character 0.1.0 → 1.0.0

data/lib/character/version.rb

@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 module Character
-  VERSION = "0.1.0"
-end
+  VERSION = '1.0.0'
+end

data/lib/mongoid/carrierwave_serialization_patch.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+module CarrierWave
+  module Uploader
+    module Serialization
+      def as_json(options=nil)
+        serializable_hash
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end

data/lib/tasks/analytics.rake

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+namespace :analytics do
+  desc "Update analytics reports for today"
+  task :daily => :environment do
+    Reports::AnalyticsDaily.update_report_for_today()
+    Reports::AnalyticsWeekly.update_current_report()
+    Reports::AnalyticsMonthly.update_current_report()
+  end
+
+  desc "Update all analytics reports (back to MONTHS=3)"
+  task :regenerate => :environment do
+    months_ago = ENV['MONTHS'] ? ENV['MONTHS'].to_i : 3
+
+    # daily reports
+    Reports::AnalyticsDaily.delete_all
+
+    date1    = months_ago.month.ago.to_date.strftime("%Y-%m-%d")
+    date2    = Date.today.strftime("%Y-%m-%d")
+    ga       = ::GoogleAnalytics.new()
+    visitors = ga.visitors(date1, date2)
+
+    (months_ago.month.ago.to_date..Date.today).each do |d|
+      report = Reports::AnalyticsDaily.find_or_create_by(report_date: d)
+      report.visitors = visitors[d.strftime("%Y-%m-%d")]
+      report.save
+    end
+
+    # weekly reports
+    Reports::AnalyticsWeekly.delete_all
+
+    today          = Date.today
+    week_day       = today.cwday # Mon is 1
+    closest_monday = today - (week_day - 1).day
+
+    monday   = closest_monday
+    end_date = months_ago.month.ago
+
+    while end_date < monday do
+      monday -= 7.days
+      report = Reports::AnalyticsWeekly.find_or_create_by(report_date: monday)
+      report.update_report!
+    end
+
+    # monthly reports
+    Reports::AnalyticsMonthly.delete_all
+
+    (0..months_ago).to_a.reverse.each do |delta|
+      date = Date.today - delta.months
+      report = Reports::AnalyticsMonthly.find_or_create_by(report_date: date)
+      report.update_report!
+    end
+  end
+end

data/test/config/application.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+# Initialize a dummy application that is required to test
+# the gem that supplies some behavior to another rails application
+
+
+#
+# Rails
+#
+
+# Pick the frameworks you want:
+require "active_model/railtie"
+# require "active_record/railtie"
+require "action_controller/railtie"
+require "action_mailer/railtie"
+require "action_view/railtie"
+require "sprockets/railtie"
+require "rails/test_unit/railtie"
+
+# Require the gems listed in Gemfile, including any gems
+# you've limited to :test, :development, or :production.
+Bundler.require(*Rails.groups)
+
+# Define the application and configuration
+module RbConfig
+  class Application < ::Rails::Application
+    config.eager_load = false
+
+    # config.active_support.deprecation = :stderr
+    # config.autoload_paths += %W(#{config.root}/app/controllers/concerns)
+
+    path_secrets_config = File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__), "secrets.yml")
+    config.secret_key_base = YAML.load(File.open(path_secrets_config))[Rails.env]['secret_key_base']
+  end
+end
+
+# Initialize the application
+RbConfig::Application.initialize!
+
+
+#
+# Mongoid
+#
+
+require "mongoid"
+
+path_to_mongoid_config = File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__), "mongoid.yml")
+Mongoid.load!(path_to_mongoid_config)
+
+
+#
+# Kaminari
+#
+
+require "kaminari"
+Kaminari::Hooks.init
+
+
+#
+# Character
+#
+
+require "character"
+
+RbConfig::Application.routes.draw do
+  mount_character_instance
+end

data/test/config/mongoid.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+test:
+  sessions:
+    default:
+      database: character_test
+      hosts:
+        - localhost:27017
+      options:
+        read: primary
+        # In the test environment we lower the retries and retry interval to
+        # low amounts for fast failures.
+        max_retries: 1
+        retry_interval: 0

data/test/config/secrets.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+# Be sure to restart your server when you modify this file.
+
+# Your secret key is used for verifying the integrity of signed cookies.
+# If you change this key, all old signed cookies will become invalid!
+
+# Make sure the secret is at least 30 characters and all random,
+# no regular words or you'll be exposed to dictionary attacks.
+# You can use `rake secret` to generate a secure secret key.
+
+# Make sure the secrets in this file are kept private
+# if you're sharing your code publicly.
+
+development:
+  secret_key_base: 4cf1d136ae3bc9e09173180261faf3399ff28f669a336a2015ca7cff1ed17911168931b41277a1c7e7636f410e0483786390014249886bafc2fab46b15add327
+
+test:
+  secret_key_base: 32ac5f23853d5f61686040678f92d081b8fc6c893c7dfe8d59210319342c49150839871e33bdadbef95464b1a970d27681d4cead57c264248352c0a3af589de7
+
+# Do not keep production secrets in the repository,
+# instead read values from the environment.
+production:
+  secret_key_base: <%= ENV["SECRET_KEY_BASE"] %>

data/test/controllers/character/api_controller_test.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
+require 'test_helper'
+
+class Character::ApiControllerTest < ActionController::TestCase
+  # Called before every single test
+  setup do
+    @product = FactoryGirl.create(:product)
+  end
+
+  # Called after every single test
+  teardown do
+    DatabaseCleaner.clean
+  end
+
+  test "should get index" do
+    get :index, model_slug: "Product"
+    assert_response :success
+    assert json_response.length > 0
+  end
+
+  test "should get scoped index" do
+    FactoryGirl.create(:product, published: false)
+
+    get :index, model_slug: "Product"
+    assert_response :success
+    assert_equal json_response.length, 2
+
+    get :index, model_slug: "Product", where__published:"true"
+    assert_response :success
+    assert_equal json_response.length, 1
+  end
+
+  test "should get ordered index" do
+    FactoryGirl.create(:product, title: "Shoes")
+    FactoryGirl.create(:product, title: "Jacket")
+
+    get :index, model_slug: "Product", o: "title"
+    assert_response :success
+
+    obj_1 = json_response.find{|obj| obj["title"] == "Jacket"}
+    obj_2 = json_response.find{|obj| obj["title"] == "Shoes"}
+
+    assert json_response.index(obj_1) < json_response.index(obj_2)
+  end
+
+  test "should show obect" do
+    get :show, model_slug: "Product", id: @product.id
+    assert_response :success
+  end
+
+  test "should get new" do
+    get :new, model_slug: "Product"
+    assert_response :success
+  end
+
+  test "should create obect" do
+    assert_difference("Product.count") do
+      post :create, model_slug: "Product", product: { title: "Hat" }
+    end
+    assert_equal json_response["title"], "Hat"
+  end
+
+  test "should not create if obect is not valid" do
+    assert_no_difference("Product.count") do
+      post :create, model_slug: "Product", product: { title: "Hat - Invalid attribute"}
+    end
+    assert_template @controller.form_template
+    assert_not_nil assigns(:object)
+  end
+
+  test "should get edit" do
+    get :edit, model_slug: "Product", id: @product
+    assert_response :success
+  end
+
+  test "should update obect" do
+    put :update, model_slug: "Product", id: @product, product: { title: "Jacket" }
+    assert_equal json_response["title"], "Jacket"
+  end
+
+  test "should not update if obect is not valid" do
+    put :update, model_slug: "Product", id: @product, product: { title: "Hat - Invalid attribute" }
+    assert_template @controller.form_template
+    assert_not_nil assigns(:object)
+  end
+
+  test "should destroy obect" do
+    assert_difference('Product.count', -1) do
+      delete :destroy, model_slug: "Product", id: @product
+    end
+    assert_equal @response.body, "null"
+    assert_equal @response.status, 204
+  end
+end
+

data/test/factories/product_factory.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+FactoryGirl.define do
+  factory :product do
+    title "Hat"
+  end
+end

data/test/lib/character/engine_test.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+require 'test_helper'
+
+class Character::EngineTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
+  # Called after every single test
+  teardown do
+    Character.instance_variable_set :@instances, {}
+    Character.instance_variable_set :@custom_instance_name_used, nil
+    Character.instance_variable_set :@default_instance_name_used, nil
+  end
+
+  test "should provide default admin instance" do
+    Character.instances = nil
+    assert_not_nil Character.instances
+    assert_equal "admin", Character.instances.keys.first
+  end
+
+  test "should be configurable" do
+    Character.configure do |config|
+      config.title = 'Test Title'
+    end
+    assert_equal "Test Title", Character.title
+  end
+
+  test "should create new instances" do
+    Character.configure do |config|
+      config.instance 'author' do |instance|
+        instance.user_model = 'Author'
+      end
+    end
+    assert_not_nil Character.instances.keys.index("author")
+  end
+
+end

data/test/lib/character/routing_test.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+require 'test_helper'
+
+class Character::RoutingTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
+  test "should have root for api:index" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product", method: "get" }, { controller: "character/api", action: "index", model_slug: "Product"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:show" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product/1", method: "get" }, { controller: "character/api", action: "show", model_slug: "Product", id: "1"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:new" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product/new", method: "get" }, { controller: "character/api", action: "new", model_slug: "Product"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:create" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product", method: 'post' }, { controller: "character/api", action: "create", model_slug: "Product"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:edit" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product/1/edit", method: 'get' }, { controller: "character/api", action: "edit", model_slug: "Product", id: "1"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:update" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product/1", method: 'put' }, { controller: "character/api", action: "patch", model_slug: "Product", id: "1"})
+  end
+
+  test "should have root for api:destroy" do
+    assert_routing({ path: "/admin/Product/1", method: 'delete' }, { controller: "character/api", action: "destroy", model_slug: "Product", id: "1"})
+  end
+end

data/test/test_helper.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+ENV['RAILS_ENV'] ||= "test"
+
+require 'config/application'
+require 'rails/test_help'
+
+require "database_cleaner"
+DatabaseCleaner.strategy = :truncation
+
+# There is no support of fixtures in Mongoid
+require "factory_girl"
+FactoryGirl.find_definitions
+
+# Allows you to focus on a few tests with ease without having to use
+# command-line arguments
+require 'minitest/focus'
+
+# Color output
+require "minitest/reporters"
+Minitest::Reporters.use! Minitest::Reporters::SpecReporter.new
+# Minitest::Reporters.use! Minitest::Reporters::DefaultReporter.new
+
+class ActiveSupport::TestCase
+  # ...
+
+  #
+  # Helper methods to be used by all tests
+  #
+
+  def json_response
+    ActiveSupport::JSON.decode @response.body
+  end
+
+  def reset_instance_variables(class_obj)
+    class_obj.instance_variables.each do |var|
+      class_obj.instance_variable_set var, nil
+    end
+  end
+end
+
+class Product
+  include Mongoid::Document
+  include Mongoid::Timestamps
+
+  field :title
+  field :published, type: Boolean, default: true
+
+  validates :title, length: { maximum: 6 }
+end

data/vendor/assets/javascripts/backbone.js

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
-//     Backbone.js 0.9.2
+//     Backbone.js 1.1.0
 
-//     (c) 2010-2012 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
+//     (c) 2010-2011 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
+//     (c) 2011-2013 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud and Investigative Reporters & Editors
 //     Backbone may be freely distributed under the MIT license.
 //     For all details and documentation:
 //     http://backbonejs.org
@@ -10,7 +11,7 @@
   // Initial Setup
   // -------------
 
-  // Save a reference to the global object (`window` in the browser, `global`
+  // Save a reference to the global object (`window` in the browser, `exports`
   // on the server).
   var root = this;
 
