scipy 1.15.3__cp312-cp312-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl → 1.16.0rc2__cp312-cp312-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl

scipy/cluster/tests/test_hierarchy.py

@@ -32,29 +32,34 @@
 # NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
 # SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
 import numpy as np
-from numpy.testing import (assert_allclose, assert_equal, assert_array_equal, assert_,
-                           assert_warns)
+from numpy.testing import assert_allclose, assert_equal, assert_array_equal, assert_
 import pytest
 from pytest import raises as assert_raises
 
-import scipy.cluster.hierarchy
 from scipy.cluster.hierarchy import (
     ClusterWarning, linkage, from_mlab_linkage, to_mlab_linkage,
     num_obs_linkage, inconsistent, cophenet, fclusterdata, fcluster,
-    is_isomorphic, single, leaders,
+    is_isomorphic, single, ward, leaders,
     correspond, is_monotonic, maxdists, maxinconsts, maxRstat,
     is_valid_linkage, is_valid_im, to_tree, leaves_list, dendrogram,
     set_link_color_palette, cut_tree, optimal_leaf_ordering,
-    _order_cluster_tree, _hierarchy, _LINKAGE_METHODS)
-from scipy.spatial.distance import pdist
+    _order_cluster_tree, _hierarchy, _EUCLIDEAN_METHODS, _LINKAGE_METHODS)
 from scipy.cluster._hierarchy import Heap
-from scipy.conftest import array_api_compatible
-from scipy._lib._array_api import xp_assert_close, xp_assert_equal
+from scipy.spatial.distance import pdist
+from scipy._lib._array_api import (eager_warns, make_xp_test_case, 
+                                   xp_assert_close, xp_assert_equal)
+import scipy._lib.array_api_extra as xpx
 
 from threading import Lock
 
 from . import hierarchy_test_data
 
+class eager:
+    # Bypass xpx.testing.lazy_xp_function when calling
+    # these functions from this namespace
+    is_valid_im = is_valid_im
+    is_valid_linkage = is_valid_linkage
+
 
 # Matplotlib is not a scipy dependency but is optionally used in dendrogram, so
 # check if it's available
@@ -68,27 +73,24 @@ try:
 except Exception:
     have_matplotlib = False
 
-
-pytestmark = [array_api_compatible, pytest.mark.usefixtures("skip_xp_backends")]
 skip_xp_backends = pytest.mark.skip_xp_backends
 
 
+@make_xp_test_case(linkage)
 class TestLinkage:
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+    @skip_xp_backends("jax.numpy", reason="Can't raise inside jax.pure_callback")
     def test_linkage_non_finite_elements_in_distance_matrix(self, xp):
         # Tests linkage(Y) where Y contains a non-finite element (e.g. NaN or Inf).
         # Exception expected.
         y = xp.asarray([xp.nan] + [0.0]*5)
         assert_raises(ValueError, linkage, y)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_linkage_empty_distance_matrix(self, xp):
         # Tests linkage(Y) where Y is a 0x4 linkage matrix. Exception expected.
         y = xp.zeros((0,))
         assert_raises(ValueError, linkage, y)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_linkage_tdist(self, xp):
         for method in ['single', 'complete', 'average', 'weighted']:
             self.check_linkage_tdist(method, xp)
@@ -99,7 +101,6 @@ class TestLinkage:
         expectedZ = getattr(hierarchy_test_data, 'linkage_ytdist_' + method)
         xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-10)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_linkage_X(self, xp):
         for method in ['centroid', 'median', 'ward']:
             self.check_linkage_q(method, xp)
@@ -110,12 +111,11 @@ class TestLinkage:
         expectedZ = getattr(hierarchy_test_data, 'linkage_X_' + method)
         xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-06)
 
-        y = scipy.spatial.distance.pdist(hierarchy_test_data.X,
-                                         metric="euclidean")
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(y), method)
+        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.X)
+        y = pdist(X, metric="euclidean")
+        Z = linkage(y, method)
         xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-06)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_compare_with_trivial(self, xp):
         rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
         n = 20
@@ -127,46 +127,59 @@ class TestLinkage:
             Z = linkage(xp.asarray(d), method)
             xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(Z_trivial), rtol=1e-14, atol=1e-15)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_optimal_leaf_ordering(self, xp):
         Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), optimal_ordering=True)
         expectedZ = getattr(hierarchy_test_data, 'linkage_ytdist_single_olo')
         xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-10)
 
