dec_number 0.0.0

data/ext/dec_number/decNumber/decBasic.c

@@ -0,0 +1,3908 @@
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decBasic.c -- common base code for Basic decimal types             */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Copyright (c) IBM Corporation, 2000, 2010.  All rights reserved.   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This software is made available under the terms of the             */
+/* ICU License -- ICU 1.8.1 and later.                                */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The description and User's Guide ("The decNumber C Library") for   */
+/* this software is included in the package as decNumber.pdf.  This   */
+/* document is also available in HTML, together with specifications,  */
+/* testcases, and Web links, on the General Decimal Arithmetic page.  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Please send comments, suggestions, and corrections to the author:  */
+/*   mfc@uk.ibm.com                                                   */
+/*   Mike Cowlishaw, IBM Fellow                                       */
+/*   IBM UK, PO Box 31, Birmingham Road, Warwick CV34 5JL, UK         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises code that is shared between decDouble and    */
+/* decQuad (but not decSingle).  The main arithmetic operations are   */
+/* here (Add, Subtract, Multiply, FMA, and Division operators).       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Unlike decNumber, parameterization takes place at compile time     */
+/* rather than at runtime.  The parameters are set in the decDouble.c */
+/* (etc.) files, which then include this one to produce the compiled  */
+/* code.  The functions here, therefore, are code shared between      */
+/* multiple formats.                                                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This must be included after decCommon.c.                           */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// Names here refer to decFloat rather than to decDouble, etc., and
+// the functions are in strict alphabetical order.
+
+// The compile-time flags SINGLE, DOUBLE, and QUAD are set up in
+// decCommon.c
+#if !defined(QUAD)
+  #error decBasic.c must be included after decCommon.c
+#endif
+#if SINGLE
+  #error Routines in decBasic.c are for decDouble and decQuad only
+#endif
+
+/* Private constants */
+#define DIVIDE      0x80000000     // Divide operations [as flags]
+#define REMAINDER   0x40000000     // ..
+#define DIVIDEINT   0x20000000     // ..
+#define REMNEAR     0x10000000     // ..
+
+/* Private functions (local, used only by routines in this module) */
+static decFloat *decDivide(decFloat *, const decFloat *,
+                              const decFloat *, decContext *, uInt);
+static decFloat *decCanonical(decFloat *, const decFloat *);
+static void      decFiniteMultiply(bcdnum *, uByte *, const decFloat *,
+                              const decFloat *);
+static decFloat *decInfinity(decFloat *, const decFloat *);
+static decFloat *decInvalid(decFloat *, decContext *);
+static decFloat *decNaNs(decFloat *, const decFloat *, const decFloat *,
+                              decContext *);
+static Int       decNumCompare(const decFloat *, const decFloat *, Flag);
+static decFloat *decToIntegral(decFloat *, const decFloat *, decContext *,
+                              enum rounding, Flag);
+static uInt      decToInt32(const decFloat *, decContext *, enum rounding,
+                              Flag, Flag);
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCanonical -- copy a decFloat, making canonical                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the canonicalized df                                 */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to copy and make canonical                */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is exposed via decFloatCanonical for Double and Quad only.    */
+/* This works on specials, too; no error or exception is possible.    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decFloat * decCanonical(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df) {
+  uInt encode, precode, dpd;       // work
+  uInt inword, uoff, canon;        // ..
+  Int  n;                          // counter (down)
+  if (df!=result) *result=*df;     // effect copy if needed
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(result)) {
+    if (DFISINF(result)) return decInfinity(result, df); // clean Infinity
+    // is a NaN
+    DFWORD(result, 0)&=~ECONNANMASK;    // clear ECON except selector
+    if (DFISCCZERO(df)) return result;  // coefficient continuation is 0
+    // drop through to check payload
+    }
+  // return quickly if the coefficient continuation is canonical
+  { // declare block
+  #if DOUBLE
+    uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);
+    uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);
+    if (CANONDPDOFF(sourhi, 8)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourhi, sourlo, 30)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 20)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 10)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 0)) return result;
+  #elif QUAD
+    uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);
+    uInt sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+    uInt sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+    uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+    if (CANONDPDOFF(sourhi, 4)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourhi, sourmh, 26)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourmh, 16)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourmh, 6)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourmh, sourml, 28)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourml, 18)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourml, 8)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourml, sourlo, 30)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 20)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 10)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 0)) return result;
+  #endif
+  } // block
+
+  // Loop to repair a non-canonical coefficent, as needed
+  inword=DECWORDS-1;               // current input word
+  uoff=0;                          // bit offset of declet
+  encode=DFWORD(result, inword);
+  for (n=DECLETS-1; n>=0; n--) {   // count down declets of 10 bits
+    dpd=encode>>uoff;
+    uoff+=10;
+    if (uoff>32) {                 // crossed uInt boundary
+      inword--;
+      encode=DFWORD(result, inword);
+      uoff-=32;
+      dpd|=encode<<(10-uoff);      // get pending bits
+      }
+    dpd&=0x3ff;                    // clear uninteresting bits
+    if (dpd<0x16e) continue;       // must be canonical
+    canon=BIN2DPD[DPD2BIN[dpd]];   // determine canonical declet
+    if (canon==dpd) continue;      // have canonical declet
+    // need to replace declet
+    if (uoff>=10) {                // all within current word
+      encode&=~(0x3ff<<(uoff-10)); // clear the 10 bits ready for replace
+      encode|=canon<<(uoff-10);    // insert the canonical form
+      DFWORD(result, inword)=encode;    // .. and save
+      continue;
+      }
+    // straddled words
+    precode=DFWORD(result, inword+1);   // get previous
+    precode&=0xffffffff>>(10-uoff);     // clear top bits
+    DFWORD(result, inword+1)=precode|(canon<<(32-(10-uoff)));
+    encode&=0xffffffff<<uoff;           // clear bottom bits
+    encode|=canon>>(10-uoff);           // insert canonical
+    DFWORD(result, inword)=encode;      // .. and save
+    } // n
+  return result;
+  } // decCanonical
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDivide -- divide operations                                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of dividing dfl by dfr:                   */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   op     is the operation selector                                 */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* op is one of DIVIDE, REMAINDER, DIVIDEINT, or REMNEAR.             */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#define DIVCOUNT  0                // 1 to instrument subtractions counter
+#define DIVBASE   ((uInt)BILLION)  // the base used for divide
+#define DIVOPLEN  DECPMAX9         // operand length ('digits' base 10**9)
+#define DIVACCLEN (DIVOPLEN*3)     // accumulator length (ditto)
+static decFloat * decDivide(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl,
+                            const decFloat *dfr, decContext *set, uInt op) {
+  decFloat quotient;               // for remainders
+  bcdnum num;                      // for final conversion
+  uInt   acc[DIVACCLEN];           // coefficent in base-billion ..
+  uInt   div[DIVOPLEN];            // divisor in base-billion ..
+  uInt   quo[DIVOPLEN+1];          // quotient in base-billion ..
+  uByte  bcdacc[(DIVOPLEN+1)*9+2]; // for quotient in BCD, +1, +1
+  uInt   *msua, *msud, *msuq;      // -> msu of acc, div, and quo
+  Int    divunits, accunits;       // lengths
+  Int    quodigits;                // digits in quotient
+  uInt   *lsua, *lsuq;             // -> current acc and quo lsus
+  Int    length, multiplier;       // work
+  uInt   carry, sign;              // ..
+  uInt   *ua, *ud, *uq;            // ..
+  uByte  *ub;                      // ..
+  uInt   uiwork;                   // for macros
+  uInt   divtop;                   // top unit of div adjusted for estimating
+  #if DIVCOUNT
+  static uInt maxcount=0;          // worst-seen subtractions count
+  uInt   divcount=0;               // subtractions count [this divide]
+  #endif
+
+  // calculate sign
+  num.sign=(DFWORD(dfl, 0)^DFWORD(dfr, 0)) & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(dfl) || DFISSPECIAL(dfr)) { // either is special?
+    // NaNs are handled as usual
+    if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    // one or two infinities
+    if (DFISINF(dfl)) {
+      if (DFISINF(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set); // Two infinities bad
+      if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) return decInvalid(result, set); // as is rem
+      // Infinity/x is infinite and quiet, even if x=0
+      DFWORD(result, 0)=num.sign;
+      return decInfinity(result, result);
+      }
+    // must be x/Infinity -- remainders are lhs
+    if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+    // divides: return zero with correct sign and exponent depending
+    // on op (Etiny for divide, 0 for divideInt)
+    decFloatZero(result);
+    if (op==DIVIDEINT) DFWORD(result, 0)|=num.sign; // add sign
+     else DFWORD(result, 0)=num.sign;        // zeros the exponent, too
+    return result;
+    }
+  // next, handle zero operands (x/0 and 0/x)
+  if (DFISZERO(dfr)) {                       // x/0
+    if (DFISZERO(dfl)) {                     // 0/0 is undefined
+      decFloatZero(result);
+      DFWORD(result, 0)=DECFLOAT_qNaN;
+      set->status|=DEC_Division_undefined;
+      return result;
+      }
+    if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) return decInvalid(result, set); // bad rem
+    set->status|=DEC_Division_by_zero;
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=num.sign;
+    return decInfinity(result, result);      // x/0 -> signed Infinity
+    }
+  num.exponent=GETEXPUN(dfl)-GETEXPUN(dfr);  // ideal exponent
+  if (DFISZERO(dfl)) {                       // 0/x (x!=0)
+    // if divide, result is 0 with ideal exponent; divideInt has
+    // exponent=0, remainders give zero with lower exponent
+    if (op&DIVIDEINT) {
+      decFloatZero(result);
+      DFWORD(result, 0)|=num.sign;           // add sign
+      return result;
+      }
+    if (!(op&DIVIDE)) {                      // a remainder
+      // exponent is the minimum of the operands
+      num.exponent=MINI(GETEXPUN(dfl), GETEXPUN(dfr));
+      // if the result is zero the sign shall be sign of dfl
+      num.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+      }
+    bcdacc[0]=0;
+    num.msd=bcdacc;                          // -> 0
+    num.lsd=bcdacc;                          // ..
+    return decFinalize(result, &num, set);   // [divide may clamp exponent]
+    } // 0/x
+  // [here, both operands are known to be finite and non-zero]
+
+  // extract the operand coefficents into 'units' which are
+  // base-billion; the lhs is high-aligned in acc and the msu of both
+  // acc and div is at the right-hand end of array (offset length-1);
+  // the quotient can need one more unit than the operands as digits
+  // in it are not necessarily aligned neatly; further, the quotient
+  // may not start accumulating until after the end of the initial
+  // operand in acc if that is small (e.g., 1) so the accumulator
+  // must have at least that number of units extra (at the ls end)
+  GETCOEFFBILL(dfl, acc+DIVACCLEN-DIVOPLEN);
+  GETCOEFFBILL(dfr, div);
+  // zero the low uInts of acc
+  acc[0]=0;
+  acc[1]=0;
+  acc[2]=0;
+  acc[3]=0;
+  #if DOUBLE
+    #if DIVOPLEN!=2
+      #error Unexpected Double DIVOPLEN
+    #endif
+  #elif QUAD
+  acc[4]=0;
+  acc[5]=0;
+  acc[6]=0;
+  acc[7]=0;
+    #if DIVOPLEN!=4
+      #error Unexpected Quad DIVOPLEN
+    #endif
+  #endif
+
+  // set msu and lsu pointers
+  msua=acc+DIVACCLEN-1;       // [leading zeros removed below]
+  msuq=quo+DIVOPLEN;
+  //[loop for div will terminate because operands are non-zero]
+  for (msud=div+DIVOPLEN-1; *msud==0;) msud--;
+  // the initial least-significant unit of acc is set so acc appears
+  // to have the same length as div.
+  // This moves one position towards the least possible for each
+  // iteration
+  divunits=(Int)(msud-div+1); // precalculate
+  lsua=msua-divunits+1;       // initial working lsu of acc
+  lsuq=msuq;                  // and of quo
+
+  // set up the estimator for the multiplier; this is the msu of div,
+  // plus two bits from the unit below (if any) rounded up by one if
+  // there are any non-zero bits or units below that [the extra two
+  // bits makes for a much better estimate when the top unit is small]
+  divtop=*msud<<2;
+  if (divunits>1) {
+    uInt *um=msud-1;
+    uInt d=*um;
+    if (d>=750000000) {divtop+=3; d-=750000000;}
+     else if (d>=500000000) {divtop+=2; d-=500000000;}
+     else if (d>=250000000) {divtop++; d-=250000000;}
+    if (d) divtop++;
+     else for (um--; um>=div; um--) if (*um) {
+      divtop++;
+      break;
+      }
+    } // >1 unit
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  {Int i;
+  printf("----- div=");
+  for (i=divunits-1; i>=0; i--) printf("%09ld ", (LI)div[i]);
+  printf("\n");}
+  #endif
+
+  // now collect up to DECPMAX+1 digits in the quotient (this may
+  // need OPLEN+1 uInts if unaligned)
+  quodigits=0;                // no digits yet
+  for (;; lsua--) {           // outer loop -- each input position
+    #if DECCHECK
+    if (lsua<acc) {
+      printf("Acc underrun...\n");
+      break;
+      }
+    #endif
+    #if DECTRACE
+    printf("Outer: quodigits=%ld acc=", (LI)quodigits);
+    for (ua=msua; ua>=lsua; ua--) printf("%09ld ", (LI)*ua);
+    printf("\n");
+    #endif
+    *lsuq=0;                  // default unit result is 0
+    for (;;) {                // inner loop -- calculate quotient unit
+      // strip leading zero units from acc (either there initially or
+      // from subtraction below); this may strip all if exactly 0
+      for (; *msua==0 && msua>=lsua;) msua--;
+      accunits=(Int)(msua-lsua+1);                // [maybe 0]
+      // subtraction is only necessary and possible if there are as
+      // least as many units remaining in acc for this iteration as
+      // there are in div
+      if (accunits<divunits) {
+        if (accunits==0) msua++;                  // restore
+        break;
+        }
+
+      // If acc is longer than div then subtraction is definitely
+      // possible (as msu of both is non-zero), but if they are the
+      // same length a comparison is needed.
+      // If a subtraction is needed then a good estimate of the
+      // multiplier for the subtraction is also needed in order to
+      // minimise the iterations of this inner loop because the
+      // subtractions needed dominate division performance.
+      if (accunits==divunits) {
+        // compare the high divunits of acc and div:
+        // acc<div:  this quotient unit is unchanged; subtraction
+        //           will be possible on the next iteration
+        // acc==div: quotient gains 1, set acc=0
+        // acc>div:  subtraction necessary at this position
+        for (ud=msud, ua=msua; ud>div; ud--, ua--) if (*ud!=*ua) break;
+        // [now at first mismatch or lsu]
+        if (*ud>*ua) break;                       // next time...
+        if (*ud==*ua) {                           // all compared equal
+          *lsuq+=1;                               // increment result
+          msua=lsua;                              // collapse acc units
+          *msua=0;                                // .. to a zero
+          break;
+          }
+
+        // subtraction necessary; estimate multiplier [see above]
+        // if both *msud and *msua are small it is cost-effective to
+        // bring in part of the following units (if any) to get a
+        // better estimate (assume some other non-zero in div)
+        #define DIVLO 1000000U
+        #define DIVHI (DIVBASE/DIVLO)
+        #if DECUSE64
+          if (divunits>1) {
+            // there cannot be a *(msud-2) for DECDOUBLE so next is
+            // an exact calculation unless DECQUAD (which needs to
+            // assume bits out there if divunits>2)
+            uLong mul=(uLong)*msua * DIVBASE + *(msua-1);
+            uLong div=(uLong)*msud * DIVBASE + *(msud-1);
+            #if QUAD
+            if (divunits>2) div++;
+            #endif
+            mul/=div;
+            multiplier=(Int)mul;
+            }
+           else multiplier=*msua/(*msud);
+        #else
+          if (divunits>1 && *msua<DIVLO && *msud<DIVLO) {
+            multiplier=(*msua*DIVHI + *(msua-1)/DIVLO)
+                      /(*msud*DIVHI + *(msud-1)/DIVLO +1);
+            }
+           else multiplier=(*msua<<2)/divtop;
+        #endif
+        }
+       else {                                     // accunits>divunits
+        // msud is one unit 'lower' than msua, so estimate differently
+        #if DECUSE64
+          uLong mul;
+          // as before, bring in extra digits if possible
+          if (divunits>1 && *msua<DIVLO && *msud<DIVLO) {
+            mul=((uLong)*msua * DIVHI * DIVBASE) + *(msua-1) * DIVHI
+               + *(msua-2)/DIVLO;
+            mul/=(*msud*DIVHI + *(msud-1)/DIVLO +1);
+            }
+           else if (divunits==1) {
+            mul=(uLong)*msua * DIVBASE + *(msua-1);
+            mul/=*msud;       // no more to the right
+            }
+           else {
+            mul=(uLong)(*msua) * (uInt)(DIVBASE<<2)
+                + (*(msua-1)<<2);
+            mul/=divtop;      // [divtop already allows for sticky bits]
+            }
+          multiplier=(Int)mul;
+        #else
+          multiplier=*msua * ((DIVBASE<<2)/divtop);
+        #endif
+        }
+      if (multiplier==0) multiplier=1;            // marginal case
+      *lsuq+=multiplier;
+
+      #if DIVCOUNT
+      // printf("Multiplier: %ld\n", (LI)multiplier);
+      divcount++;
+      #endif
+
+      // Carry out the subtraction  acc-(div*multiplier); for each
+      // unit in div, do the multiply, split to units (see
+      // decFloatMultiply for the algorithm), and subtract from acc
+      #define DIVMAGIC  2305843009U               // 2**61/10**9
+      #define DIVSHIFTA 29
+      #define DIVSHIFTB 32
+      carry=0;
+      for (ud=div, ua=lsua; ud<=msud; ud++, ua++) {
+        uInt lo, hop;
+        #if DECUSE64
+          uLong sub=(uLong)multiplier*(*ud)+carry;
+          if (sub<DIVBASE) {
+            carry=0;
+            lo=(uInt)sub;
+            }
+           else {
+            hop=(uInt)(sub>>DIVSHIFTA);
+            carry=(uInt)(((uLong)hop*DIVMAGIC)>>DIVSHIFTB);
+            // the estimate is now in hi; now calculate sub-hi*10**9
+            // to get the remainder (which will be <DIVBASE))
+            lo=(uInt)sub;
+            lo-=carry*DIVBASE;                    // low word of result
+            if (lo>=DIVBASE) {
+              lo-=DIVBASE;                        // correct by +1
+              carry++;
+              }
+            }
+        #else // 32-bit
+          uInt hi;
+          // calculate multiplier*(*ud) into hi and lo
+          LONGMUL32HI(hi, *ud, multiplier);       // get the high word
+          lo=multiplier*(*ud);                    // .. and the low
+          lo+=carry;                              // add the old hi
+          carry=hi+(lo<carry);                    // .. with any carry
+          if (carry || lo>=DIVBASE) {             // split is needed
+            hop=(carry<<3)+(lo>>DIVSHIFTA);       // hi:lo/2**29
+            LONGMUL32HI(carry, hop, DIVMAGIC);    // only need the high word
+            // [DIVSHIFTB is 32, so carry can be used directly]
+            // the estimate is now in carry; now calculate hi:lo-est*10**9;
+            // happily the top word of the result is irrelevant because it
+            // will always be zero so this needs only one multiplication
+            lo-=(carry*DIVBASE);
+            // the correction here will be at most +1; do it
+            if (lo>=DIVBASE) {
+              lo-=DIVBASE;
+              carry++;
+              }
+            }
+        #endif
+        if (lo>*ua) {              // borrow needed
+          *ua+=DIVBASE;
+          carry++;
+          }
+        *ua-=lo;
+        } // ud loop
+      if (carry) *ua-=carry;       // accdigits>divdigits [cannot borrow]
+      } // inner loop
+
+    // the outer loop terminates when there is either an exact result
+    // or enough digits; first update the quotient digit count and
+    // pointer (if any significant digits)
+    #if DECTRACE
+    if (*lsuq || quodigits) printf("*lsuq=%09ld\n", (LI)*lsuq);
+    #endif
+    if (quodigits) {
+      quodigits+=9;                // had leading unit earlier
+      lsuq--;
+      if (quodigits>DECPMAX+1) break;   // have enough
+      }
+     else if (*lsuq) {             // first quotient digits
+      const uInt *pow;
+      for (pow=DECPOWERS; *lsuq>=*pow; pow++) quodigits++;
+      lsuq--;
+      // [cannot have >DECPMAX+1 on first unit]
+      }
+
+    if (*msua!=0) continue;        // not an exact result
+    // acc is zero iff used all of original units and zero down to lsua
+    // (must also continue to original lsu for correct quotient length)
+    if (lsua>acc+DIVACCLEN-DIVOPLEN) continue;
+    for (; msua>lsua && *msua==0;) msua--;
+    if (*msua==0 && msua==lsua) break;
+    } // outer loop
+
+  // all of the original operand in acc has been covered at this point
+  // quotient now has at least DECPMAX+2 digits
+  // *msua is now non-0 if inexact and sticky bits
+  // lsuq is one below the last uint of the quotient
+  lsuq++;                          // set -> true lsu of quo
+  if (*msua) *lsuq|=1;             // apply sticky bit
+
+  // quo now holds the (unrounded) quotient in base-billion; one
+  // base-billion 'digit' per uInt.
