->sign && reround>0) bump=1;
+            break;} // r-c
+          case DEC_ROUND_FLOOR: {
+            // same as _UP for negative numbers, and as _DOWN for positive
+            // [negative reround cannot occur on 0]
+            if (num->sign && reround>0) bump=1;
+            break;} // r-f
+          case DEC_ROUND_05UP: {
+            if (reround>0) { // anything out there is 'sticky'
+              // bump iff lsd=0 or 5; this cannot carry so it could be
+              // effected immediately with no bump -- but the code
+              // is clearer if this is done the same way as the others
+              if (*ulsd==0 || *ulsd==5) bump=1;
+              }
+            break;} // r-r
+          default: {      // e.g., DEC_ROUND_MAX
+            set->status|=DEC_Invalid_context;
+            #if DECCHECK
+            printf("Unknown rounding mode: %ld\n", (LI)set->round);
+            #endif
+            break;}
+          } // switch (not r-h-e)
+        // printf("ReRound: %ld  bump: %ld\n", (LI)reround, (LI)bump);
+
+        if (bump!=0) {                       // need increment
+          // increment the coefficient; this might end up with 1000...
+          // (after the all nines case)
+          ub=ulsd;
+          for(; ub-3>=umsd && UBTOUI(ub-3)==0x09090909; ub-=4)  {
+            UBFROMUI(ub-3, 0);               // to 00000000
+            }
+          // [note ub could now be to left of msd, and it is not safe
+          // to write to the the left of the msd]
+          // now at most 3 digits left to non-9 (usually just the one)
+          for (; ub>=umsd; *ub=0, ub--) {
+            if (*ub==9) continue;            // carry
+            *ub+=1;
+            break;
+            }
+          if (ub<umsd) {                     // had all-nines
+            *umsd=1;                         // coefficient to 1000...
+            // usually the 1000... coefficient can be used as-is
+            if ((ulsd-umsd+1)==DECPMAX) {
+              num->exponent++;
+              }
+             else {
+              // if coefficient is shorter than Pmax then num is
+              // subnormal, so extend it; this is safe as drop>0
+              // (or, if the coefficient was supplied above, it could
+              // not be 9); this may make the result normal.
+              ulsd++;
+              *ulsd=0;
+              // [exponent unchanged]
+              #if DECCHECK
+              if (num->exponent!=DECQTINY) // sanity check
+                printf("decFinalize: bad all-nines extend [^%ld, %ld]\n",
+                       (LI)num->exponent, (LI)(ulsd-umsd+1));
+              #endif
+              } // subnormal extend
+            } // had all-nines
+          } // bump needed
+        } // inexact rounding
+
+      length=ulsd-umsd+1;               // recalculate (may be <DECPMAX)
+      } // need round (drop>0)
+
+    // The coefficient will now fit and has final length unless overflow
+    // decShowNum(num, "rounded");
+
+    // if exponent is >=emax may have to clamp, overflow, or fold-down
+    if (num->exponent>DECEMAX-(DECPMAX-1)) { // is edge case
+      // printf("overflow checks...\n");
+      if (*ulsd==0 && ulsd==umsd) {     // have zero
+        num->exponent=DECEMAX-(DECPMAX-1); // clamp to max
+        }
+       else if ((num->exponent+length-1)>DECEMAX) { // > Nmax
+        // Overflow -- these could go straight to encoding, here, but
+        // instead num is adjusted to keep the code cleaner
+        Flag needmax=0;                 // 1 for finite result
+        set->status|=(DEC_Overflow | DEC_Inexact);
+        switch (set->round) {
+          case DEC_ROUND_DOWN: {
+            needmax=1;                  // never Infinity
+            break;} // r-d
+          case DEC_ROUND_05UP: {
+            needmax=1;                  // never Infinity
+            break;} // r-05
+          case DEC_ROUND_CEILING: {
+            if (num->sign) needmax=1;   // Infinity iff non-negative
+            break;} // r-c
+          case DEC_ROUND_FLOOR: {
+            if (!num->sign) needmax=1;  // Infinity iff negative
+            break;} // r-f
+          default: break;               // Infinity in all other cases
+          }
+        if (!needmax) {                 // easy .. set Infinity
+          num->exponent=DECFLOAT_Inf;
+          *umsd=0;                      // be clean: coefficient to 0
+          ulsd=umsd;                    // ..
+          }
+         else {                         // return Nmax
+          umsd=allnines;                // use constant array
+          ulsd=allnines+DECPMAX-1;
+          num->exponent=DECEMAX-(DECPMAX-1);
+          }
+        }
+       else { // no overflow but non-zero and may have to fold-down
+        Int shift=num->exponent-(DECEMAX-(DECPMAX-1));
+        if (shift>0) {                  // fold-down needed
+          // fold down needed; must copy to buffer in order to pad
+          // with zeros safely; fortunately this is not the worst case
+          // path because cannot have had a round
+          uByte buffer[ROUNDUP(DECPMAX+3, 4)]; // [+3 allows uInt padding]
+          uByte *s=umsd;                // source
+          uByte *t=buffer;              // safe target
+          uByte *tlsd=buffer+(ulsd-umsd)+shift; // target LSD
+          // printf("folddown shift=%ld\n", (LI)shift);
+          for (; s<=ulsd; s+=4, t+=4) UBFROMUI(t, UBTOUI(s));
+          for (t=tlsd-shift+1; t<=tlsd; t+=4) UBFROMUI(t, 0);  // pad 0s
+          num->exponent-=shift;
+          umsd=buffer;
+          ulsd=tlsd;
+          }
+        } // fold-down?
+      length=ulsd-umsd+1;               // recalculate length
+      } // high-end edge case
+    } // finite number
+
+  /*------------------------------------------------------------------*/
+  /* At this point the result will properly fit the decFloat          */
+  /* encoding, and it can be encoded with no possibility of error     */
+  /*------------------------------------------------------------------*/
+  // Following code does not alter coefficient (could be allnines array)
+
+  // fast path possible when DECPMAX digits
+  if (length==DECPMAX) {
+    return decFloatFromBCD(df, num->exponent, umsd, num->sign);
+    } // full-length
+
+  // slower path when not a full-length number; must care about length
+  // [coefficient length here will be < DECPMAX]
+  if (!NUMISSPECIAL(num)) {             // is still finite
+    // encode the combination field and exponent continuation
+    uInt uexp=(uInt)(num->exponent+DECBIAS); // biased exponent
+    uInt code=(uexp>>DECECONL)<<4;      // top two bits of exp
+    // [msd==0]
+    // look up the combination field and make high word
+    encode=DECCOMBFROM[code];           // indexed by (0-2)*16+msd
+    encode|=(uexp<<(32-6-DECECONL)) & 0x03ffffff; // exponent continuation
+    }
+   else encode=num->exponent;           // special [already in word]
+  encode|=num->sign;                    // add sign
+
+  // private macro to extract a declet, n (where 0<=n<DECLETS and 0
+  // refers to the declet from the least significant three digits)
+  // and put the corresponding DPD code into dpd.  Access to umsd and
+  // ulsd (pointers to the most and least significant digit of the
+  // variable-length coefficient) is assumed, along with use of a
+  // working pointer, uInt *ub.