-
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-class TestLinkageTies:
-
-    _expectations = {
-        'single': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                            [2, 3, 1.41421356, 3]]),
-        'complete': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                              [2, 3, 2.82842712, 3]]),
-        'average': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                             [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
-        'weighted': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                              [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
-        'centroid': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                              [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
-        'median': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                            [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
-        'ward': np.array([[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
-                          [2, 3, 2.44948974, 3]]),
-    }
-
-    def test_linkage_ties(self, xp):
-        for method in ['single', 'complete', 'average', 'weighted',
-                       'centroid', 'median', 'ward']:
-            self.check_linkage_ties(method, xp)
-
-    def check_linkage_ties(self, method, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("method,expect", [
+        ('single',   [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 1.41421356, 3]]),
+        ('complete', [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.82842712, 3]]),
+        ('average',  [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
+        ('weighted', [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
+        ('centroid', [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
+        ('median',   [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.12132034, 3]]),
+        ('ward',     [[0, 1, 1.41421356, 2],
+                      [2, 3, 2.44948974, 3]]),
+    ])
+    def test_linkage_ties(self, method, expect, xp):
         X = xp.asarray([[-1, -1], [0, 0], [1, 1]])
         Z = linkage(X, method=method)
-        expectedZ = self._expectations[method]
-        xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-06)
-
-
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+        expect = xp.asarray(expect, dtype=xp.float64)
+        xp_assert_close(Z, expect, atol=1e-06)
+
+    def test_unsupported_uncondensed_distance_matrix_linkage_warning(self, xp):
+        X = xp.asarray([[0, 1], [1, 0]])
+        with eager_warns(X, ClusterWarning):
+            linkage(X)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("method", _EUCLIDEAN_METHODS)
+    def test_euclidean_linkage_value_error(self, method, xp):
+        X = xp.asarray([[1, 1], [1, 1]])
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            linkage(X, method=method, metric='cityblock')
+
+    def test_2x2_linkage(self, xp):
+        Z1 = linkage(xp.asarray([1]), method='single', metric='euclidean')
+        Z2 = linkage(xp.asarray([[0, 1], [0, 0]]), method='single', metric='euclidean')
+        xp_assert_close(Z1, Z2, rtol=1e-15)
+
+    @skip_xp_backends("jax.numpy", reason="Can't raise inside jax.pure_callback")
+    def test_centroid_neg_distance(self, xp):
+        # gh-21011
+        values = xp.asarray([0, 0, -1])
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            # This is just checking that this doesn't crash
+            linkage(values, method='centroid')
+
+
+@make_xp_test_case(inconsistent)
 class TestInconsistent:
 
     def test_inconsistent_tdist(self, xp):
@@ -179,7 +192,7 @@ class TestInconsistent:
                         xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.inconsistent_ytdist[depth]))
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(cophenet)
 class TestCopheneticDistance:
 
     def test_linkage_cophenet_tdist_Z(self, xp):
@@ -200,6 +213,7 @@ class TestCopheneticDistance:
         xp_assert_close(c, expectedc, atol=1e-10)
         xp_assert_close(M, expectedM, atol=1e-10)
 
+    @skip_xp_backends("jax.numpy", reason="Can't raise inside jax.pure_callback")
     def test_gh_22183(self, xp):
         # check for lack of segfault
         # (out of bounds memory access)
@@ -220,6 +234,7 @@ class TestCopheneticDistance:
             cophenet(xp.asarray(arr))
 
 
+@make_xp_test_case(from_mlab_linkage, to_mlab_linkage)
 class TestMLabLinkageConversion:
 
     def test_mlab_linkage_conversion_empty(self, xp):
@@ -228,7 +243,6 @@ class TestMLabLinkageConversion:
         xp_assert_equal(from_mlab_linkage(X), X)
         xp_assert_equal(to_mlab_linkage(X), X)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_mlab_linkage_conversion_single_row(self, xp):
         # Tests from/to_mlab_linkage on linkage array with single row.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0., 1., 3., 2.]])
@@ -238,7 +252,6 @@ class TestMLabLinkageConversion:
         xp_assert_close(to_mlab_linkage(Z), xp.asarray(Zm, dtype=xp.float64),
                         rtol=1e-15)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_mlab_linkage_conversion_multiple_rows(self, xp):
         # Tests from/to_mlab_linkage on linkage array with multiple rows.
         Zm = xp.asarray([[3, 6, 138], [4, 5, 219],
@@ -254,57 +267,56 @@ class TestMLabLinkageConversion:
                         rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-class TestFcluster:
+@make_xp_test_case(fclusterdata)
+class TestFclusterData:
 
-    def test_fclusterdata(self, xp):
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_inconsistent:
-            self.check_fclusterdata(t, 'inconsistent', xp)
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance:
-            self.check_fclusterdata(t, 'distance', xp)
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust:
-            self.check_fclusterdata(t, 'maxclust', xp)
-
-    def check_fclusterdata(self, t, criterion, xp):
+    @make_xp_test_case(is_isomorphic)
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("criterion,t",
+        [("inconsistent", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_inconsistent]
+        + [("distance", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance]
+        + [("maxclust", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust]
+    )
+    def test_fclusterdata(self, t, criterion, xp):
         # Tests fclusterdata(X, criterion=criterion, t=t) on a random 3-cluster data set
         expectedT = xp.asarray(getattr(hierarchy_test_data, 'fcluster_' + criterion)[t])
         X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
         T = fclusterdata(X, criterion=criterion, t=t)
-        assert_(is_isomorphic(T, expectedT))
+        assert is_isomorphic(T, expectedT)
+
 