@@ -18,12 +19,14 @@
   // restored later on, if `noConflict` is used.
   var previousBackbone = root.Backbone;
 
-  // Create a local reference to slice/splice.
-  var slice = Array.prototype.slice;
-  var splice = Array.prototype.splice;
+  // Create local references to array methods we'll want to use later.
+  var array = [];
+  var push = array.push;
+  var slice = array.slice;
+  var splice = array.splice;
 
   // The top-level namespace. All public Backbone classes and modules will
-  // be attached to this. Exported for both CommonJS and the browser.
+  // be attached to this. Exported for both the browser and the server.
   var Backbone;
   if (typeof exports !== 'undefined') {
     Backbone = exports;
@@ -32,23 +35,15 @@
   }
 
   // Current version of the library. Keep in sync with `package.json`.
-  Backbone.VERSION = '0.9.2';
+  Backbone.VERSION = '1.1.0';
 
   // Require Underscore, if we're on the server, and it's not already present.
   var _ = root._;
   if (!_ && (typeof require !== 'undefined')) _ = require('underscore');
 
-  // For Backbone's purposes, jQuery, Zepto, or Ender owns the `$` variable.
-  var $ = root.jQuery || root.Zepto || root.ender;
-
-  // Set the JavaScript library that will be used for DOM manipulation and
-  // Ajax calls (a.k.a. the `$` variable). By default Backbone will use: jQuery,
-  // Zepto, or Ender; but the `setDomLibrary()` method lets you inject an
-  // alternate JavaScript library (or a mock library for testing your views
-  // outside of a browser).
-  Backbone.setDomLibrary = function(lib) {
-    $ = lib;
-  };
+  // For Backbone's purposes, jQuery, Zepto, Ender, or My Library (kidding) owns
+  // the `$` variable.
+  Backbone.$ = root.jQuery || root.Zepto || root.ender || root.$;
 
   // Runs Backbone.js in *noConflict* mode, returning the `Backbone` variable
   // to its previous owner. Returns a reference to this Backbone object.
@@ -58,7 +53,7 @@
   };
 
   // Turn on `emulateHTTP` to support legacy HTTP servers. Setting this option
-  // will fake `"PUT"` and `"DELETE"` requests via the `_method` parameter and
+  // will fake `"PATCH"`, `"PUT"` and `"DELETE"` requests via the `_method` parameter and
   // set a `X-Http-Method-Override` header.
   Backbone.emulateHTTP = false;
 
@@ -69,14 +64,12 @@
   Backbone.emulateJSON = false;
 
   // Backbone.Events
-  // -----------------
-
-  // Regular expression used to split event strings
-  var eventSplitter = /\s+/;
+  // ---------------
 
   // A module that can be mixed in to *any object* in order to provide it with
-  // custom events. You may bind with `on` or remove with `off` callback functions
-  // to an event; trigger`-ing an event fires all callbacks in succession.
+  // custom events. You may bind with `on` or remove with `off` callback
+  // functions to an event; `trigger`-ing an event fires all callbacks in
+  // succession.
   //
   //     var object = {};
   //     _.extend(object, Backbone.Events);
@@ -85,58 +78,55 @@
   //
   var Events = Backbone.Events = {
 
-    // Bind one or more space separated events, `events`, to a `callback`
-    // function. Passing `"all"` will bind the callback to all events fired.
-    on: function(events, callback, context) {
-
-      var calls, event, node, tail, list;
-      if (!callback) return this;
-      events = events.split(eventSplitter);
-      calls = this._callbacks || (this._callbacks = {});
-
-      // Create an immutable callback list, allowing traversal during
-      // modification.  The tail is an empty object that will always be used
-      // as the next node.
-      while (event = events.shift()) {
-        list = calls[event];
-        node = list ? list.tail : {};
-        node.next = tail = {};
-        node.context = context;
-        node.callback = callback;
-        calls[event] = {tail: tail, next: list ? list.next : node};
-      }
-
+    // Bind an event to a `callback` function. Passing `"all"` will bind
+    // the callback to all events fired.
+    on: function(name, callback, context) {
+      if (!eventsApi(this, 'on', name, [callback, context]) || !callback) return this;
+      this._events || (this._events = {});
+      var events = this._events[name] || (this._events[name] = []);
+      events.push({callback: callback, context: context, ctx: context || this});
       return this;
     },
 
-    // Remove one or many callbacks. If `context` is null, removes all callbacks
-    // with that function. If `callback` is null, removes all callbacks for the
-    // event. If `events` is null, removes all bound callbacks for all events.
-    off: function(events, callback, context) {
-      var event, calls, node, tail, cb, ctx;
+    // Bind an event to only be triggered a single time. After the first time
+    // the callback is invoked, it will be removed.
+    once: function(name, callback, context) {
+      if (!eventsApi(this, 'once', name, [callback, context]) || !callback) return this;
+      var self = this;
+      var once = _.once(function() {
+        self.off(name, once);
+        callback.apply(this, arguments);
+      });
+      once._callback = callback;
+      return this.on(name, once, context);
+    },
 
-      // No events, or removing *all* events.
-      if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) return;
-      if (!(events || callback || context)) {
-        delete this._callbacks;
+    // Remove one or many callbacks. If `context` is null, removes all
+    // callbacks with that function. If `callback` is null, removes all
+    // callbacks for the event. If `name` is null, removes all bound
+    // callbacks for all events.
+    off: function(name, callback, context) {
+      var retain, ev, events, names, i, l, j, k;
+      if (!this._events || !eventsApi(this, 'off', name, [callback, context])) return this;
+      if (!name && !callback && !context) {
+        this._events = {};
         return this;
       }
-
-      // Loop through the listed events and contexts, splicing them out of the
-      // linked list of callbacks if appropriate.
-      events = events ? events.split(eventSplitter) : _.keys(calls);
-      while (event = events.shift()) {
-        node = calls[event];
-        delete calls[event];
-        if (!node || !(callback || context)) continue;
-        // Create a new list, omitting the indicated callbacks.
-        tail = node.tail;
-        while ((node = node.next) !== tail) {
-          cb = node.callback;
-          ctx = node.context;
-          if ((callback && cb !== callback) || (context && ctx !== context)) {
-            this.on(event, cb, ctx);
+      names = name ? [name] : _.keys(this._events);
+      for (i = 0, l = names.length; i < l; i++) {
+        name = names[i];
+        if (events = this._events[name]) {
+          this._events[name] = retain = [];
+          if (callback || context) {
+            for (j = 0, k = events.length; j < k; j++) {
+              ev = events[j];
+              if ((callback && callback !== ev.callback && callback !== ev.callback._callback) ||
+                  (context && context !== ev.context)) {
+                retain.push(ev);
+              }
+            }
           }
+          if (!retain.length) delete this._events[name];
         }
       }
 
@@ -147,65 +137,122 @@
     // passed the same arguments as `trigger` is, apart from the event name
     // (unless you're listening on `"all"`, which will cause your callback to
     // receive the true name of the event as the first argument).
-    trigger: function(events) {
-      var event, node, calls, tail, args, all, rest;
-      if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) return this;
-      all = calls.all;
-      events = events.split(eventSplitter);
-      rest = slice.call(arguments, 1);
-
-      // For each event, walk through the linked list of callbacks twice,
-      // first to trigger the event, then to trigger any `"all"` callbacks.
-      while (event = events.shift()) {
-        if (node = calls[event]) {
-          tail = node.tail;
-          while ((node = node.next) !== tail) {
-            node.callback.apply(node.context || this, rest);
-          }
-        }
-        if (node = all) {
-          tail = node.tail;
-          args = [event].concat(rest);
-          while ((node = node.next) !== tail) {
-            node.callback.apply(node.context || this, args);
-          }
-        }
-      }
+    trigger: function(name) {
+      if (!this._events) return this;
+      var args = slice.call(arguments, 1);
+      if (!eventsApi(this, 'trigger', name, args)) return this;
+      var events = this._events[name];
+      var allEvents = this._events.all;
+      if (events) triggerEvents(events, args);
+      if (allEvents) triggerEvents(allEvents, arguments);
+      return this;
+    },
 
+    // Tell this object to stop listening to either specific events ... or
+    // to every object it's currently listening to.
+    stopListening: function(obj, name, callback) {
+      var listeningTo = this._listeningTo;
+      if (!listeningTo) return this;
+      var remove = !name && !callback;
+      if (!callback && typeof name === 'object') callback = this;
+      if (obj) (listeningTo = {})[obj._listenId] = obj;
+      for (var id in listeningTo) {
+        obj = listeningTo[id];
+        obj.off(name, callback, this);
+        if (remove || _.isEmpty(obj._events)) delete this._listeningTo[id];
+      }
       return this;
     }
 
   };
 
+  // Regular expression used to split event strings.
+  var eventSplitter = /\s+/;
+
+  // Implement fancy features of the Events API such as multiple event
+  // names `"change blur"` and jQuery-style event maps `{change: action}`
+  // in terms of the existing API.
+  var eventsApi = function(obj, action, name, rest) {
+    if (!name) return true;
+
+    // Handle event maps.
+    if (typeof name === 'object') {
+      for (var key in name) {
+        obj[action].apply(obj, [key, name[key]].concat(rest));
+      }
+      return false;
+    }
+
+    // Handle space separated event names.
+    if (eventSplitter.test(name)) {
+      var names = name.split(eventSplitter);
+      for (var i = 0, l = names.length; i < l; i++) {
+        obj[action].apply(obj, [names[i]].concat(rest));
+      }
+      return false;
+    }
+
+    return true;
+  };
+
+  // A difficult-to-believe, but optimized internal dispatch function for
+  // triggering events. Tries to keep the usual cases speedy (most internal
+  // Backbone events have 3 arguments).
+  var triggerEvents = function(events, args) {
+    var ev, i = -1, l = events.length, a1 = args[0], a2 = args[1], a3 = args[2];
+    switch (args.length) {
+      case 0: while (++i < l) (ev = events[i]).callback.call(ev.ctx); return;
+      case 1: while (++i < l) (ev = events[i]).callback.call(ev.ctx, a1); return;
+      case 2: while (++i < l) (ev = events[i]).callback.call(ev.ctx, a1, a2); return;
+      case 3: while (++i < l) (ev = events[i]).callback.call(ev.ctx, a1, a2, a3); return;
+      default: while (++i < l) (ev = events[i]).callback.apply(ev.ctx, args);
+    }
+  };
+
+  var listenMethods = {listenTo: 'on', listenToOnce: 'once'};
+
+  // Inversion-of-control versions of `on` and `once`. Tell *this* object to
+  // listen to an event in another object ... keeping track of what it's
+  // listening to.
+  _.each(listenMethods, function(implementation, method) {
+    Events[method] = function(obj, name, callback) {
+      var listeningTo = this._listeningTo || (this._listeningTo = {});
+      var id = obj._listenId || (obj._listenId = _.uniqueId('l'));
+      listeningTo[id] = obj;
+      if (!callback && typeof name === 'object') callback = this;
+      obj[implementation](name, callback, this);
+      return this;
+    };
+  });
+
   // Aliases for backwards compatibility.
   Events.bind   = Events.on;
   Events.unbind = Events.off;
 
+  // Allow the `Backbone` object to serve as a global event bus, for folks who
+  // want global "pubsub" in a convenient place.
+  _.extend(Backbone, Events);
+
   // Backbone.Model
   // --------------
 