+  #if DECTRACE
+  printf("DivQuo:");
+  for (uq=msuq; uq>=lsuq; uq--) printf(" %09ld", (LI)*uq);
+  printf("\n");
+  #endif
+
+  // Now convert to BCD for rounding and cleanup, starting from the
+  // most significant end [offset by one into bcdacc to leave room
+  // for a possible carry digit if rounding for REMNEAR is needed]
+  for (uq=msuq, ub=bcdacc+1; uq>=lsuq; uq--, ub+=9) {
+    uInt top, mid, rem;                 // work
+    if (*uq==0) {                       // no split needed
+      UBFROMUI(ub, 0);                  // clear 9 BCD8s
+      UBFROMUI(ub+4, 0);                // ..
+      *(ub+8)=0;                        // ..
+      continue;
+      }
+    // *uq is non-zero -- split the base-billion digit into
+    // hi, mid, and low three-digits
+    #define divsplit9 1000000           // divisor
+    #define divsplit6 1000              // divisor
+    // The splitting is done by simple divides and remainders,
+    // assuming the compiler will optimize these [GCC does]
+    top=*uq/divsplit9;
+    rem=*uq%divsplit9;
+    mid=rem/divsplit6;
+    rem=rem%divsplit6;
+    // lay out the nine BCD digits (plus one unwanted byte)
+    UBFROMUI(ub,   UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[top*4]));
+    UBFROMUI(ub+3, UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[mid*4]));
+    UBFROMUI(ub+6, UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[rem*4]));
+    } // BCD conversion loop
+  ub--;                                 // -> lsu
+
+  // complete the bcdnum; quodigits is correct, so the position of
+  // the first non-zero is known
+  num.msd=bcdacc+1+(msuq-lsuq+1)*9-quodigits;
+  num.lsd=ub;
+
+  // make exponent adjustments, etc
+  if (lsua<acc+DIVACCLEN-DIVOPLEN) {    // used extra digits
+    num.exponent-=(Int)((acc+DIVACCLEN-DIVOPLEN-lsua)*9);
+    // if the result was exact then there may be up to 8 extra
+    // trailing zeros in the overflowed quotient final unit
+    if (*msua==0) {
+      for (; *ub==0;) ub--;             // drop zeros
+      num.exponent+=(Int)(num.lsd-ub);  // and adjust exponent
+      num.lsd=ub;
+      }
+    } // adjustment needed
+
+  #if DIVCOUNT
+  if (divcount>maxcount) {              // new high-water nark
+    maxcount=divcount;
+    printf("DivNewMaxCount: %ld\n", (LI)maxcount);
+    }
+  #endif
+
+  if (op&DIVIDE) return decFinalize(result, &num, set); // all done
+
+  // Is DIVIDEINT or a remainder; there is more to do -- first form
+  // the integer (this is done 'after the fact', unlike as in
+  // decNumber, so as not to tax DIVIDE)
+
+  // The first non-zero digit will be in the first 9 digits, known
+  // from quodigits and num.msd, so there is always space for DECPMAX
+  // digits
+
+  length=(Int)(num.lsd-num.msd+1);
+  //printf("Length exp: %ld %ld\n", (LI)length, (LI)num.exponent);
+
+  if (length+num.exponent>DECPMAX) { // cannot fit
+    decFloatZero(result);
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=DECFLOAT_qNaN;
+    set->status|=DEC_Division_impossible;
+    return result;
+    }
+
+  if (num.exponent>=0) {           // already an int, or need pad zeros
+    for (ub=num.lsd+1; ub<=num.lsd+num.exponent; ub++) *ub=0;
+    num.lsd+=num.exponent;
+    }
+   else {                          // too long: round or truncate needed
+    Int drop=-num.exponent;
+    if (!(op&REMNEAR)) {           // simple truncate
+      num.lsd-=drop;
+      if (num.lsd<num.msd) {       // truncated all
+        num.lsd=num.msd;           // make 0
+        *num.lsd=0;                // .. [sign still relevant]
+        }
+      }
+     else {                        // round to nearest even [sigh]
+      // round-to-nearest, in-place; msd is at or to right of bcdacc+1
+      // (this is a special case of Quantize -- q.v. for commentary)
+      uByte *roundat;              // -> re-round digit
+      uByte reround;               // reround value
+      *(num.msd-1)=0;              // in case of left carry, or make 0
+      if (drop<length) roundat=num.lsd-drop+1;
+       else if (drop==length) roundat=num.msd;
+       else roundat=num.msd-1;     // [-> 0]
+      reround=*roundat;
+      for (ub=roundat+1; ub<=num.lsd; ub++) {
+        if (*ub!=0) {
+          reround=DECSTICKYTAB[reround];
+          break;
+          }
+        } // check stickies
+      if (roundat>num.msd) num.lsd=roundat-1;
+       else {
+        num.msd--;                           // use the 0 ..
+        num.lsd=num.msd;                     // .. at the new MSD place
+        }
+      if (reround!=0) {                      // discarding non-zero
+        uInt bump=0;
+        // rounding is DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN always
+        if (reround>5) bump=1;               // >0.5 goes up
+         else if (reround==5)                // exactly 0.5000 ..
+          bump=*(num.lsd) & 0x01;            // .. up iff [new] lsd is odd
+        if (bump!=0) {                       // need increment
+          // increment the coefficient; this might end up with 1000...
+          ub=num.lsd;
+          for (; UBTOUI(ub-3)==0x09090909; ub-=4) UBFROMUI(ub-3, 0);
+          for (; *ub==9; ub--) *ub=0;        // at most 3 more
+          *ub+=1;
+          if (ub<num.msd) num.msd--;         // carried
+          } // bump needed
+        } // reround!=0
+      } // remnear
+    } // round or truncate needed
+  num.exponent=0;                            // all paths
+  //decShowNum(&num, "int");
+
+  if (op&DIVIDEINT) return decFinalize(result, &num, set); // all done
+
+  // Have a remainder to calculate
+  decFinalize(&quotient, &num, set);         // lay out the integer so far
+  DFWORD(&quotient, 0)^=DECFLOAT_Sign;       // negate it
+  sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0);                       // save sign of dfl
+  decFloatFMA(result, &quotient, dfr, dfl, set);
+  if (!DFISZERO(result)) return result;
+  // if the result is zero the sign shall be sign of dfl
+  DFWORD(&quotient, 0)=sign;                 // construct decFloat of sign
+  return decFloatCopySign(result, result, &quotient);
+  } // decDivide
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFiniteMultiply -- multiply two finite decFloats                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   num    gets the result of multiplying dfl and dfr                */
+/*   bcdacc .. with the coefficient in this array                     */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This effects the multiplication of two decFloats, both known to be */
+/* finite, leaving the result in a bcdnum ready for decFinalize (for  */
+/* use in Multiply) or in a following addition (FMA).                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* bcdacc must have space for at least DECPMAX9*18+1 bytes.           */
+/* No error is possible and no status is set.                         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// This routine has two separate implementations of the core
+// multiplication; both using base-billion.  One uses only 32-bit
+// variables (Ints and uInts) or smaller; the other uses uLongs (for
+// multiplication and addition only).  Both implementations cover
+// both arithmetic sizes (DOUBLE and QUAD) in order to allow timing
+// comparisons.  In any one compilation only one implementation for
+// each size can be used, and if DECUSE64 is 0 then use of the 32-bit
+// version is forced.
+//
+// Historical note: an earlier version of this code also supported the
+// 256-bit format and has been preserved.  That is somewhat trickier
+// during lazy carry splitting because the initial quotient estimate
+// (est) can exceed 32 bits.
+
+#define MULTBASE  ((uInt)BILLION)  // the base used for multiply
+#define MULOPLEN  DECPMAX9         // operand length ('digits' base 10**9)
+#define MULACCLEN (MULOPLEN*2)              // accumulator length (ditto)
+#define LEADZEROS (MULACCLEN*9 - DECPMAX*2) // leading zeros always
+
+// Assertions: exponent not too large and MULACCLEN is a multiple of 4
+#if DECEMAXD>9
+  #error Exponent may overflow when doubled for Multiply
+#endif
+#if MULACCLEN!=(MULACCLEN/4)*4
+  // This assumption is used below only for initialization
+  #error MULACCLEN is not a multiple of 4
+#endif
+
+static void decFiniteMultiply(bcdnum *num, uByte *bcdacc,
+                              const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr) {
+  uInt   bufl[MULOPLEN];           // left  coefficient (base-billion)
+  uInt   bufr[MULOPLEN];           // right coefficient (base-billion)
+  uInt   *ui, *uj;                 // work
+  uByte  *ub;                      // ..
+  uInt   uiwork;                   // for macros
+
+  #if DECUSE64
+  uLong  accl[MULACCLEN];          // lazy accumulator (base-billion+)
+  uLong  *pl;                      // work -> lazy accumulator
+  uInt   acc[MULACCLEN];           // coefficent in base-billion ..
+  #else
+  uInt   acc[MULACCLEN*2];         // accumulator in base-billion ..
+  #endif
+  uInt   *pa;                      // work -> accumulator
+  //printf("Base10**9: OpLen=%d MulAcclen=%d\n", OPLEN, MULACCLEN);
+
+  /* Calculate sign and exponent */
+  num->sign=(DFWORD(dfl, 0)^DFWORD(dfr, 0)) & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  num->exponent=GETEXPUN(dfl)+GETEXPUN(dfr); // [see assertion above]
+
+  /* Extract the coefficients and prepare the accumulator */
+  // the coefficients of the operands are decoded into base-billion
+  // numbers in uInt arrays (bufl and bufr, LSD at offset 0) of the
+  // appropriate size.
+  GETCOEFFBILL(dfl, bufl);
+  GETCOEFFBILL(dfr, bufr);
+  #if DECTRACE && 0
+    printf("CoeffbL:");
+    for (ui=bufl+MULOPLEN-1; ui>=bufl; ui--) printf(" %08lx", (LI)*ui);
+    printf("\n");
+    printf("CoeffbR:");
+    for (uj=bufr+MULOPLEN-1; uj>=bufr; uj--) printf(" %08lx", (LI)*uj);
+    printf("\n");
+  #endif
+
+  // start the 64-bit/32-bit differing paths...
+#if DECUSE64
+
+  // zero the accumulator
+  #if MULACCLEN==4
+    accl[0]=0; accl[1]=0; accl[2]=0; accl[3]=0;
+  #else                                      // use a loop
+    // MULACCLEN is a multiple of four, asserted above
+    for (pl=accl; pl<accl+MULACCLEN; pl+=4) {
+      *pl=0; *(pl+1)=0; *(pl+2)=0; *(pl+3)=0;// [reduce overhead]
+      } // pl
+  #endif
+
+  /* Effect the multiplication */
+  // The multiplcation proceeds using MFC's lazy-carry resolution
+  // algorithm from decNumber.  First, the multiplication is
+  // effected, allowing accumulation of the partial products (which
+  // are in base-billion at each column position) into 64 bits
+  // without resolving back to base=billion after each addition.
+  // These 64-bit numbers (which may contain up to 19 decimal digits)
+  // are then split using the Clark & Cowlishaw algorithm (see below).
+  // [Testing for 0 in the inner loop is not really a 'win']
+  for (ui=bufr; ui<bufr+MULOPLEN; ui++) { // over each item in rhs
+    if (*ui==0) continue;                 // product cannot affect result
+    pl=accl+(ui-bufr);                    // where to add the lhs
+    for (uj=bufl; uj<bufl+MULOPLEN; uj++, pl++) { // over each item in lhs
+      // if (*uj==0) continue;            // product cannot affect result
+      *pl+=((uLong)*ui)*(*uj);
+      } // uj
+    } // ui
+
+  // The 64-bit carries must now be resolved; this means that a
+  // quotient/remainder has to be calculated for base-billion (1E+9).
+  // For this, Clark & Cowlishaw's quotient estimation approach (also
+  // used in decNumber) is needed, because 64-bit divide is generally
+  // extremely slow on 32-bit machines, and may be slower than this
+  // approach even on 64-bit machines.  This algorithm splits X
+  // using:
+  //
+  //   magic=2**(A+B)/1E+9;   // 'magic number'
+  //   hop=X/2**A;            // high order part of X (by shift)
+  //   est=magic*hop/2**B     // quotient estimate (may be low by 1)
+  //
+  // A and B are quite constrained; hop and magic must fit in 32 bits,
+  // and 2**(A+B) must be as large as possible (which is 2**61 if
+  // magic is to fit).  Further, maxX increases with the length of
+  // the operands (and hence the number of partial products
+  // accumulated); maxX is OPLEN*(10**18), which is up to 19 digits.
+  //
+  // It can be shown that when OPLEN is 2 then the maximum error in
+  // the estimated quotient is <1, but for larger maximum x the
+  // maximum error is above 1 so a correction that is >1 may be
+  // needed.  Values of A and B are chosen to satisfy the constraints
+  // just mentioned while minimizing the maximum error (and hence the
+  // maximum correction), as shown in the following table:
+  //
+  //   Type    OPLEN   A   B     maxX    maxError  maxCorrection
+  //   ---------------------------------------------------------
+  //   DOUBLE    2    29  32  <2*10**18    0.63       1
+  //   QUAD      4    30  31  <4*10**18    1.17       2
+  //
+  // In the OPLEN==2 case there is most choice, but the value for B
+  // of 32 has a big advantage as then the calculation of the
+  // estimate requires no shifting; the compiler can extract the high
+  // word directly after multiplying magic*hop.
+  #define MULMAGIC 2305843009U          // 2**61/10**9  [both cases]
+  #if DOUBLE
+    #define MULSHIFTA 29
+    #define MULSHIFTB 32
+  #elif QUAD
+    #define MULSHIFTA 30
+    #define MULSHIFTB 31
+  #else
+    #error Unexpected type
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  printf("MulAccl:");
+  for (pl=accl+MULACCLEN-1; pl>=accl; pl--)
+    printf(" %08lx:%08lx", (LI)(*pl>>32), (LI)(*pl&0xffffffff));
+  printf("\n");
+  #endif
+
+  for (pl=accl, pa=acc; pl<accl+MULACCLEN; pl++, pa++) { // each column position
+    uInt lo, hop;                       // work
+    uInt est;                           // cannot exceed 4E+9
+    if (*pl>=MULTBASE) {
+      // *pl holds a binary number which needs to be split
+      hop=(uInt)(*pl>>MULSHIFTA);
+      est=(uInt)(((uLong)hop*MULMAGIC)>>MULSHIFTB);
+      // the estimate is now in est; now calculate hi:lo-est*10**9;
+      // happily the top word of the result is irrelevant because it
+      // will always be zero so this needs only one multiplication
+      lo=(uInt)(*pl-((uLong)est*MULTBASE));  // low word of result
+      // If QUAD, the correction here could be +2
+      if (lo>=MULTBASE) {
+        lo-=MULTBASE;                   // correct by +1
+        est++;
+        #if QUAD
+        // may need to correct by +2
+        if (lo>=MULTBASE) {
+          lo-=MULTBASE;
+          est++;
+          }
+        #endif
+        }
+      // finally place lo as the new coefficient 'digit' and add est to
+      // the next place up [this is safe because this path is never
+      // taken on the final iteration as *pl will fit]
+      *pa=lo;
+      *(pl+1)+=est;
+      } // *pl needed split
+     else {                             // *pl<MULTBASE
+      *pa=(uInt)*pl;                    // just copy across
+      }
+    } // pl loop
+
+#else  // 32-bit
+  for (pa=acc;; pa+=4) {                     // zero the accumulator
+    *pa=0; *(pa+1)=0; *(pa+2)=0; *(pa+3)=0;  // [reduce overhead]
+    if (pa==acc+MULACCLEN*2-4) break;        // multiple of 4 asserted
+    } // pa
+
+  /* Effect the multiplication */
+  // uLongs are not available (and in particular, there is no uLong
+  // divide) but it is still possible to use MFC's lazy-carry
+  // resolution algorithm from decNumber.  First, the multiplication
+  // is effected, allowing accumulation of the partial products
+  // (which are in base-billion at each column position) into 64 bits
+  // [with the high-order 32 bits in each position being held at
+  // offset +ACCLEN from the low-order 32 bits in the accumulator].