-    def test_fcluster(self, xp):
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_inconsistent:
-            self.check_fcluster(t, 'inconsistent', xp)
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance:
-            self.check_fcluster(t, 'distance', xp)
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust:
-            self.check_fcluster(t, 'maxclust', xp)
+@make_xp_test_case(fcluster)
+class TestFcluster:
 
-    def check_fcluster(self, t, criterion, xp):
+    @make_xp_test_case(single, is_isomorphic)
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("criterion,t",
+        [("inconsistent", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_inconsistent]
+        + [("distance", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance]
+        + [("maxclust", t) for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust]
+    )
+    def test_fcluster(self, t, criterion, xp):
         # Tests fcluster(Z, criterion=criterion, t=t) on a random 3-cluster data set.
         expectedT = xp.asarray(getattr(hierarchy_test_data, 'fcluster_' + criterion)[t])
         Z = single(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X))
         T = fcluster(Z, criterion=criterion, t=t)
         assert_(is_isomorphic(T, expectedT))
 
-    def test_fcluster_monocrit(self, xp):
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance:
-            self.check_fcluster_monocrit(t, xp)
-        for t in hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust:
-            self.check_fcluster_maxclust_monocrit(t, xp)
-
-    def check_fcluster_monocrit(self, t, xp):
+    @make_xp_test_case(single, is_isomorphic, maxdists)
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("t", hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance)
+    def test_fcluster_monocrit(self, t, xp):
         expectedT = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_distance[t])
         Z = single(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X))
         T = fcluster(Z, t, criterion='monocrit', monocrit=maxdists(Z))
         assert_(is_isomorphic(T, expectedT))
 
-    def check_fcluster_maxclust_monocrit(self, t, xp):
+    @make_xp_test_case(single, is_isomorphic, maxdists)
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("t", hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust)
+    def test_fcluster_maxclust_monocrit(self, t, xp):
         expectedT = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.fcluster_maxclust[t])
         Z = single(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X))
         T = fcluster(Z, t, criterion='maxclust_monocrit', monocrit=maxdists(Z))
         assert_(is_isomorphic(T, expectedT))
 
+    @make_xp_test_case(single)
     def test_fcluster_maxclust_gh_12651(self, xp):
         y = xp.asarray([[1], [4], [5]])
         Z = single(y)
@@ -318,29 +330,26 @@ class TestFcluster:
                            xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]))
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(leaders)
 class TestLeaders:
 
     def test_leaders_single(self, xp):
         # Tests leaders using a flat clustering generated by single linkage.
         X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
         Y = pdist(X)
-        Y = xp.asarray(Y)
         Z = linkage(Y)
         T = fcluster(Z, criterion='maxclust', t=3)
-        Lright = (xp.asarray([53, 55, 56]), xp.asarray([2, 3, 1]))
+        Z = xp.asarray(Z)
         T = xp.asarray(T, dtype=xp.int32)
         L = leaders(Z, T)
-        assert_allclose(np.concatenate(L), np.concatenate(Lright), rtol=1e-15)
+        expect = xp.asarray([53, 55, 56, 2, 3, 1], dtype=xp.int32)
+        xp_assert_close(xp.concat(L), expect, rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(np_only=True,
-                  reason='`is_isomorphic` only supports NumPy backend')
+@make_xp_test_case(is_isomorphic)
 class TestIsIsomorphic:
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(np_only=True,
-                      reason='array-likes only supported for NumPy backend')
-    def test_array_like(self, xp):
+    def test_array_like(self):
         assert is_isomorphic([1, 1, 1], [2, 2, 2])
         assert is_isomorphic([], [])
 
@@ -377,8 +386,8 @@ class TestIsIsomorphic:
         # (3 flat clusters, different labelings, nonisomorphic)
         a = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3, 3])
         b = xp.asarray([1, 3, 2, 3])
-        assert is_isomorphic(a, b) is False
-        assert is_isomorphic(b, a) is False
+        assert not is_isomorphic(a, b)
+        assert not is_isomorphic(b, a)
 
     def test_is_isomorphic_4C(self, xp):
         # Tests is_isomorphic on test case #4C
@@ -388,18 +397,18 @@ class TestIsIsomorphic:
         assert is_isomorphic(a, b)
         assert is_isomorphic(b, a)
 
-    def test_is_isomorphic_5(self, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("nclusters", [2, 3, 5])
+    def test_is_isomorphic_5(self, nclusters, xp):
         # Tests is_isomorphic on test case #5 (1000 observations, 2/3/5 random
         # clusters, random permutation of the labeling).
-        for nc in [2, 3, 5]:
-            self.help_is_isomorphic_randperm(1000, nc, xp=xp)
+        self.is_isomorphic_randperm(1000, nclusters, xp=xp)
 