-  // Create a new model, with defined attributes. A client id (`cid`)
+  // Backbone **Models** are the basic data object in the framework --
+  // frequently representing a row in a table in a database on your server.
+  // A discrete chunk of data and a bunch of useful, related methods for
+  // performing computations and transformations on that data.
+
+  // Create a new model with the specified attributes. A client id (`cid`)
   // is automatically generated and assigned for you.
   var Model = Backbone.Model = function(attributes, options) {
-    var defaults;
-    attributes || (attributes = {});
-    if (options && options.parse) attributes = this.parse(attributes);
-    if (defaults = getValue(this, 'defaults')) {
-      attributes = _.extend({}, defaults, attributes);
-    }
-    if (options && options.collection) this.collection = options.collection;
-    this.attributes = {};
-    this._escapedAttributes = {};
+    var attrs = attributes || {};
+    options || (options = {});
     this.cid = _.uniqueId('c');
+    this.attributes = {};
+    if (options.collection) this.collection = options.collection;
+    if (options.parse) attrs = this.parse(attrs, options) || {};
+    attrs = _.defaults({}, attrs, _.result(this, 'defaults'));
+    this.set(attrs, options);
     this.changed = {};
-    this._silent = {};
-    this._pending = {};
-    this.set(attributes, {silent: true});
-    // Reset change tracking.
-    this.changed = {};
-    this._silent = {};
-    this._pending = {};
-    this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
     this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
   };
 
@@ -215,13 +262,8 @@
     // A hash of attributes whose current and previous value differ.
     changed: null,
 
-    // A hash of attributes that have silently changed since the last time
-    // `change` was called.  Will become pending attributes on the next call.
-    _silent: null,
-
-    // A hash of attributes that have changed since the last `'change'` event
-    // began.
-    _pending: null,
+    // The value returned during the last failed validation.
+    validationError: null,
 
     // The default name for the JSON `id` attribute is `"id"`. MongoDB and
     // CouchDB users may want to set this to `"_id"`.
@@ -236,6 +278,12 @@
       return _.clone(this.attributes);
     },
 
+    // Proxy `Backbone.sync` by default -- but override this if you need
+    // custom syncing semantics for *this* particular model.
+    sync: function() {
+      return Backbone.sync.apply(this, arguments);
+    },
+
     // Get the value of an attribute.
     get: function(attr) {
       return this.attributes[attr];
@@ -243,10 +291,7 @@
 
     // Get the HTML-escaped value of an attribute.
     escape: function(attr) {
-      var html;
-      if (html = this._escapedAttributes[attr]) return html;
-      var val = this.get(attr);
-      return this._escapedAttributes[attr] = _.escape(val == null ? '' : '' + val);
+      return _.escape(this.get(attr));
     },
 
     // Returns `true` if the attribute contains a value that is not null
@@ -255,146 +300,198 @@
       return this.get(attr) != null;
     },
 
-    // Set a hash of model attributes on the object, firing `"change"` unless
-    // you choose to silence it.
-    set: function(key, value, options) {
-      var attrs, attr, val;
+    // Set a hash of model attributes on the object, firing `"change"`. This is
+    // the core primitive operation of a model, updating the data and notifying
+    // anyone who needs to know about the change in state. The heart of the beast.
+    set: function(key, val, options) {
+      var attr, attrs, unset, changes, silent, changing, prev, current;
+      if (key == null) return this;
 
       // Handle both `"key", value` and `{key: value}` -style arguments.
-      if (_.isObject(key) || key == null) {
+      if (typeof key === 'object') {
         attrs = key;
-        options = value;
+        options = val;
       } else {
-        attrs = {};
-        attrs[key] = value;
+        (attrs = {})[key] = val;
       }
 
-      // Extract attributes and options.
       options || (options = {});
-      if (!attrs) return this;
-      if (attrs instanceof Model) attrs = attrs.attributes;
-      if (options.unset) for (attr in attrs) attrs[attr] = void 0;
 
       // Run validation.
       if (!this._validate(attrs, options)) return false;
 
+      // Extract attributes and options.
+      unset           = options.unset;
+      silent          = options.silent;
+      changes         = [];
+      changing        = this._changing;
+      this._changing  = true;
+
+      if (!changing) {
+        this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
+        this.changed = {};
+      }
+      current = this.attributes, prev = this._previousAttributes;
+
       // Check for changes of `id`.
       if (this.idAttribute in attrs) this.id = attrs[this.idAttribute];
 
-      var changes = options.changes = {};
-      var now = this.attributes;
-      var escaped = this._escapedAttributes;
-      var prev = this._previousAttributes || {};
-
-      // For each `set` attribute...
+      // For each `set` attribute, update or delete the current value.
       for (attr in attrs) {
         val = attrs[attr];
-
-        // If the new and current value differ, record the change.
-        if (!_.isEqual(now[attr], val) || (options.unset && _.has(now, attr))) {
-          delete escaped[attr];
-          (options.silent ? this._silent : changes)[attr] = true;
-        }
-
-        // Update or delete the current value.
-        options.unset ? delete now[attr] : now[attr] = val;
-
-        // If the new and previous value differ, record the change.  If not,
-        // then remove changes for this attribute.
-        if (!_.isEqual(prev[attr], val) || (_.has(now, attr) != _.has(prev, attr))) {
+        if (!_.isEqual(current[attr], val)) changes.push(attr);
+        if (!_.isEqual(prev[attr], val)) {
           this.changed[attr] = val;
-          if (!options.silent) this._pending[attr] = true;
         } else {
           delete this.changed[attr];
-          delete this._pending[attr];
+        }
+        unset ? delete current[attr] : current[attr] = val;
+      }
+
+      // Trigger all relevant attribute changes.
+      if (!silent) {
+        if (changes.length) this._pending = true;
+        for (var i = 0, l = changes.length; i < l; i++) {
+          this.trigger('change:' + changes[i], this, current[changes[i]], options);
         }
       }
 
-      // Fire the `"change"` events.
-      if (!options.silent) this.change(options);
+      // You might be wondering why there's a `while` loop here. Changes can
+      // be recursively nested within `"change"` events.
+      if (changing) return this;
+      if (!silent) {
+        while (this._pending) {
+          this._pending = false;
+          this.trigger('change', this, options);
+        }
+      }
+      this._pending = false;
+      this._changing = false;
       return this;
     },
 
-    // Remove an attribute from the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
-    // to silence it. `unset` is a noop if the attribute doesn't exist.
+    // Remove an attribute from the model, firing `"change"`. `unset` is a noop
+    // if the attribute doesn't exist.
     unset: function(attr, options) {
-      (options || (options = {})).unset = true;
-      return this.set(attr, null, options);
+      return this.set(attr, void 0, _.extend({}, options, {unset: true}));
     },
 
-    // Clear all attributes on the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
-    // to silence it.
+    // Clear all attributes on the model, firing `"change"`.
     clear: function(options) {
-      (options || (options = {})).unset = true;
-      return this.set(_.clone(this.attributes), options);
+      var attrs = {};
+      for (var key in this.attributes) attrs[key] = void 0;
+      return this.set(attrs, _.extend({}, options, {unset: true}));
+    },
+
+    // Determine if the model has changed since the last `"change"` event.
+    // If you specify an attribute name, determine if that attribute has changed.
+    hasChanged: function(attr) {
+      if (attr == null) return !_.isEmpty(this.changed);
+      return _.has(this.changed, attr);
+    },
+
+    // Return an object containing all the attributes that have changed, or
+    // false if there are no changed attributes. Useful for determining what
+    // parts of a view need to be updated and/or what attributes need to be
+    // persisted to the server. Unset attributes will be set to undefined.
+    // You can also pass an attributes object to diff against the model,
+    // determining if there *would be* a change.
+    changedAttributes: function(diff) {
+      if (!diff) return this.hasChanged() ? _.clone(this.changed) : false;
+      var val, changed = false;
+      var old = this._changing ? this._previousAttributes : this.attributes;
+      for (var attr in diff) {
+        if (_.isEqual(old[attr], (val = diff[attr]))) continue;
+        (changed || (changed = {}))[attr] = val;
+      }
+      return changed;
+    },
+
+    // Get the previous value of an attribute, recorded at the time the last
+    // `"change"` event was fired.
+    previous: function(attr) {
+      if (attr == null || !this._previousAttributes) return null;
+      return this._previousAttributes[attr];
+    },
+
+    // Get all of the attributes of the model at the time of the previous
+    // `"change"` event.
+    previousAttributes: function() {
+      return _.clone(this._previousAttributes);
     },
 
     // Fetch the model from the server. If the server's representation of the
-    // model differs from its current attributes, they will be overriden,
+    // model differs from its current attributes, they will be overridden,
     // triggering a `"change"` event.
     fetch: function(options) {
       options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
+      if (options.parse === void 0) options.parse = true;
       var model = this;
       var success = options.success;
-      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
-        if (!model.set(model.parse(resp, xhr), options)) return false;
-        if (success) success(model, resp);
+      options.success = function(resp) {
+        if (!model.set(model.parse(resp, options), options)) return false;
+        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
+        model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
       };
-      options.error = Backbone.wrapError(options.error, model, options);
-      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'read', this, options);
+      wrapError(this, options);
+      return this.sync('read', this, options);
     },
 
     // Set a hash of model attributes, and sync the model to the server.
     // If the server returns an attributes hash that differs, the model's
     // state will be `set` again.
-    save: function(key, value, options) {
-      var attrs, current;
+    save: function(key, val, options) {
+      var attrs, method, xhr, attributes = this.attributes;
 
-      // Handle both `("key", value)` and `({key: value})` -style calls.
-      if (_.isObject(key) || key == null) {
+      // Handle both `"key", value` and `{key: value}` -style arguments.
+      if (key == null || typeof key === 'object') {
         attrs = key;
-        options = value;
+        options = val;
       } else {
-        attrs = {};
-        attrs[key] = value;
+        (attrs = {})[key] = val;
       }
-      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
 
-      // If we're "wait"-ing to set changed attributes, validate early.
-      if (options.wait) {
+      options = _.extend({validate: true}, options);
+
+      // If we're not waiting and attributes exist, save acts as
+      // `set(attr).save(null, opts)` with validation. Otherwise, check if
+      // the model will be valid when the attributes, if any, are set.
+      if (attrs && !options.wait) {
+        if (!this.set(attrs, options)) return false;
+      } else {
         if (!this._validate(attrs, options)) return false;
-        current = _.clone(this.attributes);
       }
 
-      // Regular saves `set` attributes before persisting to the server.
-      var silentOptions = _.extend({}, options, {silent: true});
-      if (attrs && !this.set(attrs, options.wait ? silentOptions : options)) {
-        return false;
+      // Set temporary attributes if `{wait: true}`.
+      if (attrs && options.wait) {
+        this.attributes = _.extend({}, attributes, attrs);
       }
 
       // After a successful server-side save, the client is (optionally)
       // updated with the server-side state.
+      if (options.parse === void 0) options.parse = true;
       var model = this;
       var success = options.success;
-      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
-        var serverAttrs = model.parse(resp, xhr);
-        if (options.wait) {
-          delete options.wait;
-          serverAttrs = _.extend(attrs || {}, serverAttrs);
-        }
-        if (!model.set(serverAttrs, options)) return false;
-        if (success) {
-          success(model, resp);
-        } else {
-          model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
+      options.success = function(resp) {
+        // Ensure attributes are restored during synchronous saves.
+        model.attributes = attributes;
+        var serverAttrs = model.parse(resp, options);
+        if (options.wait) serverAttrs = _.extend(attrs || {}, serverAttrs);
+        if (_.isObject(serverAttrs) && !model.set(serverAttrs, options)) {
+          return false;
         }
+        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
+        model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
       };
+      wrapError(this, options);
+
+      method = this.isNew() ? 'create' : (options.patch ? 'patch' : 'update');
+      if (method === 'patch') options.attrs = attrs;
+      xhr = this.sync(method, this, options);
+
+      // Restore attributes.
+      if (attrs && options.wait) this.attributes = attributes;
 
-      // Finish configuring and sending the Ajax request.
-      options.error = Backbone.wrapError(options.error, model, options);
-      var method = this.isNew() ? 'create' : 'update';
-      var xhr = (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, method, this, options);
-      if (options.wait) this.set(current, silentOptions);
       return xhr;
     },
 
