activerecord 3.2.19 → 5.0.0

data/lib/active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql_adapter.rb

@@ -1,245 +1,132 @@
-require 'active_record/connection_adapters/abstract_adapter'
-require 'active_support/core_ext/object/blank'
-require 'active_record/connection_adapters/statement_pool'
-require 'arel/visitors/bind_visitor'
-
-# Make sure we're using pg high enough for PGResult#values
-gem 'pg', '~> 0.11'
+# Make sure we're using pg high enough for type casts and Ruby 2.2+ compatibility
+gem 'pg', '~> 0.18'
 require 'pg'
 
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/abstract_adapter"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/column"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/database_statements"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/explain_pretty_printer"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/oid"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/quoting"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/referential_integrity"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/schema_definitions"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/schema_dumper"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/schema_statements"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/type_metadata"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/postgresql/utils"
+require "active_record/connection_adapters/statement_pool"
+
 module ActiveRecord
-  class Base
+  module ConnectionHandling # :nodoc:
     # Establishes a connection to the database that's used by all Active Record objects
-    def self.postgresql_connection(config) # :nodoc:
-      config = config.symbolize_keys
-      host     = config[:host]
-      port     = config[:port] || 5432
-      username = config[:username].to_s if config[:username]
-      password = config[:password].to_s if config[:password]
-
-      if config.key?(:database)
-        database = config[:database]
-      else
-        raise ArgumentError, "No database specified. Missing argument: database."
-      end
+    def postgresql_connection(config)
+      conn_params = config.symbolize_keys
+
+      conn_params.delete_if { |_, v| v.nil? }
+
+      # Map ActiveRecords param names to PGs.
+      conn_params[:user] = conn_params.delete(:username) if conn_params[:username]
+      conn_params[:dbname] = conn_params.delete(:database) if conn_params[:database]
+
+      # Forward only valid config params to PGconn.connect.
+      valid_conn_param_keys = PGconn.conndefaults_hash.keys + [:requiressl]
+      conn_params.slice!(*valid_conn_param_keys)
 
       # The postgres drivers don't allow the creation of an unconnected PGconn object,
       # so just pass a nil connection object for the time being.
-      ConnectionAdapters::PostgreSQLAdapter.new(nil, logger, [host, port, nil, nil, database, username, password], config)
+      ConnectionAdapters::PostgreSQLAdapter.new(nil, logger, conn_params, config)
     end
   end
 
   module ConnectionAdapters
-    # PostgreSQL-specific extensions to column definitions in a table.
-    class PostgreSQLColumn < Column #:nodoc:
-      # Instantiates a new PostgreSQL column definition in a table.
-      def initialize(name, default, sql_type = nil, null = true)
-        super(name, self.class.extract_value_from_default(default), sql_type, null)
-      end
-
-      # :stopdoc:
-      class << self
-        attr_accessor :money_precision
-        def string_to_time(string)
-          return string unless String === string
-
-          case string
-          when 'infinity'  then 1.0 / 0.0
-          when '-infinity' then -1.0 / 0.0
-          else
-            super
-          end
-        end
-      end
-      # :startdoc:
-
-      private
-        def extract_limit(sql_type)
-          case sql_type
-          when /^bigint/i;    8
-          when /^smallint/i;  2
-          else super
-          end
-        end
-
-        # Extracts the scale from PostgreSQL-specific data types.
-        def extract_scale(sql_type)
-          # Money type has a fixed scale of 2.
-          sql_type =~ /^money/ ? 2 : super
-        end
-
-        # Extracts the precision from PostgreSQL-specific data types.
-        def extract_precision(sql_type)
-          if sql_type == 'money'
-            self.class.money_precision
-          else
-            super
-          end
-        end
-
-        # Maps PostgreSQL-specific data types to logical Rails types.
-        def simplified_type(field_type)
-          case field_type
-            # Numeric and monetary types
-            when /^(?:real|double precision)$/
-              :float
-            # Monetary types
-            when 'money'
-              :decimal
-            # Character types
-            when /^(?:character varying|bpchar)(?:\(\d+\))?$/
-              :string
-            # Binary data types
-            when 'bytea'
-              :binary
-            # Date/time types
-            when /^timestamp with(?:out)? time zone$/
-              :datetime
-            when 'interval'
-              :string
-            # Geometric types
-            when /^(?:point|line|lseg|box|"?path"?|polygon|circle)$/
-              :string
-            # Network address types
-            when /^(?:cidr|inet|macaddr)$/
-              :string
-            # Bit strings
-            when /^bit(?: varying)?(?:\(\d+\))?$/
-              :string
-            # XML type
-            when 'xml'
-              :xml
-            # tsvector type
-            when 'tsvector'
-              :tsvector
-            # Arrays
-            when /^\D+\[\]$/
-              :string
-            # Object identifier types
-            when 'oid'
-              :integer
-            # UUID type
-            when 'uuid'
-              :string
-            # Small and big integer types
-            when /^(?:small|big)int$/
-              :integer
-            # Pass through all types that are not specific to PostgreSQL.
-            else
-              super
-          end
-        end
-
-        # Extracts the value from a PostgreSQL column default definition.
-        def self.extract_value_from_default(default)
-          case default
-            # This is a performance optimization for Ruby 1.9.2 in development.
-            # If the value is nil, we return nil straight away without checking
-            # the regular expressions. If we check each regular expression,
-            # Regexp#=== will call NilClass#to_str, which will trigger
-            # method_missing (defined by whiny nil in ActiveSupport) which
-            # makes this method very very slow.
-            when NilClass
-              nil
-            # Numeric types
-            when /\A\(?(-?\d+(\.\d*)?\)?(::bigint)?)\z/
-              $1
-            # Character types
-            when /\A\(?'(.*)'::.*\b(?:character varying|bpchar|text)\z/m
-              $1
-            # Binary data types
-            when /\A'(.*)'::bytea\z/m
-              $1
-            # Date/time types
-            when /\A'(.+)'::(?:time(?:stamp)? with(?:out)? time zone|date)\z/
-              $1
-            when /\A'(.*)'::interval\z/
-              $1
-            # Boolean type
-            when 'true'
-              true
-            when 'false'
-              false
-            # Geometric types
-            when /\A'(.*)'::(?:point|line|lseg|box|"?path"?|polygon|circle)\z/
-              $1
-            # Network address types
-            when /\A'(.*)'::(?:cidr|inet|macaddr)\z/
-              $1
-            # Bit string types
-            when /\AB'(.*)'::"?bit(?: varying)?"?\z/
-              $1
-            # XML type
-            when /\A'(.*)'::xml\z/m
-              $1
-            # Arrays
-            when /\A'(.*)'::"?\D+"?\[\]\z/
-              $1
-            # Object identifier types
-            when /\A-?\d+\z/
-              $1
-            else
-              # Anything else is blank, some user type, or some function
-              # and we can't know the value of that, so return nil.
-              nil
-          end
-        end
-    end
-
-    # The PostgreSQL adapter works both with the native C (http://ruby.scripting.ca/postgres/) and the pure
-    # Ruby (available both as gem and from http://rubyforge.org/frs/?group_id=234&release_id=1944) drivers.
+    # The PostgreSQL adapter works with the native C (https://bitbucket.org/ged/ruby-pg) driver.
     #
     # Options:
     #
-    # * <tt>:host</tt> - Defaults to "localhost".
+    # * <tt>:host</tt> - Defaults to a Unix-domain socket in /tmp. On machines without Unix-domain sockets,
+    #   the default is to connect to localhost.
     # * <tt>:port</tt> - Defaults to 5432.
-    # * <tt>:username</tt> - Defaults to nothing.
-    # * <tt>:password</tt> - Defaults to nothing.
-    # * <tt>:database</tt> - The name of the database. No default, must be provided.
+    # * <tt>:username</tt> - Defaults to be the same as the operating system name of the user running the application.
+    # * <tt>:password</tt> - Password to be used if the server demands password authentication.
+    # * <tt>:database</tt> - Defaults to be the same as the user name.
     # * <tt>:schema_search_path</tt> - An optional schema search path for the connection given
     #   as a string of comma-separated schema names. This is backward-compatible with the <tt>:schema_order</tt> option.
     # * <tt>:encoding</tt> - An optional client encoding that is used in a <tt>SET client_encoding TO
     #   <encoding></tt> call on the connection.
     # * <tt>:min_messages</tt> - An optional client min messages that is used in a
     #   <tt>SET client_min_messages TO <min_messages></tt> call on the connection.
+    # * <tt>:variables</tt> - An optional hash of additional parameters that
+    #   will be used in <tt>SET SESSION key = val</tt> calls on the connection.
+    # * <tt>:insert_returning</tt> - An optional boolean to control the use of <tt>RETURNING</tt> for <tt>INSERT</tt> statements
+    #   defaults to true.
+    #
+    # Any further options are used as connection parameters to libpq. See
+    # http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/libpq-connect.html for the
+    # list of parameters.
+    #
+    # In addition, default connection parameters of libpq can be set per environment variables.
+    # See http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/libpq-envars.html .
     class PostgreSQLAdapter < AbstractAdapter
-      class TableDefinition < ActiveRecord::ConnectionAdapters::TableDefinition
-        def xml(*args)
-          options = args.extract_options!
-          column(args[0], 'xml', options)
-        end
-
-        def tsvector(*args)
-          options = args.extract_options!
-          column(args[0], 'tsvector', options)
-        end
-      end
-
-      ADAPTER_NAME = 'PostgreSQL'
+      ADAPTER_NAME = 'PostgreSQL'.freeze
 