-    def test_is_isomorphic_6(self, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("nclusters", [2, 3, 5])
+    def test_is_isomorphic_6(self, nclusters, xp):
         # Tests is_isomorphic on test case #5A (1000 observations, 2/3/5 random
         # clusters, random permutation of the labeling, slightly
         # nonisomorphic.)
-        for nc in [2, 3, 5]:
-            self.help_is_isomorphic_randperm(1000, nc, True, 5, xp=xp)
+        self.is_isomorphic_randperm(1000, nclusters, True, 5, xp=xp)
 
     def test_is_isomorphic_7(self, xp):
         # Regression test for gh-6271
@@ -407,9 +416,8 @@ class TestIsIsomorphic:
         b = xp.asarray([1, 1, 1])
         assert not is_isomorphic(a, b)
 
-    def help_is_isomorphic_randperm(self, nobs, nclusters, noniso=False, nerrors=0,
-                                    *, xp):
-        for k in range(3):
+    def is_isomorphic_randperm(self, nobs, nclusters, noniso=False, nerrors=0, *, xp):
+        for _ in range(3):
             a = (np.random.rand(nobs) * nclusters).astype(int)
             b = np.zeros(a.size, dtype=int)
             P = np.random.permutation(nclusters)
@@ -425,20 +433,17 @@ class TestIsIsomorphic:
             assert is_isomorphic(b, a) == (not noniso)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(is_valid_linkage)
 class TestIsValidLinkage:
 
-    def test_is_valid_linkage_various_size(self, xp):
-        for nrow, ncol, valid in [(2, 5, False), (2, 3, False),
-                                  (1, 4, True), (2, 4, True)]:
-            self.check_is_valid_linkage_various_size(nrow, ncol, valid, xp)
-
-    def check_is_valid_linkage_various_size(self, nrow, ncol, valid, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("nrow, ncol, valid", [(2, 5, False), (2, 3, False),
+                                                  (1, 4, True), (2, 4, True)])
+    def test_is_valid_linkage_various_size(self, nrow, ncol, valid, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) with linkage matrices of various sizes
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2, 5],
                         [3, 2, 4.0, 3, 3]], dtype=xp.float64)
         Z = Z[:nrow, :ncol]
-        assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) == valid)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), valid, check_namespace=False)
         if not valid:
             assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
 
@@ -446,13 +451,13 @@ class TestIsValidLinkage:
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) with integer type.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2],
                         [3, 2, 4.0, 3]], dtype=xp.int64)
-        assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
         assert_raises(TypeError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
 
     def test_is_valid_linkage_empty(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) with empty linkage.
         Z = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
-        assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
         assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
 
     def test_is_valid_linkage_4_and_up(self, xp):
@@ -460,91 +465,84 @@ class TestIsValidLinkage:
         # sizes 4 and 15 (step size 3).
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is True)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), True, check_namespace=False)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy',
-                      reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_linkage_4_and_up_neg_index_left(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) on linkage on observation sets between
         # sizes 4 and 15 (step size 3) with negative indices (left).
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z[i//2,0] = -2
-            assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
+            Z = xpx.at(Z)[i//2, 0].set(-2)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_linkage(Z, throw=True)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy',
-                      reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_linkage_4_and_up_neg_index_right(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) on linkage on observation sets between
         # sizes 4 and 15 (step size 3) with negative indices (right).
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z[i//2,1] = -2
-            assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
+            Z = xpx.at(Z)[i//2, 1].set(-2)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_linkage(Z, throw=True)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy',
-                      reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_linkage_4_and_up_neg_dist(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) on linkage on observation sets between
         # sizes 4 and 15 (step size 3) with negative distances.
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z[i//2,2] = -0.5
-            assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
+            Z = xpx.at(Z)[i//2, 2].set(-0.5)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_linkage(Z, throw=True)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy',
-                      reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_linkage_4_and_up_neg_counts(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_linkage(Z) on linkage on observation sets between
         # sizes 4 and 15 (step size 3) with negative counts.
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z[i//2,3] = -2
-            assert_(is_valid_linkage(Z) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_linkage, Z, throw=True)
+            Z = xpx.at(Z)[i//2, 3].set(-2)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_linkage(Z), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_linkage(Z, throw=True)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(is_valid_im)
 class TestIsValidInconsistent:
 
     def test_is_valid_im_int_type(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) with integer type.
         R = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2],
                         [3, 2, 4.0, 3]], dtype=xp.int64)
-        assert_(is_valid_im(R) is False)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), False, check_namespace=False)
         assert_raises(TypeError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
 