@@ -406,27 +503,24 @@
       var model = this;
       var success = options.success;
 
-      var triggerDestroy = function() {
+      var destroy = function() {
         model.trigger('destroy', model, model.collection, options);
       };
 
+      options.success = function(resp) {
+        if (options.wait || model.isNew()) destroy();
+        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
+        if (!model.isNew()) model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
+      };
+
       if (this.isNew()) {
-        triggerDestroy();
+        options.success();
         return false;
       }
+      wrapError(this, options);
 
-      options.success = function(resp) {
-        if (options.wait) triggerDestroy();
-        if (success) {
-          success(model, resp);
-        } else {
-          model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
-        }
-      };
-
-      options.error = Backbone.wrapError(options.error, model, options);
-      var xhr = (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'delete', this, options);
-      if (!options.wait) triggerDestroy();
+      var xhr = this.sync('delete', this, options);
+      if (!options.wait) destroy();
       return xhr;
     },
 
@@ -434,14 +528,14 @@
     // using Backbone's restful methods, override this to change the endpoint
     // that will be called.
     url: function() {
-      var base = getValue(this, 'urlRoot') || getValue(this.collection, 'url') || urlError();
+      var base = _.result(this, 'urlRoot') || _.result(this.collection, 'url') || urlError();
       if (this.isNew()) return base;
-      return base + (base.charAt(base.length - 1) == '/' ? '' : '/') + encodeURIComponent(this.id);
+      return base + (base.charAt(base.length - 1) === '/' ? '' : '/') + encodeURIComponent(this.id);
     },
 
     // **parse** converts a response into the hash of attributes to be `set` on
     // the model. The default implementation is just to pass the response along.
-    parse: function(resp, xhr) {
+    parse: function(resp, options) {
       return resp;
     },
 
@@ -455,116 +549,62 @@
       return this.id == null;
     },
 
-    // Call this method to manually fire a `"change"` event for this model and
-    // a `"change:attribute"` event for each changed attribute.
-    // Calling this will cause all objects observing the model to update.
-    change: function(options) {
-      options || (options = {});
-      var changing = this._changing;
-      this._changing = true;
-
-      // Silent changes become pending changes.
-      for (var attr in this._silent) this._pending[attr] = true;
-
-      // Silent changes are triggered.
-      var changes = _.extend({}, options.changes, this._silent);
-      this._silent = {};
-      for (var attr in changes) {
-        this.trigger('change:' + attr, this, this.get(attr), options);
-      }
-      if (changing) return this;
-
-      // Continue firing `"change"` events while there are pending changes.
-      while (!_.isEmpty(this._pending)) {
-        this._pending = {};
-        this.trigger('change', this, options);
-        // Pending and silent changes still remain.
-        for (var attr in this.changed) {
-          if (this._pending[attr] || this._silent[attr]) continue;
-          delete this.changed[attr];
-        }
-        this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
-      }
-
-      this._changing = false;
-      return this;
-    },
-
-    // Determine if the model has changed since the last `"change"` event.
-    // If you specify an attribute name, determine if that attribute has changed.
-    hasChanged: function(attr) {
-      if (!arguments.length) return !_.isEmpty(this.changed);
-      return _.has(this.changed, attr);
-    },
-
-    // Return an object containing all the attributes that have changed, or
-    // false if there are no changed attributes. Useful for determining what
-    // parts of a view need to be updated and/or what attributes need to be
-    // persisted to the server. Unset attributes will be set to undefined.
-    // You can also pass an attributes object to diff against the model,
-    // determining if there *would be* a change.
-    changedAttributes: function(diff) {
-      if (!diff) return this.hasChanged() ? _.clone(this.changed) : false;
-      var val, changed = false, old = this._previousAttributes;
-      for (var attr in diff) {
-        if (_.isEqual(old[attr], (val = diff[attr]))) continue;
-        (changed || (changed = {}))[attr] = val;
-      }
-      return changed;
-    },
-
-    // Get the previous value of an attribute, recorded at the time the last
-    // `"change"` event was fired.
-    previous: function(attr) {
-      if (!arguments.length || !this._previousAttributes) return null;
-      return this._previousAttributes[attr];
-    },
-
-    // Get all of the attributes of the model at the time of the previous
-    // `"change"` event.
-    previousAttributes: function() {
-      return _.clone(this._previousAttributes);
-    },
-
-    // Check if the model is currently in a valid state. It's only possible to
-    // get into an *invalid* state if you're using silent changes.
-    isValid: function() {
-      return !this.validate(this.attributes);
+    // Check if the model is currently in a valid state.
+    isValid: function(options) {
+      return this._validate({}, _.extend(options || {}, { validate: true }));
     },
 
     // Run validation against the next complete set of model attributes,
-    // returning `true` if all is well. If a specific `error` callback has
-    // been passed, call that instead of firing the general `"error"` event.
+    // returning `true` if all is well. Otherwise, fire an `"invalid"` event.
     _validate: function(attrs, options) {
-      if (options.silent || !this.validate) return true;
+      if (!options.validate || !this.validate) return true;
       attrs = _.extend({}, this.attributes, attrs);
-      var error = this.validate(attrs, options);
+      var error = this.validationError = this.validate(attrs, options) || null;
       if (!error) return true;
-      if (options && options.error) {
-        options.error(this, error, options);
-      } else {
-        this.trigger('error', this, error, options);
-      }
+      this.trigger('invalid', this, error, _.extend(options, {validationError: error}));
       return false;
     }
 
   });
 
+  // Underscore methods that we want to implement on the Model.
+  var modelMethods = ['keys', 'values', 'pairs', 'invert', 'pick', 'omit'];
+
+  // Mix in each Underscore method as a proxy to `Model#attributes`.
+  _.each(modelMethods, function(method) {
+    Model.prototype[method] = function() {
+      var args = slice.call(arguments);
+      args.unshift(this.attributes);
+      return _[method].apply(_, args);
+    };
+  });
+
   // Backbone.Collection
   // -------------------
 
-  // Provides a standard collection class for our sets of models, ordered
-  // or unordered. If a `comparator` is specified, the Collection will maintain
+  // If models tend to represent a single row of data, a Backbone Collection is
+  // more analagous to a table full of data ... or a small slice or page of that
+  // table, or a collection of rows that belong together for a particular reason
+  // -- all of the messages in this particular folder, all of the documents
+  // belonging to this particular author, and so on. Collections maintain
+  // indexes of their models, both in order, and for lookup by `id`.
+
+  // Create a new **Collection**, perhaps to contain a specific type of `model`.
+  // If a `comparator` is specified, the Collection will maintain
   // its models in sort order, as they're added and removed.
   var Collection = Backbone.Collection = function(models, options) {
     options || (options = {});
     if (options.model) this.model = options.model;
-    if (options.comparator) this.comparator = options.comparator;
+    if (options.comparator !== void 0) this.comparator = options.comparator;
     this._reset();
     this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
-    if (models) this.reset(models, {silent: true, parse: options.parse});
+    if (models) this.reset(models, _.extend({silent: true}, options));
   };
 
+  // Default options for `Collection#set`.
+  var setOptions = {add: true, remove: true, merge: true};
+  var addOptions = {add: true, remove: false};
+
   // Define the Collection's inheritable methods.
   _.extend(Collection.prototype, Events, {
 
@@ -582,68 +622,27 @@
       return this.map(function(model){ return model.toJSON(options); });
     },
 
-    // Add a model, or list of models to the set. Pass **silent** to avoid
-    // firing the `add` event for every new model.
-    add: function(models, options) {
-      var i, index, length, model, cid, id, cids = {}, ids = {}, dups = [];
-      options || (options = {});
-      models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];
-
-      // Begin by turning bare objects into model references, and preventing
-      // invalid models or duplicate models from being added.
-      for (i = 0, length = models.length; i < length; i++) {
-        if (!(model = models[i] = this._prepareModel(models[i], options))) {
-          throw new Error("Can't add an invalid model to a collection");
-        }
-        cid = model.cid;
-        id = model.id;
-        if (cids[cid] || this._byCid[cid] || ((id != null) && (ids[id] || this._byId[id]))) {
-          dups.push(i);
-          continue;
-        }
-        cids[cid] = ids[id] = model;
-      }
-
-      // Remove duplicates.
-      i = dups.length;
-      while (i--) {
-        models.splice(dups[i], 1);
-      }
-
-      // Listen to added models' events, and index models for lookup by
-      // `id` and by `cid`.
-      for (i = 0, length = models.length; i < length; i++) {
-        (model = models[i]).on('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
-        this._byCid[model.cid] = model;
-        if (model.id != null) this._byId[model.id] = model;
-      }
+    // Proxy `Backbone.sync` by default.
+    sync: function() {
+      return Backbone.sync.apply(this, arguments);
+    },
 
-      // Insert models into the collection, re-sorting if needed, and triggering
-      // `add` events unless silenced.
-      this.length += length;
-      index = options.at != null ? options.at : this.models.length;
-      splice.apply(this.models, [index, 0].concat(models));
-      if (this.comparator) this.sort({silent: true});
-      if (options.silent) return this;
-      for (i = 0, length = this.models.length; i < length; i++) {
-        if (!cids[(model = this.models[i]).cid]) continue;
-        options.index = i;
-        model.trigger('add', model, this, options);
-      }
-      return this;
+    // Add a model, or list of models to the set.
+    add: function(models, options) {
+      return this.set(models, _.extend({merge: false}, options, addOptions));
     },
 