       NATIVE_DATABASE_TYPES = {
-        :primary_key => "serial primary key",
-        :string      => { :name => "character varying", :limit => 255 },
-        :text        => { :name => "text" },
-        :integer     => { :name => "integer" },
-        :float       => { :name => "float" },
-        :decimal     => { :name => "decimal" },
-        :datetime    => { :name => "timestamp" },
-        :timestamp   => { :name => "timestamp" },
-        :time        => { :name => "time" },
-        :date        => { :name => "date" },
-        :binary      => { :name => "bytea" },
-        :boolean     => { :name => "boolean" },
-        :xml         => { :name => "xml" },
-        :tsvector    => { :name => "tsvector" }
+        primary_key: "serial primary key",
+        string:      { name: "character varying" },
+        text:        { name: "text" },
+        integer:     { name: "integer" },
+        float:       { name: "float" },
+        decimal:     { name: "decimal" },
+        datetime:    { name: "timestamp" },
+        time:        { name: "time" },
+        date:        { name: "date" },
+        daterange:   { name: "daterange" },
+        numrange:    { name: "numrange" },
+        tsrange:     { name: "tsrange" },
+        tstzrange:   { name: "tstzrange" },
+        int4range:   { name: "int4range" },
+        int8range:   { name: "int8range" },
+        binary:      { name: "bytea" },
+        boolean:     { name: "boolean" },
+        xml:         { name: "xml" },
+        tsvector:    { name: "tsvector" },
+        hstore:      { name: "hstore" },
+        inet:        { name: "inet" },
+        cidr:        { name: "cidr" },
+        macaddr:     { name: "macaddr" },
+        uuid:        { name: "uuid" },
+        json:        { name: "json" },
+        jsonb:       { name: "jsonb" },
+        ltree:       { name: "ltree" },
+        citext:      { name: "citext" },
+        point:       { name: "point" },
+        line:        { name: "line" },
+        lseg:        { name: "lseg" },
+        box:         { name: "box" },
+        path:        { name: "path" },
+        polygon:     { name: "polygon" },
+        circle:      { name: "circle" },
+        bit:         { name: "bit" },
+        bit_varying: { name: "bit varying" },
+        money:       { name: "money" },
       }
 
-      # Returns 'PostgreSQL' as adapter name for identification purposes.
-      def adapter_name
-        ADAPTER_NAME
+      OID = PostgreSQL::OID #:nodoc:
+
+      include PostgreSQL::Quoting
+      include PostgreSQL::ReferentialIntegrity
+      include PostgreSQL::SchemaStatements
+      include PostgreSQL::DatabaseStatements
+      include PostgreSQL::ColumnDumper
+
+      def schema_creation # :nodoc:
+        PostgreSQL::SchemaCreation.new self
       end
 
-      # Returns +true+, since this connection adapter supports prepared statement
+      def arel_visitor # :nodoc:
+        Arel::Visitors::PostgreSQL.new(self)
+      end
+
+      # Returns true, since this connection adapter supports prepared statement
       # caching.
       def supports_statement_cache?
         true
@@ -249,87 +136,99 @@ module ActiveRecord
         true
       end
 
+      def supports_partial_index?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_expression_index?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_transaction_isolation?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_foreign_keys?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_views?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_datetime_with_precision?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_json?
+        postgresql_version >= 90200
+      end
+
+      def supports_comments?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def supports_savepoints?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def index_algorithms
+        { concurrently: 'CONCURRENTLY' }
+      end
+
       class StatementPool < ConnectionAdapters::StatementPool
         def initialize(connection, max)
-          super
+          super(max)
+          @connection = connection
           @counter = 0
-          @cache   = Hash.new { |h,pid| h[pid] = {} }
         end
 
-        def each(&block); cache.each(&block); end
-        def key?(key);    cache.key?(key); end
-        def [](key);      cache[key]; end
-        def length;       cache.length; end
-
         def next_key
           "a#{@counter + 1}"
         end
 
         def []=(sql, key)
-          while @max <= cache.size
-            dealloc(cache.shift.last)
-          end
-          @counter += 1
-          cache[sql] = key
-        end
-
-        def clear
-          cache.each_value do |stmt_key|
-            dealloc stmt_key
-          end
-          cache.clear
-        end
-
-        def delete(sql_key)
-          dealloc cache[sql_key]
-          cache.delete sql_key
+          super.tap { @counter += 1 }
         end
 
         private
-        def cache
-          @cache[$$]
-        end
-
-        def dealloc(key)
-          @connection.query "DEALLOCATE #{key}" if connection_active?
-        end
 
-        def connection_active?
-          @connection.status == PGconn::CONNECTION_OK
-        rescue PGError
-          false
-        end
-      end
+          def dealloc(key)
+            @connection.query "DEALLOCATE #{key}" if connection_active?
+          end
 
-      class BindSubstitution < Arel::Visitors::PostgreSQL # :nodoc:
-        include Arel::Visitors::BindVisitor
+          def connection_active?
+            @connection.status == PGconn::CONNECTION_OK
+          rescue PGError
+            false
+          end
       end
 
       # Initializes and connects a PostgreSQL adapter.
       def initialize(connection, logger, connection_parameters, config)
-        super(connection, logger)
-
-        if config.fetch(:prepared_statements) { true }
-          @visitor = Arel::Visitors::PostgreSQL.new self
-        else
-          @visitor = BindSubstitution.new self
-        end
+        super(connection, logger, config)
 
-        @connection_parameters, @config = connection_parameters, config
+        @connection_parameters = connection_parameters
 
         # @local_tz is initialized as nil to avoid warnings when connect tries to use it
         @local_tz = nil
         @table_alias_length = nil
 
         connect
+        add_pg_encoders
         @statements = StatementPool.new @connection,
-                                        config.fetch(:statement_limit) { 1000 }
+                                        self.class.type_cast_config_to_integer(config[:statement_limit])
 
-        if postgresql_version < 80200
-          raise "Your version of PostgreSQL (#{postgresql_version}) is too old, please upgrade!"
+        if postgresql_version < 90100
+          raise "Your version of PostgreSQL (#{postgresql_version}) is too old. Active Record supports PostgreSQL >= 9.1."
         end
 
+        add_pg_decoders
+
+        @type_map = Type::HashLookupTypeMap.new
+        initialize_type_map(type_map)
         @local_tz = execute('SHOW TIME ZONE', 'SCHEMA').first["TimeZone"]
+        @use_insert_returning = @config.key?(:insert_returning) ? self.class.type_cast_config_to_boolean(@config[:insert_returning]) : true
       end
 
       # Clears the prepared statements cache.
@@ -337,6 +236,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
         @statements.clear
       end
 
+      def truncate(table_name, name = nil)
+        exec_query "TRUNCATE TABLE #{quote_table_name(table_name)}", name, []
+      end
+
       # Is this connection alive and ready for queries?
       def active?
         @connection.query 'SELECT 1'
@@ -347,21 +250,25 @@ module ActiveRecord
 
       # Close then reopen the connection.
       def reconnect!
-        clear_cache!
+        super
         @connection.reset
-        @open_transactions = 0
         configure_connection
       end
 
       def reset!
         clear_cache!
-        super
+        reset_transaction
+        unless @connection.transaction_status == ::PG::PQTRANS_IDLE
+          @connection.query 'ROLLBACK'
+        end
+        @connection.query 'DISCARD ALL'
+        configure_connection
       end
 