-    def test_is_valid_im_various_size(self, xp):
-        for nrow, ncol, valid in [(2, 5, False), (2, 3, False),
-                                  (1, 4, True), (2, 4, True)]:
-            self.check_is_valid_im_various_size(nrow, ncol, valid, xp)
-
-    def check_is_valid_im_various_size(self, nrow, ncol, valid, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("nrow, ncol, valid", [(2, 5, False), (2, 3, False),
+                                                  (1, 4, True), (2, 4, True)])
+    def test_is_valid_im_various_size(self, nrow, ncol, valid, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) with linkage matrices of various sizes
         R = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2, 5],
                         [3, 2, 4.0, 3, 3]], dtype=xp.float64)
         R = R[:nrow, :ncol]
-        assert_(is_valid_im(R) == valid)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), valid, check_namespace=False)
         if not valid:
             assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
 
     def test_is_valid_im_empty(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) with empty inconsistency matrix.
         R = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
-        assert_(is_valid_im(R) is False)
+        xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), False, check_namespace=False)
         assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
 
     def test_is_valid_im_4_and_up(self, xp):
@@ -552,54 +550,53 @@ class TestIsValidInconsistent:
         # (step size 3).
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
-            y = xp.asarray(y)
             Z = linkage(y)
             R = inconsistent(Z)
-            assert_(is_valid_im(R) is True)
+            R = xp.asarray(R)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), True, check_namespace=False)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_im_4_and_up_neg_index_left(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) on im on observation sets between sizes 4 and 15
         # (step size 3) with negative link height means.
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
-            y = xp.asarray(y)
             Z = linkage(y)
             R = inconsistent(Z)
-            R[i//2,0] = -2.0
-            assert_(is_valid_im(R) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
+            R = xpx.at(R)[i//2 , 0].set(-2.0)
+            R = xp.asarray(R)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_im(R, throw=True)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_im_4_and_up_neg_index_right(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) on im on observation sets between sizes 4 and 15
         # (step size 3) with negative link height standard deviations.
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
-            y = xp.asarray(y)
             Z = linkage(y)
             R = inconsistent(Z)
-            R[i//2,1] = -2.0
-            assert_(is_valid_im(R) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
+            R = xpx.at(R)[i//2 , 1].set(-2.0)
+            R = xp.asarray(R)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_im(R, throw=True)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_valid_im_4_and_up_neg_dist(self, xp):
         # Tests is_valid_im(R) on im on observation sets between sizes 4 and 15
         # (step size 3) with negative link counts.
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
-            y = xp.asarray(y)
             Z = linkage(y)
             R = inconsistent(Z)
-            R[i//2,2] = -0.5
-            assert_(is_valid_im(R) is False)
-            assert_raises(ValueError, is_valid_im, R, throw=True)
+            R = xpx.at(R)[i//2, 2].set(-0.5)
+            R = xp.asarray(R)
+            xp_assert_equal(is_valid_im(R), False, check_namespace=False)
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+                eager.is_valid_im(R, throw=True)
 
 
 class TestNumObsLinkage:
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_num_obs_linkage_empty(self, xp):
         # Tests num_obs_linkage(Z) with empty linkage.
         Z = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -608,26 +605,32 @@ class TestNumObsLinkage:
     def test_num_obs_linkage_1x4(self, xp):
         # Tests num_obs_linkage(Z) on linkage over 2 observations.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2]], dtype=xp.float64)
-        assert_equal(num_obs_linkage(Z), 2)
+        assert num_obs_linkage(Z) == 2
 
     def test_num_obs_linkage_2x4(self, xp):
         # Tests num_obs_linkage(Z) on linkage over 3 observations.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 3.0, 2],
                         [3, 2, 4.0, 3]], dtype=xp.float64)
-        assert_equal(num_obs_linkage(Z), 3)
+        assert num_obs_linkage(Z) == 3
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_num_obs_linkage_4_and_up(self, xp):
         # Tests num_obs_linkage(Z) on linkage on observation sets between sizes
         # 4 and 15 (step size 3).
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
-            y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            assert_equal(num_obs_linkage(Z), i)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
+            assert num_obs_linkage(Z) == i
 
+    def test_num_obs_linkage_multi_matrix(self, xp):
+        # Tests num_obs_linkage with observation matrices of multiple sizes.
+        for n in range(2, 10):
+            X = np.random.rand(n, 4)
+            Y = pdist(X)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(Y))
+            assert num_obs_linkage(Z) == n
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+
+@make_xp_test_case(leaves_list, to_tree)
 class TestLeavesList:
 
     def test_leaves_list_1x4(self, xp):
@@ -643,29 +646,26 @@ class TestLeavesList:
         to_tree(Z)
         assert_allclose(leaves_list(Z), [0, 1, 2], rtol=1e-15)
 