+  // These 64-bit numbers (which may contain up to 19 decimal digits)
+  // are then split using the Clark & Cowlishaw algorithm (see
+  // below).
+  for (ui=bufr;; ui++) {                // over each item in rhs
+    uInt hi, lo;                        // words of exact multiply result
+    pa=acc+(ui-bufr);                   // where to add the lhs
+    for (uj=bufl;; uj++, pa++) {        // over each item in lhs
+      LONGMUL32HI(hi, *ui, *uj);        // calculate product of digits
+      lo=(*ui)*(*uj);                   // ..
+      *pa+=lo;                          // accumulate low bits and ..
+      *(pa+MULACCLEN)+=hi+(*pa<lo);     // .. high bits with any carry
+      if (uj==bufl+MULOPLEN-1) break;
+      }
+    if (ui==bufr+MULOPLEN-1) break;
+    }
+
+  // The 64-bit carries must now be resolved; this means that a
+  // quotient/remainder has to be calculated for base-billion (1E+9).
+  // For this, Clark & Cowlishaw's quotient estimation approach (also
+  // used in decNumber) is needed, because 64-bit divide is generally
+  // extremely slow on 32-bit machines.  This algorithm splits X
+  // using:
+  //
+  //   magic=2**(A+B)/1E+9;   // 'magic number'
+  //   hop=X/2**A;            // high order part of X (by shift)
+  //   est=magic*hop/2**B     // quotient estimate (may be low by 1)
+  //
+  // A and B are quite constrained; hop and magic must fit in 32 bits,
+  // and 2**(A+B) must be as large as possible (which is 2**61 if
+  // magic is to fit).  Further, maxX increases with the length of
+  // the operands (and hence the number of partial products
+  // accumulated); maxX is OPLEN*(10**18), which is up to 19 digits.
+  //
+  // It can be shown that when OPLEN is 2 then the maximum error in
+  // the estimated quotient is <1, but for larger maximum x the
+  // maximum error is above 1 so a correction that is >1 may be
+  // needed.  Values of A and B are chosen to satisfy the constraints
+  // just mentioned while minimizing the maximum error (and hence the
+  // maximum correction), as shown in the following table:
+  //
+  //   Type    OPLEN   A   B     maxX    maxError  maxCorrection
+  //   ---------------------------------------------------------
+  //   DOUBLE    2    29  32  <2*10**18    0.63       1
+  //   QUAD      4    30  31  <4*10**18    1.17       2
+  //
+  // In the OPLEN==2 case there is most choice, but the value for B
+  // of 32 has a big advantage as then the calculation of the
+  // estimate requires no shifting; the high word is simply
+  // calculated from multiplying magic*hop.
+  #define MULMAGIC 2305843009U          // 2**61/10**9  [both cases]
+  #if DOUBLE
+    #define MULSHIFTA 29
+    #define MULSHIFTB 32
+  #elif QUAD
+    #define MULSHIFTA 30
+    #define MULSHIFTB 31
+  #else
+    #error Unexpected type
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  printf("MulHiLo:");
+  for (pa=acc+MULACCLEN-1; pa>=acc; pa--)
+    printf(" %08lx:%08lx", (LI)*(pa+MULACCLEN), (LI)*pa);
+  printf("\n");
+  #endif
+
+  for (pa=acc;; pa++) {                 // each low uInt
+    uInt hi, lo;                        // words of exact multiply result
+    uInt hop, estlo;                    // work
+    #if QUAD
+    uInt esthi;                         // ..
+    #endif
+
+    lo=*pa;
+    hi=*(pa+MULACCLEN);                 // top 32 bits
+    // hi and lo now hold a binary number which needs to be split
+
+    #if DOUBLE
+      hop=(hi<<3)+(lo>>MULSHIFTA);      // hi:lo/2**29
+      LONGMUL32HI(estlo, hop, MULMAGIC);// only need the high word
+      // [MULSHIFTB is 32, so estlo can be used directly]
+      // the estimate is now in estlo; now calculate hi:lo-est*10**9;
+      // happily the top word of the result is irrelevant because it
+      // will always be zero so this needs only one multiplication
+      lo-=(estlo*MULTBASE);
+      // esthi=0;                       // high word is ignored below
+      // the correction here will be at most +1; do it
+      if (lo>=MULTBASE) {
+        lo-=MULTBASE;
+        estlo++;
+        }
+    #elif QUAD
+      hop=(hi<<2)+(lo>>MULSHIFTA);      // hi:lo/2**30
+      LONGMUL32HI(esthi, hop, MULMAGIC);// shift will be 31 ..
+      estlo=hop*MULMAGIC;               // .. so low word needed
+      estlo=(esthi<<1)+(estlo>>MULSHIFTB); // [just the top bit]
+      // esthi=0;                       // high word is ignored below
+      lo-=(estlo*MULTBASE);             // as above
+      // the correction here could be +1 or +2
+      if (lo>=MULTBASE) {
+        lo-=MULTBASE;
+        estlo++;
+        }
+      if (lo>=MULTBASE) {
+        lo-=MULTBASE;
+        estlo++;
+        }
+    #else
+      #error Unexpected type
+    #endif
+
+    // finally place lo as the new accumulator digit and add est to
+    // the next place up; this latter add could cause a carry of 1
+    // to the high word of the next place
+    *pa=lo;
+    *(pa+1)+=estlo;
+    // esthi is always 0 for DOUBLE and QUAD so this is skipped
+    // *(pa+1+MULACCLEN)+=esthi;
+    if (*(pa+1)<estlo) *(pa+1+MULACCLEN)+=1; // carry
+    if (pa==acc+MULACCLEN-2) break;          // [MULACCLEN-1 will never need split]
+    } // pa loop
+#endif
+
+  // At this point, whether using the 64-bit or the 32-bit paths, the
+  // accumulator now holds the (unrounded) result in base-billion;
+  // one base-billion 'digit' per uInt.
+  #if DECTRACE
+  printf("MultAcc:");
+  for (pa=acc+MULACCLEN-1; pa>=acc; pa--) printf(" %09ld", (LI)*pa);
+  printf("\n");
+  #endif
+
+  // Now convert to BCD for rounding and cleanup, starting from the
+  // most significant end
+  pa=acc+MULACCLEN-1;
+  if (*pa!=0) num->msd=bcdacc+LEADZEROS;// drop known lead zeros
+   else {                               // >=1 word of leading zeros
+    num->msd=bcdacc;                    // known leading zeros are gone
+    pa--;                               // skip first word ..
+    for (; *pa==0; pa--) if (pa==acc) break; // .. and any more leading 0s
+    }
+  for (ub=bcdacc;; pa--, ub+=9) {
+    if (*pa!=0) {                       // split(s) needed
+      uInt top, mid, rem;               // work
+      // *pa is non-zero -- split the base-billion acc digit into
+      // hi, mid, and low three-digits
+      #define mulsplit9 1000000         // divisor
+      #define mulsplit6 1000            // divisor
+      // The splitting is done by simple divides and remainders,
+      // assuming the compiler will optimize these where useful
+      // [GCC does]
+      top=*pa/mulsplit9;
+      rem=*pa%mulsplit9;
+      mid=rem/mulsplit6;
+      rem=rem%mulsplit6;
+      // lay out the nine BCD digits (plus one unwanted byte)
+      UBFROMUI(ub,   UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[top*4]));
+      UBFROMUI(ub+3, UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[mid*4]));
+      UBFROMUI(ub+6, UBTOUI(&BIN2BCD8[rem*4]));
+      }
+     else {                             // *pa==0
+      UBFROMUI(ub, 0);                  // clear 9 BCD8s
+      UBFROMUI(ub+4, 0);                // ..
+      *(ub+8)=0;                        // ..
+      }
+    if (pa==acc) break;
+    } // BCD conversion loop
+
+  num->lsd=ub+8;                        // complete the bcdnum ..
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  decShowNum(num, "postmult");
+  decFloatShow(dfl, "dfl");
+  decFloatShow(dfr, "dfr");
+  #endif
+  return;
+  } // decFiniteMultiply
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatAbs -- absolute value, heeding NaNs, etc.                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the canonicalized df with sign 0                     */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to abs                                    */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This has the same effect as decFloatPlus unless df is negative,    */
+/* in which case it has the same effect as decFloatMinus.  The        */
+/* effect is also the same as decFloatCopyAbs except that NaNs are    */
+/* handled normally (the sign of a NaN is not affected, and an sNaN   */
+/* will signal) and the result will be canonical.                     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatAbs(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);
+  decCanonical(result, df);             // copy and check
+  DFBYTE(result, 0)&=~0x80;             // zero sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatAbs
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatAdd -- add two decFloats                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of adding dfl and dfr:                    */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#if QUAD
+// Table for testing MSDs for fastpath elimination; returns the MSD of
+// a decDouble or decQuad (top 6 bits tested) ignoring the sign.
+// Infinities return -32 and NaNs return -128 so that summing the two
+// MSDs also allows rapid tests for the Specials (see code below).
+const Int DECTESTMSD[64]={
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,   6,    7,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8, 9, 8, 9, -32, -128,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,   6,    7,
+  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8, 9, 8, 9, -32, -128};
+#else
+// The table for testing MSDs is shared between the modules
+extern const Int DECTESTMSD[64];
+#endif
+
+decFloat * decFloatAdd(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  bcdnum num;                      // for final conversion
+  Int    bexpl, bexpr;             // left and right biased exponents
+  uByte  *ub, *us, *ut;            // work
+  uInt   uiwork;                   // for macros
+  #if QUAD
+  uShort uswork;                   // ..
+  #endif
+
+  uInt sourhil, sourhir;           // top words from source decFloats
+                                   // [valid only through end of
+                                   // fastpath code -- before swap]
+  uInt diffsign;                   // non-zero if signs differ
+  uInt carry;                      // carry: 0 or 1 before add loop
+  Int  overlap;                    // coefficient overlap (if full)
+  Int  summ;                       // sum of the MSDs
+  // the following buffers hold coefficients with various alignments
+  // (see commentary and diagrams below)
+  uByte acc[4+2+DECPMAX*3+8];
+  uByte buf[4+2+DECPMAX*2];
+  uByte *umsd, *ulsd;              // local MSD and LSD pointers
+
+  #if DECLITEND
+    #define CARRYPAT 0x01000000    // carry=1 pattern
+  #else
+    #define CARRYPAT 0x00000001    // carry=1 pattern
+  #endif
+
+  /* Start decoding the arguments */
+  // The initial exponents are placed into the opposite Ints to
+  // that which might be expected; there are two sets of data to
+  // keep track of (each decFloat and the corresponding exponent),
+  // and this scheme means that at the swap point (after comparing
+  // exponents) only one pair of words needs to be swapped
+  // whichever path is taken (thereby minimising worst-case path).
+  // The calculated exponents will be nonsense when the arguments are
+  // Special, but are not used in that path
+  sourhil=DFWORD(dfl, 0);          // LHS top word
+  summ=DECTESTMSD[sourhil>>26];    // get first MSD for testing
+  bexpr=DECCOMBEXP[sourhil>>26];   // get exponent high bits (in place)
+  bexpr+=GETECON(dfl);             // .. + continuation
+
+  sourhir=DFWORD(dfr, 0);          // RHS top word
+  summ+=DECTESTMSD[sourhir>>26];   // sum MSDs for testing
+  bexpl=DECCOMBEXP[sourhir>>26];
+  bexpl+=GETECON(dfr);
+
+  // here bexpr has biased exponent from lhs, and vice versa
+
+  diffsign=(sourhil^sourhir)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+
+  // now determine whether to take a fast path or the full-function
+  // slow path.  The slow path must be taken when:
+  //   -- both numbers are finite, and:
+  //         the exponents are different, or
+  //         the signs are different, or
+  //         the sum of the MSDs is >8 (hence might overflow)
+  // specialness and the sum of the MSDs can be tested at once using
+  // the summ value just calculated, so the test for specials is no
+  // longer on the worst-case path (as of 3.60)
+
+  if (summ<=8) {                   // MSD+MSD is good, or there is a special
+    if (summ<0) {                  // there is a special
+      // Inf+Inf would give -64; Inf+finite is -32 or higher
+      if (summ<-64) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);  // one or two NaNs
+      // two infinities with different signs is invalid
+      if (summ==-64 && diffsign) return decInvalid(result, set);
+      if (DFISINF(dfl)) return decInfinity(result, dfl);    // LHS is infinite
+      return decInfinity(result, dfr);                      // RHS must be Inf
+      }
+    // Here when both arguments are finite; fast path is possible
+    // (currently only for aligned and same-sign)
+    if (bexpr==bexpl && !diffsign) {
+      uInt tac[DECLETS+1];              // base-1000 coefficient
+      uInt encode;                      // work
+
+      // Get one coefficient as base-1000 and add the other
+      GETCOEFFTHOU(dfl, tac);           // least-significant goes to [0]
+      ADDCOEFFTHOU(dfr, tac);
+      // here the sum of the MSDs (plus any carry) will be <10 due to
+      // the fastpath test earlier
+
+      // construct the result; low word is the same for both formats
+      encode =BIN2DPD[tac[0]];
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[1]]<<10;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[2]]<<20;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[3]]<<30;
+      DFWORD(result, (DECBYTES/4)-1)=encode;
+
+      // collect next two declets (all that remains, for Double)
+      encode =BIN2DPD[tac[3]]>>2;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[4]]<<8;
+
+      #if QUAD
+      // complete and lay out middling words
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[5]]<<18;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[6]]<<28;
+      DFWORD(result, 2)=encode;
+
+      encode =BIN2DPD[tac[6]]>>4;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[7]]<<6;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[8]]<<16;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[9]]<<26;
+      DFWORD(result, 1)=encode;
+
+      // and final two declets
+      encode =BIN2DPD[tac[9]]>>6;
+      encode|=BIN2DPD[tac[10]]<<4;
+      #endif
+
+      // add exponent continuation and sign (from either argument)
+      encode|=sourhil & (ECONMASK | DECFLOAT_Sign);
+
+      // create lookup index = MSD + top two bits of biased exponent <<4
+      tac[DECLETS]|=(bexpl>>DECECONL)<<4;
+      encode|=DECCOMBFROM[tac[DECLETS]]; // add constructed combination field
+      DFWORD(result, 0)=encode;          // complete
+
+      // decFloatShow(result, ">");
+      return result;
+      } // fast path OK
+    // drop through to slow path
+    } // low sum or Special(s)
+
+  /* Slow path required -- arguments are finite and might overflow,   */
+  /* or require alignment, or might have different signs              */
+
+  // now swap either exponents or argument pointers
+  if (bexpl<=bexpr) {
+    // original left is bigger
+    Int bexpswap=bexpl;
+    bexpl=bexpr;
+    bexpr=bexpswap;
+    // printf("left bigger\n");
+    }
+   else {
+    const decFloat *dfswap=dfl;
+    dfl=dfr;
+    dfr=dfswap;
+    // printf("right bigger\n");
+    }
+  // [here dfl and bexpl refer to the datum with the larger exponent,
+  // of if the exponents are equal then the original LHS argument]
+
+  // if lhs is zero then result will be the rhs (now known to have
+  // the smaller exponent), which also may need to be tested for zero
+  // for the weird IEEE 754 sign rules
+  if (DFISZERO(dfl)) {
+    decCanonical(result, dfr);               // clean copy
+    // "When the sum of two operands with opposite signs is
+    // exactly zero, the sign of that sum shall be '+' in all
+    // rounding modes except round toward -Infinity, in which
+    // mode that sign shall be '-'."
+    if (diffsign && DFISZERO(result)) {
+      DFWORD(result, 0)&=~DECFLOAT_Sign;     // assume sign 0
+      if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) DFWORD(result, 0)|=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+      }
+    return result;
+    } // numfl is zero
+  // [here, LHS is non-zero; code below assumes that]
+
+  // Coefficients layout during the calculations to follow:
+  //
+  //       Overlap case:
+  //       +------------------------------------------------+
+  // acc:  |0000|      coeffa      | tail B |               |
+  //       +------------------------------------------------+
+  // buf:  |0000| pad0s |      coeffb       |               |
+  //       +------------------------------------------------+
+  //
+  //       Touching coefficients or gap:
+  //       +------------------------------------------------+
+  // acc:  |0000|      coeffa      | gap |      coeffb      |
+  //       +------------------------------------------------+
+  //       [buf not used or needed; gap clamped to Pmax]
+
+  // lay out lhs coefficient into accumulator; this starts at acc+4
+  // for decDouble or acc+6 for decQuad so the LSD is word-
+  // aligned; the top word gap is there only in case a carry digit
+  // is prefixed after the add -- it does not need to be zeroed
+  #if DOUBLE
+    #define COFF 4                      // offset into acc
+  #elif QUAD
+    UBFROMUS(acc+4, 0);                 // prefix 00
+    #define COFF 6                      // offset into acc
+  #endif
+
+  GETCOEFF(dfl, acc+COFF);              // decode from decFloat
+  ulsd=acc+COFF+DECPMAX-1;
+  umsd=acc+4;                           // [having this here avoids
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  {bcdnum tum;
+  tum.msd=umsd;
+  tum.lsd=ulsd;
+  tum.exponent=bexpl-DECBIAS;
+  tum.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0) & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  decShowNum(&tum, "dflx");}
+  #endif
+
+  // if signs differ, take ten's complement of lhs (here the
+  // coefficient is subtracted from all-nines; the 1 is added during
+  // the later add cycle -- zeros to the right do not matter because
+  // the complement of zero is zero); these are fixed-length inverts
+  // where the lsd is known to be at a 4-byte boundary (so no borrow
+  // possible)
+  carry=0;                              // assume no carry
+  if (diffsign) {
+    carry=CARRYPAT;                     // for +1 during add
+    UBFROMUI(acc+ 4, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+ 4));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+ 8, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+ 8));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+12, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+12));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+16, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+16));
+    #if QUAD
+    UBFROMUI(acc+20, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+20));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+24, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+24));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+28, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+28));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+32, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+32));
+    UBFROMUI(acc+36, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(acc+36));
+    #endif
+    } // diffsign
+
+  // now process the rhs coefficient; if it cannot overlap lhs then
+  // it can be put straight into acc (with an appropriate gap, if
+  // needed) because no actual addition will be needed (except
+  // possibly to complete ten's complement)
+  overlap=DECPMAX-(bexpl-bexpr);
+  #if DECTRACE
+  printf("exps: %ld %ld\n", (LI)(bexpl-DECBIAS), (LI)(bexpr-DECBIAS));
+  printf("Overlap=%ld carry=%08lx\n", (LI)overlap, (LI)carry);
+  #endif
+
+  if (overlap<=0) {                     // no overlap possible
+    uInt gap;                           // local work
+    // since a full addition is not needed, a ten's complement
+    // calculation started above may need to be completed
+    if (carry) {
+      for (ub=ulsd; *ub==9; ub--) *ub=0;
+      *ub+=1;
+      carry=0;                          // taken care of
+      }
+    // up to DECPMAX-1 digits of the final result can extend down
+    // below the LSD of the lhs, so if the gap is >DECPMAX then the
+    // rhs will be simply sticky bits.  In this case the gap is
+    // clamped to DECPMAX and the exponent adjusted to suit [this is
+    // safe because the lhs is non-zero].