       # Disconnects from the database if already connected. Otherwise, this
       # method does nothing.
       def disconnect!
-        clear_cache!
+        super
         @connection.close rescue nil
       end
 
@@ -379,818 +286,359 @@ module ActiveRecord
         true
       end
 
-      # Enable standard-conforming strings if available.
       def set_standard_conforming_strings
-        old, self.client_min_messages = client_min_messages, 'panic'
-        execute('SET standard_conforming_strings = on', 'SCHEMA') rescue nil
-      ensure
-        self.client_min_messages = old
-      end
-
-      def supports_insert_with_returning?
-        true
+        execute('SET standard_conforming_strings = on', 'SCHEMA')
       end
 
       def supports_ddl_transactions?
         true
       end
 
-      # Returns true, since this connection adapter supports savepoints.
-      def supports_savepoints?
+      def supports_advisory_locks?
         true
       end
 
-      # Returns true.
       def supports_explain?
         true
       end
 
-      # Returns the configured supported identifier length supported by PostgreSQL
-      def table_alias_length
-        @table_alias_length ||= query('SHOW max_identifier_length')[0][0].to_i
+      def supports_extensions?
+        true
       end
 
-      # QUOTING ==================================================
-
-      # Escapes binary strings for bytea input to the database.
-      def escape_bytea(value)
-        @connection.escape_bytea(value) if value
+      # Range datatypes weren't introduced until PostgreSQL 9.2
+      def supports_ranges?
+        postgresql_version >= 90200
       end
 
-      # Unescapes bytea output from a database to the binary string it represents.
-      # NOTE: This is NOT an inverse of escape_bytea! This is only to be used
-      #       on escaped binary output from database drive.
-      def unescape_bytea(value)
-        @connection.unescape_bytea(value) if value
+      def supports_materialized_views?
+        postgresql_version >= 90300
       end
 
-      # Quotes PostgreSQL-specific data types for SQL input.
-      def quote(value, column = nil) #:nodoc:
-        return super unless column
-
-        case value
-        when Float
-          return super unless value.infinite? && column.type == :datetime
-          "'#{value.to_s.downcase}'"
-        when Numeric
-          return super unless column.sql_type == 'money'
-          # Not truly string input, so doesn't require (or allow) escape string syntax.
-          "'#{value}'"
-        when String
-          case column.sql_type
-          when 'bytea' then "'#{escape_bytea(value)}'"
-          when 'xml'   then "xml '#{quote_string(value)}'"
-          when /^bit/
-            case value
-            when /\A[01]*\Z/      then "B'#{value}'" # Bit-string notation
-            when /\A[0-9A-F]*\Z/i then "X'#{value}'" # Hexadecimal notation
-            end
-          else
-            super
-          end
-        else
-          super
+      def get_advisory_lock(lock_id) # :nodoc:
+        unless lock_id.is_a?(Integer) && lock_id.bit_length <= 63
+          raise(ArgumentError, "Postgres requires advisory lock ids to be a signed 64 bit integer")
         end
+        select_value("SELECT pg_try_advisory_lock(#{lock_id});")
       end
 
-      def type_cast(value, column)
-        return super unless column
-
-        case value
-        when String
-          return super unless 'bytea' == column.sql_type
-          { :value => value, :format => 1 }
-        else
-          super
+      def release_advisory_lock(lock_id) # :nodoc:
+        unless lock_id.is_a?(Integer) && lock_id.bit_length <= 63
+          raise(ArgumentError, "Postgres requires advisory lock ids to be a signed 64 bit integer")
         end
+        select_value("SELECT pg_advisory_unlock(#{lock_id})")
       end
 
-      # Quotes strings for use in SQL input.
-      def quote_string(s) #:nodoc:
-        @connection.escape(s)
+      def enable_extension(name)
+        exec_query("CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS \"#{name}\"").tap {
+          reload_type_map
+        }
       end
 
-      # Checks the following cases:
-      #
-      # - table_name
-      # - "table.name"
-      # - schema_name.table_name
-      # - schema_name."table.name"
-      # - "schema.name".table_name
-      # - "schema.name"."table.name"
-      def quote_table_name(name)
-        schema, name_part = extract_pg_identifier_from_name(name.to_s)
-
-        unless name_part
-          quote_column_name(schema)
-        else
-          table_name, name_part = extract_pg_identifier_from_name(name_part)
-          "#{quote_column_name(schema)}.#{quote_column_name(table_name)}"
-        end
+      def disable_extension(name)
+        exec_query("DROP EXTENSION IF EXISTS \"#{name}\" CASCADE").tap {
+          reload_type_map
+        }
       end
 
-      # Quotes column names for use in SQL queries.
-      def quote_column_name(name) #:nodoc:
-        PGconn.quote_ident(name.to_s)
+      def extension_enabled?(name)
+        if supports_extensions?
+          res = exec_query "SELECT EXISTS(SELECT * FROM pg_available_extensions WHERE name = '#{name}' AND installed_version IS NOT NULL) as enabled",
+            'SCHEMA'
+          res.cast_values.first
+        end
       end
 
-      # Quote date/time values for use in SQL input. Includes microseconds
-      # if the value is a Time responding to usec.
-      def quoted_date(value) #:nodoc:
-        if value.acts_like?(:time) && value.respond_to?(:usec)
-          "#{super}.#{sprintf("%06d", value.usec)}"
+      def extensions
+        if supports_extensions?
+          exec_query("SELECT extname from pg_extension", "SCHEMA").cast_values
         else
           super
         end
       end
 
+      # Returns the configured supported identifier length supported by PostgreSQL
+      def table_alias_length
+        @table_alias_length ||= query('SHOW max_identifier_length', 'SCHEMA')[0][0].to_i
+      end
+
       # Set the authorized user for this session
       def session_auth=(user)
         clear_cache!
         exec_query "SET SESSION AUTHORIZATION #{user}"
       end
 
-      # REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY ====================================
-
-      def supports_disable_referential_integrity? #:nodoc:
-        true
+      def use_insert_returning?
+        @use_insert_returning
       end
 
-      def disable_referential_integrity #:nodoc:
-        if supports_disable_referential_integrity? then
-          execute(tables.collect { |name| "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(name)} DISABLE TRIGGER ALL" }.join(";"))
-        end
-        yield
-      ensure
-        if supports_disable_referential_integrity? then
-          execute(tables.collect { |name| "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(name)} ENABLE TRIGGER ALL" }.join(";"))
-        end
+      def valid_type?(type)
+        !native_database_types[type].nil?
       end
 
-      # DATABASE STATEMENTS ======================================
-
-      def explain(arel, binds = [])
-        sql = "EXPLAIN #{to_sql(arel, binds)}"
-        ExplainPrettyPrinter.new.pp(exec_query(sql, 'EXPLAIN', binds))
+      def update_table_definition(table_name, base) #:nodoc:
+        PostgreSQL::Table.new(table_name, base)
       end
 
-      class ExplainPrettyPrinter # :nodoc:
-        # Pretty prints the result of a EXPLAIN in a way that resembles the output of the
-        # PostgreSQL shell:
-        #
-        #                                     QUERY PLAN
-        #   ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-        #    Nested Loop Left Join  (cost=0.00..37.24 rows=8 width=0)
-        #      Join Filter: (posts.user_id = users.id)
-        #      ->  Index Scan using users_pkey on users  (cost=0.00..8.27 rows=1 width=4)
-        #            Index Cond: (id = 1)
-        #      ->  Seq Scan on posts  (cost=0.00..28.88 rows=8 width=4)
-        #            Filter: (posts.user_id = 1)
-        #   (6 rows)
-        #
-        def pp(result)
-          header = result.columns.first
-          lines  = result.rows.map(&:first)
-
-          # We add 2 because there's one char of padding at both sides, note
-          # the extra hyphens in the example above.
-          width = [header, *lines].map(&:length).max + 2
-
-          pp = []
-
-          pp << header.center(width).rstrip
-          pp << '-' * width
-
-          pp += lines.map {|line| " #{line}"}
-
-          nrows = result.rows.length
-          rows_label = nrows == 1 ? 'row' : 'rows'
-          pp << "(#{nrows} #{rows_label})"
-
-          pp.join("\n") + "\n"
-        end
+      def lookup_cast_type(sql_type) # :nodoc:
+        oid = execute("SELECT #{quote(sql_type)}::regtype::oid", "SCHEMA").first['oid'].to_i
+        super(oid)
       end
 