-    def test_leaves_list_Q(self, xp):
-        for method in ['single', 'complete', 'average', 'weighted', 'centroid',
-                       'median', 'ward']:
-            self.check_leaves_list_Q(method, xp)
-
-    def check_leaves_list_Q(self, method, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("method", 
+        ['single', 'complete', 'average', 'weighted', 'centroid', 'median', 'ward'])
+    def test_leaves_list_Q(self, method, xp):
         # Tests leaves_list(Z) on the Q data set
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
-        Z = linkage(X, method)
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, method))
         node = to_tree(Z)
         assert_allclose(node.pre_order(), leaves_list(Z), rtol=1e-15)
 
     def test_Q_subtree_pre_order(self, xp):
         # Tests that pre_order() works when called on sub-trees.
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
-        Z = linkage(X, 'single')
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, 'single'))
         node = to_tree(Z)
-        assert_allclose(node.pre_order(), (node.get_left().pre_order()
-                                           + node.get_right().pre_order()),
+        assert_allclose(node.pre_order(),
+                        (node.get_left().pre_order() + node.get_right().pre_order()),
                         rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(correspond)
 class TestCorrespond:
 
     def test_correspond_empty(self, xp):
@@ -679,13 +679,13 @@ class TestCorrespond:
         # different sizes.
         for i in range(2, 4):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
             assert_(correspond(Z, y))
         for i in range(4, 15, 3):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
-            Z = linkage(y)
             assert_(correspond(Z, y))
 
     def test_correspond_4_and_up(self, xp):
@@ -695,10 +695,10 @@ class TestCorrespond:
                        list(zip(list(range(3, 5)), list(range(2, 4))))):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
             y2 = np.random.rand(j*(j-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
+            Z2 = xp.asarray(linkage(y2))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
             y2 = xp.asarray(y2)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z2 = linkage(y2)
             assert not correspond(Z, y2)
             assert not correspond(Z2, y)
 
@@ -709,24 +709,15 @@ class TestCorrespond:
                        list(zip(list(range(2, 7)), list(range(16, 21))))):
             y = np.random.rand(i*(i-1)//2)
             y2 = np.random.rand(j*(j-1)//2)
+            Z = xp.asarray(linkage(y))
+            Z2 = xp.asarray(linkage(y2))
             y = xp.asarray(y)
             y2 = xp.asarray(y2)
-            Z = linkage(y)
-            Z2 = linkage(y2)
             assert not correspond(Z, y2)
             assert not correspond(Z2, y)
 
-    def test_num_obs_linkage_multi_matrix(self, xp):
-        # Tests num_obs_linkage with observation matrices of multiple sizes.
-        for n in range(2, 10):
-            X = np.random.rand(n, 4)
-            Y = pdist(X)
-            Y = xp.asarray(Y)
-            Z = linkage(Y)
-            assert_equal(num_obs_linkage(Z), n)
-
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(is_monotonic)
 class TestIsMonotonic:
 
     def test_is_monotonic_empty(self, xp):
@@ -782,26 +773,25 @@ class TestIsMonotonic:
     def test_is_monotonic_tdist_linkage1(self, xp):
         # Tests is_monotonic(Z) on clustering generated by single linkage on
         # tdist data set. Expecting True.
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
         assert is_monotonic(Z)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_is_monotonic_tdist_linkage2(self, xp):
         # Tests is_monotonic(Z) on clustering generated by single linkage on
         # tdist data set. Perturbing. Expecting False.
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
-        Z[2,2] = 0.0
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
+        Z = xpx.at(Z)[2, 2].set(0.0)
         assert not is_monotonic(Z)
 
     def test_is_monotonic_Q_linkage(self, xp):
         # Tests is_monotonic(Z) on clustering generated by single linkage on
         # Q data set. Expecting True.
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
-        Z = linkage(X, 'single')
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, 'single'))
         assert is_monotonic(Z)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(maxdists)
 class TestMaxDists:
 
     def test_maxdists_empty_linkage(self, xp):
@@ -809,7 +799,6 @@ class TestMaxDists:
         Z = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
         assert_raises(ValueError, maxdists, Z)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
     def test_maxdists_one_cluster_linkage(self, xp):
         # Tests maxdists(Z) on linkage with one cluster.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0.3, 4]], dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -817,23 +806,20 @@ class TestMaxDists:
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_distances(Z, xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment')
-    def test_maxdists_Q_linkage(self, xp):
-        for method in ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median']:
-            self.check_maxdists_Q_linkage(method, xp)
-
-    def check_maxdists_Q_linkage(self, method, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "method", ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median'])
+    def test_maxdists_Q_linkage(self, method, xp):
         # Tests maxdists(Z) on the Q data set
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
-        Z = linkage(X, method)
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, method))
         MD = maxdists(Z)
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_distances(Z, xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
 
+@make_xp_test_case(maxinconsts)
 class TestMaxInconsts:
 