+  // As not full-length then chances are there are many leading zeros
+  // [and there may be a partial triad]
+  #define getDPDt(dpd, n) ub=ulsd-(3*(n))-2;                          \
+    if (ub<umsd-2) dpd=0;                                             \
+     else if (ub>=umsd) dpd=BCD2DPD[(*ub*256)+(*(ub+1)*16)+*(ub+2)];  \
+     else {dpd=*(ub+2); if (ub+1==umsd) dpd+=*(ub+1)*16; dpd=BCD2DPD[dpd];}
+
+  // place the declets in the encoding words and copy to result (df),
+  // according to endianness; in all cases complete the sign word
+  // first
+  #if DECPMAX==7
+    getDPDt(dpd, 1);
+    encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 0);
+    encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;     // just the one word
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==16
+    getDPDt(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 1)=encode;
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+    getDPDt(dpd,10); encode|=dpd<<4;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 9); encode|=dpd>>6;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<26;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 8); encode|=dpd<<16;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 7); encode|=dpd<<6;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 6); encode|=dpd>>4;
+    DFWORD(df, 1)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<28;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 5); encode|=dpd<<18;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(df, 2)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDt(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 3)=encode;
+  #endif
+
+  // printf("Status: %08lx\n", (LI)set->status);
+  // decFloatShow(df, "final2");
+  return df;
+  } // decFinalize
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromBCD -- set decFloat from exponent, BCD8, and sign      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the target decFloat                                         */
+/*  exp is the in-range unbiased exponent, q, or a special value in   */
+/*    the form returned by decFloatGetExponent                        */
+/*  bcdar holds DECPMAX digits to set the coefficient from, one       */
+/*    digit in each byte (BCD8 encoding); the first (MSD) is ignored  */
+/*    if df is a NaN; all are ignored if df is infinite.              */
+/*    All bytes must be in 0-9; results are undefined otherwise.      */
+/*  sig is DECFLOAT_Sign to set the sign bit, 0 otherwise             */
+/*  returns df, which will be canonical                               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromBCD(decFloat *df, Int exp, const uByte *bcdar,
+                           Int sig) {
+  uInt encode, dpd;                     // work
+  const uByte *ub;                      // ..
+
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) encode=exp|sig;// specials already encoded
+   else {                               // is finite
+    // encode the combination field and exponent continuation
+    uInt uexp=(uInt)(exp+DECBIAS);      // biased exponent
+    uInt code=(uexp>>DECECONL)<<4;      // top two bits of exp
+    code+=bcdar[0];                     // add msd
+    // look up the combination field and make high word
+    encode=DECCOMBFROM[code]|sig;       // indexed by (0-2)*16+msd
+    encode|=(uexp<<(32-6-DECECONL)) & 0x03ffffff; // exponent continuation
+    }
+
+  // private macro to extract a declet, n (where 0<=n<DECLETS and 0
+  // refers to the declet from the least significant three digits)
+  // and put the corresponding DPD code into dpd.
+  // Use of a working pointer, uInt *ub, is assumed.
+
+  #define getDPDb(dpd, n) ub=bcdar+DECPMAX-1-(3*(n))-2;     \
+    dpd=BCD2DPD[(*ub*256)+(*(ub+1)*16)+*(ub+2)];
+
+  // place the declets in the encoding words and copy to result (df),
+  // according to endianness; in all cases complete the sign word
+  // first
+  #if DECPMAX==7
+    getDPDb(dpd, 1);
+    encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 0);
+    encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;     // just the one word
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==16
+    getDPDb(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 1)=encode;
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+    getDPDb(dpd,10); encode|=dpd<<4;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 9); encode|=dpd>>6;
+    DFWORD(df, 0)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<26;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 8); encode|=dpd<<16;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 7); encode|=dpd<<6;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 6); encode|=dpd>>4;
+    DFWORD(df, 1)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<28;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 5); encode|=dpd<<18;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(df, 2)=encode;
+
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPDb(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(df, 3)=encode;
+  #endif
+  // decFloatShow(df, "fromB");
+  return df;
+  } // decFloatFromBCD
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromPacked -- set decFloat from exponent and packed BCD    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the target decFloat                                         */
+/*  exp is the in-range unbiased exponent, q, or a special value in   */
+/*    the form returned by decFloatGetExponent                        */
+/*  packed holds DECPMAX packed decimal digits plus a sign nibble     */
+/*    (all 6 codes are OK); the first (MSD) is ignored if df is a NaN */
+/*    and all except sign are ignored if df is infinite.  For DOUBLE  */
+/*    and QUAD the first (pad) nibble is also ignored in all cases.   */
+/*    All coefficient nibbles must be in 0-9 and sign in A-F; results */
+/*    are undefined otherwise.                                        */
+/*  returns df, which will be canonical                               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromPacked(decFloat *df, Int exp, const uByte *packed) {
+  uByte bcdar[DECPMAX+2];               // work [+1 for pad, +1 for sign]
+  const uByte *ip;                      // ..
+  uByte *op;                            // ..
+  Int   sig=0;                          // sign
+
+  // expand coefficient and sign to BCDAR
+  #if SINGLE
+  op=bcdar+1;                           // no pad digit
+  #else
+  op=bcdar;                             // first (pad) digit ignored
+  #endif
+  for (ip=packed; ip<packed+((DECPMAX+2)/2); ip++) {
+    *op++=*ip>>4;
+    *op++=(uByte)(*ip&0x0f);            // [final nibble is sign]
+    }
+  op--;                                 // -> sign byte
+  if (*op==DECPMINUS || *op==DECPMINUSALT) sig=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) {              // Infinity or NaN
+    if (!EXPISINF(exp)) bcdar[1]=0;     // a NaN: ignore MSD
+     else memset(bcdar+1, 0, DECPMAX);  // Infinite: coefficient to 0
+    }
+  return decFloatFromBCD(df, exp, bcdar+1, sig);
+  } // decFloatFromPacked
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromPackedChecked -- set from exponent and packed; checked */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the target decFloat                                         */
+/*  exp is the in-range unbiased exponent, q, or a special value in   */
+/*    the form returned by decFloatGetExponent                        */
+/*  packed holds DECPMAX packed decimal digits plus a sign nibble     */
+/*    (all 6 codes are OK); the first (MSD) must be 0 if df is a NaN  */
+/*    and all digits must be 0 if df is infinite.  For DOUBLE and     */
+/*    QUAD the first (pad) nibble must be 0.                          */
+/*    All coefficient nibbles must be in 0-9 and sign in A-F.         */
+/*  returns df, which will be canonical or NULL if any of the         */
+/*    requirements are not met (if this case df is unchanged); that   */
+/*    is, the input data must be as returned by decFloatToPacked,     */
+/*    except that all six sign codes are acccepted.                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No status will be set.                                             */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromPackedChecked(decFloat *df, Int exp,
+                                     const uByte *packed) {
+  uByte bcdar[DECPMAX+2];               // work [+1 for pad, +1 for sign]
+  const uByte *ip;                      // ..
+  uByte *op;                            // ..