-      # Executes a SELECT query and returns an array of rows. Each row is an
-      # array of field values.
-      def select_rows(sql, name = nil)
-        select_raw(sql, name).last
+      def column_name_for_operation(operation, node) # :nodoc:
+        OPERATION_ALIASES.fetch(operation) { operation.downcase }
       end
 
-      # Executes an INSERT query and returns the new record's ID
-      def insert_sql(sql, name = nil, pk = nil, id_value = nil, sequence_name = nil)
-        unless pk
-          # Extract the table from the insert sql. Yuck.
-          table_ref = extract_table_ref_from_insert_sql(sql)
-          pk = primary_key(table_ref) if table_ref
-        end
+      OPERATION_ALIASES = { # :nodoc:
+        "maximum" => "max",
+        "minimum" => "min",
+        "average" => "avg",
+      }
 
-        if pk
-          select_value("#{sql} RETURNING #{quote_column_name(pk)}")
-        else
-          super
-        end
+      # Returns the version of the connected PostgreSQL server.
+      def postgresql_version
+        @connection.server_version
       end
-      alias :create :insert
 
-      # create a 2D array representing the result set
-      def result_as_array(res) #:nodoc:
-        # check if we have any binary column and if they need escaping
-        ftypes = Array.new(res.nfields) do |i|
-          [i, res.ftype(i)]
-        end
-
-        rows = res.values
-        return rows unless ftypes.any? { |_, x|
-          x == BYTEA_COLUMN_TYPE_OID || x == MONEY_COLUMN_TYPE_OID
-        }
+      protected
 
-        typehash = ftypes.group_by { |_, type| type }
-        binaries = typehash[BYTEA_COLUMN_TYPE_OID] || []
-        monies   = typehash[MONEY_COLUMN_TYPE_OID] || []
+        # See http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/errcodes-appendix.html
+        VALUE_LIMIT_VIOLATION = "22001"
+        FOREIGN_KEY_VIOLATION = "23503"
+        UNIQUE_VIOLATION      = "23505"
 
-        rows.each do |row|
-          # unescape string passed BYTEA field (OID == 17)
-          binaries.each do |index, _|
-            row[index] = unescape_bytea(row[index])
-          end
+        def translate_exception(exception, message)
+          return exception unless exception.respond_to?(:result)
 
-          # If this is a money type column and there are any currency symbols,
-          # then strip them off. Indeed it would be prettier to do this in
-          # PostgreSQLColumn.string_to_decimal but would break form input
-          # fields that call value_before_type_cast.
-          monies.each do |index, _|
-            data = row[index]
-            # Because money output is formatted according to the locale, there are two
-            # cases to consider (note the decimal separators):
-            #  (1) $12,345,678.12
-            #  (2) $12.345.678,12
-            case data
-            when /^-?\D+[\d,]+\.\d{2}$/  # (1)
-              data.gsub!(/[^-\d.]/, '')
-            when /^-?\D+[\d.]+,\d{2}$/  # (2)
-              data.gsub!(/[^-\d,]/, '').sub!(/,/, '.')
-            end
+          case exception.result.try(:error_field, PGresult::PG_DIAG_SQLSTATE)
+          when UNIQUE_VIOLATION
+            RecordNotUnique.new(message)
+          when FOREIGN_KEY_VIOLATION
+            InvalidForeignKey.new(message)
+          when VALUE_LIMIT_VIOLATION
+            ValueTooLong.new(message)
+          else
+            super
           end
         end
-      end
-
-
-      # Queries the database and returns the results in an Array-like object
-      def query(sql, name = nil) #:nodoc:
-        log(sql, name) do
-          result_as_array @connection.async_exec(sql)
-        end
-      end
 
-      # Executes an SQL statement, returning a PGresult object on success
-      # or raising a PGError exception otherwise.
-      def execute(sql, name = nil)
-        log(sql, name) do
-          @connection.async_exec(sql)
-        end
-      end
-
-      def substitute_at(column, index)
-        Arel::Nodes::BindParam.new "$#{index + 1}"
-      end
-
-      def exec_query(sql, name = 'SQL', binds = [])
-        log(sql, name, binds) do
-          result = binds.empty? ? exec_no_cache(sql, binds) :
-                                  exec_cache(sql, binds)
+      private
 
-          ret = ActiveRecord::Result.new(result.fields, result_as_array(result))
-          result.clear
-          return ret
-        end
-      end
+        def get_oid_type(oid, fmod, column_name, sql_type = '') # :nodoc:
+          if !type_map.key?(oid)
+            load_additional_types(type_map, [oid])
+          end
 
-      def exec_delete(sql, name = 'SQL', binds = [])
-        log(sql, name, binds) do
-          result = binds.empty? ? exec_no_cache(sql, binds) :
-                                  exec_cache(sql, binds)
-          affected = result.cmd_tuples
-          result.clear
-          affected
-        end
-      end
-      alias :exec_update :exec_delete
+          type_map.fetch(oid, fmod, sql_type) {
+            warn "unknown OID #{oid}: failed to recognize type of '#{column_name}'. It will be treated as String."
+            Type::Value.new.tap do |cast_type|
+              type_map.register_type(oid, cast_type)
+            end
+          }
+        end
+
+        def initialize_type_map(m) # :nodoc:
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'int2', Type::Integer
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'int4', Type::Integer
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'int8', Type::Integer
+          m.alias_type 'oid', 'int2'
+          m.register_type 'float4', Type::Float.new
+          m.alias_type 'float8', 'float4'
+          m.register_type 'text', Type::Text.new
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'varchar', Type::String
+          m.alias_type 'char', 'varchar'
+          m.alias_type 'name', 'varchar'
+          m.alias_type 'bpchar', 'varchar'
+          m.register_type 'bool', Type::Boolean.new
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'bit', OID::Bit
+          register_class_with_limit m, 'varbit', OID::BitVarying
+          m.alias_type 'timestamptz', 'timestamp'
+          m.register_type 'date', Type::Date.new
+
+          m.register_type 'money', OID::Money.new
+          m.register_type 'bytea', OID::Bytea.new
+          m.register_type 'point', OID::Point.new
+          m.register_type 'hstore', OID::Hstore.new
+          m.register_type 'json', OID::Json.new
+          m.register_type 'jsonb', OID::Jsonb.new
+          m.register_type 'cidr', OID::Cidr.new
+          m.register_type 'inet', OID::Inet.new
+          m.register_type 'uuid', OID::Uuid.new
+          m.register_type 'xml', OID::Xml.new
+          m.register_type 'tsvector', OID::SpecializedString.new(:tsvector)
+          m.register_type 'macaddr', OID::SpecializedString.new(:macaddr)
+          m.register_type 'citext', OID::SpecializedString.new(:citext)
+          m.register_type 'ltree', OID::SpecializedString.new(:ltree)
+          m.register_type 'line', OID::SpecializedString.new(:line)
+          m.register_type 'lseg', OID::SpecializedString.new(:lseg)
+          m.register_type 'box', OID::SpecializedString.new(:box)
+          m.register_type 'path', OID::SpecializedString.new(:path)
+          m.register_type 'polygon', OID::SpecializedString.new(:polygon)
+          m.register_type 'circle', OID::SpecializedString.new(:circle)
+
+          # FIXME: why are we keeping these types as strings?
+          m.alias_type 'interval', 'varchar'
+
+          register_class_with_precision m, 'time', Type::Time
+          register_class_with_precision m, 'timestamp', OID::DateTime
+
+          m.register_type 'numeric' do |_, fmod, sql_type|
+            precision = extract_precision(sql_type)
+            scale = extract_scale(sql_type)
+
+            # The type for the numeric depends on the width of the field,
+            # so we'll do something special here.
+            #
+            # When dealing with decimal columns:
+            #
+            # places after decimal  = fmod - 4 & 0xffff
+            # places before decimal = (fmod - 4) >> 16 & 0xffff
+            if fmod && (fmod - 4 & 0xffff).zero?
+              # FIXME: Remove this class, and the second argument to
+              # lookups on PG
+              Type::DecimalWithoutScale.new(precision: precision)
+            else
+              OID::Decimal.new(precision: precision, scale: scale)
+            end
+          end
 
-      def sql_for_insert(sql, pk, id_value, sequence_name, binds)
-        unless pk
-          # Extract the table from the insert sql. Yuck.
-          table_ref = extract_table_ref_from_insert_sql(sql)
-          pk = primary_key(table_ref) if table_ref
+          load_additional_types(m)
         end
 