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
     def test_maxinconsts_empty_linkage(self, xp):
         # Tests maxinconsts(Z, R) on empty linkage. Expecting exception.
         Z = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -848,8 +834,6 @@ class TestMaxInconsts:
         R = xp.asarray(R)
         assert_raises(ValueError, maxinconsts, Z, R)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment',
-                      cpu_only=True)
     def test_maxinconsts_one_cluster_linkage(self, xp):
         # Tests maxinconsts(Z, R) on linkage with one cluster.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0.3, 4]], dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -858,53 +842,42 @@ class TestMaxInconsts:
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_inconsistencies(Z, R, xp=xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment',
-                      cpu_only=True)
-    def test_maxinconsts_Q_linkage(self, xp):
-        for method in ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median']:
-            self.check_maxinconsts_Q_linkage(method, xp)
-
-    def check_maxinconsts_Q_linkage(self, method, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "method", ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median'])
+    def test_maxinconsts_Q_linkage(self, method, xp):
         # Tests maxinconsts(Z, R) on the Q data set
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
         Z = linkage(X, method)
-        R = inconsistent(Z)
+        R = xp.asarray(inconsistent(Z))
+        Z = xp.asarray(Z)
         MD = maxinconsts(Z, R)
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_inconsistencies(Z, R, xp=xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
 
+@make_xp_test_case(maxRstat)
 class TestMaxRStat:
 
     def test_maxRstat_invalid_index(self, xp):
-        for i in [3.3, -1, 4]:
-            self.check_maxRstat_invalid_index(i, xp)
-
-    def check_maxRstat_invalid_index(self, i, xp):
         # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, i). Expecting exception.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0.3, 4]], dtype=xp.float64)
         R = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 0.3]], dtype=xp.float64)
-        if isinstance(i, int):
-            assert_raises(ValueError, maxRstat, Z, R, i)
-        else:
-            assert_raises(TypeError, maxRstat, Z, R, i)
-
-    @skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-    def test_maxRstat_empty_linkage(self, xp):
-        for i in range(4):
-            self.check_maxRstat_empty_linkage(i, xp)
-
-    def check_maxRstat_empty_linkage(self, i, xp):
+        with pytest.raises(TypeError):
+            maxRstat(Z, R, 3.3)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            maxRstat(Z, R, -1)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            maxRstat(Z, R, 4)
+
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("i", range(4))
+    def test_maxRstat_empty_linkage(self, i, xp):
         # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, i) on empty linkage. Expecting exception.
         Z = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
         R = xp.zeros((0, 4), dtype=xp.float64)
         assert_raises(ValueError, maxRstat, Z, R, i)
 
-    def test_maxRstat_difrow_linkage(self, xp):
-        for i in range(4):
-            self.check_maxRstat_difrow_linkage(i, xp)
-
-    def check_maxRstat_difrow_linkage(self, i, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("i", range(4))
+    def test_maxRstat_difrow_linkage(self, i, xp):
         # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, i) on linkage and inconsistency matrices with
         # different numbers of clusters. Expecting exception.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0.3, 4]], dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -912,13 +885,7 @@ class TestMaxRStat:
         R = xp.asarray(R)
         assert_raises(ValueError, maxRstat, Z, R, i)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment',
-                      cpu_only=True)
     def test_maxRstat_one_cluster_linkage(self, xp):
-        for i in range(4):
-            self.check_maxRstat_one_cluster_linkage(i, xp)
-
-    def check_maxRstat_one_cluster_linkage(self, i, xp):
         # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, i) on linkage with one cluster.
         Z = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0.3, 4]], dtype=xp.float64)
         R = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 0.3]], dtype=xp.float64)
@@ -926,40 +893,36 @@ class TestMaxRStat:
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_inconsistencies(Z, R, 1, xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
-    @skip_xp_backends('jax.numpy', reason='jax arrays do not support item assignment',
-                      cpu_only=True)
-    def test_maxRstat_Q_linkage(self, xp):
-        for method in ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median']:
-            for i in range(4):
-                self.check_maxRstat_Q_linkage(method, i, xp)
-
-    def check_maxRstat_Q_linkage(self, method, i, xp):
-        # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, i) on the Q data set
-        X = xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.Q_X)
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize(
+        "method", ['single', 'complete', 'ward', 'centroid', 'median'])
+    def test_maxRstat_Q_linkage(self, method, xp):
+        # Tests maxRstat(Z, R, 1) on the Q data set
+        X = hierarchy_test_data.Q_X
         Z = linkage(X, method)
-        R = inconsistent(Z)
+        R = xp.asarray(inconsistent(Z))
+        Z = xp.asarray(Z)
         MD = maxRstat(Z, R, 1)
         expectedMD = calculate_maximum_inconsistencies(Z, R, 1, xp)
         xp_assert_close(MD, expectedMD, atol=1e-15)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(dendrogram)
 class TestDendrogram:
 