+    gap=-overlap;
+    if (gap>DECPMAX) {
+      bexpr+=gap-1;
+      gap=DECPMAX;
+      }
+    ub=ulsd+gap+1;                      // where MSD will go
+    // Fill the gap with 0s; note that there is no addition to do
+    ut=acc+COFF+DECPMAX;                // start of gap
+    for (; ut<ub; ut+=4) UBFROMUI(ut, 0); // mind the gap
+    if (overlap<-DECPMAX) {             // gap was > DECPMAX
+      *ub=(uByte)(!DFISZERO(dfr));      // make sticky digit
+      }
+     else {                             // need full coefficient
+      GETCOEFF(dfr, ub);                // decode from decFloat
+      ub+=DECPMAX-1;                    // new LSD...
+      }
+    ulsd=ub;                            // save new LSD
+    } // no overlap possible
+
+   else {                               // overlap>0
+    // coefficients overlap (perhaps completely, although also
+    // perhaps only where zeros)
+    if (overlap==DECPMAX) {             // aligned
+      ub=buf+COFF;                      // where msd will go
+      #if QUAD
+      UBFROMUS(buf+4, 0);               // clear quad's 00
+      #endif
+      GETCOEFF(dfr, ub);                // decode from decFloat
+      }
+     else {                             // unaligned
+      ub=buf+COFF+DECPMAX-overlap;      // where MSD will go
+      // Fill the prefix gap with 0s; 8 will cover most common
+      // unalignments, so start with direct assignments (a loop is
+      // then used for any remaining -- the loop (and the one in a
+      // moment) is not then on the critical path because the number
+      // of additions is reduced by (at least) two in this case)
+      UBFROMUI(buf+4, 0);               // [clears decQuad 00 too]
+      UBFROMUI(buf+8, 0);
+      if (ub>buf+12) {
+        ut=buf+12;                      // start any remaining
+        for (; ut<ub; ut+=4) UBFROMUI(ut, 0); // fill them
+        }
+      GETCOEFF(dfr, ub);                // decode from decFloat
+
+      // now move tail of rhs across to main acc; again use direct
+      // copies for 8 digits-worth
+      UBFROMUI(acc+COFF+DECPMAX,   UBTOUI(buf+COFF+DECPMAX));
+      UBFROMUI(acc+COFF+DECPMAX+4, UBTOUI(buf+COFF+DECPMAX+4));
+      if (buf+COFF+DECPMAX+8<ub+DECPMAX) {
+        us=buf+COFF+DECPMAX+8;          // source
+        ut=acc+COFF+DECPMAX+8;          // target
+        for (; us<ub+DECPMAX; us+=4, ut+=4) UBFROMUI(ut, UBTOUI(us));
+        }
+      } // unaligned
+
+    ulsd=acc+(ub-buf+DECPMAX-1);        // update LSD pointer
+
+    // Now do the add of the non-tail; this is all nicely aligned,
+    // and is over a multiple of four digits (because for Quad two
+    // zero digits were added on the left); words in both acc and
+    // buf (buf especially) will often be zero
+    // [byte-by-byte add, here, is about 15% slower total effect than
+    // the by-fours]
+
+    // Now effect the add; this is harder on a little-endian
+    // machine as the inter-digit carry cannot use the usual BCD
+    // addition trick because the bytes are loaded in the wrong order
+    // [this loop could be unrolled, but probably scarcely worth it]
+
+    ut=acc+COFF+DECPMAX-4;              // target LSW (acc)
+    us=buf+COFF+DECPMAX-4;              // source LSW (buf, to add to acc)
+
+    #if !DECLITEND
+    for (; ut>=acc+4; ut-=4, us-=4) {   // big-endian add loop
+      // bcd8 add
+      carry+=UBTOUI(us);                // rhs + carry
+      if (carry==0) continue;           // no-op
+      carry+=UBTOUI(ut);                // lhs
+      // Big-endian BCD adjust (uses internal carry)
+      carry+=0x76f6f6f6;                // note top nibble not all bits
+      // apply BCD adjust and save
+      UBFROMUI(ut, (carry & 0x0f0f0f0f) - ((carry & 0x60606060)>>4));
+      carry>>=31;                       // true carry was at far left
+      } // add loop
+    #else
+    for (; ut>=acc+4; ut-=4, us-=4) {   // little-endian add loop
+      // bcd8 add
+      carry+=UBTOUI(us);                // rhs + carry
+      if (carry==0) continue;           // no-op [common if unaligned]
+      carry+=UBTOUI(ut);                // lhs
+      // Little-endian BCD adjust; inter-digit carry must be manual
+      // because the lsb from the array will be in the most-significant
+      // byte of carry
+      carry+=0x76767676;                // note no inter-byte carries
+      carry+=(carry & 0x80000000)>>15;
+      carry+=(carry & 0x00800000)>>15;
+      carry+=(carry & 0x00008000)>>15;
+      carry-=(carry & 0x60606060)>>4;   // BCD adjust back
+      UBFROMUI(ut, carry & 0x0f0f0f0f); // clear debris and save
+      // here, final carry-out bit is at 0x00000080; move it ready
+      // for next word-add (i.e., to 0x01000000)
+      carry=(carry & 0x00000080)<<17;
+      } // add loop
+    #endif
+
+    #if DECTRACE
+    {bcdnum tum;
+    printf("Add done, carry=%08lx, diffsign=%ld\n", (LI)carry, (LI)diffsign);
+    tum.msd=umsd;  // acc+4;
+    tum.lsd=ulsd;
+    tum.exponent=0;
+    tum.sign=0;
+    decShowNum(&tum, "dfadd");}
+    #endif
+    } // overlap possible
+
+  // ordering here is a little strange in order to have slowest path
+  // first in GCC asm listing
+  if (diffsign) {                  // subtraction
+    if (!carry) {                  // no carry out means RHS<LHS
+      // borrowed -- take ten's complement
+      // sign is lhs sign
+      num.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0) & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+
+      // invert the coefficient first by fours, then add one; space
+      // at the end of the buffer ensures the by-fours is always
+      // safe, but lsd+1 must be cleared to prevent a borrow
+      // if big-endian
+      #if !DECLITEND
+      *(ulsd+1)=0;
+      #endif
+      // there are always at least four coefficient words
+      UBFROMUI(umsd,    0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd));
+      UBFROMUI(umsd+4,  0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+4));
+      UBFROMUI(umsd+8,  0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+8));
+      UBFROMUI(umsd+12, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+12));
+      #if DOUBLE
+        #define BNEXT 16
+      #elif QUAD
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+16, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+16));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+20, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+20));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+24, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+24));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+28, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+28));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+32, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+32));
+        #define BNEXT 36
+      #endif
+      if (ulsd>=umsd+BNEXT) {           // unaligned
+        // eight will handle most unaligments for Double; 16 for Quad
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+BNEXT,   0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+BNEXT));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+BNEXT+4, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+BNEXT+4));
+        #if DOUBLE
+        #define BNEXTY (BNEXT+8)
+        #elif QUAD
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+BNEXT+8,  0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+BNEXT+8));
+        UBFROMUI(umsd+BNEXT+12, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(umsd+BNEXT+12));
+        #define BNEXTY (BNEXT+16)
+        #endif
+        if (ulsd>=umsd+BNEXTY) {        // very unaligned
+          ut=umsd+BNEXTY;               // -> continue
+          for (;;ut+=4) {
+            UBFROMUI(ut, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(ut)); // invert four digits
+            if (ut>=ulsd-3) break;      // all done
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      // complete the ten's complement by adding 1
+      for (ub=ulsd; *ub==9; ub--) *ub=0;
+      *ub+=1;
+      } // borrowed
+
+     else {                        // carry out means RHS>=LHS
+      num.sign=DFWORD(dfr, 0) & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+      // all done except for the special IEEE 754 exact-zero-result
+      // rule (see above); while testing for zero, strip leading
+      // zeros (which will save decFinalize doing it) (this is in
+      // diffsign path, so carry impossible and true umsd is
+      // acc+COFF)
+
+      // Check the initial coefficient area using the fast macro;
+      // this will often be all that needs to be done (as on the
+      // worst-case path when the subtraction was aligned and
+      // full-length)
+      if (ISCOEFFZERO(acc+COFF)) {
+        umsd=acc+COFF+DECPMAX-1;   // so far, so zero
+        if (ulsd>umsd) {           // more to check
+          umsd++;                  // to align after checked area
+          for (; UBTOUI(umsd)==0 && umsd+3<ulsd;) umsd+=4;
+          for (; *umsd==0 && umsd<ulsd;) umsd++;
+          }
+        if (*umsd==0) {            // must be true zero (and diffsign)
+          num.sign=0;              // assume +
+          if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) num.sign=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+          }
+        }
+      // [else was not zero, might still have leading zeros]
+      } // subtraction gave positive result
+    } // diffsign
+
+   else { // same-sign addition
+    num.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+    #if DOUBLE
+    if (carry) {                   // only possible with decDouble
+      *(acc+3)=1;                  // [Quad has leading 00]
+      umsd=acc+3;
+      }
+    #endif
+    } // same sign
+
+  num.msd=umsd;                    // set MSD ..
+  num.lsd=ulsd;                    // .. and LSD
+  num.exponent=bexpr-DECBIAS;      // set exponent to smaller, unbiassed
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  decFloatShow(dfl, "dfl");
+  decFloatShow(dfr, "dfr");
+  decShowNum(&num, "postadd");
+  #endif
+  return decFinalize(result, &num, set); // round, check, and lay out
+  } // decFloatAdd
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatAnd -- logical digitwise AND of two decFloats              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of ANDing dfl and dfr                     */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which will be canonical with sign=0              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The operands must be positive, finite with exponent q=0, and       */
+/* comprise just zeros and ones; if not, Invalid operation results.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatAnd(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  if (!DFISUINT01(dfl) || !DFISUINT01(dfr)
+   || !DFISCC01(dfl)   || !DFISCC01(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  // the operands are positive finite integers (q=0) with just 0s and 1s
+  #if DOUBLE
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) & DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04009124);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) & DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x49124491;
+  #elif QUAD
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) & DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04000912);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) & DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x44912449;
+   DFWORD(result, 2)=(DFWORD(dfl, 2) & DFWORD(dfr, 2))&0x12449124;
+   DFWORD(result, 3)=(DFWORD(dfl, 3) & DFWORD(dfr, 3))&0x49124491;
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatAnd
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCanonical -- copy a decFloat, making canonical             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the canonicalized df                                 */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to copy and make canonical                */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This works on specials, too; no error or exception is possible.    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCanonical(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df) {
+  return decCanonical(result, df);
+  } // decFloatCanonical
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatClass -- return the class of a decFloat                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df is the decFloat to test                                       */
+/*   returns the decClass that df falls into                          */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+enum decClass decFloatClass(const decFloat *df) {
+  Int exp;                         // exponent
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) {
+    if (DFISQNAN(df)) return DEC_CLASS_QNAN;
+    if (DFISSNAN(df)) return DEC_CLASS_SNAN;
+    // must be an infinity
+    if (DFISSIGNED(df)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_INF;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_INF;
+    }
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) {              // quite common
+    if (DFISSIGNED(df)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_ZERO;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_ZERO;
+    }
+  // is finite and non-zero; similar code to decFloatIsNormal, here
+  // [this could be speeded up slightly by in-lining decFloatDigits]
+  exp=GETEXPUN(df)                 // get unbiased exponent ..
+     +decFloatDigits(df)-1;        // .. and make adjusted exponent
+  if (exp>=DECEMIN) {              // is normal
+    if (DFISSIGNED(df)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_NORMAL;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_NORMAL;
+    }
+  // is subnormal
+  if (DFISSIGNED(df)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_SUBNORMAL;
+  return DEC_CLASS_POS_SUBNORMAL;
+  } // decFloatClass
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatClassString -- return the class of a decFloat as a string  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df is the decFloat to test                                       */
+/*   returns a constant string describing the class df falls into     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const char *decFloatClassString(const decFloat *df) {
+  enum decClass eclass=decFloatClass(df);
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_NORMAL)    return DEC_ClassString_PN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_NORMAL)    return DEC_ClassString_NN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_ZERO)      return DEC_ClassString_PZ;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_ZERO)      return DEC_ClassString_NZ;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_SUBNORMAL) return DEC_ClassString_PS;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_SUBNORMAL) return DEC_ClassString_NS;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_INF)       return DEC_ClassString_PI;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_INF)       return DEC_ClassString_NI;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_QNAN)          return DEC_ClassString_QN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_SNAN)          return DEC_ClassString_SN;
+  return DEC_ClassString_UN;           // Unknown
+  } // decFloatClassString
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCompare -- compare two decFloats; quiet NaNs allowed       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of comparing dfl and dfr                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which may be -1, 0, 1, or NaN (Unordered)        */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCompare(decFloat *result,
+                           const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                           decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;                                  // work
+  // NaNs are handled as usual
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  // numeric comparison needed
+  comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 0);
+  decFloatZero(result);
+  if (comp==0) return result;
+  DFBYTE(result, DECBYTES-1)=0x01;      // LSD=1
+  if (comp<0) DFBYTE(result, 0)|=0x80;  // set sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCompare
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCompareSignal -- compare two decFloats; all NaNs signal    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of comparing dfl and dfr                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which may be -1, 0, 1, or NaN (Unordered)        */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCompareSignal(decFloat *result,
+                                 const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                                 decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;                                  // work
+  // NaNs are handled as usual, except that all NaNs signal
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) {
+    set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+    return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    }
+  // numeric comparison needed
+  comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 0);
+  decFloatZero(result);
+  if (comp==0) return result;
+  DFBYTE(result, DECBYTES-1)=0x01;      // LSD=1
+  if (comp<0) DFBYTE(result, 0)|=0x80;  // set sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCompareSignal
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCompareTotal -- compare two decFloats with total ordering  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of comparing dfl and dfr                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   returns result, which may be -1, 0, or 1                         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCompareTotal(decFloat *result,
+                                const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr) {
+  Int  comp;                                 // work
+  uInt uiwork;                               // for macros
+  #if QUAD
+  uShort uswork;                             // ..
+  #endif
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) {
+    Int nanl, nanr;                          // work
+    // morph NaNs to +/- 1 or 2, leave numbers as 0
+    nanl=DFISSNAN(dfl)+DFISQNAN(dfl)*2;      // quiet > signalling
+    if (DFISSIGNED(dfl)) nanl=-nanl;
+    nanr=DFISSNAN(dfr)+DFISQNAN(dfr)*2;
+    if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) nanr=-nanr;
+    if (nanl>nanr) comp=+1;
+     else if (nanl<nanr) comp=-1;
+     else { // NaNs are the same type and sign .. must compare payload
+      // buffers need +2 for QUAD
+      uByte bufl[DECPMAX+4];                 // for LHS coefficient + foot
+      uByte bufr[DECPMAX+4];                 // for RHS coefficient + foot
+      uByte *ub, *uc;                        // work
+      Int sigl;                              // signum of LHS
+      sigl=(DFISSIGNED(dfl) ? -1 : +1);
+
+      // decode the coefficients
+      // (shift both right two if Quad to make a multiple of four)
+      #if QUAD
+        UBFROMUS(bufl, 0);
+        UBFROMUS(bufr, 0);
+      #endif
+      GETCOEFF(dfl, bufl+QUAD*2);            // decode from decFloat
+      GETCOEFF(dfr, bufr+QUAD*2);            // ..
+      // all multiples of four, here
+      comp=0;                                // assume equal
+      for (ub=bufl, uc=bufr; ub<bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2; ub+=4, uc+=4) {
+        uInt ui=UBTOUI(ub);
+        if (ui==UBTOUI(uc)) continue; // so far so same
+        // about to find a winner; go by bytes in case little-endian
+        for (;; ub++, uc++) {
+          if (*ub==*uc) continue;
+          if (*ub>*uc) comp=sigl;            // difference found
+           else comp=-sigl;                  // ..
+           break;
+          }
+        }
+      } // same NaN type and sign
+    }
+   else {
+    // numeric comparison needed
+    comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 1);    // total ordering
+    }
+  decFloatZero(result);
+  if (comp==0) return result;
+  DFBYTE(result, DECBYTES-1)=0x01;      // LSD=1
+  if (comp<0) DFBYTE(result, 0)|=0x80;  // set sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCompareTotal
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCompareTotalMag -- compare magnitudes with total ordering  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of comparing abs(dfl) and abs(dfr)        */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   returns result, which may be -1, 0, or 1                         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCompareTotalMag(decFloat *result,
+                                const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr) {
+  decFloat a, b;                        // for copy if needed
+  // copy and redirect signed operand(s)
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {
+    decFloatCopyAbs(&a, dfl);
+    dfl=&a;
+    }
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) {
+    decFloatCopyAbs(&b, dfr);
+    dfr=&b;
+    }
+  return decFloatCompareTotal(result, dfl, dfr);
+  } // decFloatCompareTotalMag
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCopy -- copy a decFloat as-is                              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the copy of dfl                                      */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to copy                                   */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is a bitwise operation; no errors or exceptions are possible. */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCopy(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl) {
+  if (dfl!=result) *result=*dfl;             // copy needed
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCopy
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCopyAbs -- copy a decFloat as-is and set sign bit to 0     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the copy of dfl with sign bit 0                      */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to copy                                   */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is a bitwise operation; no errors or exceptions are possible. */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCopyAbs(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl) {
+  if (dfl!=result) *result=*dfl;        // copy needed
+  DFBYTE(result, 0)&=~0x80;             // zero sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCopyAbs
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCopyNegate -- copy a decFloat as-is with inverted sign bit */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the copy of dfl with sign bit inverted               */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to copy                                   */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is a bitwise operation; no errors or exceptions are possible. */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCopyNegate(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl) {
+  if (dfl!=result) *result=*dfl;        // copy needed
+  DFBYTE(result, 0)^=0x80;              // invert sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCopyNegate
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatCopySign -- copy a decFloat with the sign of another       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of copying dfl with the sign of dfr       */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is a bitwise operation; no errors or exceptions are possible. */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatCopySign(decFloat *result,
+                            const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr) {
+  uByte sign=(uByte)(DFBYTE(dfr, 0)&0x80);   // save sign bit
+  if (dfl!=result) *result=*dfl;             // copy needed
+  DFBYTE(result, 0)&=~0x80;                  // clear sign ..