+  Int   sig=0;                          // sign
+
+  // expand coefficient and sign to BCDAR
+  #if SINGLE
+  op=bcdar+1;                           // no pad digit
+  #else
+  op=bcdar;                             // first (pad) digit here
+  #endif
+  for (ip=packed; ip<packed+((DECPMAX+2)/2); ip++) {
+    *op=*ip>>4;
+    if (*op>9) return NULL;
+    op++;
+    *op=(uByte)(*ip&0x0f);              // [final nibble is sign]
+    if (*op>9 && ip<packed+((DECPMAX+2)/2)-1) return NULL;
+    op++;
+    }
+  op--;                                 // -> sign byte
+  if (*op<=9) return NULL;              // bad sign
+  if (*op==DECPMINUS || *op==DECPMINUSALT) sig=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+
+  #if !SINGLE
+  if (bcdar[0]!=0) return NULL;         // bad pad nibble
+  #endif
+
+  if (EXPISNAN(exp)) {                  // a NaN
+    if (bcdar[1]!=0) return NULL;       // bad msd
+    } // NaN
+   else if (EXPISINF(exp)) {            // is infinite
+    Int i;
+    for (i=0; i<DECPMAX; i++) {
+      if (bcdar[i+1]!=0) return NULL;   // should be all zeros
+      }
+    } // infinity
+   else {                               // finite
+    // check the exponent is in range
+    if (exp>DECEMAX-DECPMAX+1) return NULL;
+    if (exp<DECEMIN-DECPMAX+1) return NULL;
+    }
+  return decFloatFromBCD(df, exp, bcdar+1, sig);
+  } // decFloatFromPacked
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromString -- conversion from numeric string               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  result  is the decFloat format number which gets the result of    */
+/*          the conversion                                            */
+/*  *string is the character string which should contain a valid      */
+/*          number (which may be a special value), \0-terminated      */
+/*          If there are too many significant digits in the           */
+/*          coefficient it will be rounded.                           */
+/*  set     is the context                                            */
+/*  returns result                                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The length of the coefficient and the size of the exponent are     */
+/* checked by this routine, so the correct error (Underflow or        */
+/* Overflow) can be reported or rounding applied, as necessary.       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* There is no limit to the coefficient length for finite inputs;     */
+/* NaN payloads must be integers with no more than DECPMAX-1 digits.  */
+/* Exponents may have up to nine significant digits.                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* If bad syntax is detected, the result will be a quiet NaN.         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromString(decFloat *result, const char *string,
+                              decContext *set) {
+  Int    digits;                   // count of digits in coefficient
+  const  char *dotchar=NULL;       // where dot was found [NULL if none]
+  const  char *cfirst=string;      // -> first character of decimal part
+  const  char *c;                  // work
+  uByte *ub;                       // ..
+  uInt   uiwork;                   // for macros
+  bcdnum num;                      // collects data for finishing
+  uInt   error=DEC_Conversion_syntax;      // assume the worst
+  uByte  buffer[ROUNDUP(DECSTRING+11, 8)]; // room for most coefficents,
+                                           // some common rounding, +3, & pad
+  #if DECTRACE
+  // printf("FromString %s ...\n", string);
+  #endif
+
+  for(;;) {                             // once-only 'loop'
+    num.sign=0;                         // assume non-negative
+    num.msd=buffer;                     // MSD is here always
+
+    // detect and validate the coefficient, including any leading,
+    // trailing, or embedded '.'
+    // [could test four-at-a-time here (saving 10% for decQuads),
+    // but that risks storage violation because the position of the
+    // terminator is unknown]
+    for (c=string;; c++) {              // -> input character
+      if (((unsigned)(*c-'0'))<=9) continue; // '0' through '9' is good
+      if (*c=='\0') break;              // most common non-digit
+      if (*c=='.') {
+        if (dotchar!=NULL) break;       // not first '.'
+        dotchar=c;                      // record offset into decimal part
+        continue;}
+      if (c==string) {                  // first in string...
+        if (*c=='-') {                  // valid - sign
+          cfirst++;
+          num.sign=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+          continue;}
+        if (*c=='+') {                  // valid + sign
+          cfirst++;
+          continue;}
+        }
+      // *c is not a digit, terminator, or a valid +, -, or '.'
+      break;
+      } // c loop
+
+    digits=(uInt)(c-cfirst);            // digits (+1 if a dot)
+
+    if (digits>0) {                     // had digits and/or dot
+      const char *clast=c-1;            // note last coefficient char position
+      Int exp=0;                        // exponent accumulator
+      if (*c!='\0') {                   // something follows the coefficient
+        uInt edig;                      // unsigned work
+        // had some digits and more to come; expect E[+|-]nnn now
+        const char *firstexp;           // exponent first non-zero
+        if (*c!='E' && *c!='e') break;
+        c++;                            // to (optional) sign
+        if (*c=='-' || *c=='+') c++;    // step over sign (c=clast+2)
+        if (*c=='\0') break;            // no digits!  (e.g., '1.2E')
+        for (; *c=='0';) c++;           // skip leading zeros [even last]
+        firstexp=c;                     // remember start [maybe '\0']
+        // gather exponent digits
+        edig=(uInt)*c-(uInt)'0';
+        if (edig<=9) {                  // [check not bad or terminator]
+          exp+=edig;                    // avoid initial X10
+          c++;
+          for (;; c++) {
+            edig=(uInt)*c-(uInt)'0';
+            if (edig>9) break;
+            exp=exp*10+edig;
+            }
+          }
+        // if not now on the '\0', *c must not be a digit
+        if (*c!='\0') break;
+
+        // (this next test must be after the syntax checks)
+        // if definitely more than the possible digits for format then
+        // the exponent may have wrapped, so simply set it to a certain
+        // over/underflow value
+        if (c>firstexp+DECEMAXD) exp=DECEMAX*2;
+        if (*(clast+2)=='-') exp=-exp;  // was negative
+        } // exponent part
+
+      if (dotchar!=NULL) {              // had a '.'
+        digits--;                       // remove from digits count
+        if (digits==0) break;           // was dot alone: bad syntax
+        exp-=(Int)(clast-dotchar);      // adjust exponent
+        // [the '.' can now be ignored]
+        }
+      num.exponent=exp;                 // exponent is good; store it
+
+      // Here when whole string has been inspected and syntax is good
+      // cfirst->first digit or dot, clast->last digit or dot
+      error=0;                          // no error possible now
+
+      // if the number of digits in the coefficient will fit in buffer
+      // then it can simply be converted to bcd8 and copied -- decFinalize
+      // will take care of leading zeros and rounding; the buffer is big
+      // enough for all canonical coefficients, including 0.00000nn...
+      ub=buffer;
+      if (digits<=(Int)(sizeof(buffer)-3)) { // [-3 allows by-4s copy]
+        c=cfirst;
+        if (dotchar!=NULL) {                 // a dot to worry about
+          if (*(c+1)=='.') {                 // common canonical case
+            *ub++=(uByte)(*c-'0');           // copy leading digit
+            c+=2;                            // prepare to handle rest
+            }
+           else for (; c<=clast;) {          // '.' could be anywhere
+            // as usual, go by fours when safe; NB it has been asserted
+            // that a '.' does not have the same mask as a digit
+            if (c<=clast-3                             // safe for four
+             && (UBTOUI(c)&0xf0f0f0f0)==CHARMASK) {    // test four
+              UBFROMUI(ub, UBTOUI(c)&0x0f0f0f0f);      // to BCD8
+              ub+=4;
+              c+=4;
+              continue;
+              }
+            if (*c=='.') {                   // found the dot
+              c++;                           // step over it ..