-    // Remove a model, or a list of models from the set. Pass silent to avoid
-    // firing the `remove` event for every model removed.
+    // Remove a model, or a list of models from the set.
     remove: function(models, options) {
-      var i, l, index, model;
+      var singular = !_.isArray(models);
+      models = singular ? [models] : _.clone(models);
       options || (options = {});
-      models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];
+      var i, l, index, model;
       for (i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
-        model = this.getByCid(models[i]) || this.get(models[i]);
+        model = models[i] = this.get(models[i]);
         if (!model) continue;
         delete this._byId[model.id];
-        delete this._byCid[model.cid];
+        delete this._byId[model.cid];
         index = this.indexOf(model);
         this.models.splice(index, 1);
         this.length--;
@@ -653,14 +652,123 @@
         }
         this._removeReference(model);
       }
-      return this;
+      return singular ? models[0] : models;
+    },
+
+    // Update a collection by `set`-ing a new list of models, adding new ones,
+    // removing models that are no longer present, and merging models that
+    // already exist in the collection, as necessary. Similar to **Model#set**,
+    // the core operation for updating the data contained by the collection.
+    set: function(models, options) {
+      options = _.defaults({}, options, setOptions);
+      if (options.parse) models = this.parse(models, options);
+      var singular = !_.isArray(models);
+      models = singular ? (models ? [models] : []) : _.clone(models);
+      var i, l, id, model, attrs, existing, sort;
+      var at = options.at;
+      var targetModel = this.model;
+      var sortable = this.comparator && (at == null) && options.sort !== false;
+      var sortAttr = _.isString(this.comparator) ? this.comparator : null;
+      var toAdd = [], toRemove = [], modelMap = {};
+      var add = options.add, merge = options.merge, remove = options.remove;
+      var order = !sortable && add && remove ? [] : false;
+
+      // Turn bare objects into model references, and prevent invalid models
+      // from being added.
+      for (i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
+        attrs = models[i];
+        if (attrs instanceof Model) {
+          id = model = attrs;
+        } else {
+          id = attrs[targetModel.prototype.idAttribute];
+        }
+
+        // If a duplicate is found, prevent it from being added and
+        // optionally merge it into the existing model.
+        if (existing = this.get(id)) {
+          if (remove) modelMap[existing.cid] = true;
+          if (merge) {
+            attrs = attrs === model ? model.attributes : attrs;
+            if (options.parse) attrs = existing.parse(attrs, options);
+            existing.set(attrs, options);
+            if (sortable && !sort && existing.hasChanged(sortAttr)) sort = true;
+          }
+          models[i] = existing;
+
+        // If this is a new, valid model, push it to the `toAdd` list.
+        } else if (add) {
+          model = models[i] = this._prepareModel(attrs, options);
+          if (!model) continue;
+          toAdd.push(model);
+
+          // Listen to added models' events, and index models for lookup by
+          // `id` and by `cid`.
+          model.on('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
+          this._byId[model.cid] = model;
+          if (model.id != null) this._byId[model.id] = model;
+        }
+        if (order) order.push(existing || model);
+      }
+
+      // Remove nonexistent models if appropriate.
+      if (remove) {
+        for (i = 0, l = this.length; i < l; ++i) {
+          if (!modelMap[(model = this.models[i]).cid]) toRemove.push(model);
+        }
+        if (toRemove.length) this.remove(toRemove, options);
+      }
+
+      // See if sorting is needed, update `length` and splice in new models.
+      if (toAdd.length || (order && order.length)) {
+        if (sortable) sort = true;
+        this.length += toAdd.length;
+        if (at != null) {
+          for (i = 0, l = toAdd.length; i < l; i++) {
+            this.models.splice(at + i, 0, toAdd[i]);
+          }
+        } else {
+          if (order) this.models.length = 0;
+          var orderedModels = order || toAdd;
+          for (i = 0, l = orderedModels.length; i < l; i++) {
+            this.models.push(orderedModels[i]);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Silently sort the collection if appropriate.
+      if (sort) this.sort({silent: true});
+
+      // Unless silenced, it's time to fire all appropriate add/sort events.
+      if (!options.silent) {
+        for (i = 0, l = toAdd.length; i < l; i++) {
+          (model = toAdd[i]).trigger('add', model, this, options);
+        }
+        if (sort || (order && order.length)) this.trigger('sort', this, options);
+      }
+      
+      // Return the added (or merged) model (or models).
+      return singular ? models[0] : models;
+    },
+
+    // When you have more items than you want to add or remove individually,
+    // you can reset the entire set with a new list of models, without firing
+    // any granular `add` or `remove` events. Fires `reset` when finished.
+    // Useful for bulk operations and optimizations.
+    reset: function(models, options) {
+      options || (options = {});
+      for (var i = 0, l = this.models.length; i < l; i++) {
+        this._removeReference(this.models[i]);
+      }
+      options.previousModels = this.models;
+      this._reset();
+      models = this.add(models, _.extend({silent: true}, options));
+      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
+      return models;
     },
 
     // Add a model to the end of the collection.
     push: function(model, options) {
-      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
-      this.add(model, options);
-      return model;
+      return this.add(model, _.extend({at: this.length}, options));
     },
 
     // Remove a model from the end of the collection.
@@ -672,9 +780,7 @@
 
     // Add a model to the beginning of the collection.
     unshift: function(model, options) {
-      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
-      this.add(model, _.extend({at: 0}, options));
-      return model;
+      return this.add(model, _.extend({at: 0}, options));
     },
 
     // Remove a model from the beginning of the collection.
@@ -684,15 +790,15 @@
       return model;
     },
 
-    // Get a model from the set by id.
-    get: function(id) {
-      if (id == null) return void 0;
-      return this._byId[id.id != null ? id.id : id];
+    // Slice out a sub-array of models from the collection.
+    slice: function() {
+      return slice.apply(this.models, arguments);
     },
 
-    // Get a model from the set by client id.
-    getByCid: function(cid) {
-      return cid && this._byCid[cid.cid || cid];
+    // Get a model from the set by id.
+    get: function(obj) {
+      if (obj == null) return void 0;
+      return this._byId[obj.id] || this._byId[obj.cid] || this._byId[obj];
     },
 
     // Get the model at the given index.
@@ -700,10 +806,11 @@
       return this.models[index];
     },
 
-    // Return models with matching attributes. Useful for simple cases of `filter`.
-    where: function(attrs) {
-      if (_.isEmpty(attrs)) return [];
-      return this.filter(function(model) {
+    // Return models with matching attributes. Useful for simple cases of
+    // `filter`.
+    where: function(attrs, first) {
+      if (_.isEmpty(attrs)) return first ? void 0 : [];
+      return this[first ? 'find' : 'filter'](function(model) {
         for (var key in attrs) {
           if (attrs[key] !== model.get(key)) return false;
         }
@@ -711,75 +818,65 @@
       });
     },
 
+    // Return the first model with matching attributes. Useful for simple cases
+    // of `find`.
+    findWhere: function(attrs) {
+      return this.where(attrs, true);
+    },
+
     // Force the collection to re-sort itself. You don't need to call this under
     // normal circumstances, as the set will maintain sort order as each item
     // is added.
     sort: function(options) {
-      options || (options = {});
       if (!this.comparator) throw new Error('Cannot sort a set without a comparator');
-      var boundComparator = _.bind(this.comparator, this);
-      if (this.comparator.length == 1) {
-        this.models = this.sortBy(boundComparator);
+      options || (options = {});
+
+      // Run sort based on type of `comparator`.
+      if (_.isString(this.comparator) || this.comparator.length === 1) {
+        this.models = this.sortBy(this.comparator, this);
       } else {
-        this.models.sort(boundComparator);
+        this.models.sort(_.bind(this.comparator, this));
       }
-      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
+
+      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('sort', this, options);
       return this;
     },
 
     // Pluck an attribute from each model in the collection.
     pluck: function(attr) {
-      return _.map(this.models, function(model){ return model.get(attr); });
-    },
-
-    // When you have more items than you want to add or remove individually,
-    // you can reset the entire set with a new list of models, without firing
-    // any `add` or `remove` events. Fires `reset` when finished.
-    reset: function(models, options) {
-      models  || (models = []);
-      options || (options = {});
-      for (var i = 0, l = this.models.length; i < l; i++) {
-        this._removeReference(this.models[i]);
-      }
-      this._reset();
-      this.add(models, _.extend({silent: true}, options));
-      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
-      return this;
+      return _.invoke(this.models, 'get', attr);
     },
 
     // Fetch the default set of models for this collection, resetting the
-    // collection when they arrive. If `add: true` is passed, appends the
-    // models to the collection instead of resetting.
+    // collection when they arrive. If `reset: true` is passed, the response
+    // data will be passed through the `reset` method instead of `set`.
     fetch: function(options) {
       options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
-      if (options.parse === undefined) options.parse = true;
-      var collection = this;
+      if (options.parse === void 0) options.parse = true;
       var success = options.success;
-      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
-        collection[options.add ? 'add' : 'reset'](collection.parse(resp, xhr), options);
-        if (success) success(collection, resp);
+      var collection = this;
+      options.success = function(resp) {
+        var method = options.reset ? 'reset' : 'set';
+        collection[method](resp, options);
+        if (success) success(collection, resp, options);
+        collection.trigger('sync', collection, resp, options);
       };
-      options.error = Backbone.wrapError(options.error, collection, options);
-      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'read', this, options);
+      wrapError(this, options);
+      return this.sync('read', this, options);
     },
 
     // Create a new instance of a model in this collection. Add the model to the
     // collection immediately, unless `wait: true` is passed, in which case we
     // wait for the server to agree.
     create: function(model, options) {
-      var coll = this;
       options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
-      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
-      if (!model) return false;
-      if (!options.wait) coll.add(model, options);
+      if (!(model = this._prepareModel(model, options))) return false;
+      if (!options.wait) this.add(model, options);
+      var collection = this;
       var success = options.success;
-      options.success = function(nextModel, resp, xhr) {
-        if (options.wait) coll.add(nextModel, options);
-        if (success) {
-          success(nextModel, resp);
-        } else {
-          nextModel.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
-        }
+      options.success = function(model, resp, options) {
+        if (options.wait) collection.add(model, options);
+        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
       };
       model.save(null, options);
       return model;
@@ -787,44 +884,41 @@
 
     // **parse** converts a response into a list of models to be added to the
     // collection. The default implementation is just to pass it through.
-    parse: function(resp, xhr) {
+    parse: function(resp, options) {
       return resp;
     },
 
-    // Proxy to _'s chain. Can't be proxied the same way the rest of the
-    // underscore methods are proxied because it relies on the underscore
-    // constructor.
-    chain: function () {
-      return _(this.models).chain();
+    // Create a new collection with an identical list of models as this one.
+    clone: function() {
+      return new this.constructor(this.models);
     },
 
-    // Reset all internal state. Called when the collection is reset.
-    _reset: function(options) {
+    // Private method to reset all internal state. Called when the collection
+    // is first initialized or reset.
+    _reset: function() {
       this.length = 0;
       this.models = [];
       this._byId  = {};
-      this._byCid = {};
     },
 
-    // Prepare a model or hash of attributes to be added to this collection.
-    _prepareModel: function(model, options) {
-      options || (options = {});
-      if (!(model instanceof Model)) {
-        var attrs = model;
-        options.collection = this;
-        model = new this.model(attrs, options);
-        if (!model._validate(model.attributes, options)) model = false;
-      } else if (!model.collection) {
-        model.collection = this;
+    // Prepare a hash of attributes (or other model) to be added to this
+    // collection.
+    _prepareModel: function(attrs, options) {
+      if (attrs instanceof Model) {
+        if (!attrs.collection) attrs.collection = this;
+        return attrs;
       }
-      return model;
+      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
+      options.collection = this;
+      var model = new this.model(attrs, options);
+      if (!model.validationError) return model;
+      this.trigger('invalid', this, model.validationError, options);
+      return false;
     },
 
-    // Internal method to remove a model's ties to a collection.
+    // Internal method to sever a model's ties to a collection.
     _removeReference: function(model) {
-      if (this == model.collection) {
-        delete model.collection;
-      }
+      if (this === model.collection) delete model.collection;
       model.off('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
     },
 
@@ -833,13 +927,11 @@
     // events simply proxy through. "add" and "remove" events that originate
     // in other collections are ignored.
     _onModelEvent: function(event, model, collection, options) {
-      if ((event == 'add' || event == 'remove') && collection != this) return;
-      if (event == 'destroy') {
-        this.remove(model, options);
-      }
+      if ((event === 'add' || event === 'remove') && collection !== this) return;
+      if (event === 'destroy') this.remove(model, options);
       if (model && event === 'change:' + model.idAttribute) {
         delete this._byId[model.previous(model.idAttribute)];
-        this._byId[model.id] = model;
+        if (model.id != null) this._byId[model.id] = model;
       }
       this.trigger.apply(this, arguments);
     }
@@ -847,21 +939,266 @@
   });
 
   // Underscore methods that we want to implement on the Collection.
-  var methods = ['forEach', 'each', 'map', 'reduce', 'reduceRight', 'find',
-    'detect', 'filter', 'select', 'reject', 'every', 'all', 'some', 'any',
-    'include', 'contains', 'invoke', 'max', 'min', 'sortBy', 'sortedIndex',
-    'toArray', 'size', 'first', 'initial', 'rest', 'last', 'without', 'indexOf',
-    'shuffle', 'lastIndexOf', 'isEmpty', 'groupBy'];
+  // 90% of the core usefulness of Backbone Collections is actually implemented
+  // right here:
+  var methods = ['forEach', 'each', 'map', 'collect', 'reduce', 'foldl',
+    'inject', 'reduceRight', 'foldr', 'find', 'detect', 'filter', 'select',
+    'reject', 'every', 'all', 'some', 'any', 'include', 'contains', 'invoke',
+    'max', 'min', 'toArray', 'size', 'first', 'head', 'take', 'initial', 'rest',
+    'tail', 'drop', 'last', 'without', 'difference', 'indexOf', 'shuffle',
+    'lastIndexOf', 'isEmpty', 'chain'];
 