+  DFBYTE(result, 0)=(uByte)(DFBYTE(result, 0)|sign); // .. and set saved
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatCopySign
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatDigits -- return the number of digits in a decFloat        */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df is the decFloat to investigate                                */
+/*   returns the number of significant digits in the decFloat; a      */
+/*     zero coefficient returns 1 as does an infinity (a NaN returns  */
+/*     the number of digits in the payload)                           */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// private macro to extract a declet according to provided formula
+// (form), and if it is non-zero then return the calculated digits
+// depending on the declet number (n), where n=0 for the most
+// significant declet; uses uInt dpd for work
+#define dpdlenchk(n, form)  dpd=(form)&0x3ff;     \
+  if (dpd) return (DECPMAX-1-3*(n))-(3-DPD2BCD8[dpd*4+3])
+// next one is used when it is known that the declet must be
+// non-zero, or is the final zero declet
+#define dpdlendun(n, form)  dpd=(form)&0x3ff;     \
+  if (dpd==0) return 1;                           \
+  return (DECPMAX-1-3*(n))-(3-DPD2BCD8[dpd*4+3])
+
+uInt decFloatDigits(const decFloat *df) {
+  uInt dpd;                        // work
+  uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);       // top word from source decFloat
+  #if QUAD
+  uInt sourmh, sourml;
+  #endif
+  uInt sourlo;
+
+  if (DFISINF(df)) return 1;
+  // A NaN effectively has an MSD of 0; otherwise if non-zero MSD
+  // then the coefficient is full-length
+  if (!DFISNAN(df) && DECCOMBMSD[sourhi>>26]) return DECPMAX;
+
+  #if DOUBLE
+    if (sourhi&0x0003ffff) {     // ends in first
+      dpdlenchk(0, sourhi>>8);
+      sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);
+      dpdlendun(1, (sourhi<<2) | (sourlo>>30));
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);  // sourhi not involved now
+    if (sourlo&0xfff00000) {     // in one of first two
+      dpdlenchk(1, sourlo>>30);  // very rare
+      dpdlendun(2, sourlo>>20);
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    dpdlenchk(3, sourlo>>10);
+    dpdlendun(4, sourlo);
+    // [cannot drop through]
+
+  #elif QUAD
+    if (sourhi&0x00003fff) {     // ends in first
+      dpdlenchk(0, sourhi>>4);
+      sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+      dpdlendun(1, ((sourhi)<<6) | (sourmh>>26));
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+    if (sourmh) {
+      dpdlenchk(1, sourmh>>26);
+      dpdlenchk(2, sourmh>>16);
+      dpdlenchk(3, sourmh>>6);
+      sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+      dpdlendun(4, ((sourmh)<<4) | (sourml>>28));
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+    if (sourml) {
+      dpdlenchk(4, sourml>>28);
+      dpdlenchk(5, sourml>>18);
+      dpdlenchk(6, sourml>>8);
+      sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+      dpdlendun(7, ((sourml)<<2) | (sourlo>>30));
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+    if (sourlo&0xfff00000) {     // in one of first two
+      dpdlenchk(7, sourlo>>30);  // very rare
+      dpdlendun(8, sourlo>>20);
+      } // [cannot drop through]
+    dpdlenchk(9, sourlo>>10);
+    dpdlendun(10, sourlo);
+    // [cannot drop through]
+  #endif
+  } // decFloatDigits
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatDivide -- divide a decFloat by another                     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of dividing dfl by dfr:                   */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+// This is just a wrapper.
+decFloat * decFloatDivide(decFloat *result,
+                          const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                          decContext *set) {
+  return decDivide(result, dfl, dfr, set, DIVIDE);
+  } // decFloatDivide
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatDivideInteger -- integer divide a decFloat by another      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of dividing dfl by dfr:                   */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatDivideInteger(decFloat *result,
+                             const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                             decContext *set) {
+  return decDivide(result, dfl, dfr, set, DIVIDEINT);
+  } // decFloatDivideInteger
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFMA -- multiply and add three decFloats, fused             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of (dfl*dfr)+dff with a single rounding   */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   dff    is the final decFloat (fhs)                               */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFMA(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl,
+                       const decFloat *dfr, const decFloat *dff,
+                       decContext *set) {
+
+  // The accumulator has the bytes needed for FiniteMultiply, plus
+  // one byte to the left in case of carry, plus DECPMAX+2 to the
+  // right for the final addition (up to full fhs + round & sticky)
+  #define FMALEN (ROUNDUP4(1+ (DECPMAX9*18+1) +DECPMAX+2))
+  uByte  acc[FMALEN];              // for multiplied coefficient in BCD
+                                   // .. and for final result
+  bcdnum mul;                      // for multiplication result
+  bcdnum fin;                      // for final operand, expanded
+  uByte  coe[ROUNDUP4(DECPMAX)];   // dff coefficient in BCD
+  bcdnum *hi, *lo;                 // bcdnum with higher/lower exponent
+  uInt   diffsign;                 // non-zero if signs differ
+  uInt   hipad;                    // pad digit for hi if needed
+  Int    padding;                  // excess exponent
+  uInt   carry;                    // +1 for ten's complement and during add
+  uByte  *ub, *uh, *ul;            // work
+  uInt   uiwork;                   // for macros
+
+  // handle all the special values [any special operand leads to a
+  // special result]
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(dfl) || DFISSPECIAL(dfr) || DFISSPECIAL(dff)) {
+    decFloat proxy;                // multiplication result proxy
+    // NaNs are handled as usual, giving priority to sNaNs
+    if (DFISSNAN(dfl) || DFISSNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    if (DFISSNAN(dff)) return decNaNs(result, dff, NULL, set);
+    if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    if (DFISNAN(dff)) return decNaNs(result, dff, NULL, set);
+    // One or more of the three is infinite
+    // infinity times zero is bad
+    decFloatZero(&proxy);
+    if (DFISINF(dfl)) {
+      if (DFISZERO(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+      decInfinity(&proxy, &proxy);
+      }
+     else if (DFISINF(dfr)) {
+      if (DFISZERO(dfl)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+      decInfinity(&proxy, &proxy);
+      }
+    // compute sign of multiplication and place in proxy
+    DFWORD(&proxy, 0)|=(DFWORD(dfl, 0)^DFWORD(dfr, 0))&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+    if (!DFISINF(dff)) return decFloatCopy(result, &proxy);
+    // dff is Infinite
+    if (!DFISINF(&proxy)) return decInfinity(result, dff);
+    // both sides of addition are infinite; different sign is bad
+    if ((DFWORD(dff, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign)!=(DFWORD(&proxy, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign))
+      return decInvalid(result, set);
+    return decFloatCopy(result, &proxy);
+    }
+
+  /* Here when all operands are finite */
+
+  // First multiply dfl*dfr
+  decFiniteMultiply(&mul, acc+1, dfl, dfr);
+  // The multiply is complete, exact and unbounded, and described in
+  // mul with the coefficient held in acc[1...]
+
+  // now add in dff; the algorithm is essentially the same as
+  // decFloatAdd, but the code is different because the code there
+  // is highly optimized for adding two numbers of the same size
+  fin.exponent=GETEXPUN(dff);           // get dff exponent and sign
+  fin.sign=DFWORD(dff, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  diffsign=mul.sign^fin.sign;           // note if signs differ
+  fin.msd=coe;
+  fin.lsd=coe+DECPMAX-1;
+  GETCOEFF(dff, coe);                   // extract the coefficient
+
+  // now set hi and lo so that hi points to whichever of mul and fin
+  // has the higher exponent and lo points to the other [don't care,
+  // if the same].  One coefficient will be in acc, the other in coe.
+  if (mul.exponent>=fin.exponent) {
+    hi=&mul;
+    lo=&fin;
+    }
+   else {
+    hi=&fin;
+    lo=&mul;
+    }
+
+  // remove leading zeros on both operands; this will save time later
+  // and make testing for zero trivial (tests are safe because acc
+  // and coe are rounded up to uInts)
+  for (; UBTOUI(hi->msd)==0 && hi->msd+3<hi->lsd;) hi->msd+=4;
+  for (; *hi->msd==0 && hi->msd<hi->lsd;) hi->msd++;
+  for (; UBTOUI(lo->msd)==0 && lo->msd+3<lo->lsd;) lo->msd+=4;
+  for (; *lo->msd==0 && lo->msd<lo->lsd;) lo->msd++;
+
+  // if hi is zero then result will be lo (which has the smaller
+  // exponent), which also may need to be tested for zero for the
+  // weird IEEE 754 sign rules
+  if (*hi->msd==0) {                         // hi is zero
+    // "When the sum of two operands with opposite signs is
+    // exactly zero, the sign of that sum shall be '+' in all
+    // rounding modes except round toward -Infinity, in which
+    // mode that sign shall be '-'."
+    if (diffsign) {
+      if (*lo->msd==0) {                     // lo is zero
+        lo->sign=0;
+        if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) lo->sign=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+        } // diffsign && lo=0
+      } // diffsign
+    return decFinalize(result, lo, set);     // may need clamping
+    } // numfl is zero
+  // [here, both are minimal length and hi is non-zero]
+  // (if lo is zero then padding with zeros may be needed, below)
+
+  // if signs differ, take the ten's complement of hi (zeros to the
+  // right do not matter because the complement of zero is zero); the
+  // +1 is done later, as part of the addition, inserted at the
+  // correct digit
+  hipad=0;
+  carry=0;
+  if (diffsign) {
+    hipad=9;
+    carry=1;
+    // exactly the correct number of digits must be inverted
+    for (uh=hi->msd; uh<hi->lsd-3; uh+=4) UBFROMUI(uh, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(uh));
+    for (; uh<=hi->lsd; uh++) *uh=(uByte)(0x09-*uh);
+    }
+
+  // ready to add; note that hi has no leading zeros so gap
+  // calculation does not have to be as pessimistic as in decFloatAdd
+  // (this is much more like the arbitrary-precision algorithm in
+  // Rexx and decNumber)
+
+  // padding is the number of zeros that would need to be added to hi
+  // for its lsd to be aligned with the lsd of lo
+  padding=hi->exponent-lo->exponent;
+  // printf("FMA pad %ld\n", (LI)padding);
+
+  // the result of the addition will be built into the accumulator,
+  // starting from the far right; this could be either hi or lo, and
+  // will be aligned
+  ub=acc+FMALEN-1;                 // where lsd of result will go
+  ul=lo->lsd;                      // lsd of rhs
+
+  if (padding!=0) {                // unaligned
+    // if the msd of lo is more than DECPMAX+2 digits to the right of
+    // the original msd of hi then it can be reduced to a single
+    // digit at the right place, as it stays clear of hi digits
+    // [it must be DECPMAX+2 because during a subtraction the msd
+    // could become 0 after a borrow from 1.000 to 0.9999...]
+
+    Int hilen=(Int)(hi->lsd-hi->msd+1); // length of hi
+    Int lolen=(Int)(lo->lsd-lo->msd+1); // and of lo
+
+    if (hilen+padding-lolen > DECPMAX+2) {   // can reduce lo to single
+      // make sure it is virtually at least DECPMAX from hi->msd, at
+      // least to right of hi->lsd (in case of destructive subtract),
+      // and separated by at least two digits from either of those
+      // (the tricky DOUBLE case is when hi is a 1 that will become a
+      // 0.9999... by subtraction:
+      //   hi:   1                                   E+16
+      //   lo:    .................1000000000000000  E-16
+      // which for the addition pads to:
+      //   hi:   1000000000000000000                 E-16
+      //   lo:    .................1000000000000000  E-16
+      Int newexp=MINI(hi->exponent, hi->exponent+hilen-DECPMAX)-3;
+
+      // printf("FMA reduce: %ld\n", (LI)reduce);
+      lo->lsd=lo->msd;                       // to single digit [maybe 0]
+      lo->exponent=newexp;                   // new lowest exponent
+      padding=hi->exponent-lo->exponent;     // recalculate
+      ul=lo->lsd;                            // .. and repoint
+      }
+
+    // padding is still > 0, but will fit in acc (less leading carry slot)
+    #if DECCHECK
+      if (padding<=0) printf("FMA low padding: %ld\n", (LI)padding);
+      if (hilen+padding+1>FMALEN)
+        printf("FMA excess hilen+padding: %ld+%ld \n", (LI)hilen, (LI)padding);
+      // printf("FMA padding: %ld\n", (LI)padding);
+    #endif
+
+    // padding digits can now be set in the result; one or more of
+    // these will come from lo; others will be zeros in the gap
+    for (; ul-3>=lo->msd && padding>3; padding-=4, ul-=4, ub-=4) {
+      UBFROMUI(ub-3, UBTOUI(ul-3));          // [cannot overlap]
+      }
+    for (; ul>=lo->msd && padding>0; padding--, ul--, ub--) *ub=*ul;
+    for (;padding>0; padding--, ub--) *ub=0; // mind the gap
+    }
+
+  // addition now complete to the right of the rightmost digit of hi
+  uh=hi->lsd;
+
+  // dow do the add from hi->lsd to the left
+  // [bytewise, because either operand can run out at any time]
+  // carry was set up depending on ten's complement above
+  // first assume both operands have some digits
+  for (;; ub--) {
+    if (uh<hi->msd || ul<lo->msd) break;
+    *ub=(uByte)(carry+(*uh--)+(*ul--));
+    carry=0;
+    if (*ub<10) continue;
+    *ub-=10;
+    carry=1;
+    } // both loop
+
+  if (ul<lo->msd) {           // to left of lo
+    for (;; ub--) {
+      if (uh<hi->msd) break;
+      *ub=(uByte)(carry+(*uh--));  // [+0]
+      carry=0;
+      if (*ub<10) continue;
+      *ub-=10;
+      carry=1;
+      } // hi loop
+    }
+   else {                     // to left of hi
+    for (;; ub--) {
+      if (ul<lo->msd) break;
+      *ub=(uByte)(carry+hipad+(*ul--));
+      carry=0;
+      if (*ub<10) continue;
+      *ub-=10;
+      carry=1;
+      } // lo loop
+    }
+
+  // addition complete -- now handle carry, borrow, etc.
+  // use lo to set up the num (its exponent is already correct, and
+  // sign usually is)
+  lo->msd=ub+1;
+  lo->lsd=acc+FMALEN-1;
+  // decShowNum(lo, "lo");
+  if (!diffsign) {                 // same-sign addition
+    if (carry) {                   // carry out
+      *ub=1;                       // place the 1 ..
+      lo->msd--;                   // .. and update
+      }
+    } // same sign
+   else {                          // signs differed (subtraction)
+    if (!carry) {                  // no carry out means hi<lo
+      // borrowed -- take ten's complement of the right digits
+      lo->sign=hi->sign;           // sign is lhs sign
+      for (ul=lo->msd; ul<lo->lsd-3; ul+=4) UBFROMUI(ul, 0x09090909-UBTOUI(ul));
+      for (; ul<=lo->lsd; ul++) *ul=(uByte)(0x09-*ul); // [leaves ul at lsd+1]
+      // complete the ten's complement by adding 1 [cannot overrun]
+      for (ul--; *ul==9; ul--) *ul=0;
+      *ul+=1;
+      } // borrowed
+     else {                        // carry out means hi>=lo
+      // sign to use is lo->sign
+      // all done except for the special IEEE 754 exact-zero-result
+      // rule (see above); while testing for zero, strip leading
+      // zeros (which will save decFinalize doing it)
+      for (; UBTOUI(lo->msd)==0 && lo->msd+3<lo->lsd;) lo->msd+=4;
+      for (; *lo->msd==0 && lo->msd<lo->lsd;) lo->msd++;
+      if (*lo->msd==0) {           // must be true zero (and diffsign)
+        lo->sign=0;                // assume +
+        if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) lo->sign=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+        }
+      // [else was not zero, might still have leading zeros]
+      } // subtraction gave positive result
+    } // diffsign
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  // assert no left underrun
+  if (lo->msd<acc) {
+    printf("FMA underrun by %ld \n", (LI)(acc-lo->msd));
+    }
+  #endif
+
+  return decFinalize(result, lo, set);  // round, check, and lay out
+  } // decFloatFMA
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromInt -- initialise a decFloat from an Int               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the converted Int                                    */
+/*   n      is the Int to convert                                     */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The result is Exact; no errors or exceptions are possible.         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromInt32(decFloat *result, Int n) {
+  uInt u=(uInt)n;                       // copy as bits
+  uInt encode;                          // work
+  DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD;           // always
+  #if QUAD
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=0;
+    DFWORD(result, 2)=0;
+  #endif
+  if (n<0) {                            // handle -n with care
+    // [This can be done without the test, but is then slightly slower]
+    u=(~u)+1;
+    DFWORD(result, 0)|=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+    }
+  // Since the maximum value of u now is 2**31, only the low word of
+  // result is affected
+  encode=BIN2DPD[u%1000];
+  u/=1000;
+  encode|=BIN2DPD[u%1000]<<10;
+  u/=1000;
+  encode|=BIN2DPD[u%1000]<<20;
+  u/=1000;                              // now 0, 1, or 2
+  encode|=u<<30;
+  DFWORD(result, DECWORDS-1)=encode;
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatFromInt32
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatFromUInt -- initialise a decFloat from a uInt              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the converted uInt                                   */
+/*   n      is the uInt to convert                                    */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The result is Exact; no errors or exceptions are possible.         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatFromUInt32(decFloat *result, uInt u) {
+  uInt encode;                          // work
+  DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD;           // always
+  #if QUAD
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=0;
+    DFWORD(result, 2)=0;
+  #endif
+  encode=BIN2DPD[u%1000];
+  u/=1000;
+  encode|=BIN2DPD[u%1000]<<10;
+  u/=1000;
+  encode|=BIN2DPD[u%1000]<<20;
+  u/=1000;                              // now 0 -> 4
+  encode|=u<<30;
+  DFWORD(result, DECWORDS-1)=encode;
+  DFWORD(result, DECWORDS-2)|=u>>2;     // rarely non-zero
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatFromUInt32
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatInvert -- logical digitwise INVERT of a decFloat           */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of INVERTing df                           */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to invert                                 */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which will be canonical with sign=0              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The operand must be positive, finite with exponent q=0, and        */
+/* comprise just zeros and ones; if not, Invalid operation results.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatInvert(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                          decContext *set) {
+  uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);            // top word of dfs
+
+  if (!DFISUINT01(df) || !DFISCC01(df)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  // the operand is a finite integer (q=0)
+  #if DOUBLE
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD|((~sourhi)&0x04009124);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(~DFWORD(df, 1))   &0x49124491;
+  #elif QUAD
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD|((~sourhi)&0x04000912);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(~DFWORD(df, 1))   &0x44912449;
+   DFWORD(result, 2)=(~DFWORD(df, 2))   &0x12449124;
+   DFWORD(result, 3)=(~DFWORD(df, 3))   &0x49124491;
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatInvert
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatIs -- decFloat tests (IsSigned, etc.)                      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df is the decFloat to test                                       */
+/*   returns 0 or 1 in a uInt                                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Many of these could be macros, but having them as real functions   */
+/* is a little cleaner (and they can be referred to here by the       */
+/* generic names)                                                     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decFloatIsCanonical(const decFloat *df) {
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) {
+    if (DFISINF(df)) {
+      if (DFWORD(df, 0)&ECONMASK) return 0;  // exponent continuation
+      if (!DFISCCZERO(df)) return 0;         // coefficient continuation
+      return 1;
+      }
+    // is a NaN
+    if (DFWORD(df, 0)&ECONNANMASK) return 0; // exponent continuation
+    if (DFISCCZERO(df)) return 1;            // coefficient continuation
+    // drop through to check payload
+    }
+  { // declare block
+  #if DOUBLE
+    uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);
+    uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 1);
+    if (CANONDPDOFF(sourhi, 8)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourhi, sourlo, 30)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 20)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 10)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 0)) return 1;
+  #elif QUAD
+    uInt sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);
+    uInt sourmh=DFWORD(df, 1);
+    uInt sourml=DFWORD(df, 2);
+    uInt sourlo=DFWORD(df, 3);
+    if (CANONDPDOFF(sourhi, 4)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourhi, sourmh, 26)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourmh, 16)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourmh, 6)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourmh, sourml, 28)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourml, 18)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourml, 8)
+     && CANONDPDTWO(sourml, sourlo, 30)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 20)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 10)
+     && CANONDPDOFF(sourlo, 0)) return 1;
+  #endif
+  } // block
+  return 0;    // a declet is non-canonical
+  }
+
+uInt decFloatIsFinite(const decFloat *df) {
+  return !DFISSPECIAL(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsInfinite(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISINF(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsInteger(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISINT(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsLogical(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISUINT01(df) & DFISCC01(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsNaN(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISNAN(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsNegative(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISSIGNED(df) && !DFISZERO(df) && !DFISNAN(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsNormal(const decFloat *df) {
+  Int exp;                         // exponent
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) return 0;
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) return 0;
+  // is finite and non-zero
+  exp=GETEXPUN(df)                 // get unbiased exponent ..