-        sql = "#{sql} RETURNING #{quote_column_name(pk)}" if pk
-
-        [sql, binds]
-      end
-
-      # Executes an UPDATE query and returns the number of affected tuples.
-      def update_sql(sql, name = nil)
-        super.cmd_tuples
-      end
-
-      # Begins a transaction.
-      def begin_db_transaction
-        execute "BEGIN"
-      end
-
-      # Commits a transaction.
-      def commit_db_transaction
-        execute "COMMIT"
-      end
-
-      # Aborts a transaction.
-      def rollback_db_transaction
-        execute "ROLLBACK"
-      end
-
-      def outside_transaction?
-        @connection.transaction_status == PGconn::PQTRANS_IDLE
-      end
-
-      def create_savepoint
-        execute("SAVEPOINT #{current_savepoint_name}")
-      end
-
-      def rollback_to_savepoint
-        execute("ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT #{current_savepoint_name}")
-      end
-
-      def release_savepoint
-        execute("RELEASE SAVEPOINT #{current_savepoint_name}")
-      end
-
-      # SCHEMA STATEMENTS ========================================
-
-      # Drops the database specified on the +name+ attribute
-      # and creates it again using the provided +options+.
-      def recreate_database(name, options = {}) #:nodoc:
-        drop_database(name)
-        create_database(name, options)
-      end
-
-      # Create a new PostgreSQL database. Options include <tt>:owner</tt>, <tt>:template</tt>,
-      # <tt>:encoding</tt>, <tt>:tablespace</tt>, and <tt>:connection_limit</tt> (note that MySQL uses
-      # <tt>:charset</tt> while PostgreSQL uses <tt>:encoding</tt>).
-      #
-      # Example:
-      #   create_database config[:database], config
-      #   create_database 'foo_development', :encoding => 'unicode'
-      def create_database(name, options = {})
-        options = options.reverse_merge(:encoding => "utf8")
-
-        option_string = options.symbolize_keys.sum do |key, value|
-          case key
-          when :owner
-            " OWNER = \"#{value}\""
-          when :template
-            " TEMPLATE = \"#{value}\""
-          when :encoding
-            " ENCODING = '#{value}'"
-          when :tablespace
-            " TABLESPACE = \"#{value}\""
-          when :connection_limit
-            " CONNECTION LIMIT = #{value}"
+        def extract_limit(sql_type) # :nodoc:
+          case sql_type
+          when /^bigint/i, /^int8/i
+            8
+          when /^smallint/i
+            2
           else
-            ""
+            super
           end
         end
 
-        execute "CREATE DATABASE #{quote_table_name(name)}#{option_string}"
-      end
-
-      # Drops a PostgreSQL database.
-      #
-      # Example:
-      #   drop_database 'matt_development'
-      def drop_database(name) #:nodoc:
-        execute "DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS #{quote_table_name(name)}"
-      end
-
-      # Returns the list of all tables in the schema search path or a specified schema.
-      def tables(name = nil)
-        query(<<-SQL, 'SCHEMA').map { |row| row[0] }
-          SELECT tablename
-          FROM pg_tables
-          WHERE schemaname = ANY (current_schemas(false))
-        SQL
-      end
-
-      # Returns true if table exists.
-      # If the schema is not specified as part of +name+ then it will only find tables within
-      # the current schema search path (regardless of permissions to access tables in other schemas)
-      def table_exists?(name)
-        schema, table = Utils.extract_schema_and_table(name.to_s)
-        return false unless table
-
-        binds = [[nil, table]]
-        binds << [nil, schema] if schema
-
-        exec_query(<<-SQL, 'SCHEMA').rows.first[0].to_i > 0
-            SELECT COUNT(*)
-            FROM pg_class c
-            LEFT JOIN pg_namespace n ON n.oid = c.relnamespace
-            WHERE c.relkind in ('v','r')
-            AND c.relname = '#{table.gsub(/(^"|"$)/,'')}'
-            AND n.nspname = #{schema ? "'#{schema}'" : 'ANY (current_schemas(false))'}
-        SQL
-      end
-
-      # Returns true if schema exists.
-      def schema_exists?(name)
-        exec_query(<<-SQL, 'SCHEMA').rows.first[0].to_i > 0
-          SELECT COUNT(*)
-          FROM pg_namespace
-          WHERE nspname = '#{name}'
-        SQL
-      end
-
-      # Returns an array of indexes for the given table.
-      def indexes(table_name, name = nil)
-         result = query(<<-SQL, 'SCHEMA')
-           SELECT distinct i.relname, d.indisunique, d.indkey, pg_get_indexdef(d.indexrelid), t.oid
-           FROM pg_class t
-           INNER JOIN pg_index d ON t.oid = d.indrelid
-           INNER JOIN pg_class i ON d.indexrelid = i.oid
-           WHERE i.relkind = 'i'
-             AND d.indisprimary = 'f'
-             AND t.relname = '#{table_name}'
-             AND i.relnamespace IN (SELECT oid FROM pg_namespace WHERE nspname = ANY (current_schemas(false)) )
-          ORDER BY i.relname
-        SQL
-
-
-        result.map do |row|
-          index_name = row[0]
-          unique = row[1] == 't'
-          indkey = row[2].split(" ")
-          inddef = row[3]
-          oid = row[4]
-
-          columns = Hash[query(<<-SQL, "SCHEMA")]
-          SELECT a.attnum, a.attname
-          FROM pg_attribute a
-          WHERE a.attrelid = #{oid}
-          AND a.attnum IN (#{indkey.join(",")})
-          SQL
-
-          column_names = columns.values_at(*indkey).compact
-
-          # add info on sort order for columns (only desc order is explicitly specified, asc is the default)
-          desc_order_columns = inddef.scan(/(\w+) DESC/).flatten
-          orders = desc_order_columns.any? ? Hash[desc_order_columns.map {|order_column| [order_column, :desc]}] : {}
-
-          column_names.empty? ? nil : IndexDefinition.new(table_name, index_name, unique, column_names, [], orders)
-        end.compact
-      end
-
-      # Returns the list of all column definitions for a table.
-      def columns(table_name, name = nil)
-        # Limit, precision, and scale are all handled by the superclass.
-        column_definitions(table_name).collect do |column_name, type, default, notnull|
-          PostgreSQLColumn.new(column_name, default, type, notnull == 'f')
-        end
-      end
-
-      # Returns the current database name.
-      def current_database
-        query('select current_database()', 'SCHEMA')[0][0]
-      end
-
-      # Returns the current schema name.
-      def current_schema
-        query('SELECT current_schema', 'SCHEMA')[0][0]
-      end
-
-      # Returns the current database encoding format.
-      def encoding
-        query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA')[0][0]
-          SELECT pg_encoding_to_char(pg_database.encoding) FROM pg_database
-          WHERE pg_database.datname LIKE '#{current_database}'
-        end_sql
-      end
-
-      # Sets the schema search path to a string of comma-separated schema names.
-      # Names beginning with $ have to be quoted (e.g. $user => '$user').
-      # See: http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/ddl-schemas.html
-      #
-      # This should be not be called manually but set in database.yml.
-      def schema_search_path=(schema_csv)
-        if schema_csv
-          execute("SET search_path TO #{schema_csv}", 'SCHEMA')
-          @schema_search_path = schema_csv
-        end
-      end
-
-      # Returns the active schema search path.
-      def schema_search_path
-        @schema_search_path ||= query('SHOW search_path', 'SCHEMA')[0][0]
-      end
-
-      # Returns the current client message level.
-      def client_min_messages
-        query('SHOW client_min_messages', 'SCHEMA')[0][0]
-      end
-
-      # Set the client message level.
-      def client_min_messages=(level)
-        execute("SET client_min_messages TO '#{level}'", 'SCHEMA')
-      end
-
-      # Returns the sequence name for a table's primary key or some other specified key.
-      def default_sequence_name(table_name, pk = nil) #:nodoc:
-        serial_sequence(table_name, pk || 'id').split('.').last
-      rescue ActiveRecord::StatementInvalid
-        "#{table_name}_#{pk || 'id'}_seq"
-      end
-
-      def serial_sequence(table, column)
-        result = exec_query(<<-eosql, 'SCHEMA')
-          SELECT pg_get_serial_sequence('#{table}', '#{column}')
-        eosql
-        result.rows.first.first
-      end
-
-      # Resets the sequence of a table's primary key to the maximum value.
-      def reset_pk_sequence!(table, pk = nil, sequence = nil) #:nodoc:
-        unless pk and sequence
-          default_pk, default_sequence = pk_and_sequence_for(table)
-
-          pk ||= default_pk
-          sequence ||= default_sequence
-        end
-
-        if @logger && pk && !sequence
-          @logger.warn "#{table} has primary key #{pk} with no default sequence"
-        end
-
-        if pk && sequence
-          quoted_sequence = quote_table_name(sequence)
-
-          select_value <<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA'
-            SELECT setval('#{quoted_sequence}', (SELECT COALESCE(MAX(#{quote_column_name pk})+(SELECT increment_by FROM #{quoted_sequence}), (SELECT min_value FROM #{quoted_sequence})) FROM #{quote_table_name(table)}), false)
-          end_sql
-        end
-      end
-
-      # Returns a table's primary key and belonging sequence.
-      def pk_and_sequence_for(table) #:nodoc:
-        # First try looking for a sequence with a dependency on the
-        # given table's primary key.
-        result = query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA')[0]
-          SELECT attr.attname, seq.relname
-          FROM pg_class      seq,
-               pg_attribute  attr,
-               pg_depend     dep,
-               pg_namespace  name,
-               pg_constraint cons
-          WHERE seq.oid           = dep.objid
-            AND seq.relkind       = 'S'
-            AND attr.attrelid     = dep.refobjid
-            AND attr.attnum       = dep.refobjsubid
-            AND attr.attrelid     = cons.conrelid
-            AND attr.attnum       = cons.conkey[1]
-            AND cons.contype      = 'p'
-            AND dep.refobjid      = '#{quote_table_name(table)}'::regclass
-        end_sql
-
-        if result.nil? or result.empty?
-          result = query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA')[0]
-            SELECT attr.attname,
-              CASE
-                WHEN split_part(pg_get_expr(def.adbin, def.adrelid), '''', 2) ~ '.' THEN
-                  substr(split_part(pg_get_expr(def.adbin, def.adrelid), '''', 2),
-                         strpos(split_part(pg_get_expr(def.adbin, def.adrelid), '''', 2), '.')+1)
-                ELSE split_part(pg_get_expr(def.adbin, def.adrelid), '''', 2)
-              END
-            FROM pg_class       t
-            JOIN pg_attribute   attr ON (t.oid = attrelid)
-            JOIN pg_attrdef     def  ON (adrelid = attrelid AND adnum = attnum)
-            JOIN pg_constraint  cons ON (conrelid = adrelid AND adnum = conkey[1])
-            WHERE t.oid = '#{quote_table_name(table)}'::regclass
-              AND cons.contype = 'p'
-              AND pg_get_expr(def.adbin, def.adrelid) ~* 'nextval'
-          end_sql
+        # Extracts the value from a PostgreSQL column default definition.
+        def extract_value_from_default(default) # :nodoc:
+          case default
+            # Quoted types
+            when /\A[\(B]?'(.*)'.*::"?([\w. ]+)"?(?:\[\])?\z/m
+              # The default 'now'::date is CURRENT_DATE
+              if $1 == "now".freeze && $2 == "date".freeze
+                nil
+              else
+                $1.gsub("''".freeze, "'".freeze)
+              end
+            # Boolean types
+            when 'true'.freeze, 'false'.freeze
+              default
+            # Numeric types
+            when /\A\(?(-?\d+(\.\d*)?)\)?(::bigint)?\z/
+              $1
+            # Object identifier types
+            when /\A-?\d+\z/
+              $1
+            else
+              # Anything else is blank, some user type, or some function
+              # and we can't know the value of that, so return nil.
+              nil
+          end
         end
 