+              break;                         // .. and handle the rest
+              }
+            *ub++=(uByte)(*c++-'0');
+            }
+          } // had dot
+        // Now no dot; do this by fours (where safe)
+        for (; c<=clast-3; c+=4, ub+=4) UBFROMUI(ub, UBTOUI(c)&0x0f0f0f0f);
+        for (; c<=clast; c++, ub++) *ub=(uByte)(*c-'0');
+        num.lsd=buffer+digits-1;             // record new LSD
+        } // fits
+
+       else {                                // too long for buffer
+        // [This is a rare and unusual case; arbitrary-length input]
+        // strip leading zeros [but leave final 0 if all 0's]
+        if (*cfirst=='.') cfirst++;          // step past dot at start
+        if (*cfirst=='0') {                  // [cfirst always -> digit]
+          for (; cfirst<clast; cfirst++) {
+            if (*cfirst!='0') {              // non-zero found
+              if (*cfirst=='.') continue;    // [ignore]
+              break;                         // done
+              }
+            digits--;                        // 0 stripped
+            } // cfirst
+          } // at least one leading 0
+
+        // the coefficient is now as short as possible, but may still
+        // be too long; copy up to Pmax+1 digits to the buffer, then
+        // just record any non-zeros (set round-for-reround digit)
+        for (c=cfirst; c<=clast && ub<=buffer+DECPMAX; c++) {
+          // (see commentary just above)
+          if (c<=clast-3                          // safe for four
+           && (UBTOUI(c)&0xf0f0f0f0)==CHARMASK) { // four digits
+            UBFROMUI(ub, UBTOUI(c)&0x0f0f0f0f);   // to BCD8
+            ub+=4;
+            c+=3;                            // [will become 4]
+            continue;
+            }
+          if (*c=='.') continue;             // [ignore]
+          *ub++=(uByte)(*c-'0');
+          }
+        ub--;                                // -> LSD
+        for (; c<=clast; c++) {              // inspect remaining chars
+          if (*c!='0') {                     // sticky bit needed
+            if (*c=='.') continue;           // [ignore]
+            *ub=DECSTICKYTAB[*ub];           // update round-for-reround
+            break;                           // no need to look at more
+            }
+          }
+        num.lsd=ub;                          // record LSD
+        // adjust exponent for dropped digits
+        num.exponent+=digits-(Int)(ub-buffer+1);
+        } // too long for buffer
+      } // digits and/or dot
+
+     else {                             // no digits or dot were found
+      // only Infinities and NaNs are allowed, here
+      if (*c=='\0') break;              // nothing there is bad
+      buffer[0]=0;                      // default a coefficient of 0
+      num.lsd=buffer;                   // ..
+      if (decBiStr(c, "infinity", "INFINITY")
+       || decBiStr(c, "inf", "INF")) num.exponent=DECFLOAT_Inf;
+       else {                           // should be a NaN
+        num.exponent=DECFLOAT_qNaN;     // assume quiet NaN
+        if (*c=='s' || *c=='S') {       // probably an sNaN
+          num.exponent=DECFLOAT_sNaN;   // effect the 's'
+          c++;                          // and step over it
+          }
+        if (*c!='N' && *c!='n') break;  // check caseless "NaN"
+        c++;
+        if (*c!='a' && *c!='A') break;  // ..
+        c++;
+        if (*c!='N' && *c!='n') break;  // ..
+        c++;
+        // now either nothing, or nnnn payload (no dots), expected
+        // -> start of integer, and skip leading 0s [including plain 0]
+        for (cfirst=c; *cfirst=='0';) cfirst++;
+        if (*cfirst!='\0') {            // not empty or all-0, payload
+          // payload found; check all valid digits and copy to buffer as bcd8
+          ub=buffer;
+          for (c=cfirst;; c++, ub++) {
+            if ((unsigned)(*c-'0')>9) break; // quit if not 0-9
+            if (c-cfirst==DECPMAX-1) break;  // too many digits
+            *ub=(uByte)(*c-'0');        // good bcd8
+            }
+          if (*c!='\0') break;          // not all digits, or too many
+          num.lsd=ub-1;                 // record new LSD
+          }
+        } // NaN or sNaN
+      error=0;                          // syntax is OK
+      } // digits=0 (special expected)
+    break;                              // drop out
+    }                                   // [for(;;) once-loop]
+
+  // decShowNum(&num, "fromStr");
+
+  if (error!=0) {
+    set->status|=error;
+    num.exponent=DECFLOAT_qNaN;         // set up quiet NaN
+    num.sign=0;                         // .. with 0 sign
+    buffer[0]=0;                        // .. and coefficient
+    num.lsd=buffer;                     // ..
+    // decShowNum(&num, "oops");
+    }
+
+  // decShowNum(&num, "dffs");
+  decFinalize(result, &num, set);       // round, check, and lay out
+  // decFloatShow(result, "fromString");
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatFromString
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromWider -- conversion from next-wider format             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  result  is the decFloat format number which gets the result of    */
+/*          the conversion                                            */
+/*  wider   is the decFloatWider format number which will be narrowed */
+/*  set     is the context                                            */
+/*  returns result                                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Narrowing can cause rounding, overflow, etc., but not Invalid      */
+/* operation (sNaNs are copied and do not signal).                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// narrow-to is not possible for decQuad format numbers; simply omit
+#if !QUAD
+decFloat * decFloatFromWider(decFloat *result, const decFloatWider *wider,
+                             decContext *set) {
+  bcdnum num;                           // collects data for finishing
+  uByte  bcdar[DECWPMAX];               // room for wider coefficient
+  uInt   widerhi=DFWWORD(wider, 0);     // top word
+  Int    exp;
+
+  GETWCOEFF(wider, bcdar);
+
+  num.msd=bcdar;                        // MSD is here always
+  num.lsd=bcdar+DECWPMAX-1;             // LSD is here always
+  num.sign=widerhi&0x80000000;          // extract sign [DECFLOAT_Sign=Neg]
+
+  // decode the wider combination field to exponent
+  exp=DECCOMBWEXP[widerhi>>26];         // decode from wider combination field
+  // if it is a special there's nothing to do unless sNaN; if it's
+  // finite then add the (wider) exponent continuation and unbias
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) exp=widerhi&0x7e000000; // include sNaN selector
+   else exp+=GETWECON(wider)-DECWBIAS;
+  num.exponent=exp;
+
+  // decShowNum(&num, "dffw");
+  return decFinalize(result, &num, set);// round, check, and lay out
+  } // decFloatFromWider
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatGetCoefficient -- get coefficient as BCD8                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the decFloat from which to extract the coefficient          */
+/*  bcdar is where DECPMAX bytes will be written, one BCD digit in    */
+/*    each byte (BCD8 encoding); if df is a NaN the first byte will   */
+/*    be zero, and if it is infinite they will all be zero            */
+/*  returns the sign of the coefficient (DECFLOAT_Sign if negative,   */
+/*    0 otherwise)                                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.  If df is a       */
+/* special value the array is set to zeros (for Infinity) or to the   */
+/* payload of a qNaN or sNaN.                                         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decFloatGetCoefficient(const decFloat *df, uByte *bcdar) {
+  if (DFISINF(df)) memset(bcdar, 0, DECPMAX);
+   else {
+    GETCOEFF(df, bcdar);           // use macro
+    if (DFISNAN(df)) bcdar[0]=0;   // MSD needs correcting
+    }
+  return GETSIGN(df);
+  } // decFloatGetCoefficient
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatGetExponent -- get unbiased exponent                       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the decFloat from which to extract the exponent             */
+/*  returns the exponent, q.                                          */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.  If df is a       */
+/* special value the first seven bits of the decFloat are returned,   */
+/* left adjusted and with the first (sign) bit set to 0 (followed by  */
+/* 25 0 bits).  e.g., -sNaN would return 0x7e000000 (DECFLOAT_sNaN).  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decFloatGetExponent(const decFloat *df) {
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) return DFWORD(df, 0)&0x7e000000;
+  return GETEXPUN(df);
+  } // decFloatGetExponent
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatSetCoefficient -- set coefficient from BCD8                */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the target decFloat (and source of exponent/special value)  */