   // Mix in each Underscore method as a proxy to `Collection#models`.
   _.each(methods, function(method) {
     Collection.prototype[method] = function() {
-      return _[method].apply(_, [this.models].concat(_.toArray(arguments)));
+      var args = slice.call(arguments);
+      args.unshift(this.models);
+      return _[method].apply(_, args);
     };
   });
 
+  // Underscore methods that take a property name as an argument.
+  var attributeMethods = ['groupBy', 'countBy', 'sortBy'];
+
+  // Use attributes instead of properties.
+  _.each(attributeMethods, function(method) {
+    Collection.prototype[method] = function(value, context) {
+      var iterator = _.isFunction(value) ? value : function(model) {
+        return model.get(value);
+      };
+      return _[method](this.models, iterator, context);
+    };
+  });
+
+  // Backbone.View
+  // -------------
+
+  // Backbone Views are almost more convention than they are actual code. A View
+  // is simply a JavaScript object that represents a logical chunk of UI in the
+  // DOM. This might be a single item, an entire list, a sidebar or panel, or
+  // even the surrounding frame which wraps your whole app. Defining a chunk of
+  // UI as a **View** allows you to define your DOM events declaratively, without
+  // having to worry about render order ... and makes it easy for the view to
+  // react to specific changes in the state of your models.
+
+  // Creating a Backbone.View creates its initial element outside of the DOM,
+  // if an existing element is not provided...
+  var View = Backbone.View = function(options) {
+    this.cid = _.uniqueId('view');
+    options || (options = {});
+    _.extend(this, _.pick(options, viewOptions));
+    this._ensureElement();
+    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
+    this.delegateEvents();
+  };
+
+  // Cached regex to split keys for `delegate`.
+  var delegateEventSplitter = /^(\S+)\s*(.*)$/;
+
+  // List of view options to be merged as properties.
+  var viewOptions = ['model', 'collection', 'el', 'id', 'attributes', 'className', 'tagName', 'events'];
+
+  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.View** properties and methods.
+  _.extend(View.prototype, Events, {
+
+    // The default `tagName` of a View's element is `"div"`.
+    tagName: 'div',
+
+    // jQuery delegate for element lookup, scoped to DOM elements within the
+    // current view. This should be preferred to global lookups where possible.
+    $: function(selector) {
+      return this.$el.find(selector);
+    },
+
+    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
+    // initialization logic.
+    initialize: function(){},
+
+    // **render** is the core function that your view should override, in order
+    // to populate its element (`this.el`), with the appropriate HTML. The
+    // convention is for **render** to always return `this`.
+    render: function() {
+      return this;
+    },
+
+    // Remove this view by taking the element out of the DOM, and removing any
+    // applicable Backbone.Events listeners.
+    remove: function() {
+      this.$el.remove();
+      this.stopListening();
+      return this;
+    },
+
+    // Change the view's element (`this.el` property), including event
+    // re-delegation.
+    setElement: function(element, delegate) {
+      if (this.$el) this.undelegateEvents();
+      this.$el = element instanceof Backbone.$ ? element : Backbone.$(element);
+      this.el = this.$el[0];
+      if (delegate !== false) this.delegateEvents();
+      return this;
+    },
+
+    // Set callbacks, where `this.events` is a hash of
+    //
+    // *{"event selector": "callback"}*
+    //
+    //     {
+    //       'mousedown .title':  'edit',
+    //       'click .button':     'save',
+    //       'click .open':       function(e) { ... }
+    //     }
+    //
+    // pairs. Callbacks will be bound to the view, with `this` set properly.
+    // Uses event delegation for efficiency.
+    // Omitting the selector binds the event to `this.el`.
+    // This only works for delegate-able events: not `focus`, `blur`, and
+    // not `change`, `submit`, and `reset` in Internet Explorer.
+    delegateEvents: function(events) {
+      if (!(events || (events = _.result(this, 'events')))) return this;
+      this.undelegateEvents();
+      for (var key in events) {
+        var method = events[key];
+        if (!_.isFunction(method)) method = this[events[key]];
+        if (!method) continue;
+
+        var match = key.match(delegateEventSplitter);
+        var eventName = match[1], selector = match[2];
+        method = _.bind(method, this);
+        eventName += '.delegateEvents' + this.cid;
+        if (selector === '') {
+          this.$el.on(eventName, method);
+        } else {
+          this.$el.on(eventName, selector, method);
+        }
+      }
+      return this;
+    },
+
+    // Clears all callbacks previously bound to the view with `delegateEvents`.
+    // You usually don't need to use this, but may wish to if you have multiple
+    // Backbone views attached to the same DOM element.
+    undelegateEvents: function() {
+      this.$el.off('.delegateEvents' + this.cid);
+      return this;
+    },
+
+    // Ensure that the View has a DOM element to render into.
+    // If `this.el` is a string, pass it through `$()`, take the first
+    // matching element, and re-assign it to `el`. Otherwise, create
+    // an element from the `id`, `className` and `tagName` properties.
+    _ensureElement: function() {
+      if (!this.el) {
+        var attrs = _.extend({}, _.result(this, 'attributes'));
+        if (this.id) attrs.id = _.result(this, 'id');
+        if (this.className) attrs['class'] = _.result(this, 'className');
+        var $el = Backbone.$('<' + _.result(this, 'tagName') + '>').attr(attrs);
+        this.setElement($el, false);
+      } else {
+        this.setElement(_.result(this, 'el'), false);
+      }
+    }
+
+  });
+
+  // Backbone.sync
+  // -------------
+
+  // Override this function to change the manner in which Backbone persists
+  // models to the server. You will be passed the type of request, and the
+  // model in question. By default, makes a RESTful Ajax request
+  // to the model's `url()`. Some possible customizations could be:
+  //
+  // * Use `setTimeout` to batch rapid-fire updates into a single request.
+  // * Send up the models as XML instead of JSON.
+  // * Persist models via WebSockets instead of Ajax.
+  //
+  // Turn on `Backbone.emulateHTTP` in order to send `PUT` and `DELETE` requests
+  // as `POST`, with a `_method` parameter containing the true HTTP method,
+  // as well as all requests with the body as `application/x-www-form-urlencoded`
+  // instead of `application/json` with the model in a param named `model`.
+  // Useful when interfacing with server-side languages like **PHP** that make
+  // it difficult to read the body of `PUT` requests.
+  Backbone.sync = function(method, model, options) {
+    var type = methodMap[method];
+
+    // Default options, unless specified.
+    _.defaults(options || (options = {}), {
+      emulateHTTP: Backbone.emulateHTTP,
+      emulateJSON: Backbone.emulateJSON
+    });
+
+    // Default JSON-request options.
+    var params = {type: type, dataType: 'json'};
+
+    // Ensure that we have a URL.
+    if (!options.url) {
+      params.url = _.result(model, 'url') || urlError();
+    }
+
+    // Ensure that we have the appropriate request data.
+    if (options.data == null && model && (method === 'create' || method === 'update' || method === 'patch')) {
+      params.contentType = 'application/json';
+      params.data = JSON.stringify(options.attrs || model.toJSON(options));
+    }
+
+    // For older servers, emulate JSON by encoding the request into an HTML-form.
+    if (options.emulateJSON) {
+      params.contentType = 'application/x-www-form-urlencoded';
+      params.data = params.data ? {model: params.data} : {};
+    }
+
+    // For older servers, emulate HTTP by mimicking the HTTP method with `_method`
+    // And an `X-HTTP-Method-Override` header.
+    if (options.emulateHTTP && (type === 'PUT' || type === 'DELETE' || type === 'PATCH')) {
+      params.type = 'POST';
+      if (options.emulateJSON) params.data._method = type;
+      var beforeSend = options.beforeSend;
+      options.beforeSend = function(xhr) {
+        xhr.setRequestHeader('X-HTTP-Method-Override', type);
+        if (beforeSend) return beforeSend.apply(this, arguments);
+      };
+    }
+
+    // Don't process data on a non-GET request.
+    if (params.type !== 'GET' && !options.emulateJSON) {
+      params.processData = false;
+    }
+
+    // If we're sending a `PATCH` request, and we're in an old Internet Explorer
+    // that still has ActiveX enabled by default, override jQuery to use that
+    // for XHR instead. Remove this line when jQuery supports `PATCH` on IE8.
+    if (params.type === 'PATCH' && noXhrPatch) {
+      params.xhr = function() {
+        return new ActiveXObject("Microsoft.XMLHTTP");
+      };
+    }
+
+    // Make the request, allowing the user to override any Ajax options.
+    var xhr = options.xhr = Backbone.ajax(_.extend(params, options));
+    model.trigger('request', model, xhr, options);
+    return xhr;
+  };
+
+  var noXhrPatch = typeof window !== 'undefined' && !!window.ActiveXObject && !(window.XMLHttpRequest && (new XMLHttpRequest).dispatchEvent);
+
+  // Map from CRUD to HTTP for our default `Backbone.sync` implementation.
+  var methodMap = {
+    'create': 'POST',
+    'update': 'PUT',
+    'patch':  'PATCH',
+    'delete': 'DELETE',
+    'read':   'GET'
+  };
+
+  // Set the default implementation of `Backbone.ajax` to proxy through to `$`.
+  // Override this if you'd like to use a different library.
+  Backbone.ajax = function() {
+    return Backbone.$.ajax.apply(Backbone.$, arguments);
+  };
+
   // Backbone.Router
-  // -------------------
+  // ---------------
 
   // Routers map faux-URLs to actions, and fire events when routes are
   // matched. Creating a new one sets its `routes` hash, if not set statically.
@@ -874,9 +1211,10 @@
 
   // Cached regular expressions for matching named param parts and splatted
   // parts of route strings.
-  var namedParam    = /:\w+/g;
+  var optionalParam = /\((.*?)\)/g;
+  var namedParam    = /(\(\?)?:\w+/g;
   var splatParam    = /\*\w+/g;
-  var escapeRegExp  = /[-[\]{}()+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g;
+  var escapeRegExp  = /[\-{}\[\]+?.,\\\^$|#\s]/g;
 
   // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.Router** properties and methods.
   _.extend(Router.prototype, Events, {
@@ -892,21 +1230,27 @@
     //     });
     //
     route: function(route, name, callback) {
-      Backbone.history || (Backbone.history = new History);
       if (!_.isRegExp(route)) route = this._routeToRegExp(route);
+      if (_.isFunction(name)) {
+        callback = name;
+        name = '';
+      }
       if (!callback) callback = this[name];
-      Backbone.history.route(route, _.bind(function(fragment) {
-        var args = this._extractParameters(route, fragment);
-        callback && callback.apply(this, args);
-        this.trigger.apply(this, ['route:' + name].concat(args));
-        Backbone.history.trigger('route', this, name, args);
-      }, this));
+      var router = this;
+      Backbone.history.route(route, function(fragment) {
+        var args = router._extractParameters(route, fragment);
+        callback && callback.apply(router, args);
+        router.trigger.apply(router, ['route:' + name].concat(args));
+        router.trigger('route', name, args);
+        Backbone.history.trigger('route', router, name, args);
+      });
       return this;
     },
 
     // Simple proxy to `Backbone.history` to save a fragment into the history.
     navigate: function(fragment, options) {
       Backbone.history.navigate(fragment, options);
+      return this;
     },
 