-        [result.first, result.last]
-      rescue
-        nil
-      end
-
-      # Returns just a table's primary key
-      def primary_key(table)
-        row = exec_query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA').rows.first
-          SELECT attr.attname
-          FROM pg_attribute attr
-          INNER JOIN pg_constraint cons ON attr.attrelid = cons.conrelid AND attr.attnum = cons.conkey[1]
-          WHERE cons.contype = 'p'
-            AND cons.conrelid = '#{quote_table_name(table)}'::regclass
-        end_sql
-
-        row && row.first
-      end
-
-      # Renames a table.
-      # Also renames a table's primary key sequence if the sequence name matches the
-      # Active Record default.
-      #
-      # Example:
-      #   rename_table('octopuses', 'octopi')
-      def rename_table(name, new_name)
-        clear_cache!
-        execute "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(name)} RENAME TO #{quote_table_name(new_name)}"
-        pk, seq = pk_and_sequence_for(new_name)
-        if seq == "#{name}_#{pk}_seq"
-          new_seq = "#{new_name}_#{pk}_seq"
-          execute "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(seq)} RENAME TO #{quote_table_name(new_seq)}"
+        def extract_default_function(default_value, default) # :nodoc:
+          default if has_default_function?(default_value, default)
         end
-      end
-
-      # Adds a new column to the named table.
-      # See TableDefinition#column for details of the options you can use.
-      def add_column(table_name, column_name, type, options = {})
-        clear_cache!
-        add_column_sql = "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(table_name)} ADD COLUMN #{quote_column_name(column_name)} #{type_to_sql(type, options[:limit], options[:precision], options[:scale])}"
-        add_column_options!(add_column_sql, options)
-
-        execute add_column_sql
-      end
-
-      # Changes the column of a table.
-      def change_column(table_name, column_name, type, options = {})
-        clear_cache!
-        quoted_table_name = quote_table_name(table_name)
-
-        execute "ALTER TABLE #{quoted_table_name} ALTER COLUMN #{quote_column_name(column_name)} TYPE #{type_to_sql(type, options[:limit], options[:precision], options[:scale])}"
 
-        change_column_default(table_name, column_name, options[:default]) if options_include_default?(options)
-        change_column_null(table_name, column_name, options[:null], options[:default]) if options.key?(:null)
-      end
-
-      # Changes the default value of a table column.
-      def change_column_default(table_name, column_name, default)
-        clear_cache!
-        execute "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(table_name)} ALTER COLUMN #{quote_column_name(column_name)} SET DEFAULT #{quote(default)}"
-      end
-
-      def change_column_null(table_name, column_name, null, default = nil)
-        clear_cache!
-        unless null || default.nil?
-          execute("UPDATE #{quote_table_name(table_name)} SET #{quote_column_name(column_name)}=#{quote(default)} WHERE #{quote_column_name(column_name)} IS NULL")
+        def has_default_function?(default_value, default) # :nodoc:
+          !default_value && (%r{\w+\(.*\)|\(.*\)::\w+} === default)
         end
-        execute("ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(table_name)} ALTER #{quote_column_name(column_name)} #{null ? 'DROP' : 'SET'} NOT NULL")
-      end
-
-      # Renames a column in a table.
-      def rename_column(table_name, column_name, new_column_name)
-        clear_cache!
-        execute "ALTER TABLE #{quote_table_name(table_name)} RENAME COLUMN #{quote_column_name(column_name)} TO #{quote_column_name(new_column_name)}"
-      end
-
-      def remove_index!(table_name, index_name) #:nodoc:
-        execute "DROP INDEX #{quote_table_name(index_name)}"
-      end
 
-      def rename_index(table_name, old_name, new_name)
-        execute "ALTER INDEX #{quote_column_name(old_name)} RENAME TO #{quote_table_name(new_name)}"
-      end
-
-      def index_name_length
-        63
-      end
+        def load_additional_types(type_map, oids = nil) # :nodoc:
+          initializer = OID::TypeMapInitializer.new(type_map)
 