+     +decFloatDigits(df)-1;        // .. and make adjusted exponent
+  return (exp>=DECEMIN);           // < DECEMIN is subnormal
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsPositive(const decFloat *df) {
+  return !DFISSIGNED(df) && !DFISZERO(df) && !DFISNAN(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsSignaling(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISSNAN(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsSignalling(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISSNAN(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsSigned(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISSIGNED(df);
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsSubnormal(const decFloat *df) {
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(df)) return 0;
+  // is finite
+  if (decFloatIsNormal(df)) return 0;
+  // it is <Nmin, but could be zero
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) return 0;
+  return 1;                                  // is subnormal
+  }
+uInt decFloatIsZero(const decFloat *df) {
+  return DFISZERO(df);
+  } // decFloatIs...
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatLogB -- return adjusted exponent, by 754 rules             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the adjusted exponent as an integer, or a NaN etc.   */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to be examined                            */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Notable cases:                                                     */
+/*   A<0 -> Use |A|                                                   */
+/*   A=0 -> -Infinity (Division by zero)                              */
+/*   A=Infinite -> +Infinity (Exact)                                  */
+/*   A=1 exactly -> 0 (Exact)                                         */
+/*   NaNs are propagated as usual                                     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatLogB(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                        decContext *set) {
+  Int ae;                                    // adjusted exponent
+  if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);
+  if (DFISINF(df)) {
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=0;                     // need +ve
+    return decInfinity(result, result);      // canonical +Infinity
+    }
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) {
+    set->status|=DEC_Division_by_zero;       // as per 754
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=DECFLOAT_Sign;         // make negative
+    return decInfinity(result, result);      // canonical -Infinity
+    }
+  ae=GETEXPUN(df)                       // get unbiased exponent ..
+    +decFloatDigits(df)-1;              // .. and make adjusted exponent
+  // ae has limited range (3 digits for DOUBLE and 4 for QUAD), so
+  // it is worth using a special case of decFloatFromInt32
+  DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD;           // always
+  if (ae<0) {
+    DFWORD(result, 0)|=DECFLOAT_Sign;   // -0 so far
+    ae=-ae;
+    }
+  #if DOUBLE
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=BIN2DPD[ae];      // a single declet
+  #elif QUAD
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=0;
+    DFWORD(result, 2)=0;
+    DFWORD(result, 3)=(ae/1000)<<10;    // is <10, so need no DPD encode
+    DFWORD(result, 3)|=BIN2DPD[ae%1000];
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatLogB
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMax -- return maxnum of two operands                       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the chosen decFloat                                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* If just one operand is a quiet NaN it is ignored.                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMax(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl)) {
+    // sNaN or both NaNs leads to normal NaN processing
+    if (DFISNAN(dfr) || DFISSNAN(dfl)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    return decCanonical(result, dfr);        // RHS is numeric
+    }
+  if (DFISNAN(dfr)) {
+    // sNaN leads to normal NaN processing (both NaN handled above)
+    if (DFISSNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    return decCanonical(result, dfl);        // LHS is numeric
+    }
+  // Both operands are numeric; numeric comparison needed -- use
+  // total order for a well-defined choice (and +0 > -0)
+  comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 1);
+  if (comp>=0) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  return decCanonical(result, dfr);
+  } // decFloatMax
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMaxMag -- return maxnummag of two operands                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the chosen decFloat                                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Returns according to the magnitude comparisons if both numeric and */
+/* unequal, otherwise returns maxnum                                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMaxMag(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;
+  decFloat absl, absr;
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decFloatMax(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+
+  decFloatCopyAbs(&absl, dfl);
+  decFloatCopyAbs(&absr, dfr);
+  comp=decNumCompare(&absl, &absr, 0);
+  if (comp>0) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  if (comp<0) return decCanonical(result, dfr);
+  return decFloatMax(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  } // decFloatMaxMag
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMin -- return minnum of two operands                       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the chosen decFloat                                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* If just one operand is a quiet NaN it is ignored.                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMin(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl)) {
+    // sNaN or both NaNs leads to normal NaN processing
+    if (DFISNAN(dfr) || DFISSNAN(dfl)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    return decCanonical(result, dfr);        // RHS is numeric
+    }
+  if (DFISNAN(dfr)) {
+    // sNaN leads to normal NaN processing (both NaN handled above)
+    if (DFISSNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    return decCanonical(result, dfl);        // LHS is numeric
+    }
+  // Both operands are numeric; numeric comparison needed -- use
+  // total order for a well-defined choice (and +0 > -0)
+  comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 1);
+  if (comp<=0) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  return decCanonical(result, dfr);
+  } // decFloatMin
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMinMag -- return minnummag of two operands                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the chosen decFloat                                  */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Returns according to the magnitude comparisons if both numeric and */
+/* unequal, otherwise returns minnum                                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMinMag(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  Int comp;
+  decFloat absl, absr;
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decFloatMin(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+
+  decFloatCopyAbs(&absl, dfl);
+  decFloatCopyAbs(&absr, dfr);
+  comp=decNumCompare(&absl, &absr, 0);
+  if (comp<0) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  if (comp>0) return decCanonical(result, dfr);
+  return decFloatMin(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  } // decFloatMinMag
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMinus -- negate value, heeding NaNs, etc.                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the canonicalized 0-df                               */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to minus                                  */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This has the same effect as 0-df where the exponent of the zero is */
+/* the same as that of df (if df is finite).                          */
+/* The effect is also the same as decFloatCopyNegate except that NaNs */
+/* are handled normally (the sign of a NaN is not affected, and an    */
+/* sNaN will signal), the result is canonical, and zero gets sign 0.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMinus(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                         decContext *set) {
+  if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);
+  decCanonical(result, df);                       // copy and check
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) DFBYTE(result, 0)&=~0x80;     // turn off sign bit
+   else DFBYTE(result, 0)^=0x80;                  // flip sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatMinus
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatMultiply -- multiply two decFloats                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of multiplying dfl and dfr:               */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatMultiply(decFloat *result,
+                            const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                            decContext *set) {
+  bcdnum num;                      // for final conversion
+  uByte  bcdacc[DECPMAX9*18+1];    // for coefficent in BCD
+
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(dfl) || DFISSPECIAL(dfr)) { // either is special?
+    // NaNs are handled as usual
+    if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    // infinity times zero is bad
+    if (DFISINF(dfl) && DFISZERO(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+    if (DFISINF(dfr) && DFISZERO(dfl)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+    // both infinite; return canonical infinity with computed sign
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=DFWORD(dfl, 0)^DFWORD(dfr, 0); // compute sign
+    return decInfinity(result, result);
+    }
+
+  /* Here when both operands are finite */
+  decFiniteMultiply(&num, bcdacc, dfl, dfr);
+  return decFinalize(result, &num, set); // round, check, and lay out
+  } // decFloatMultiply
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatNextMinus -- next towards -Infinity                        */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the next lesser decFloat                             */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to start with                             */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is 754 nextdown; Invalid is the only status possible (from    */
+/* an sNaN).                                                          */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatNextMinus(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl,
+                             decContext *set) {
+  decFloat delta;                       // tiny increment
+  uInt savestat;                        // saves status
+  enum rounding saveround;              // .. and mode
+
+  // +Infinity is the special case
+  if (DFISINF(dfl) && !DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {
+    DFSETNMAX(result);
+    return result;                      // [no status to set]
+    }
+  // other cases are effected by sutracting a tiny delta -- this
+  // should be done in a wider format as the delta is unrepresentable
+  // here (but can be done with normal add if the sign of zero is
+  // treated carefully, because no Inexactitude is interesting);
+  // rounding to -Infinity then pushes the result to next below
+  decFloatZero(&delta);                 // set up tiny delta
+  DFWORD(&delta, DECWORDS-1)=1;         // coefficient=1
+  DFWORD(&delta, 0)=DECFLOAT_Sign;      // Sign=1 + biased exponent=0
+  // set up for the directional round
+  saveround=set->round;                 // save mode
+  set->round=DEC_ROUND_FLOOR;           // .. round towards -Infinity
+  savestat=set->status;                 // save status
+  decFloatAdd(result, dfl, &delta, set);
+  // Add rules mess up the sign when going from +Ntiny to 0
+  if (DFISZERO(result)) DFWORD(result, 0)^=DECFLOAT_Sign; // correct
+  set->status&=DEC_Invalid_operation;   // preserve only sNaN status
+  set->status|=savestat;                // restore pending flags
+  set->round=saveround;                 // .. and mode
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatNextMinus
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatNextPlus -- next towards +Infinity                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the next larger decFloat                             */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to start with                             */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is 754 nextup; Invalid is the only status possible (from      */
+/* an sNaN).                                                          */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatNextPlus(decFloat *result, const decFloat *dfl,
+                            decContext *set) {
+  uInt savestat;                        // saves status
+  enum rounding saveround;              // .. and mode
+  decFloat delta;                       // tiny increment
+
+  // -Infinity is the special case
+  if (DFISINF(dfl) && DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {
+    DFSETNMAX(result);
+    DFWORD(result, 0)|=DECFLOAT_Sign;   // make negative
+    return result;                      // [no status to set]
+    }
+  // other cases are effected by sutracting a tiny delta -- this
+  // should be done in a wider format as the delta is unrepresentable
+  // here (but can be done with normal add if the sign of zero is
+  // treated carefully, because no Inexactitude is interesting);
+  // rounding to +Infinity then pushes the result to next above
+  decFloatZero(&delta);                 // set up tiny delta
+  DFWORD(&delta, DECWORDS-1)=1;         // coefficient=1
+  DFWORD(&delta, 0)=0;                  // Sign=0 + biased exponent=0
+  // set up for the directional round
+  saveround=set->round;                 // save mode
+  set->round=DEC_ROUND_CEILING;         // .. round towards +Infinity
+  savestat=set->status;                 // save status
+  decFloatAdd(result, dfl, &delta, set);
+  // Add rules mess up the sign when going from -Ntiny to -0
+  if (DFISZERO(result)) DFWORD(result, 0)^=DECFLOAT_Sign; // correct
+  set->status&=DEC_Invalid_operation;   // preserve only sNaN status
+  set->status|=savestat;                // restore pending flags
+  set->round=saveround;                 // .. and mode
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatNextPlus
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatNextToward -- next towards a decFloat                      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the next decFloat                                    */
+/*   dfl    is the decFloat to start with                             */
+/*   dfr    is the decFloat to move toward                            */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is 754-1985 nextafter, as modified during revision (dropped   */
+/* from 754-2008); status may be set unless the result is a normal    */
+/* number.                                                            */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatNextToward(decFloat *result,
+                              const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                              decContext *set) {
+  decFloat delta;                       // tiny increment or decrement
+  decFloat pointone;                    // 1e-1
+  uInt  savestat;                       // saves status
+  enum  rounding saveround;             // .. and mode
+  uInt  deltatop;                       // top word for delta
+  Int   comp;                           // work
+
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  // Both are numeric, so Invalid no longer a possibility
+  comp=decNumCompare(dfl, dfr, 0);
+  if (comp==0) return decFloatCopySign(result, dfl, dfr); // equal
+  // unequal; do NextPlus or NextMinus but with different status rules
+
+  if (comp<0) { // lhs<rhs, do NextPlus, see above for commentary
+    if (DFISINF(dfl) && DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {   // -Infinity special case
+      DFSETNMAX(result);
+      DFWORD(result, 0)|=DECFLOAT_Sign;
+      return result;
+      }
+    saveround=set->round;                    // save mode
+    set->round=DEC_ROUND_CEILING;            // .. round towards +Infinity
+    deltatop=0;                              // positive delta
+    }
+   else { // lhs>rhs, do NextMinus, see above for commentary
+    if (DFISINF(dfl) && !DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {  // +Infinity special case
+      DFSETNMAX(result);
+      return result;
+      }
+    saveround=set->round;                    // save mode
+    set->round=DEC_ROUND_FLOOR;              // .. round towards -Infinity
+    deltatop=DECFLOAT_Sign;                  // negative delta
+    }
+  savestat=set->status;                      // save status
+  // Here, Inexact is needed where appropriate (and hence Underflow,
+  // etc.).  Therefore the tiny delta which is otherwise
+  // unrepresentable (see NextPlus and NextMinus) is constructed
+  // using the multiplication of FMA.
+  decFloatZero(&delta);                 // set up tiny delta
+  DFWORD(&delta, DECWORDS-1)=1;         // coefficient=1
+  DFWORD(&delta, 0)=deltatop;           // Sign + biased exponent=0
+  decFloatFromString(&pointone, "1E-1", set); // set up multiplier
+  decFloatFMA(result, &delta, &pointone, dfl, set);
+  // [Delta is truly tiny, so no need to correct sign of zero]
+  // use new status unless the result is normal
+  if (decFloatIsNormal(result)) set->status=savestat; // else goes forward
+  set->round=saveround;                 // restore mode
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatNextToward
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatOr -- logical digitwise OR of two decFloats                */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of ORing dfl and dfr                      */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which will be canonical with sign=0              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The operands must be positive, finite with exponent q=0, and       */
+/* comprise just zeros and ones; if not, Invalid operation results.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatOr(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  if (!DFISUINT01(dfl) || !DFISUINT01(dfr)
+   || !DFISCC01(dfl)   || !DFISCC01(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  // the operands are positive finite integers (q=0) with just 0s and 1s
+  #if DOUBLE
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) | DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04009124);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) | DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x49124491;
+  #elif QUAD
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) | DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04000912);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) | DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x44912449;
+   DFWORD(result, 2)=(DFWORD(dfl, 2) | DFWORD(dfr, 2))&0x12449124;
+   DFWORD(result, 3)=(DFWORD(dfl, 3) | DFWORD(dfr, 3))&0x49124491;
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatOr
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatPlus -- add value to 0, heeding NaNs, etc.                 */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the canonicalized 0+df                               */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to plus                                   */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This has the same effect as 0+df where the exponent of the zero is */
+/* the same as that of df (if df is finite).                          */
+/* The effect is also the same as decFloatCopy except that NaNs       */
+/* are handled normally (the sign of a NaN is not affected, and an    */
+/* sNaN will signal), the result is canonical, and zero gets sign 0.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatPlus(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                        decContext *set) {
+  if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);
+  decCanonical(result, df);                       // copy and check
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) DFBYTE(result, 0)&=~0x80;     // turn off sign bit
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatPlus
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatQuantize -- quantize a decFloat                            */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of quantizing dfl to match dfr            */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs), which sets the exponent     */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Unless there is an error or the result is infinite, the exponent   */
+/* of result is guaranteed to be the same as that of dfr.             */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatQuantize(decFloat *result,
+                            const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                            decContext *set) {
+  Int   explb, exprb;         // left and right biased exponents
+  uByte *ulsd;                // local LSD pointer
+  uByte *ub, *uc;             // work
+  Int   drop;                 // ..
+  uInt  dpd;                  // ..
+  uInt  encode;               // encoding accumulator
+  uInt  sourhil, sourhir;     // top words from source decFloats
+  uInt  uiwork;               // for macros
+  #if QUAD
+  uShort uswork;              // ..
+  #endif
+  // the following buffer holds the coefficient for manipulation
+  uByte buf[4+DECPMAX*3+2*QUAD];   // + space for zeros to left or right
+  #if DECTRACE
+  bcdnum num;                      // for trace displays
+  #endif
+
+  /* Start decoding the arguments */
+  sourhil=DFWORD(dfl, 0);          // LHS top word
+  explb=DECCOMBEXP[sourhil>>26];   // get exponent high bits (in place)
+  sourhir=DFWORD(dfr, 0);          // RHS top word
+  exprb=DECCOMBEXP[sourhir>>26];
+
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(explb | exprb)) { // either is special?
+    // NaNs are handled as usual
+    if (DFISNAN(dfl) || DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+    // one infinity but not both is bad
+    if (DFISINF(dfl)!=DFISINF(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+    // both infinite; return canonical infinity with sign of LHS
+    return decInfinity(result, dfl);
+    }
+
+  /* Here when both arguments are finite */
+  // complete extraction of the exponents [no need to unbias]
+  explb+=GETECON(dfl);             // + continuation
+  exprb+=GETECON(dfr);             // ..