     // Bind all defined routes to `Backbone.history`. We have to reverse the
@@ -914,12 +1258,10 @@
     // routes can be defined at the bottom of the route map.
     _bindRoutes: function() {
       if (!this.routes) return;
-      var routes = [];
-      for (var route in this.routes) {
-        routes.unshift([route, this.routes[route]]);
-      }
-      for (var i = 0, l = routes.length; i < l; i++) {
-        this.route(routes[i][0], routes[i][1], this[routes[i][1]]);
+      this.routes = _.result(this, 'routes');
+      var route, routes = _.keys(this.routes);
+      while ((route = routes.pop()) != null) {
+        this.route(route, this.routes[route]);
       }
     },
 
@@ -927,15 +1269,22 @@
     // against the current location hash.
     _routeToRegExp: function(route) {
       route = route.replace(escapeRegExp, '\\$&')
-                   .replace(namedParam, '([^\/]+)')
+                   .replace(optionalParam, '(?:$1)?')
+                   .replace(namedParam, function(match, optional) {
+                     return optional ? match : '([^\/]+)';
+                   })
                    .replace(splatParam, '(.*?)');
       return new RegExp('^' + route + '$');
     },
 
     // Given a route, and a URL fragment that it matches, return the array of
-    // extracted parameters.
+    // extracted decoded parameters. Empty or unmatched parameters will be
+    // treated as `null` to normalize cross-browser behavior.
     _extractParameters: function(route, fragment) {
-      return route.exec(fragment).slice(1);
+      var params = route.exec(fragment).slice(1);
+      return _.map(params, function(param) {
+        return param ? decodeURIComponent(param) : null;
+      });
     }
 
   });
@@ -943,19 +1292,37 @@
   // Backbone.History
   // ----------------
 
-  // Handles cross-browser history management, based on URL fragments. If the
-  // browser does not support `onhashchange`, falls back to polling.
+  // Handles cross-browser history management, based on either
+  // [pushState](http://diveintohtml5.info/history.html) and real URLs, or
+  // [onhashchange](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/DOM/window.onhashchange)
+  // and URL fragments. If the browser supports neither (old IE, natch),
+  // falls back to polling.
   var History = Backbone.History = function() {
     this.handlers = [];
     _.bindAll(this, 'checkUrl');
+
+    // Ensure that `History` can be used outside of the browser.
+    if (typeof window !== 'undefined') {
+      this.location = window.location;
+      this.history = window.history;
+    }
   };
 
-  // Cached regex for cleaning leading hashes and slashes .
-  var routeStripper = /^[#\/]/;
+  // Cached regex for stripping a leading hash/slash and trailing space.
+  var routeStripper = /^[#\/]|\s+$/g;
+
+  // Cached regex for stripping leading and trailing slashes.
+  var rootStripper = /^\/+|\/+$/g;
 
   // Cached regex for detecting MSIE.
   var isExplorer = /msie [\w.]+/;
 
+  // Cached regex for removing a trailing slash.
+  var trailingSlash = /\/$/;
+
+  // Cached regex for stripping urls of hash and query.
+  var pathStripper = /[?#].*$/;
+
   // Has the history handling already been started?
   History.started = false;
 
@@ -968,9 +1335,8 @@
 
     // Gets the true hash value. Cannot use location.hash directly due to bug
     // in Firefox where location.hash will always be decoded.
-    getHash: function(windowOverride) {
-      var loc = windowOverride ? windowOverride.location : window.location;
-      var match = loc.href.match(/#(.*)$/);
+    getHash: function(window) {
+      var match = (window || this).location.href.match(/#(.*)$/);
       return match ? match[1] : '';
     },
 
@@ -978,15 +1344,14 @@
     // the hash, or the override.
     getFragment: function(fragment, forcePushState) {
       if (fragment == null) {
-        if (this._hasPushState || forcePushState) {
-          fragment = window.location.pathname;
-          var search = window.location.search;
-          if (search) fragment += search;
+        if (this._hasPushState || !this._wantsHashChange || forcePushState) {
+          fragment = this.location.pathname;
+          var root = this.root.replace(trailingSlash, '');
+          if (!fragment.indexOf(root)) fragment = fragment.slice(root.length);
         } else {
           fragment = this.getHash();
         }
       }
-      if (!fragment.indexOf(this.options.root)) fragment = fragment.substr(this.options.root.length);
       return fragment.replace(routeStripper, '');
     },
 
@@ -998,25 +1363,29 @@
 
       // Figure out the initial configuration. Do we need an iframe?
       // Is pushState desired ... is it available?
-      this.options          = _.extend({}, {root: '/'}, this.options, options);
+      this.options          = _.extend({root: '/'}, this.options, options);
+      this.root             = this.options.root;
       this._wantsHashChange = this.options.hashChange !== false;
       this._wantsPushState  = !!this.options.pushState;
-      this._hasPushState    = !!(this.options.pushState && window.history && window.history.pushState);
+      this._hasPushState    = !!(this.options.pushState && this.history && this.history.pushState);
       var fragment          = this.getFragment();
       var docMode           = document.documentMode;
       var oldIE             = (isExplorer.exec(navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase()) && (!docMode || docMode <= 7));
 
-      if (oldIE) {
-        this.iframe = $('<iframe src="javascript:0" tabindex="-1" />').hide().appendTo('body')[0].contentWindow;
+      // Normalize root to always include a leading and trailing slash.
+      this.root = ('/' + this.root + '/').replace(rootStripper, '/');
+
+      if (oldIE && this._wantsHashChange) {
+        this.iframe = Backbone.$('<iframe src="javascript:0" tabindex="-1" />').hide().appendTo('body')[0].contentWindow;
         this.navigate(fragment);
       }
 
       // Depending on whether we're using pushState or hashes, and whether
       // 'onhashchange' is supported, determine how we check the URL state.
       if (this._hasPushState) {
-        $(window).bind('popstate', this.checkUrl);
+        Backbone.$(window).on('popstate', this.checkUrl);
       } else if (this._wantsHashChange && ('onhashchange' in window) && !oldIE) {
-        $(window).bind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
+        Backbone.$(window).on('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
       } else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
         this._checkUrlInterval = setInterval(this.checkUrl, this.interval);
       }
@@ -1024,33 +1393,37 @@
       // Determine if we need to change the base url, for a pushState link
       // opened by a non-pushState browser.
       this.fragment = fragment;
-      var loc = window.location;
-      var atRoot  = loc.pathname == this.options.root;
-
-      // If we've started off with a route from a `pushState`-enabled browser,
-      // but we're currently in a browser that doesn't support it...
-      if (this._wantsHashChange && this._wantsPushState && !this._hasPushState && !atRoot) {
-        this.fragment = this.getFragment(null, true);
-        window.location.replace(this.options.root + '#' + this.fragment);
-        // Return immediately as browser will do redirect to new url
-        return true;
+      var loc = this.location;
+      var atRoot = loc.pathname.replace(/[^\/]$/, '$&/') === this.root;
+
+      // Transition from hashChange to pushState or vice versa if both are
+      // requested.
+      if (this._wantsHashChange && this._wantsPushState) {
+
+        // If we've started off with a route from a `pushState`-enabled
+        // browser, but we're currently in a browser that doesn't support it...
+        if (!this._hasPushState && !atRoot) {
+          this.fragment = this.getFragment(null, true);
+          this.location.replace(this.root + this.location.search + '#' + this.fragment);
+          // Return immediately as browser will do redirect to new url
+          return true;
 
-      // Or if we've started out with a hash-based route, but we're currently
-      // in a browser where it could be `pushState`-based instead...
-      } else if (this._wantsPushState && this._hasPushState && atRoot && loc.hash) {
-        this.fragment = this.getHash().replace(routeStripper, '');
-        window.history.replaceState({}, document.title, loc.protocol + '//' + loc.host + this.options.root + this.fragment);
-      }
+        // Or if we've started out with a hash-based route, but we're currently
+        // in a browser where it could be `pushState`-based instead...
+        } else if (this._hasPushState && atRoot && loc.hash) {
+          this.fragment = this.getHash().replace(routeStripper, '');
+          this.history.replaceState({}, document.title, this.root + this.fragment + loc.search);
+        }
 
-      if (!this.options.silent) {
-        return this.loadUrl();
       }
+
+      if (!this.options.silent) return this.loadUrl();
     },
 
     // Disable Backbone.history, perhaps temporarily. Not useful in a real app,
     // but possibly useful for unit testing Routers.
     stop: function() {
-      $(window).unbind('popstate', this.checkUrl).unbind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
+      Backbone.$(window).off('popstate', this.checkUrl).off('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
       clearInterval(this._checkUrlInterval);
       History.started = false;
     },
@@ -1065,24 +1438,25 @@
     // calls `loadUrl`, normalizing across the hidden iframe.
     checkUrl: function(e) {
       var current = this.getFragment();
-      if (current == this.fragment && this.iframe) current = this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe));
-      if (current == this.fragment) return false;
+      if (current === this.fragment && this.iframe) {
+        current = this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe));
+      }
+      if (current === this.fragment) return false;
       if (this.iframe) this.navigate(current);
-      this.loadUrl() || this.loadUrl(this.getHash());
+      this.loadUrl();
     },
 
     // Attempt to load the current URL fragment. If a route succeeds with a
     // match, returns `true`. If no defined routes matches the fragment,
     // returns `false`.
-    loadUrl: function(fragmentOverride) {
-      var fragment = this.fragment = this.getFragment(fragmentOverride);
-      var matched = _.any(this.handlers, function(handler) {
+    loadUrl: function(fragment) {
+      fragment = this.fragment = this.getFragment(fragment);
+      return _.any(this.handlers, function(handler) {
         if (handler.route.test(fragment)) {
           handler.callback(fragment);
           return true;
         }
       });
-      return matched;
     },
 
     // Save a fragment into the hash history, or replace the URL state if the
@@ -1094,338 +1468,114 @@
     // you wish to modify the current URL without adding an entry to the history.
     navigate: function(fragment, options) {
       if (!History.started) return false;
-      if (!options || options === true) options = {trigger: options};
-      var frag = (fragment || '').replace(routeStripper, '');
-      if (this.fragment == frag) return;
+      if (!options || options === true) options = {trigger: !!options};
+
+      var url = this.root + (fragment = this.getFragment(fragment || ''));
+
+      // Strip the fragment of the query and hash for matching.
+      fragment = fragment.replace(pathStripper, '');
+
+      if (this.fragment === fragment) return;
+      this.fragment = fragment;
+
+      // Don't include a trailing slash on the root.
+      if (fragment === '' && url !== '/') url = url.slice(0, -1);
 
       // If pushState is available, we use it to set the fragment as a real URL.
       if (this._hasPushState) {
-        if (frag.indexOf(this.options.root) != 0) frag = this.options.root + frag;
-        this.fragment = frag;
-        window.history[options.replace ? 'replaceState' : 'pushState']({}, document.title, frag);
+        this.history[options.replace ? 'replaceState' : 'pushState']({}, document.title, url);
 
       // If hash changes haven't been explicitly disabled, update the hash
       // fragment to store history.
       } else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
-        this.fragment = frag;
-        this._updateHash(window.location, frag, options.replace);
-        if (this.iframe && (frag != this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe)))) {
-          // Opening and closing the iframe tricks IE7 and earlier to push a history entry on hash-tag change.
-          // When replace is true, we don't want this.
+        this._updateHash(this.location, fragment, options.replace);
+        if (this.iframe && (fragment !== this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe)))) {
+          // Opening and closing the iframe tricks IE7 and earlier to push a
+          // history entry on hash-tag change.  When replace is true, we don't
+          // want this.
           if(!options.replace) this.iframe.document.open().close();
-          this._updateHash(this.iframe.location, frag, options.replace);
+          this._updateHash(this.iframe.location, fragment, options.replace);
         }
 
       // If you've told us that you explicitly don't want fallback hashchange-
       // based history, then `navigate` becomes a page refresh.
       } else {
-        window.location.assign(this.options.root + fragment);
+        return this.location.assign(url);
       }
-      if (options.trigger) this.loadUrl(fragment);
+      if (options.trigger) return this.loadUrl(fragment);
     },
 