-      # Maps logical Rails types to PostgreSQL-specific data types.
-      def type_to_sql(type, limit = nil, precision = nil, scale = nil)
-        case type.to_s
-        when 'binary'
-          # PostgreSQL doesn't support limits on binary (bytea) columns.
-          # The hard limit is 1Gb, because of a 32-bit size field, and TOAST.
-          case limit
-          when nil, 0..0x3fffffff; super(type)
-          else raise(ActiveRecordError, "No binary type has byte size #{limit}.")
+          if supports_ranges?
+            query = <<-SQL
+              SELECT t.oid, t.typname, t.typelem, t.typdelim, t.typinput, r.rngsubtype, t.typtype, t.typbasetype
+              FROM pg_type as t
+              LEFT JOIN pg_range as r ON oid = rngtypid
+            SQL
+          else
+            query = <<-SQL
+              SELECT t.oid, t.typname, t.typelem, t.typdelim, t.typinput, t.typtype, t.typbasetype
+              FROM pg_type as t
+            SQL
           end
-        when 'text'
-          # PostgreSQL doesn't support limits on text columns.
-          # The hard limit is 1Gb, according to section 8.3 in the manual.
-          case limit
-          when nil, 0..0x3fffffff; super(type)
-          else raise(ActiveRecordError, "The limit on text can be at most 1GB - 1byte.")
+
+          if oids
+            query += "WHERE t.oid::integer IN (%s)" % oids.join(", ")
+          else
+            query += initializer.query_conditions_for_initial_load(type_map)
           end
-        when 'integer'
-          return 'integer' unless limit
-
-          case limit
-            when 1, 2; 'smallint'
-            when 3, 4; 'integer'
-            when 5..8; 'bigint'
-            else raise(ActiveRecordError, "No integer type has byte size #{limit}. Use a numeric with precision 0 instead.")
+
+          execute_and_clear(query, 'SCHEMA', []) do |records|
+            initializer.run(records)
           end
-        else
-          super
         end
-      end
-
-      # Returns a SELECT DISTINCT clause for a given set of columns and a given ORDER BY clause.
-      #
-      # PostgreSQL requires the ORDER BY columns in the select list for distinct queries, and
-      # requires that the ORDER BY include the distinct column.
-      #
-      #   distinct("posts.id", "posts.created_at desc")
-      def distinct(columns, orders) #:nodoc:
-        return "DISTINCT #{columns}" if orders.empty?
-
-        # Construct a clean list of column names from the ORDER BY clause, removing
-        # any ASC/DESC modifiers
-        order_columns = orders.collect { |s| s.gsub(/\s+(ASC|DESC)\s*(NULLS\s+(FIRST|LAST)\s*)?/i, '') }
-        order_columns.delete_if { |c| c.blank? }
-        order_columns = order_columns.zip((0...order_columns.size).to_a).map { |s,i| "#{s} AS alias_#{i}" }
-
-        "DISTINCT #{columns}, #{order_columns * ', '}"
-      end
 
-      module Utils
-        extend self
+        FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED = "0A000" #:nodoc:
 
-        # Returns an array of <tt>[schema_name, table_name]</tt> extracted from +name+.
-        # +schema_name+ is nil if not specified in +name+.
-        # +schema_name+ and +table_name+ exclude surrounding quotes (regardless of whether provided in +name+)
-        # +name+ supports the range of schema/table references understood by PostgreSQL, for example:
-        #
-        # * <tt>table_name</tt>
-        # * <tt>"table.name"</tt>
-        # * <tt>schema_name.table_name</tt>
-        # * <tt>schema_name."table.name"</tt>
-        # * <tt>"schema.name"."table name"</tt>
-        def extract_schema_and_table(name)
-          table, schema = name.scan(/[^".\s]+|"[^"]*"/)[0..1].collect{|m| m.gsub(/(^"|"$)/,'') }.reverse
-          [schema, table]
+        def execute_and_clear(sql, name, binds, prepare: false)
+          if without_prepared_statement?(binds)
+            result = exec_no_cache(sql, name, [])
+          elsif !prepare
+            result = exec_no_cache(sql, name, binds)
+          else
+            result = exec_cache(sql, name, binds)
+          end
+          ret = yield result
+          result.clear
+          ret
         end
-      end
 
-      protected
-        # Returns the version of the connected PostgreSQL server.
-        def postgresql_version
-          @connection.server_version
+        def exec_no_cache(sql, name, binds)
+          type_casted_binds = binds.map { |attr| type_cast(attr.value_for_database) }
+          log(sql, name, binds) { @connection.async_exec(sql, type_casted_binds) }
         end
 
-        # See http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/static/errcodes-appendix.html
-        FOREIGN_KEY_VIOLATION = "23503"
-        UNIQUE_VIOLATION      = "23505"
+        def exec_cache(sql, name, binds)
+          stmt_key = prepare_statement(sql)
+          type_casted_binds = binds.map { |attr| type_cast(attr.value_for_database) }
 
-        def translate_exception(exception, message)
-          return exception unless exception.respond_to?(:result)
+          log(sql, name, binds, stmt_key) do
+            @connection.exec_prepared(stmt_key, type_casted_binds)
+          end
+        rescue ActiveRecord::StatementInvalid => e
+          raise unless is_cached_plan_failure?(e)
 
-          case exception.result.try(:error_field, PGresult::PG_DIAG_SQLSTATE)
-          when UNIQUE_VIOLATION
-            RecordNotUnique.new(message, exception)
-          when FOREIGN_KEY_VIOLATION
-            InvalidForeignKey.new(message, exception)
+          # Nothing we can do if we are in a transaction because all commands
+          # will raise InFailedSQLTransaction
+          if in_transaction?
+            raise ActiveRecord::PreparedStatementCacheExpired.new(e.cause.message)
           else
-            super
+            # outside of transactions we can simply flush this query and retry
+            @statements.delete sql_key(sql)
+            retry
           end
         end
 
-      private
-        FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED = "0A000" # :nodoc:
-
-        def exec_no_cache(sql, binds)
-          @connection.async_exec(sql, [])
+        # Annoyingly, the code for prepared statements whose return value may
+        # have changed is FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED.
+        #
+        # This covers various different error types so we need to do additional
+        # work to classify the exception definitively as a
+        # ActiveRecord::PreparedStatementCacheExpired
+        #
+        # Check here for more details:
+        # http://git.postgresql.org/gitweb/?p=postgresql.git;a=blob;f=src/backend/utils/cache/plancache.c#l573
+        CACHED_PLAN_HEURISTIC = 'cached plan must not change result type'.freeze
+        def is_cached_plan_failure?(e)
+          pgerror = e.cause
+          code = pgerror.result.result_error_field(PGresult::PG_DIAG_SQLSTATE)
+          code == FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED && pgerror.message.include?(CACHED_PLAN_HEURISTIC)
+        rescue
+          false
         end
 
-        def exec_cache(sql, binds)
-          begin
-            stmt_key = prepare_statement sql
-
-            # Clear the queue
-            @connection.get_last_result
-            @connection.send_query_prepared(stmt_key, binds.map { |col, val|
-              type_cast(val, col)
-            })
-            @connection.block
-            @connection.get_last_result
-          rescue PGError => e
-            # Get the PG code for the failure.  Annoyingly, the code for
-            # prepared statements whose return value may have changed is
-            # FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED.  Check here for more details:
-            # http://git.postgresql.org/gitweb/?p=postgresql.git;a=blob;f=src/backend/utils/cache/plancache.c#l573
-            begin
-              code = e.result.result_error_field(PGresult::PG_DIAG_SQLSTATE)
-            rescue
-              raise e
-            end
-            if FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED == code
-              @statements.delete sql_key(sql)
-              retry
-            else
-              raise e
-            end
-          end
+        def in_transaction?
+          open_transactions > 0
         end
 
         # Returns the statement identifier for the client side cache
@@ -1205,28 +653,29 @@ module ActiveRecord
           sql_key = sql_key(sql)
           unless @statements.key? sql_key
             nextkey = @statements.next_key
-            @connection.prepare nextkey, sql
+            begin
+              @connection.prepare nextkey, sql
+            rescue => e
+              raise translate_exception_class(e, sql)
+            end
+            # Clear the queue
+            @connection.get_last_result
             @statements[sql_key] = nextkey
           end
           @statements[sql_key]
         end
 
-        # The internal PostgreSQL identifier of the money data type.
-        MONEY_COLUMN_TYPE_OID = 790 #:nodoc:
-        # The internal PostgreSQL identifier of the BYTEA data type.
-        BYTEA_COLUMN_TYPE_OID = 17 #:nodoc:
-
         # Connects to a PostgreSQL server and sets up the adapter depending on the
         # connected server's characteristics.
         def connect
-          @connection = PGconn.connect(*@connection_parameters)
-
-          # Money type has a fixed precision of 10 in PostgreSQL 8.2 and below, and as of
-          # PostgreSQL 8.3 it has a fixed precision of 19. PostgreSQLColumn.extract_precision
-          # should know about this but can't detect it there, so deal with it here.
-          PostgreSQLColumn.money_precision = (postgresql_version >= 80300) ? 19 : 10
-
+          @connection = PGconn.connect(@connection_parameters)
           configure_connection
+        rescue ::PG::Error => error
+          if error.message.include?("does not exist")
+            raise ActiveRecord::NoDatabaseError
+          else
+            raise
+          end
         end
 