+/*  bcdar holds DECPMAX digits to set the coefficient from, one       */
+/*    digit in each byte (BCD8 encoding); the first (MSD) is ignored  */
+/*    if df is a NaN; all are ignored if df is infinite.              */
+/*  sig is DECFLOAT_Sign to set the sign bit, 0 otherwise             */
+/*  returns df, which will be canonical                               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatSetCoefficient(decFloat *df, const uByte *bcdar,
+                                  Int sig) {
+  uInt exp;                        // for exponent
+  uByte bcdzero[DECPMAX];          // for infinities
+
+  // Exponent/special code is extracted from df
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) {
+    exp=DFWORD(df, 0)&0x7e000000;
+    if (DFISINF(df)) {
+      memset(bcdzero, 0, DECPMAX);
+      return decFloatFromBCD(df, exp, bcdzero, sig);
+      }
+    }
+   else exp=GETEXPUN(df);
+  return decFloatFromBCD(df, exp, bcdar, sig);
+  } // decFloatSetCoefficient
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatSetExponent -- set exponent or special value               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df  is the target decFloat (and source of coefficient/payload)    */
+/*  set is the context for reporting status                           */
+/*  exp is the unbiased exponent, q, or a special value in the form   */
+/*    returned by decFloatGetExponent                                 */
+/*  returns df, which will be canonical                               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, but Overflow or Underflow might occur.       */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatSetExponent(decFloat *df, decContext *set, Int exp) {
+  uByte  bcdcopy[DECPMAX];         // for coefficient
+  bcdnum num;                      // work
+  num.exponent=exp;
+  num.sign=decFloatGetCoefficient(df, bcdcopy); // extract coefficient
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) {           // MSD or more needs correcting
+    if (DFISINF(df)) memset(bcdcopy, 0, DECPMAX);
+    bcdcopy[0]=0;
+    }
+  num.msd=bcdcopy;
+  num.lsd=bcdcopy+DECPMAX-1;
+  return decFinalize(df, &num, set);
+  } // decFloatSetExponent
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatRadix -- returns the base (10)                             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df is any decFloat of this format                                */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decFloatRadix(const decFloat *df) {
+  if (df) return 10;                         // to placate compiler
+  return 10;
+  } // decFloatRadix
+
+/* The following function is not available if DECPRINT=0              */
+#if DECPRINT
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatShow -- printf a decFloat in hexadecimal and decimal       */
+/*   df  is the decFloat to show                                      */
+/*   tag is a tag string displayed with the number                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is a debug aid; the precise format of the string may change.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+void decFloatShow(const decFloat *df, const char *tag) {
+  char hexbuf[DECBYTES*2+DECBYTES/4+1]; // NB blank after every fourth
+  char buff[DECSTRING];                 // for value in decimal
+  Int i, j=0;
+
+  for (i=0; i<DECBYTES; i++) {
+    #if DECLITEND
+      sprintf(&hexbuf[j], "%02x", df->bytes[DECBYTES-1-i]);
+    #else
+      sprintf(&hexbuf[j], "%02x", df->bytes[i]);
+    #endif
+    j+=2;
+    // the next line adds blank (and terminator) after final pair, too
+    if ((i+1)%4==0) {strcpy(&hexbuf[j], " "); j++;}
+    }
+  decFloatToString(df, buff);
+  printf(">%s> %s [big-endian]  %s\n", tag, hexbuf, buff);
+  return;
+  } // decFloatShow
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToBCD -- get sign, exponent, and BCD8 from a decFloat      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the source decFloat                                         */
+/*  exp will be set to the unbiased exponent, q, or to a special      */
+/*    value in the form returned by decFloatGetExponent               */
+/*  bcdar is where DECPMAX bytes will be written, one BCD digit in    */
+/*    each byte (BCD8 encoding); if df is a NaN the first byte will   */
+/*    be zero, and if it is infinite they will all be zero            */
+/*  returns the sign of the coefficient (DECFLOAT_Sign if negative,   */
+/*    0 otherwise)                                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decFloatToBCD(const decFloat *df, Int *exp, uByte *bcdar) {
+  if (DFISINF(df)) {
+    memset(bcdar, 0, DECPMAX);
+    *exp=DFWORD(df, 0)&0x7e000000;
+    }
+   else {
+    GETCOEFF(df, bcdar);           // use macro
+    if (DFISNAN(df)) {
+      bcdar[0]=0;                  // MSD needs correcting
+      *exp=DFWORD(df, 0)&0x7e000000;
+      }
+     else {                        // finite
+      *exp=GETEXPUN(df);
+      }
+    }
+  return GETSIGN(df);
+  } // decFloatToBCD
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToEngString -- conversion to numeric string, engineering   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the decFloat format number to convert                       */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out            */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* string must be at least DECPMAX+9 characters (the worst case is    */
+/* "-0.00000nnn...nnn\0", which is as long as the exponent form when  */
+/* DECEMAXD<=4); this condition is asserted above                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decFloatToEngString(const decFloat *df, char *string){
+  uInt msd;                        // coefficient MSD
+  Int  exp;                        // exponent top two bits or full
+  uInt comb;                       // combination field
+  char *cstart;                    // coefficient start
+  char *c;                         // output pointer in string
+  char *s, *t;                     // .. (source, target)
+  Int  pre, e;                     // work
+  const uByte *u;                  // ..
+  uInt  uiwork;                    // for macros [one compiler needs
+                                   // volatile here to avoid bug, but
+                                   // that doubles execution time]
+
+  // Source words; macro handles endianness
+  uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);       // word with sign
+  #if DECPMAX==16
+  uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+  uInt sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+  uInt sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+  uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+  #endif
+
+  c=string;                        // where result will go
+  if (((Int)sourhi)<0) *c++='-';   // handle sign
+  comb=sourhi>>26;                 // sign+combination field
+  msd=DECCOMBMSD[comb];            // decode the combination field
+  exp=DECCOMBEXP[comb];            // ..
+
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) {         // special
+    if (exp==DECFLOAT_Inf) {       // infinity
+      strcpy(c,   "Inf");
+      strcpy(c+3, "inity");
+      return string;               // easy
+      }
+    if (sourhi&0x02000000) *c++='s'; // sNaN
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");              // complete word
+    c+=3;                          // step past
+    // quick exit if the payload is zero
+    #if DECPMAX==7
+    if ((sourhi&0x000fffff)==0) return string;
+    #elif DECPMAX==16
+    if (sourlo==0 && (sourhi&0x0003ffff)==0) return string;
+    #elif DECPMAX==34
+    if (sourlo==0 && sourml==0 && sourmh==0
+     && (sourhi&0x00003fff)==0) return string;
+    #endif
+    // otherwise drop through to add integer; set correct exp etc.
+    exp=0; msd=0;                  // setup for following code
+    }
+   else { // complete exponent; top two bits are in place
+    exp+=GETECON(df)-DECBIAS;      // .. + continuation and unbias
+    }
+
+  /* convert the digits of the significand to characters */
+  cstart=c;                        // save start of coefficient
+  if (msd) *c++=(char)('0'+(char)msd);  // non-zero most significant digit
+
+  // Decode the declets.  After extracting each declet, it is
+  // decoded to a 4-uByte sequence by table lookup; the four uBytes
+  // are the three encoded BCD8 digits followed by a 1-byte length
+  // (significant digits, except that 000 has length 0).  This allows
+  // us to left-align the first declet with non-zero content, then
+  // the remaining ones are full 3-char length.  Fixed-length copies
+  // are used because variable-length memcpy causes a subroutine call
+  // in at least two compilers.  (The copies are length 4 for speed
+  // and are safe because the last item in the array is of length
+  // three and has the length byte following.)