     // Update the hash location, either replacing the current entry, or adding
     // a new one to the browser history.
     _updateHash: function(location, fragment, replace) {
       if (replace) {
-        location.replace(location.toString().replace(/(javascript:|#).*$/, '') + '#' + fragment);
-      } else {
-        location.hash = fragment;
-      }
-    }
-  });
-
-  // Backbone.View
-  // -------------
-
-  // Creating a Backbone.View creates its initial element outside of the DOM,
-  // if an existing element is not provided...
-  var View = Backbone.View = function(options) {
-    this.cid = _.uniqueId('view');
-    this._configure(options || {});
-    this._ensureElement();
-    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
-    this.delegateEvents();
-  };
-
-  // Cached regex to split keys for `delegate`.
-  var delegateEventSplitter = /^(\S+)\s*(.*)$/;
-
-  // List of view options to be merged as properties.
-  var viewOptions = ['model', 'collection', 'el', 'id', 'attributes', 'className', 'tagName'];
-
-  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.View** properties and methods.
-  _.extend(View.prototype, Events, {
-
-    // The default `tagName` of a View's element is `"div"`.
-    tagName: 'div',
-
-    // jQuery delegate for element lookup, scoped to DOM elements within the
-    // current view. This should be prefered to global lookups where possible.
-    $: function(selector) {
-      return this.$el.find(selector);
-    },
-
-    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
-    // initialization logic.
-    initialize: function(){},
-
-    // **render** is the core function that your view should override, in order
-    // to populate its element (`this.el`), with the appropriate HTML. The
-    // convention is for **render** to always return `this`.
-    render: function() {
-      return this;
-    },
-
-    // Remove this view from the DOM. Note that the view isn't present in the
-    // DOM by default, so calling this method may be a no-op.
-    remove: function() {
-      this.$el.remove();
-      return this;
-    },
-
-    // For small amounts of DOM Elements, where a full-blown template isn't
-    // needed, use **make** to manufacture elements, one at a time.
-    //
-    //     var el = this.make('li', {'class': 'row'}, this.model.escape('title'));
-    //
-    make: function(tagName, attributes, content) {
-      var el = document.createElement(tagName);
-      if (attributes) $(el).attr(attributes);
-      if (content) $(el).html(content);
-      return el;
-    },
-
-    // Change the view's element (`this.el` property), including event
-    // re-delegation.
-    setElement: function(element, delegate) {
-      if (this.$el) this.undelegateEvents();
-      this.$el = (element instanceof $) ? element : $(element);
-      this.el = this.$el[0];
-      if (delegate !== false) this.delegateEvents();
-      return this;
-    },
-
-    // Set callbacks, where `this.events` is a hash of
-    //
-    // *{"event selector": "callback"}*
-    //
-    //     {
-    //       'mousedown .title':  'edit',
-    //       'click .button':     'save'
-    //       'click .open':       function(e) { ... }
-    //     }
-    //
-    // pairs. Callbacks will be bound to the view, with `this` set properly.
-    // Uses event delegation for efficiency.
-    // Omitting the selector binds the event to `this.el`.
-    // This only works for delegate-able events: not `focus`, `blur`, and
-    // not `change`, `submit`, and `reset` in Internet Explorer.
-    delegateEvents: function(events) {
-      if (!(events || (events = getValue(this, 'events')))) return;
-      this.undelegateEvents();
-      for (var key in events) {
-        var method = events[key];
-        if (!_.isFunction(method)) method = this[events[key]];
-        if (!method) throw new Error('Method "' + events[key] + '" does not exist');
-        var match = key.match(delegateEventSplitter);
-        var eventName = match[1], selector = match[2];
-        method = _.bind(method, this);
-        eventName += '.delegateEvents' + this.cid;
-        if (selector === '') {
-          this.$el.bind(eventName, method);
-        } else {
-          this.$el.delegate(selector, eventName, method);
-        }
-      }
-    },
-
-    // Clears all callbacks previously bound to the view with `delegateEvents`.
-    // You usually don't need to use this, but may wish to if you have multiple
-    // Backbone views attached to the same DOM element.
-    undelegateEvents: function() {
-      this.$el.unbind('.delegateEvents' + this.cid);
-    },
-
-    // Performs the initial configuration of a View with a set of options.
-    // Keys with special meaning *(model, collection, id, className)*, are
-    // attached directly to the view.
-    _configure: function(options) {
-      if (this.options) options = _.extend({}, this.options, options);
-      for (var i = 0, l = viewOptions.length; i < l; i++) {
-        var attr = viewOptions[i];
-        if (options[attr]) this[attr] = options[attr];
-      }
-      this.options = options;
-    },
-
-    // Ensure that the View has a DOM element to render into.
-    // If `this.el` is a string, pass it through `$()`, take the first
-    // matching element, and re-assign it to `el`. Otherwise, create
-    // an element from the `id`, `className` and `tagName` properties.
-    _ensureElement: function() {
-      if (!this.el) {
-        var attrs = getValue(this, 'attributes') || {};
-        if (this.id) attrs.id = this.id;
-        if (this.className) attrs['class'] = this.className;
-        this.setElement(this.make(this.tagName, attrs), false);
+        var href = location.href.replace(/(javascript:|#).*$/, '');
+        location.replace(href + '#' + fragment);
       } else {
-        this.setElement(this.el, false);
+        // Some browsers require that `hash` contains a leading #.
+        location.hash = '#' + fragment;
       }
     }
 
   });
 
-  // The self-propagating extend function that Backbone classes use.
-  var extend = function (protoProps, classProps) {
-    var child = inherits(this, protoProps, classProps);
-    child.extend = this.extend;
-    return child;
-  };
-
-  // Set up inheritance for the model, collection, and view.
-  Model.extend = Collection.extend = Router.extend = View.extend = extend;
-
-  // Backbone.sync
-  // -------------
-
-  // Map from CRUD to HTTP for our default `Backbone.sync` implementation.
-  var methodMap = {
-    'create': 'POST',
-    'update': 'PUT',
-    'delete': 'DELETE',
-    'read':   'GET'
-  };
-
-  // Override this function to change the manner in which Backbone persists
-  // models to the server. You will be passed the type of request, and the
-  // model in question. By default, makes a RESTful Ajax request
-  // to the model's `url()`. Some possible customizations could be:
-  //
-  // * Use `setTimeout` to batch rapid-fire updates into a single request.
-  // * Send up the models as XML instead of JSON.
-  // * Persist models via WebSockets instead of Ajax.
-  //
-  // Turn on `Backbone.emulateHTTP` in order to send `PUT` and `DELETE` requests
-  // as `POST`, with a `_method` parameter containing the true HTTP method,
-  // as well as all requests with the body as `application/x-www-form-urlencoded`
-  // instead of `application/json` with the model in a param named `model`.
-  // Useful when interfacing with server-side languages like **PHP** that make
-  // it difficult to read the body of `PUT` requests.
-  Backbone.sync = function(method, model, options) {
-    var type = methodMap[method];
-
-    // Default options, unless specified.
-    options || (options = {});
-
-    // Default JSON-request options.
-    var params = {type: type, dataType: 'json'};
-
-    // Ensure that we have a URL.
-    if (!options.url) {
-      params.url = getValue(model, 'url') || urlError();
-    }
-
-    // Ensure that we have the appropriate request data.
-    if (!options.data && model && (method == 'create' || method == 'update')) {
-      params.contentType = 'application/json';
-      params.data = JSON.stringify(model.toJSON());
-    }
-
-    // For older servers, emulate JSON by encoding the request into an HTML-form.
-    if (Backbone.emulateJSON) {
-      params.contentType = 'application/x-www-form-urlencoded';
-      params.data = params.data ? {model: params.data} : {};
-    }
-
-    // For older servers, emulate HTTP by mimicking the HTTP method with `_method`
-    // And an `X-HTTP-Method-Override` header.
-    if (Backbone.emulateHTTP) {
-      if (type === 'PUT' || type === 'DELETE') {
-        if (Backbone.emulateJSON) params.data._method = type;
-        params.type = 'POST';
-        params.beforeSend = function(xhr) {
-          xhr.setRequestHeader('X-HTTP-Method-Override', type);
-        };
-      }
-    }
-
-    // Don't process data on a non-GET request.
-    if (params.type !== 'GET' && !Backbone.emulateJSON) {
-      params.processData = false;
-    }
-
-    // Make the request, allowing the user to override any Ajax options.
-    return $.ajax(_.extend(params, options));
-  };
-
-  // Wrap an optional error callback with a fallback error event.
-  Backbone.wrapError = function(onError, originalModel, options) {
-    return function(model, resp) {
-      resp = model === originalModel ? resp : model;
-      if (onError) {
-        onError(originalModel, resp, options);
-      } else {
-        originalModel.trigger('error', originalModel, resp, options);
-      }
-    };
-  };
+  // Create the default Backbone.history.
+  Backbone.history = new History;
 
   // Helpers
   // -------
 
-  // Shared empty constructor function to aid in prototype-chain creation.
-  var ctor = function(){};
-
   // Helper function to correctly set up the prototype chain, for subclasses.
   // Similar to `goog.inherits`, but uses a hash of prototype properties and
   // class properties to be extended.
-  var inherits = function(parent, protoProps, staticProps) {
+  var extend = function(protoProps, staticProps) {
+    var parent = this;
     var child;
 
     // The constructor function for the new subclass is either defined by you
     // (the "constructor" property in your `extend` definition), or defaulted
     // by us to simply call the parent's constructor.
-    if (protoProps && protoProps.hasOwnProperty('constructor')) {
+    if (protoProps && _.has(protoProps, 'constructor')) {
       child = protoProps.constructor;
     } else {
-      child = function(){ parent.apply(this, arguments); };
+      child = function(){ return parent.apply(this, arguments); };
     }
 
-    // Inherit class (static) properties from parent.
-    _.extend(child, parent);
+    // Add static properties to the constructor function, if supplied.
+    _.extend(child, parent, staticProps);
 
     // Set the prototype chain to inherit from `parent`, without calling
     // `parent`'s constructor function.
-    ctor.prototype = parent.prototype;
-    child.prototype = new ctor();
+    var Surrogate = function(){ this.constructor = child; };
+    Surrogate.prototype = parent.prototype;
+    child.prototype = new Surrogate;
 
     // Add prototype properties (instance properties) to the subclass,
     // if supplied.
     if (protoProps) _.extend(child.prototype, protoProps);
 
-    // Add static properties to the constructor function, if supplied.
-    if (staticProps) _.extend(child, staticProps);
-
-    // Correctly set child's `prototype.constructor`.
-    child.prototype.constructor = child;
-
-    // Set a convenience property in case the parent's prototype is needed later.
+    // Set a convenience property in case the parent's prototype is needed
+    // later.
     child.__super__ = parent.prototype;
 
     return child;
   };
 
-  // Helper function to get a value from a Backbone object as a property
-  // or as a function.
-  var getValue = function(object, prop) {
-    if (!(object && object[prop])) return null;
-    return _.isFunction(object[prop]) ? object[prop]() : object[prop];
-  };
+  // Set up inheritance for the model, collection, router, view and history.
+  Model.extend = Collection.extend = Router.extend = View.extend = History.extend = extend;
 
   // Throw an error when a URL is needed, and none is supplied.
   var urlError = function() {
     throw new Error('A "url" property or function must be specified');
   };
 
+  // Wrap an optional error callback with a fallback error event.
+  var wrapError = function(model, options) {
+    var error = options.error;
+    options.error = function(resp) {
+      if (error) error(model, resp, options);
+      model.trigger('error', model, resp, options);
+    };
+  };
+
 }).call(this);