         # Configures the encoding, verbosity, schema search path, and time zone of the connection.
@@ -1235,45 +684,43 @@ module ActiveRecord
           if @config[:encoding]
             @connection.set_client_encoding(@config[:encoding])
           end
-          self.client_min_messages = @config[:min_messages] if @config[:min_messages]
+          self.client_min_messages = @config[:min_messages] || 'warning'
           self.schema_search_path = @config[:schema_search_path] || @config[:schema_order]
 
-          # Use standard-conforming strings if available so we don't have to do the E'...' dance.
+          # Use standard-conforming strings so we don't have to do the E'...' dance.
           set_standard_conforming_strings
 
           # If using Active Record's time zone support configure the connection to return
           # TIMESTAMP WITH ZONE types in UTC.
+          # (SET TIME ZONE does not use an equals sign like other SET variables)
           if ActiveRecord::Base.default_timezone == :utc
             execute("SET time zone 'UTC'", 'SCHEMA')
           elsif @local_tz
             execute("SET time zone '#{@local_tz}'", 'SCHEMA')
           end
-        end
-
-        # Returns the current ID of a table's sequence.
-        def last_insert_id(sequence_name) #:nodoc:
-          r = exec_query("SELECT currval('#{sequence_name}')", 'SQL')
-          Integer(r.rows.first.first)
-        end
 
-        # Executes a SELECT query and returns the results, performing any data type
-        # conversions that are required to be performed here instead of in PostgreSQLColumn.
-        def select(sql, name = nil, binds = [])
-          exec_query(sql, name, binds).to_a
+          # SET statements from :variables config hash
+          # http://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/sql-set.html
+          variables = @config[:variables] || {}
+          variables.map do |k, v|
+            if v == ':default' || v == :default
+              # Sets the value to the global or compile default
+              execute("SET SESSION #{k} TO DEFAULT", 'SCHEMA')
+            elsif !v.nil?
+              execute("SET SESSION #{k} TO #{quote(v)}", 'SCHEMA')
+            end
+          end
         end
 
-        def select_raw(sql, name = nil)
-          res = execute(sql, name)
-          results = result_as_array(res)
-          fields = res.fields
-          res.clear
-          return fields, results
+        # Returns the current ID of a table's sequence.
+        def last_insert_id_result(sequence_name) # :nodoc:
+          exec_query("SELECT currval('#{sequence_name}')", 'SQL')
         end
 
         # Returns the list of a table's column names, data types, and default values.
         #
         # The underlying query is roughly:
-        #  SELECT column.name, column.type, default.value
+        #  SELECT column.name, column.type, default.value, column.comment
         #    FROM column LEFT JOIN default
         #      ON column.table_id = default.table_id
         #     AND column.num = default.column_num
@@ -1288,36 +735,108 @@ module ActiveRecord
         # Query implementation notes:
         #  - format_type includes the column size constraint, e.g. varchar(50)
         #  - ::regclass is a function that gives the id for a table name
-        def column_definitions(table_name) #:nodoc:
-          exec_query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA').rows
-            SELECT a.attname, format_type(a.atttypid, a.atttypmod),
-                     pg_get_expr(d.adbin, d.adrelid), a.attnotnull, a.atttypid, a.atttypmod
-              FROM pg_attribute a LEFT JOIN pg_attrdef d
-                ON a.attrelid = d.adrelid AND a.attnum = d.adnum
-             WHERE a.attrelid = '#{quote_table_name(table_name)}'::regclass
-               AND a.attnum > 0 AND NOT a.attisdropped
-             ORDER BY a.attnum
+        def column_definitions(table_name) # :nodoc:
+          query(<<-end_sql, 'SCHEMA')
+              SELECT a.attname, format_type(a.atttypid, a.atttypmod),
+                     pg_get_expr(d.adbin, d.adrelid), a.attnotnull, a.atttypid, a.atttypmod,
+             (SELECT c.collname FROM pg_collation c, pg_type t
+               WHERE c.oid = a.attcollation AND t.oid = a.atttypid AND a.attcollation <> t.typcollation),
+                     col_description(a.attrelid, a.attnum) AS comment
+                FROM pg_attribute a LEFT JOIN pg_attrdef d
+                  ON a.attrelid = d.adrelid AND a.attnum = d.adnum
+               WHERE a.attrelid = '#{quote_table_name(table_name)}'::regclass
+                 AND a.attnum > 0 AND NOT a.attisdropped
+               ORDER BY a.attnum
           end_sql
         end
 
-        def extract_pg_identifier_from_name(name)
-          match_data = name.start_with?('"') ? name.match(/\"([^\"]+)\"/) : name.match(/([^\.]+)/)
+        def extract_table_ref_from_insert_sql(sql) # :nodoc:
+          sql[/into\s("[A-Za-z0-9_."\[\]\s]+"|[A-Za-z0-9_."\[\]]+)\s*/im]
+          $1.strip if $1
+        end
 
-          if match_data
-            rest = name[match_data[0].length, name.length]
-            rest = rest[1, rest.length] if rest.start_with? "."
-            [match_data[1], (rest.length > 0 ? rest : nil)]
+        def create_table_definition(*args) # :nodoc:
+          PostgreSQL::TableDefinition.new(*args)
+        end
+
+        def can_perform_case_insensitive_comparison_for?(column)
+          @case_insensitive_cache ||= {}
+          @case_insensitive_cache[column.sql_type] ||= begin
+            sql = <<-end_sql
+              SELECT exists(
+                SELECT * FROM pg_proc
+                INNER JOIN pg_cast
+                  ON casttarget::text::oidvector = proargtypes
+                WHERE proname = 'lower'
+                  AND castsource = '#{column.sql_type}'::regtype::oid
+              )
+            end_sql
+            execute_and_clear(sql, "SCHEMA", []) do |result|
+              result.getvalue(0, 0)
+            end
           end
         end
 
-        def extract_table_ref_from_insert_sql(sql)
-          sql[/into\s+([^\(]*).*values\s*\(/i]
-          $1.strip if $1
-        end
+        def add_pg_encoders
+          map = PG::TypeMapByClass.new
+          map[Integer] = PG::TextEncoder::Integer.new
+          map[TrueClass] = PG::TextEncoder::Boolean.new
+          map[FalseClass] = PG::TextEncoder::Boolean.new
+          map[Float] = PG::TextEncoder::Float.new
+          @connection.type_map_for_queries = map
+        end
+
+        def add_pg_decoders
+          coders_by_name = {
+            'int2' => PG::TextDecoder::Integer,
+            'int4' => PG::TextDecoder::Integer,
+            'int8' => PG::TextDecoder::Integer,
+            'oid' => PG::TextDecoder::Integer,
+            'float4' => PG::TextDecoder::Float,
+            'float8' => PG::TextDecoder::Float,
+            'bool' => PG::TextDecoder::Boolean,
+          }
+          known_coder_types = coders_by_name.keys.map { |n| quote(n) }
+          query = <<-SQL % known_coder_types.join(", ")
+            SELECT t.oid, t.typname
+            FROM pg_type as t
+            WHERE t.typname IN (%s)
+          SQL
+          coders = execute_and_clear(query, "SCHEMA", []) do |result|
+            result
+              .map { |row| construct_coder(row, coders_by_name[row['typname']]) }
+              .compact
+          end
 
-        def table_definition
-          TableDefinition.new(self)
-        end
+          map = PG::TypeMapByOid.new
+          coders.each { |coder| map.add_coder(coder) }
+          @connection.type_map_for_results = map
+        end
+
+        def construct_coder(row, coder_class)
+          return unless coder_class
+          coder_class.new(oid: row['oid'].to_i, name: row['typname'])
+        end
+
+        ActiveRecord::Type.add_modifier({ array: true }, OID::Array, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.add_modifier({ range: true }, OID::Range, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:bit, OID::Bit, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:bit_varying, OID::BitVarying, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:binary, OID::Bytea, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:cidr, OID::Cidr, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:datetime, OID::DateTime, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:decimal, OID::Decimal, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:enum, OID::Enum, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:hstore, OID::Hstore, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:inet, OID::Inet, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:json, OID::Json, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:jsonb, OID::Jsonb, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:money, OID::Money, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:point, OID::Rails51Point, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:legacy_point, OID::Point, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:uuid, OID::Uuid, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:vector, OID::Vector, adapter: :postgresql)
+        ActiveRecord::Type.register(:xml, OID::Xml, adapter: :postgresql)
     end
   end
 end