+  #define dpd2char(dpdin) u=&DPD2BCD8[((dpdin)&0x3ff)*4];        \
+         if (c!=cstart) {UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u)|CHARMASK); c+=3;} \
+          else if (*(u+3)) {                                     \
+           UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK); c+=*(u+3);}
+
+  #if DECPMAX==7
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>10);                 // declet 1
+  dpd2char(sourhi);                     // declet 2
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==16
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>8);                  // declet 1
+  dpd2char((sourhi<<2) | (sourlo>>30)); // declet 2
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>20);                 // declet 3
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>10);                 // declet 4
+  dpd2char(sourlo);                     // declet 5
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>4);                  // declet 1
+  dpd2char((sourhi<<6) | (sourmh>>26)); // declet 2
+  dpd2char(sourmh>>16);                 // declet 3
+  dpd2char(sourmh>>6);                  // declet 4
+  dpd2char((sourmh<<4) | (sourml>>28)); // declet 5
+  dpd2char(sourml>>18);                 // declet 6
+  dpd2char(sourml>>8);                  // declet 7
+  dpd2char((sourml<<2) | (sourlo>>30)); // declet 8
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>20);                 // declet 9
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>10);                 // declet 10
+  dpd2char(sourlo);                     // declet 11
+  #endif
+
+  if (c==cstart) *c++='0';         // all zeros, empty -- make "0"
+
+  if (exp==0) {                    // integer or NaN case -- easy
+    *c='\0';                       // terminate
+    return string;
+    }
+  /* non-0 exponent */
+
+  e=0;                             // assume no E
+  pre=(Int)(c-cstart)+exp;         // length+exp  [c->LSD+1]
+  // [here, pre-exp is the digits count (==1 for zero)]
+
+  if (exp>0 || pre<-5) {           // need exponential form
+    e=pre-1;                       // calculate E value
+    pre=1;                         // assume one digit before '.'
+    if (e!=0) {                    // engineering: may need to adjust
+      Int adj;                     // adjustment
+      // The C remainder operator is undefined for negative numbers, so
+      // a positive remainder calculation must be used here
+      if (e<0) {
+        adj=(-e)%3;
+        if (adj!=0) adj=3-adj;
+        }
+       else { // e>0
+        adj=e%3;
+        }
+      e=e-adj;
+      // if dealing with zero still produce an exponent which is a
+      // multiple of three, as expected, but there will only be the
+      // one zero before the E, still.  Otherwise note the padding.
+      if (!DFISZERO(df)) pre+=adj;
+       else {  // is zero
+        if (adj!=0) {              // 0.00Esnn needed
+          e=e+3;
+          pre=-(2-adj);
+          }
+        } // zero
+      } // engineering adjustment
+    } // exponential form
+  // printf("e=%ld pre=%ld exp=%ld\n", (LI)e, (LI)pre, (LI)exp);
+
+  /* modify the coefficient, adding 0s, '.', and E+nn as needed */
+  if (pre>0) {                     // ddd.ddd (plain), perhaps with E
+                                   // or dd00 padding for engineering
+    char *dotat=cstart+pre;
+    if (dotat<c) {                      // if embedded dot needed...
+      // move by fours; there must be space for junk at the end
+      // because there is still space for exponent
+      s=dotat+ROUNDDOWN4(c-dotat);      // source
+      t=s+1;                            // target
+      // open the gap [cannot use memcpy]
+      for (; s>=dotat; s-=4, t-=4) UBFROMUI(t, UBTOUI(s));
+      *dotat='.';
+      c++;                              // length increased by one
+      } // need dot?
+     else for (; c<dotat; c++) *c='0';  // pad for engineering
+    } // pre>0
+   else {
+    /* -5<=pre<=0: here for plain 0.ddd or 0.000ddd forms (may have
+       E, but only for 0.00E+3 kind of case -- with plenty of spare
+       space in this case */
+    pre=-pre+2;                         // gap width, including "0."
+    t=cstart+ROUNDDOWN4(c-cstart)+pre;  // preferred first target point
+    // backoff if too far to the right
+    if (t>string+DECSTRING-5) t=string+DECSTRING-5; // adjust to fit
+    // now shift the entire coefficient to the right, being careful not
+    // to access to the left of string [cannot use memcpy]
+    for (s=t-pre; s>=string; s-=4, t-=4) UBFROMUI(t, UBTOUI(s));
+    // for Quads and Singles there may be a character or two left...
+    s+=3;                               // where next would come from
+    for(; s>=cstart; s--, t--) *(t+3)=*(s);
+    // now have fill 0. through 0.00000; use overlaps to avoid tests
+    if (pre>=4) {
+      memcpy(cstart+pre-4, "0000", 4);
+      memcpy(cstart, "0.00", 4);
+      }
+     else { // 2 or 3
+      *(cstart+pre-1)='0';
+      memcpy(cstart, "0.", 2);
+      }
+    c+=pre;                             // to end
+    }
+
+  // finally add the E-part, if needed; it will never be 0, and has
+  // a maximum length of 3 or 4 digits (asserted above)
+  if (e!=0) {
+    memcpy(c, "E+", 2);                 // starts with E, assume +
+    c++;
+    if (e<0) {
+      *c='-';                           // oops, need '-'
+      e=-e;                             // uInt, please
+      }
+    c++;
+    // Three-character exponents are easy; 4-character a little trickier
+    #if DECEMAXD<=3
+      u=&BIN2BCD8[e*4];                 // -> 3 digits + length byte
+      // copy fixed 4 characters [is safe], starting at non-zero
+      // and with character mask to convert BCD to char
+      UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK);
+      c+=*(u+3);                        // bump pointer appropriately
+    #elif DECEMAXD==4
+      if (e<1000) {                     // 3 (or fewer) digits case
+        u=&BIN2BCD8[e*4];               // -> 3 digits + length byte
+        UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK); // [as above]
+        c+=*(u+3);                      // bump pointer appropriately
+        }
+       else {                           // 4-digits
+        Int thou=((e>>3)*1049)>>17;     // e/1000
+        Int rem=e-(1000*thou);          // e%1000
+        *c++=(char)('0'+(char)thou);    // the thousands digit
+        u=&BIN2BCD8[rem*4];             // -> 3 digits + length byte
+        UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u)|CHARMASK);// copy fixed 3+1 characters [is safe]
+        c+=3;                           // bump pointer, always 3 digits
+        }
+    #endif
+    }
+  *c='\0';                              // terminate
+  //printf("res %s\n", string);
+  return string;
+  } // decFloatToEngString
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToPacked -- convert decFloat to Packed decimal + exponent  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the source decFloat                                         */
+/*  exp will be set to the unbiased exponent, q, or to a special      */
+/*    value in the form returned by decFloatGetExponent               */
+/*  packed is where DECPMAX nibbles will be written with the sign as  */
+/*    final nibble (0x0c for +, 0x0d for -); a NaN has a first nibble */
+/*    of zero, and an infinity is all zeros. decDouble and decQuad    */
+/*    have a additional leading zero nibble, leading to result        */
+/*    lengths of 4, 9, and 18 bytes.                                  */
+/*  returns the sign of the coefficient (DECFLOAT_Sign if negative,   */
+/*    0 otherwise)                                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set.                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decFloatToPacked(const decFloat *df, Int *exp, uByte *packed) {
+  uByte bcdar[DECPMAX+2];          // work buffer
+  uByte *ip=bcdar, *op=packed;     // work pointers
+  if (DFISINF(df)) {
+    memset(bcdar, 0, DECPMAX+2);
+    *exp=DECFLOAT_Inf;
+    }
+   else {
+    GETCOEFF(df, bcdar+1);         // use macro
+    if (DFISNAN(df)) {
+      bcdar[1]=0;                  // MSD needs clearing
+      *exp=DFWORD(df, 0)&0x7e000000;
+      }
+     else {                        // finite
+      *exp=GETEXPUN(df);
+      }
+    }
+  // now pack; coefficient currently at bcdar+1
+  #if SINGLE
+    ip++;                          // ignore first byte
+  #else
+    *ip=0;                         // need leading zero
+  #endif
+  // set final byte to Packed BCD sign value
+  bcdar[DECPMAX+1]=(DFISSIGNED(df) ? DECPMINUS : DECPPLUS);
+  // pack an even number of bytes...