+
+  // calculate the number of digits to drop from the coefficient
+  drop=exprb-explb;                // 0 if nothing to do
+  if (drop==0) return decCanonical(result, dfl); // return canonical
+
+  // the coefficient is needed; lay it out into buf, offset so zeros
+  // can be added before or after as needed -- an extra heading is
+  // added so can safely pad Quad DECPMAX-1 zeros to the left by
+  // fours
+  #define BUFOFF (buf+4+DECPMAX)
+  GETCOEFF(dfl, BUFOFF);           // decode from decFloat
+  // [now the msd is at BUFOFF and the lsd is at BUFOFF+DECPMAX-1]
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  num.msd=BUFOFF;
+  num.lsd=BUFOFF+DECPMAX-1;
+  num.exponent=explb-DECBIAS;
+  num.sign=sourhil & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  decShowNum(&num, "dfl");
+  #endif
+
+  if (drop>0) {                         // [most common case]
+    // (this code is very similar to that in decFloatFinalize, but
+    // has many differences so is duplicated here -- so any changes
+    // may need to be made there, too)
+    uByte *roundat;                          // -> re-round digit
+    uByte reround;                           // reround value
+    // printf("Rounding; drop=%ld\n", (LI)drop);
+
+    // there is at least one zero needed to the left, in all but one
+    // exceptional (all-nines) case, so place four zeros now; this is
+    // needed almost always and makes rounding all-nines by fours safe
+    UBFROMUI(BUFOFF-4, 0);
+
+    // Three cases here:
+    //   1. new LSD is in coefficient (almost always)
+    //   2. new LSD is digit to left of coefficient (so MSD is
+    //      round-for-reround digit)
+    //   3. new LSD is to left of case 2 (whole coefficient is sticky)
+    // Note that leading zeros can safely be treated as useful digits
+
+    // [duplicate check-stickies code to save a test]
+    // [by-digit check for stickies as runs of zeros are rare]
+    if (drop<DECPMAX) {                      // NB lengths not addresses
+      roundat=BUFOFF+DECPMAX-drop;
+      reround=*roundat;
+      for (ub=roundat+1; ub<BUFOFF+DECPMAX; ub++) {
+        if (*ub!=0) {                        // non-zero to be discarded
+          reround=DECSTICKYTAB[reround];     // apply sticky bit
+          break;                             // [remainder don't-care]
+          }
+        } // check stickies
+      ulsd=roundat-1;                        // set LSD
+      }
+     else {                                  // edge case
+      if (drop==DECPMAX) {
+        roundat=BUFOFF;
+        reround=*roundat;
+        }
+       else {
+        roundat=BUFOFF-1;
+        reround=0;
+        }
+      for (ub=roundat+1; ub<BUFOFF+DECPMAX; ub++) {
+        if (*ub!=0) {                        // non-zero to be discarded
+          reround=DECSTICKYTAB[reround];     // apply sticky bit
+          break;                             // [remainder don't-care]
+          }
+        } // check stickies
+      *BUFOFF=0;                             // make a coefficient of 0
+      ulsd=BUFOFF;                           // .. at the MSD place
+      }
+
+    if (reround!=0) {                        // discarding non-zero
+      uInt bump=0;
+      set->status|=DEC_Inexact;
+
+      // next decide whether to increment the coefficient
+      if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN) { // fastpath slowest case
+        if (reround>5) bump=1;               // >0.5 goes up
+         else if (reround==5)                // exactly 0.5000 ..
+          bump=*ulsd & 0x01;                 // .. up iff [new] lsd is odd
+        } // r-h-e
+       else switch (set->round) {
+        case DEC_ROUND_DOWN: {
+          // no change
+          break;} // r-d
+        case DEC_ROUND_HALF_DOWN: {
+          if (reround>5) bump=1;
+          break;} // r-h-d
+        case DEC_ROUND_HALF_UP: {
+          if (reround>=5) bump=1;
+          break;} // r-h-u
+        case DEC_ROUND_UP: {
+          if (reround>0) bump=1;
+          break;} // r-u
+        case DEC_ROUND_CEILING: {
+          // same as _UP for positive numbers, and as _DOWN for negatives
+          if (!(sourhil&DECFLOAT_Sign) && reround>0) bump=1;
+          break;} // r-c
+        case DEC_ROUND_FLOOR: {
+          // same as _UP for negative numbers, and as _DOWN for positive
+          // [negative reround cannot occur on 0]
+          if (sourhil&DECFLOAT_Sign && reround>0) bump=1;
+          break;} // r-f
+        case DEC_ROUND_05UP: {
+          if (reround>0) { // anything out there is 'sticky'
+            // bump iff lsd=0 or 5; this cannot carry so it could be
+            // effected immediately with no bump -- but the code
+            // is clearer if this is done the same way as the others
+            if (*ulsd==0 || *ulsd==5) bump=1;
+            }
+          break;} // r-r
+        default: {      // e.g., DEC_ROUND_MAX
+          set->status|=DEC_Invalid_context;
+          #if DECCHECK
+          printf("Unknown rounding mode: %ld\n", (LI)set->round);
+          #endif
+          break;}
+        } // switch (not r-h-e)
+      // printf("ReRound: %ld  bump: %ld\n", (LI)reround, (LI)bump);
+
+      if (bump!=0) {                         // need increment
+        // increment the coefficient; this could give 1000... (after
+        // the all nines case)
+        ub=ulsd;
+        for (; UBTOUI(ub-3)==0x09090909; ub-=4) UBFROMUI(ub-3, 0);
+        // now at most 3 digits left to non-9 (usually just the one)
+        for (; *ub==9; ub--) *ub=0;
+        *ub+=1;
+        // [the all-nines case will have carried one digit to the
+        // left of the original MSD -- just where it is needed]
+        } // bump needed
+      } // inexact rounding
+
+    // now clear zeros to the left so exactly DECPMAX digits will be
+    // available in the coefficent -- the first word to the left was
+    // cleared earlier for safe carry; now add any more needed
+    if (drop>4) {
+      UBFROMUI(BUFOFF-8, 0);                 // must be at least 5
+      for (uc=BUFOFF-12; uc>ulsd-DECPMAX-3; uc-=4) UBFROMUI(uc, 0);
+      }
+    } // need round (drop>0)
+
+   else { // drop<0; padding with -drop digits is needed
+    // This is the case where an error can occur if the padded
+    // coefficient will not fit; checking for this can be done in the
+    // same loop as padding for zeros if the no-hope and zero cases
+    // are checked first
+    if (-drop>DECPMAX-1) {                   // cannot fit unless 0
+      if (!ISCOEFFZERO(BUFOFF)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+      // a zero can have any exponent; just drop through and use it
+      ulsd=BUFOFF+DECPMAX-1;
+      }
+     else { // padding will fit (but may still be too long)
+      // final-word mask depends on endianess
+      #if DECLITEND
+      static const uInt dmask[]={0, 0x000000ff, 0x0000ffff, 0x00ffffff};
+      #else
+      static const uInt dmask[]={0, 0xff000000, 0xffff0000, 0xffffff00};
+      #endif
+      // note that here zeros to the right are added by fours, so in
+      // the Quad case this could write 36 zeros if the coefficient has
+      // fewer than three significant digits (hence the +2*QUAD for buf)
+      for (uc=BUFOFF+DECPMAX;; uc+=4) {
+        UBFROMUI(uc, 0);
+        if (UBTOUI(uc-DECPMAX)!=0) {              // could be bad
+          // if all four digits should be zero, definitely bad
+          if (uc<=BUFOFF+DECPMAX+(-drop)-4)
+            return decInvalid(result, set);
+          // must be a 1- to 3-digit sequence; check more carefully
+          if ((UBTOUI(uc-DECPMAX)&dmask[(-drop)%4])!=0)
+            return decInvalid(result, set);
+          break;    // no need for loop end test
+          }
+        if (uc>=BUFOFF+DECPMAX+(-drop)-4) break;  // done
+        }
+      ulsd=BUFOFF+DECPMAX+(-drop)-1;
+      } // pad and check leading zeros
+    } // drop<0
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  num.msd=ulsd-DECPMAX+1;
+  num.lsd=ulsd;
+  num.exponent=explb-DECBIAS;
+  num.sign=sourhil & DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  decShowNum(&num, "res");
+  #endif
+
+  /*------------------------------------------------------------------*/
+  /* At this point the result is DECPMAX digits, ending at ulsd, so   */
+  /* fits the encoding exactly; there is no possibility of error      */
+  /*------------------------------------------------------------------*/
+  encode=((exprb>>DECECONL)<<4) + *(ulsd-DECPMAX+1); // make index
+  encode=DECCOMBFROM[encode];                // indexed by (0-2)*16+msd
+  // the exponent continuation can be extracted from the original RHS
+  encode|=sourhir & ECONMASK;
+  encode|=sourhil&DECFLOAT_Sign;             // add the sign from LHS
+
+  // finally encode the coefficient
+  // private macro to encode a declet; this version can be used
+  // because all coefficient digits exist
+  #define getDPD3q(dpd, n) ub=ulsd-(3*(n))-2;                   \
+    dpd=BCD2DPD[(*ub*256)+(*(ub+1)*16)+*(ub+2)];
+
+  #if DOUBLE
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=encode;
+
+  #elif QUAD
+    getDPD3q(dpd,10); encode|=dpd<<4;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 9); encode|=dpd>>6;
+    DFWORD(result, 0)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<26;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 8); encode|=dpd<<16;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 7); encode|=dpd<<6;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 6); encode|=dpd>>4;
+    DFWORD(result, 1)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<28;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 5); encode|=dpd<<18;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 4); encode|=dpd<<8;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 3); encode|=dpd>>2;
+    DFWORD(result, 2)=encode;
+    encode=dpd<<30;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 2); encode|=dpd<<20;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 1); encode|=dpd<<10;
+    getDPD3q(dpd, 0); encode|=dpd;
+    DFWORD(result, 3)=encode;
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatQuantize
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatReduce -- reduce finite coefficient to minimum length      */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the reduced decFloat                                 */
+/*   df     is the source decFloat                                    */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which will be canonical                          */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This removes all possible trailing zeros from the coefficient;     */
+/* some may remain when the number is very close to Nmax.             */
+/* Special values are unchanged and no status is set unless df=sNaN.  */
+/* Reduced zero has an exponent q=0.                                  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatReduce(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                          decContext *set) {
+  bcdnum num;                           // work
+  uByte buf[DECPMAX], *ub;              // coefficient and pointer
+  if (df!=result) *result=*df;          // copy, if needed
+  if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);   // sNaN
+  // zeros and infinites propagate too
+  if (DFISINF(df)) return decInfinity(result, df);     // canonical
+  if (DFISZERO(df)) {
+    uInt sign=DFWORD(df, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+    decFloatZero(result);
+    DFWORD(result, 0)|=sign;
+    return result;                      // exponent dropped, sign OK
+    }
+  // non-zero finite
+  GETCOEFF(df, buf);
+  ub=buf+DECPMAX-1;                     // -> lsd
+  if (*ub) return result;               // no trailing zeros
+  for (ub--; *ub==0;) ub--;             // terminates because non-zero
+  // *ub is the first non-zero from the right
+  num.sign=DFWORD(df, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign; // set up number...
+  num.exponent=GETEXPUN(df)+(Int)(buf+DECPMAX-1-ub); // adjusted exponent
+  num.msd=buf;
+  num.lsd=ub;
+  return decFinalize(result, &num, set);
+  } // decFloatReduce
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatRemainder -- integer divide and return remainder           */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the remainder of dividing dfl by dfr:                */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatRemainder(decFloat *result,
+                             const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                             decContext *set) {
+  return decDivide(result, dfl, dfr, set, REMAINDER);
+  } // decFloatRemainder
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatRemainderNear -- integer divide to nearest and remainder   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the remainder of dividing dfl by dfr:                */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This is the IEEE remainder, where the nearest integer is used.     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatRemainderNear(decFloat *result,
+                             const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                             decContext *set) {
+  return decDivide(result, dfl, dfr, set, REMNEAR);
+  } // decFloatRemainderNear
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatRotate -- rotate the coefficient of a decFloat left/right  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of rotating dfl                           */
+/*   dfl    is the source decFloat to rotate                          */
+/*   dfr    is the count of digits to rotate, an integer (with q=0)   */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The digits of the coefficient of dfl are rotated to the left (if   */
+/* dfr is positive) or to the right (if dfr is negative) without      */
+/* adjusting the exponent or the sign of dfl.                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* dfr must be in the range -DECPMAX through +DECPMAX.                */
+/* NaNs are propagated as usual.  An infinite dfl is unaffected (but  */
+/* dfr must be valid).  No status is set unless dfr is invalid or an  */
+/* operand is an sNaN.  The result is canonical.                      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#define PHALF (ROUNDUP(DECPMAX/2, 4))   // half length, rounded up
+decFloat * decFloatRotate(decFloat *result,
+                         const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                         decContext *set) {
+  Int rotate;                           // dfr as an Int
+  uByte buf[DECPMAX+PHALF];             // coefficient + half
+  uInt digits, savestat;                // work
+  bcdnum num;                           // ..
+  uByte *ub;                            // ..
+
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl)||DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  if (!DFISINT(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  digits=decFloatDigits(dfr);                    // calculate digits
+  if (digits>2) return decInvalid(result, set);  // definitely out of range
+  rotate=DPD2BIN[DFWORD(dfr, DECWORDS-1)&0x3ff]; // is in bottom declet
+  if (rotate>DECPMAX) return decInvalid(result, set); // too big
+  // [from here on no error or status change is possible]
+  if (DFISINF(dfl)) return decInfinity(result, dfl);  // canonical
+  // handle no-rotate cases
+  if (rotate==0 || rotate==DECPMAX) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  // a real rotate is needed: 0 < rotate < DECPMAX
+  // reduce the rotation to no more than half to reduce copying later
+  // (for QUAD in fact half + 2 digits)
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) rotate=-rotate;
+  if (abs(rotate)>PHALF) {
+    if (rotate<0) rotate=DECPMAX+rotate;
+     else rotate=rotate-DECPMAX;
+    }
+  // now lay out the coefficient, leaving room to the right or the
+  // left depending on the direction of rotation
+  ub=buf;
+  if (rotate<0) ub+=PHALF;    // rotate right, so space to left
+  GETCOEFF(dfl, ub);
+  // copy half the digits to left or right, and set num.msd
+  if (rotate<0) {
+    memcpy(buf, buf+DECPMAX, PHALF);
+    num.msd=buf+PHALF+rotate;
+    }
+   else {
+    memcpy(buf+DECPMAX, buf, PHALF);
+    num.msd=buf+rotate;
+    }
+  // fill in rest of num
+  num.lsd=num.msd+DECPMAX-1;
+  num.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  num.exponent=GETEXPUN(dfl);
+  savestat=set->status;                 // record
+  decFinalize(result, &num, set);
+  set->status=savestat;                 // restore
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatRotate
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatSameQuantum -- test decFloats for same quantum             */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   returns 1 if the operands have the same quantum, 0 otherwise     */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible and no status results.                        */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decFloatSameQuantum(const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr) {
+  if (DFISSPECIAL(dfl) || DFISSPECIAL(dfr)) {
+    if (DFISNAN(dfl) && DFISNAN(dfr)) return 1;
+    if (DFISINF(dfl) && DFISINF(dfr)) return 1;
+    return 0;  // any other special mixture gives false
+    }
+  if (GETEXP(dfl)==GETEXP(dfr)) return 1; // biased exponents match
+  return 0;
+  } // decFloatSameQuantum
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatScaleB -- multiply by a power of 10, as per 754            */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of the operation                          */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs), am integer (with q=0)       */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* This computes result=dfl x 10**dfr where dfr is an integer in the  */
+/* range +/-2*(emax+pmax), typically resulting from LogB.             */
+/* Underflow and Overflow (with Inexact) may occur.  NaNs propagate   */
+/* as usual.                                                          */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#define SCALEBMAX 2*(DECEMAX+DECPMAX)   // D=800, Q=12356
+decFloat * decFloatScaleB(decFloat *result,
+                          const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                          decContext *set) {
+  uInt digits;                          // work
+  Int  expr;                            // dfr as an Int
+
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl)||DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  if (!DFISINT(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  digits=decFloatDigits(dfr);                // calculate digits
+
+  #if DOUBLE
+  if (digits>3) return decInvalid(result, set);   // definitely out of range
+  expr=DPD2BIN[DFWORD(dfr, 1)&0x3ff];             // must be in bottom declet
+  #elif QUAD
+  if (digits>5) return decInvalid(result, set);   // definitely out of range
+  expr=DPD2BIN[DFWORD(dfr, 3)&0x3ff]              // in bottom 2 declets ..
+      +DPD2BIN[(DFWORD(dfr, 3)>>10)&0x3ff]*1000;  // ..
+  #endif
+  if (expr>SCALEBMAX) return decInvalid(result, set);  // oops
+  // [from now on no error possible]
+  if (DFISINF(dfl)) return decInfinity(result, dfl);   // canonical
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) expr=-expr;
+  // dfl is finite and expr is valid
+  *result=*dfl;                              // copy to target
+  return decFloatSetExponent(result, set, GETEXPUN(result)+expr);
+  } // decFloatScaleB
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatShift -- shift the coefficient of a decFloat left or right */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of shifting dfl                           */
+/*   dfl    is the source decFloat to shift                           */
+/*   dfr    is the count of digits to shift, an integer (with q=0)    */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The digits of the coefficient of dfl are shifted to the left (if   */
+/* dfr is positive) or to the right (if dfr is negative) without      */
+/* adjusting the exponent or the sign of dfl.                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* dfr must be in the range -DECPMAX through +DECPMAX.                */
+/* NaNs are propagated as usual.  An infinite dfl is unaffected (but  */
+/* dfr must be valid).  No status is set unless dfr is invalid or an  */
+/* operand is an sNaN.  The result is canonical.                      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatShift(decFloat *result,
+                         const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                         decContext *set) {
+  Int    shift;                         // dfr as an Int
+  uByte  buf[DECPMAX*2];                // coefficient + padding
+  uInt   digits, savestat;              // work
+  bcdnum num;                           // ..
+  uInt   uiwork;                        // for macros
+
+  if (DFISNAN(dfl)||DFISNAN(dfr)) return decNaNs(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  if (!DFISINT(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  digits=decFloatDigits(dfr);                     // calculate digits
+  if (digits>2) return decInvalid(result, set);   // definitely out of range
+  shift=DPD2BIN[DFWORD(dfr, DECWORDS-1)&0x3ff];   // is in bottom declet
+  if (shift>DECPMAX) return decInvalid(result, set);   // too big
+  // [from here on no error or status change is possible]
+
+  if (DFISINF(dfl)) return decInfinity(result, dfl); // canonical
+  // handle no-shift and all-shift (clear to zero) cases
+  if (shift==0) return decCanonical(result, dfl);
+  if (shift==DECPMAX) {                      // zero with sign
+    uByte sign=(uByte)(DFBYTE(dfl, 0)&0x80); // save sign bit
+    decFloatZero(result);                    // make +0
+    DFBYTE(result, 0)=(uByte)(DFBYTE(result, 0)|sign); // and set sign
+    // [cannot safely use CopySign]
+    return result;
+    }
+  // a real shift is needed: 0 < shift < DECPMAX
+  num.sign=DFWORD(dfl, 0)&DECFLOAT_Sign;
+  num.exponent=GETEXPUN(dfl);
+  num.msd=buf;
+  GETCOEFF(dfl, buf);
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) { // shift right
+    // edge cases are taken care of, so this is easy
+    num.lsd=buf+DECPMAX-shift-1;
+    }
+   else { // shift left -- zero padding needed to right
+    UBFROMUI(buf+DECPMAX, 0);           // 8 will handle most cases
+    UBFROMUI(buf+DECPMAX+4, 0);         // ..