+  for (; op<packed+((DECPMAX+2)/2); op++, ip+=2) {
+    *op=(uByte)((*ip<<4)+*(ip+1));
+    }
+  return (bcdar[DECPMAX+1]==DECPMINUS ? DECFLOAT_Sign : 0);
+  } // decFloatToPacked
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToString -- conversion to numeric string                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the decFloat format number to convert                       */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out            */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* string must be at least DECPMAX+9 characters (the worst case is    */
+/* "-0.00000nnn...nnn\0", which is as long as the exponent form when  */
+/* DECEMAXD<=4); this condition is asserted above                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status will be set                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decFloatToString(const decFloat *df, char *string){
+  uInt msd;                        // coefficient MSD
+  Int  exp;                        // exponent top two bits or full
+  uInt comb;                       // combination field
+  char *cstart;                    // coefficient start
+  char *c;                         // output pointer in string
+  char *s, *t;                     // .. (source, target)
+  Int  pre, e;                     // work
+  const uByte *u;                  // ..
+  uInt  uiwork;                    // for macros [one compiler needs
+                                   // volatile here to avoid bug, but
+                                   // that doubles execution time]
+
+  // Source words; macro handles endianness
+  uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);       // word with sign
+  #if DECPMAX==16
+  uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+  uInt sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+  uInt sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+  uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+  #endif
+
+  c=string;                        // where result will go
+  if (((Int)sourhi)<0) *c++='-';   // handle sign
+  comb=sourhi>>26;                 // sign+combination field
+  msd=DECCOMBMSD[comb];            // decode the combination field
+  exp=DECCOMBEXP[comb];            // ..
+
+  if (!EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) {        // finite
+    // complete exponent; top two bits are in place
+    exp+=GETECON(df)-DECBIAS;      // .. + continuation and unbias
+    }
+   else {                          // IS special
+    if (exp==DECFLOAT_Inf) {       // infinity
+      strcpy(c, "Infinity");
+      return string;               // easy
+      }
+    if (sourhi&0x02000000) *c++='s'; // sNaN
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");              // complete word
+    c+=3;                          // step past
+    // quick exit if the payload is zero
+    #if DECPMAX==7
+    if ((sourhi&0x000fffff)==0) return string;
+    #elif DECPMAX==16
+    if (sourlo==0 && (sourhi&0x0003ffff)==0) return string;
+    #elif DECPMAX==34
+    if (sourlo==0 && sourml==0 && sourmh==0
+     && (sourhi&0x00003fff)==0) return string;
+    #endif
+    // otherwise drop through to add integer; set correct exp etc.
+    exp=0; msd=0;                  // setup for following code
+    }
+
+  /* convert the digits of the significand to characters */
+  cstart=c;                        // save start of coefficient
+  if (msd) *c++=(char)('0'+(char)msd);  // non-zero most significant digit
+
+  // Decode the declets.  After extracting each declet, it is
+  // decoded to a 4-uByte sequence by table lookup; the four uBytes
+  // are the three encoded BCD8 digits followed by a 1-byte length
+  // (significant digits, except that 000 has length 0).  This allows
+  // us to left-align the first declet with non-zero content, then
+  // the remaining ones are full 3-char length.  Fixed-length copies
+  // are used because variable-length memcpy causes a subroutine call
+  // in at least two compilers.  (The copies are length 4 for speed
+  // and are safe because the last item in the array is of length
+  // three and has the length byte following.)
+  #define dpd2char(dpdin) u=&DPD2BCD8[((dpdin)&0x3ff)*4];        \
+         if (c!=cstart) {UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u)|CHARMASK); c+=3;} \
+          else if (*(u+3)) {                                     \
+           UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK); c+=*(u+3);}
+
+  #if DECPMAX==7
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>10);                 // declet 1
+  dpd2char(sourhi);                     // declet 2
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==16
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>8);                  // declet 1
+  dpd2char((sourhi<<2) | (sourlo>>30)); // declet 2
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>20);                 // declet 3
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>10);                 // declet 4
+  dpd2char(sourlo);                     // declet 5
+
+  #elif DECPMAX==34
+  dpd2char(sourhi>>4);                  // declet 1
+  dpd2char((sourhi<<6) | (sourmh>>26)); // declet 2
+  dpd2char(sourmh>>16);                 // declet 3
+  dpd2char(sourmh>>6);                  // declet 4
+  dpd2char((sourmh<<4) | (sourml>>28)); // declet 5
+  dpd2char(sourml>>18);                 // declet 6
+  dpd2char(sourml>>8);                  // declet 7
+  dpd2char((sourml<<2) | (sourlo>>30)); // declet 8
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>20);                 // declet 9
+  dpd2char(sourlo>>10);                 // declet 10
+  dpd2char(sourlo);                     // declet 11
+  #endif
+
+  if (c==cstart) *c++='0';         // all zeros, empty -- make "0"
+
+  //[This fast path is valid but adds 3-5 cycles to worst case length]
+  //if (exp==0) {                  // integer or NaN case -- easy
+  //  *c='\0';                     // terminate
+  //  return string;
+  //  }
+
+  e=0;                             // assume no E
+  pre=(Int)(c-cstart)+exp;         // length+exp  [c->LSD+1]
+  // [here, pre-exp is the digits count (==1 for zero)]
+
+  if (exp>0 || pre<-5) {           // need exponential form
+    e=pre-1;                       // calculate E value
+    pre=1;                         // assume one digit before '.'
+    } // exponential form
+
+  /* modify the coefficient, adding 0s, '.', and E+nn as needed */
+  if (pre>0) {                     // ddd.ddd (plain), perhaps with E
+    char *dotat=cstart+pre;
+    if (dotat<c) {                      // if embedded dot needed...
+      // [memmove is a disaster, here]
+      // move by fours; there must be space for junk at the end
+      // because exponent is still possible
+      s=dotat+ROUNDDOWN4(c-dotat);      // source
+      t=s+1;                            // target
+      // open the gap [cannot use memcpy]
+      for (; s>=dotat; s-=4, t-=4) UBFROMUI(t, UBTOUI(s));
+      *dotat='.';
+      c++;                              // length increased by one
+      } // need dot?
+
+    // finally add the E-part, if needed; it will never be 0, and has
+    // a maximum length of 3 or 4 digits (asserted above)
+    if (e!=0) {
+      memcpy(c, "E+", 2);               // starts with E, assume +
+      c++;
+      if (e<0) {
+        *c='-';                         // oops, need '-'
+        e=-e;                           // uInt, please
+        }
+      c++;
+      // Three-character exponents are easy; 4-character a little trickier
+      #if DECEMAXD<=3
+        u=&BIN2BCD8[e*4];               // -> 3 digits + length byte
+        // copy fixed 4 characters [is safe], starting at non-zero
+        // and with character mask to convert BCD to char
+        UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK);
+        c+=*(u+3);                      // bump pointer appropriately
+      #elif DECEMAXD==4
+        if (e<1000) {                   // 3 (or fewer) digits case
+          u=&BIN2BCD8[e*4];             // -> 3 digits + length byte
+          UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK); // [as above]
+          c+=*(u+3);                    // bump pointer appropriately
+          }
+         else {                         // 4-digits
+          Int thou=((e>>3)*1049)>>17;   // e/1000
+          Int rem=e-(1000*thou);        // e%1000
+          *c++=(char)('0'+(char)thou);  // the thousands digit
+          u=&BIN2BCD8[rem*4];           // -> 3 digits + length byte
+          UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u)|CHARMASK); // copy fixed 3+1 characters [is safe]
+          c+=3;                         // bump pointer, always 3 digits
+          }
+      #endif
+      }
+    *c='\0';                            // add terminator
+    //printf("res %s\n", string);
+    return string;
+    } // pre>0
+
+  /* -5<=pre<=0: here for plain 0.ddd or 0.000ddd forms (can never have E) */
+  // Surprisingly, this is close to being the worst-case path, so the
+  // shift is done by fours; this is a little tricky because the
+  // rightmost character to be written must not be beyond where the
+  // rightmost terminator could be -- so backoff to not touch
+  // terminator position if need be (this can make exact alignments
+  // for full Doubles, but in some cases needs care not to access too
+  // far to the left)
+
+  pre=-pre+2;                           // gap width, including "0."
+  t=cstart+ROUNDDOWN4(c-cstart)+pre;    // preferred first target point
+  // backoff if too far to the right
+  if (t>string+DECSTRING-5) t=string+DECSTRING-5; // adjust to fit
+  // now shift the entire coefficient to the right, being careful not
+  // to access to the left of string [cannot use memcpy]
+  for (s=t-pre; s>=string; s-=4, t-=4) UBFROMUI(t, UBTOUI(s));
+  // for Quads and Singles there may be a character or two left...
+  s+=3;                                 // where next would come from
+  for(; s>=cstart; s--, t--) *(t+3)=*(s);
+  // now have fill 0. through 0.00000; use overlaps to avoid tests
+  if (pre>=4) {
+    memcpy(cstart+pre-4, "0000", 4);
+    memcpy(cstart, "0.00", 4);
+    }
+   else { // 2 or 3
+    *(cstart+pre-1)='0';
+    memcpy(cstart, "0.", 2);
+    }
+  *(c+pre)='\0';                        // terminate
+  return string;
+  } // decFloatToString
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToWider -- conversion to next-wider format                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  source  is the decFloat format number which gets the result of    */
+/*          the conversion                                            */
+/*  wider   is the decFloatWider format number which will be narrowed */
+/*  returns wider                                                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Widening is always exact; no status is set (sNaNs are copied and   */
+/* do not signal).  The result will be canonical if the source is,    */
+/* and may or may not be if the source is not.                        */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// widening is not possible for decQuad format numbers; simply omit
+#if !QUAD
+decFloatWider * decFloatToWider(const decFloat *source, decFloatWider *wider) {
+  uInt msd;
+
+  /* Construct and copy the sign word */
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(source)) {
+    // copy sign, combination, and first bit of exponent (sNaN selector)
+    DFWWORD(wider, 0)=DFWORD(source, 0)&0xfe000000;
+    msd=0;
+    }
+   else { // is finite number
+    uInt exp=GETEXPUN(source)+DECWBIAS; // get unbiased exponent and rebias
+    uInt code=(exp>>DECWECONL)<<29;     // set two bits of exp [msd=0]
+    code|=(exp<<(32-6-DECWECONL)) & 0x03ffffff; // add exponent continuation
+    code|=DFWORD(source, 0)&0x80000000; // add sign
+    DFWWORD(wider, 0)=code;             // .. and place top word in wider
+    msd=GETMSD(source);                 // get source coefficient MSD [0-9]
+    }
+  /* Copy the coefficient and clear any 'unused' words to left */
+  #if SINGLE
+    DFWWORD(wider, 1)=(DFWORD(source, 0)&0x000fffff)|(msd<<20);
+  #elif DOUBLE
+    DFWWORD(wider, 2)=(DFWORD(source, 0)&0x0003ffff)|(msd<<18);
+    DFWWORD(wider, 3)=DFWORD(source, 1);
+    DFWWORD(wider, 1)=0;
+  #endif
+  return wider;
+  } // decFloatToWider
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatVersion -- return package version string                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  returns a constant string describing this package                 */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const char *decFloatVersion(void) {
+  return DECVERSION;
+  } // decFloatVersion
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatZero -- set to canonical (integer) zero                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  df is the decFloat format number to integer +0 (q=0, c=+0)        */
+/*  returns df                                                        */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible, and no status can be set.                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatZero(decFloat *df){
+  DFWORD(df, 0)=ZEROWORD;     // set appropriate top word
+  #if DOUBLE || QUAD
+    DFWORD(df, 1)=0;
+    #if QUAD
+      DFWORD(df, 2)=0;
+      DFWORD(df, 3)=0;
+    #endif
+  #endif
+  // decFloatShow(df, "zero");
+  return df;
+  } // decFloatZero
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Private generic function (not format-specific) for development use */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// This is included once only, for all to use
+#if QUAD && (DECCHECK || DECTRACE)
+  /* ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+  /* decShowNum -- display bcd8 number in debug form                  */
+  /*                                                                  */
+  /*   num is the bcdnum to display                                   */
+  /*   tag is a string to label the display                           */
+  /* ---------------------------------------------------------------- */
+  void decShowNum(const bcdnum *num, const char *tag) {
+    const char *csign="+";              // sign character
+    uByte *ub;                          // work
+    uInt  uiwork;                       // for macros
+    if (num->sign==DECFLOAT_Sign) csign="-";
+
+    printf(">%s> ", tag);
+    if (num->exponent==DECFLOAT_Inf) printf("%sInfinity", csign);
+    else if (num->exponent==DECFLOAT_qNaN) printf("%sqNaN", csign);
+    else if (num->exponent==DECFLOAT_sNaN) printf("%ssNaN", csign);
+    else {                              // finite
+     char qbuf[10];                     // for right-aligned q
+     char *c;                           // work
+     const uByte *u;                    // ..
+     Int e=num->exponent;               // .. exponent
+     strcpy(qbuf, "q=");
+     c=&qbuf[2];                        // where exponent will go
+     // lay out the exponent
+     if (e<0) {
+       *c++='-';                        // add '-'
+       e=-e;                            // uInt, please
+       }
+     #if DECEMAXD>4
+       #error Exponent form is too long for ShowNum to lay out
+     #endif
+     if (e==0) *c++='0';                // 0-length case
+      else if (e<1000) {                // 3 (or fewer) digits case
+       u=&BIN2BCD8[e*4];                // -> 3 digits + length byte
+       UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u+3-*(u+3))|CHARMASK); // [as above]
+       c+=*(u+3);                       // bump pointer appropriately
+       }
+      else {                            // 4-digits
+       Int thou=((e>>3)*1049)>>17;      // e/1000
+       Int rem=e-(1000*thou);           // e%1000
+       *c++=(char)('0'+(char)thou);     // the thousands digit
+       u=&BIN2BCD8[rem*4];              // -> 3 digits + length byte
+       UBFROMUI(c, UBTOUI(u)|CHARMASK); // copy fixed 3+1 characters [is safe]
+       c+=3;                            // bump pointer, always 3 digits
+       }
+     *c='\0';                           // add terminator
+     printf("%7s c=%s", qbuf, csign);
+     }
+
+    if (!EXPISSPECIAL(num->exponent) || num->msd!=num->lsd || *num->lsd!=0) {
+      for (ub=num->msd; ub<=num->lsd; ub++) { // coefficient...
+        printf("%1x", *ub);
+        if ((num->lsd-ub)%3==0 && ub!=num->lsd) printf(" "); // 4-space
+        }
+      }
+    printf("\n");
+    } // decShowNum
+#endif