+    if (shift>8) memset(buf+DECPMAX+8, 0, 8+QUAD*18); // all other cases
+    num.msd+=shift;
+    num.lsd=num.msd+DECPMAX-1;
+    }
+  savestat=set->status;                 // record
+  decFinalize(result, &num, set);
+  set->status=savestat;                 // restore
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatShift
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatSubtract -- subtract a decFloat from another               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of subtracting dfr from dfl:              */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatSubtract(decFloat *result,
+                            const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                            decContext *set) {
+  decFloat temp;
+  // NaNs must propagate without sign change
+  if (DFISNAN(dfr)) return decFloatAdd(result, dfl, dfr, set);
+  temp=*dfr;                                   // make a copy
+  DFBYTE(&temp, 0)^=0x80;                      // flip sign
+  return decFloatAdd(result, dfl, &temp, set); // and add to the lhs
+  } // decFloatSubtract
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToInt -- round to 32-bit binary integer (4 flavours)       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df    is the decFloat to round                                   */
+/*   set   is the context                                             */
+/*   round is the rounding mode to use                                */
+/*   returns a uInt or an Int, rounded according to the name          */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Invalid will always be signaled if df is a NaN, is Infinite, or is */
+/* outside the range of the target; Inexact will not be signaled for  */
+/* simple rounding unless 'Exact' appears in the name.                */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decFloatToUInt32(const decFloat *df, decContext *set,
+                      enum rounding round) {
+  return decToInt32(df, set, round, 0, 1);}
+
+uInt decFloatToUInt32Exact(const decFloat *df, decContext *set,
+                           enum rounding round) {
+  return decToInt32(df, set, round, 1, 1);}
+
+Int decFloatToInt32(const decFloat *df, decContext *set,
+                    enum rounding round) {
+  return (Int)decToInt32(df, set, round, 0, 0);}
+
+Int decFloatToInt32Exact(const decFloat *df, decContext *set,
+                         enum rounding round) {
+  return (Int)decToInt32(df, set, round, 1, 0);}
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatToIntegral -- round to integral value (two flavours)       */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result                                           */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to round                                  */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   round  is the rounding mode to use                               */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No exceptions, even Inexact, are raised except for sNaN input, or  */
+/* if 'Exact' appears in the name.                                    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatToIntegralValue(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                                   decContext *set, enum rounding round) {
+  return decToIntegral(result, df, set, round, 0);}
+
+decFloat * decFloatToIntegralExact(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                                   decContext *set) {
+  return decToIntegral(result, df, set, set->round, 1);}
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFloatXor -- logical digitwise XOR of two decFloats              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of XORing dfl and dfr                     */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs)                              */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result, which will be canonical with sign=0              */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* The operands must be positive, finite with exponent q=0, and       */
+/* comprise just zeros and ones; if not, Invalid operation results.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decFloat * decFloatXor(decFloat *result,
+                       const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                       decContext *set) {
+  if (!DFISUINT01(dfl) || !DFISUINT01(dfr)
+   || !DFISCC01(dfl)   || !DFISCC01(dfr)) return decInvalid(result, set);
+  // the operands are positive finite integers (q=0) with just 0s and 1s
+  #if DOUBLE
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04009124);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x49124491;
+  #elif QUAD
+   DFWORD(result, 0)=ZEROWORD
+                   |((DFWORD(dfl, 0) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 0))&0x04000912);
+   DFWORD(result, 1)=(DFWORD(dfl, 1) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 1))&0x44912449;
+   DFWORD(result, 2)=(DFWORD(dfl, 2) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 2))&0x12449124;
+   DFWORD(result, 3)=(DFWORD(dfl, 3) ^ DFWORD(dfr, 3))&0x49124491;
+  #endif
+  return result;
+  } // decFloatXor
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decInvalid -- set Invalid_operation result                         */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets a canonical NaN                                      */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* status has Invalid_operation added                                 */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decFloat *decInvalid(decFloat *result, decContext *set) {
+  decFloatZero(result);
+  DFWORD(result, 0)=DECFLOAT_qNaN;
+  set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+  return result;
+  } // decInvalid
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decInfinity -- set canonical Infinity with sign from a decFloat    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets a canonical Infinity                                 */
+/*   df     is source decFloat (only the sign is used)                */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* df may be the same as result                                       */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decFloat *decInfinity(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df) {
+  uInt sign=DFWORD(df, 0);         // save source signword
+  decFloatZero(result);            // clear everything
+  DFWORD(result, 0)=DECFLOAT_Inf | (sign & DECFLOAT_Sign);
+  return result;
+  } // decInfinity
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNaNs -- handle NaN argument(s)                                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result of handling dfl and dfr, one or both of   */
+/*          which is a NaN                                            */
+/*   dfl    is the first decFloat (lhs)                               */
+/*   dfr    is the second decFloat (rhs) -- may be NULL for a single- */
+/*          operand operation                                         */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Called when one or both operands is a NaN, and propagates the      */
+/* appropriate result to res.  When an sNaN is found, it is changed   */
+/* to a qNaN and Invalid operation is set.                            */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decFloat *decNaNs(decFloat *result,
+                         const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr,
+                         decContext *set) {
+  // handle sNaNs first
+  if (dfr!=NULL && DFISSNAN(dfr) && !DFISSNAN(dfl)) dfl=dfr; // use RHS
+  if (DFISSNAN(dfl)) {
+    decCanonical(result, dfl);          // propagate canonical sNaN
+    DFWORD(result, 0)&=~(DECFLOAT_qNaN ^ DECFLOAT_sNaN); // quiet
+    set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+    return result;
+    }
+  // one or both is a quiet NaN
+  if (!DFISNAN(dfl)) dfl=dfr;           // RHS must be NaN, use it
+  return decCanonical(result, dfl);     // propagate canonical qNaN
+  } // decNaNs
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumCompare -- numeric comparison of two decFloats               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   dfl    is the left-hand decFloat, which is not a NaN             */
+/*   dfr    is the right-hand decFloat, which is not a NaN            */
+/*   tot    is 1 for total order compare, 0 for simple numeric        */
+/*   returns -1, 0, or +1 for dfl<dfr, dfl=dfr, dfl>dfr               */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* No error is possible; status and mode are unchanged.               */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decNumCompare(const decFloat *dfl, const decFloat *dfr, Flag tot) {
+  Int   sigl, sigr;                     // LHS and RHS non-0 signums
+  Int   shift;                          // shift needed to align operands
+  uByte *ub, *uc;                       // work
+  uInt  uiwork;                         // for macros
+  // buffers +2 if Quad (36 digits), need double plus 4 for safe padding
+  uByte bufl[DECPMAX*2+QUAD*2+4];       // for LHS coefficient + padding
+  uByte bufr[DECPMAX*2+QUAD*2+4];       // for RHS coefficient + padding
+
+  sigl=1;
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {
+    if (!DFISSIGNED(dfr)) {             // -LHS +RHS
+      if (DFISZERO(dfl) && DFISZERO(dfr) && !tot) return 0;
+      return -1;                        // RHS wins
+      }
+    sigl=-1;
+    }
+  if (DFISSIGNED(dfr)) {
+    if (!DFISSIGNED(dfl)) {             // +LHS -RHS
+      if (DFISZERO(dfl) && DFISZERO(dfr) && !tot) return 0;
+      return +1;                        // LHS wins
+      }
+    }
+
+  // signs are the same; operand(s) could be zero
+  sigr=-sigl;                           // sign to return if abs(RHS) wins
+
+  if (DFISINF(dfl)) {
+    if (DFISINF(dfr)) return 0;         // both infinite & same sign
+    return sigl;                        // inf > n
+    }
+  if (DFISINF(dfr)) return sigr;        // n < inf [dfl is finite]
+
+  // here, both are same sign and finite; calculate their offset
+  shift=GETEXP(dfl)-GETEXP(dfr);        // [0 means aligned]
+  // [bias can be ignored -- the absolute exponent is not relevant]
+
+  if (DFISZERO(dfl)) {
+    if (!DFISZERO(dfr)) return sigr;    // LHS=0, RHS!=0
+    // both are zero, return 0 if both same exponent or numeric compare
+    if (shift==0 || !tot) return 0;
+    if (shift>0) return sigl;
+    return sigr;                        // [shift<0]
+    }
+   else {                               // LHS!=0
+    if (DFISZERO(dfr)) return sigl;     // LHS!=0, RHS=0
+    }
+  // both are known to be non-zero at this point
+
+  // if the exponents are so different that the coefficients do not
+  // overlap (by even one digit) then a full comparison is not needed
+  if (abs(shift)>=DECPMAX) {            // no overlap
+    // coefficients are known to be non-zero
+    if (shift>0) return sigl;
+    return sigr;                        // [shift<0]
+    }
+
+  // decode the coefficients
+  // (shift both right two if Quad to make a multiple of four)
+  #if QUAD
+    UBFROMUI(bufl, 0);
+    UBFROMUI(bufr, 0);
+  #endif
+  GETCOEFF(dfl, bufl+QUAD*2);           // decode from decFloat
+  GETCOEFF(dfr, bufr+QUAD*2);           // ..
+  if (shift==0) {                       // aligned; common and easy
+    // all multiples of four, here
+    for (ub=bufl, uc=bufr; ub<bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2; ub+=4, uc+=4) {
+      uInt ui=UBTOUI(ub);
+      if (ui==UBTOUI(uc)) continue;     // so far so same
+      // about to find a winner; go by bytes in case little-endian
+      for (;; ub++, uc++) {
+        if (*ub>*uc) return sigl;       // difference found
+        if (*ub<*uc) return sigr;       // ..
+        }
+      }
+    } // aligned
+   else if (shift>0) {                  // lhs to left
+    ub=bufl;                            // RHS pointer
+    // pad bufl so right-aligned; most shifts will fit in 8
+    UBFROMUI(bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2, 0);   // add eight zeros
+    UBFROMUI(bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2+4, 0); // ..
+    if (shift>8) {
+      // more than eight; fill the rest, and also worth doing the
+      // lead-in by fours
+      uByte *up;                        // work
+      uByte *upend=bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2+shift;
+      for (up=bufl+DECPMAX+QUAD*2+8; up<upend; up+=4) UBFROMUI(up, 0);
+      // [pads up to 36 in all for Quad]
+      for (;; ub+=4) {
+        if (UBTOUI(ub)!=0) return sigl;
+        if (ub+4>bufl+shift-4) break;
+        }
+      }
+    // check remaining leading digits
+    for (; ub<bufl+shift; ub++) if (*ub!=0) return sigl;
+    // now start the overlapped part; bufl has been padded, so the
+    // comparison can go for the full length of bufr, which is a
+    // multiple of 4 bytes
+    for (uc=bufr; ; uc+=4, ub+=4) {
+      uInt ui=UBTOUI(ub);
+      if (ui!=UBTOUI(uc)) {             // mismatch found
+        for (;; uc++, ub++) {           // check from left [little-endian?]
+          if (*ub>*uc) return sigl;     // difference found
+          if (*ub<*uc) return sigr;     // ..
+          }
+        } // mismatch
+      if (uc==bufr+QUAD*2+DECPMAX-4) break; // all checked
+      }
+    } // shift>0
+
+   else { // shift<0) .. RHS is to left of LHS; mirror shift>0
+    uc=bufr;                            // RHS pointer
+    // pad bufr so right-aligned; most shifts will fit in 8
+    UBFROMUI(bufr+DECPMAX+QUAD*2, 0);   // add eight zeros
+    UBFROMUI(bufr+DECPMAX+QUAD*2+4, 0); // ..
+    if (shift<-8) {
+      // more than eight; fill the rest, and also worth doing the
+      // lead-in by fours
+      uByte *up;                        // work
+      uByte *upend=bufr+DECPMAX+QUAD*2-shift;
+      for (up=bufr+DECPMAX+QUAD*2+8; up<upend; up+=4) UBFROMUI(up, 0);
+      // [pads up to 36 in all for Quad]
+      for (;; uc+=4) {
+        if (UBTOUI(uc)!=0) return sigr;
+        if (uc+4>bufr-shift-4) break;
+        }
+      }
+    // check remaining leading digits
+    for (; uc<bufr-shift; uc++) if (*uc!=0) return sigr;
+    // now start the overlapped part; bufr has been padded, so the
+    // comparison can go for the full length of bufl, which is a
+    // multiple of 4 bytes
+    for (ub=bufl; ; ub+=4, uc+=4) {
+      uInt ui=UBTOUI(ub);
+      if (ui!=UBTOUI(uc)) {             // mismatch found
+        for (;; ub++, uc++) {           // check from left [little-endian?]
+          if (*ub>*uc) return sigl;     // difference found
+          if (*ub<*uc) return sigr;     // ..
+          }
+        } // mismatch
+      if (ub==bufl+QUAD*2+DECPMAX-4) break; // all checked
+      }
+    } // shift<0
+
+  // Here when compare equal
+  if (!tot) return 0;                   // numerically equal
+  // total ordering .. exponent matters
+  if (shift>0) return sigl;             // total order by exponent
+  if (shift<0) return sigr;             // ..
+  return 0;
+  } // decNumCompare
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decToInt32 -- local routine to effect ToInteger conversions        */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to convert                                */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   rmode  is the rounding mode to use                               */
+/*   exact  is 1 if Inexact should be signalled                       */
+/*   unsign is 1 if the result a uInt, 0 if an Int (cast to uInt)     */
+/*   returns 32-bit result as a uInt                                  */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Invalid is set is df is a NaN, is infinite, or is out-of-range; in */
+/* these cases 0 is returned.                                         */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static uInt decToInt32(const decFloat *df, decContext *set,
+                       enum rounding rmode, Flag exact, Flag unsign) {
+  Int  exp;                        // exponent
+  uInt sourhi, sourpen, sourlo;    // top word from source decFloat ..
+  uInt hi, lo;                     // .. penultimate, least, etc.
+  decFloat zero, result;           // work
+  Int  i;                          // ..
+
+  /* Start decoding the argument */
+  sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);                 // top word
+  exp=DECCOMBEXP[sourhi>>26];           // get exponent high bits (in place)
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) {              // is special?
+    set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation; // signal
+    return 0;
+    }
+
+  /* Here when the argument is finite */
+  if (GETEXPUN(df)==0) result=*df;      // already a true integer
+   else {                               // need to round to integer
+    enum rounding saveround;            // saver
+    uInt savestatus;                    // ..
+    saveround=set->round;               // save rounding mode ..
+    savestatus=set->status;             // .. and status
+    set->round=rmode;                   // set mode
+    decFloatZero(&zero);                // make 0E+0
+    set->status=0;                      // clear
+    decFloatQuantize(&result, df, &zero, set); // [this may fail]
+    set->round=saveround;               // restore rounding mode ..
+    if (exact) set->status|=savestatus; // include Inexact
+     else set->status=savestatus;       // .. or just original status
+    }
+
+  // only the last four declets of the coefficient can contain
+  // non-zero; check for others (and also NaN or Infinity from the
+  // Quantize) first (see DFISZERO for explanation):
+  // decFloatShow(&result, "sofar");
+  #if DOUBLE
+  if ((DFWORD(&result, 0)&0x1c03ff00)!=0
+   || (DFWORD(&result, 0)&0x60000000)==0x60000000) {
+  #elif QUAD
+  if ((DFWORD(&result, 2)&0xffffff00)!=0
+   ||  DFWORD(&result, 1)!=0
+   || (DFWORD(&result, 0)&0x1c003fff)!=0
+   || (DFWORD(&result, 0)&0x60000000)==0x60000000) {
+  #endif
+    set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation; // Invalid or out of range
+    return 0;
+    }
+  // get last twelve digits of the coefficent into hi & ho, base
+  // 10**9 (see GETCOEFFBILL):
+  sourlo=DFWORD(&result, DECWORDS-1);
+  lo=DPD2BIN0[sourlo&0x3ff]
+    +DPD2BINK[(sourlo>>10)&0x3ff]
+    +DPD2BINM[(sourlo>>20)&0x3ff];
+  sourpen=DFWORD(&result, DECWORDS-2);
+  hi=DPD2BIN0[((sourpen<<2) | (sourlo>>30))&0x3ff];
+
+  // according to request, check range carefully
+  if (unsign) {
+    if (hi>4 || (hi==4 && lo>294967295) || (hi+lo!=0 && DFISSIGNED(&result))) {
+      set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation; // out of range
+      return 0;
+      }
+    return hi*BILLION+lo;
+    }
+  // signed
+  if (hi>2 || (hi==2 && lo>147483647)) {
+    // handle the usual edge case
+    if (lo==147483648 && hi==2 && DFISSIGNED(&result)) return 0x80000000;
+    set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation; // truly out of range
+    return 0;
+    }
+  i=hi*BILLION+lo;
+  if (DFISSIGNED(&result)) i=-i;
+  return (uInt)i;
+  } // decToInt32
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decToIntegral -- local routine to effect ToIntegral value          */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*   result gets the result                                           */
+/*   df     is the decFloat to round                                  */
+/*   set    is the context                                            */
+/*   rmode  is the rounding mode to use                               */
+/*   exact  is 1 if Inexact should be signalled                       */
+/*   returns result                                                   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decFloat * decToIntegral(decFloat *result, const decFloat *df,
+                                decContext *set, enum rounding rmode,
+                                Flag exact) {
+  Int  exp;                        // exponent
+  uInt sourhi;                     // top word from source decFloat
+  enum rounding saveround;         // saver
+  uInt savestatus;                 // ..
+  decFloat zero;                   // work
+
+  /* Start decoding the argument */
+  sourhi=DFWORD(df, 0);            // top word
+  exp=DECCOMBEXP[sourhi>>26];      // get exponent high bits (in place)
+
+  if (EXPISSPECIAL(exp)) {         // is special?
+    // NaNs are handled as usual
+    if (DFISNAN(df)) return decNaNs(result, df, NULL, set);
+    // must be infinite; return canonical infinity with sign of df
+    return decInfinity(result, df);
+    }
+
+  /* Here when the argument is finite */
+  // complete extraction of the exponent
+  exp+=GETECON(df)-DECBIAS;             // .. + continuation and unbias
+
+  if (exp>=0) return decCanonical(result, df); // already integral
+
+  saveround=set->round;                 // save rounding mode ..
+  savestatus=set->status;               // .. and status
+  set->round=rmode;                     // set mode
+  decFloatZero(&zero);                  // make 0E+0
+  decFloatQuantize(result, df, &zero, set); // 'integrate'; cannot fail
+  set->round=saveround;                 // restore rounding mode ..
+  if (!exact) set->status=savestatus;   // .. and status, unless exact
+  return result;
+  } // decToIntegral