     def test_dendrogram_single_linkage_tdist(self, xp):
         # Tests dendrogram calculation on single linkage of the tdist data set.
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
         R = dendrogram(Z, no_plot=True)
         leaves = R["leaves"]
         assert_equal(leaves, [2, 5, 1, 0, 3, 4])
 
     def test_valid_orientation(self, xp):
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
         assert_raises(ValueError, dendrogram, Z, orientation="foo")
 
     def test_labels_as_array_or_list(self, xp):
         # test for gh-12418
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
         labels = [1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 5]
         result1 = dendrogram(Z, labels=xp.asarray(labels), no_plot=True)
         result2 = dendrogram(Z, labels=labels, no_plot=True)
@@ -989,14 +952,14 @@ class TestDendrogram:
          reason='MPL 3.9.2 & torch DeprecationWarning from __array_wrap__'
                 ' and NumPy 2.0'
     )
+    @skip_xp_backends('dask.array',
+         reason='dask.array has bad interaction with matplotlib'
+    )
     @pytest.mark.skipif(not have_matplotlib, reason="no matplotlib")
-    def test_dendrogram_plot(self, xp):
-        for orientation in ['top', 'bottom', 'left', 'right']:
-            self.check_dendrogram_plot(orientation, xp)
-
-    def check_dendrogram_plot(self, orientation, xp):
+    @pytest.mark.parametrize("orientation", ['top', 'bottom', 'left', 'right'])
+    def test_dendrogram_plot(self, orientation, xp):
         # Tests dendrogram plotting.
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
         expected = {'color_list': ['C1', 'C0', 'C0', 'C0', 'C0'],
                     'dcoord': [[0.0, 138.0, 138.0, 0.0],
                                [0.0, 219.0, 219.0, 0.0],
@@ -1060,9 +1023,12 @@ class TestDendrogram:
           reason='MPL 3.9.2 & torch DeprecationWarning from __array_wrap__'
                  ' and NumPy 2.0'
      )
+    @skip_xp_backends('dask.array',
+         reason='dask.array has bad interaction with matplotlib'
+    )
     @pytest.mark.skipif(not have_matplotlib, reason="no matplotlib")
     def test_dendrogram_truncate_mode(self, xp):
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
 
         R = dendrogram(Z, 2, 'lastp', show_contracted=True)
         plt.close()
@@ -1098,13 +1064,13 @@ class TestDendrogram:
 
     def test_dendrogram_colors(self, xp, dendrogram_lock):
         # Tests dendrogram plots with alternate colors
-        Z = linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist), 'single')
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist, 'single'))
 
         with dendrogram_lock:
             # Global color palette might be changed concurrently
             set_link_color_palette(['c', 'm', 'y', 'k'])
             R = dendrogram(Z, no_plot=True,
-                        above_threshold_color='g', color_threshold=250)
+                           above_threshold_color='g', color_threshold=250)
             set_link_color_palette(['g', 'r', 'c', 'm', 'y', 'k'])
 
             color_list = R['color_list']
@@ -1116,14 +1082,14 @@ class TestDendrogram:
     def test_dendrogram_leaf_colors_zero_dist(self, xp):
         # tests that the colors of leafs are correct for tree
         # with two identical points
-        x = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0],
+        X = np.asarray([[1, 0, 0],
                         [0, 0, 1],
                         [0, 2, 0],
                         [0, 0, 1],
                         [0, 1, 0],
                         [0, 1, 0]])
-        z = linkage(x, "single")
-        d = dendrogram(z, no_plot=True)
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, "single"))
+        d = dendrogram(Z, no_plot=True)
         exp_colors = ['C0', 'C1', 'C1', 'C0', 'C2', 'C2']
         colors = d["leaves_color_list"]
         assert_equal(colors, exp_colors)
@@ -1131,14 +1097,14 @@ class TestDendrogram:
     def test_dendrogram_leaf_colors(self, xp):
         # tests that the colors are correct for a tree
         # with two near points ((0, 0, 1.1) and (0, 0, 1))
-        x = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0],
+        X = np.asarray([[1, 0, 0],
                         [0, 0, 1.1],
                         [0, 2, 0],
                         [0, 0, 1],
                         [0, 1, 0],
                         [0, 1, 0]])
-        z = linkage(x, "single")
-        d = dendrogram(z, no_plot=True)
+        Z = xp.asarray(linkage(X, "single"))
+        d = dendrogram(Z, no_plot=True)
         exp_colors = ['C0', 'C1', 'C1', 'C0', 'C2', 'C2']
         colors = d["leaves_color_list"]
         assert_equal(colors, exp_colors)
@@ -1148,17 +1114,18 @@ def calculate_maximum_distances(Z, xp):
     # Used for testing correctness of maxdists.
     n = Z.shape[0] + 1
     B = xp.zeros((n-1,), dtype=Z.dtype)
-    q = xp.zeros((3,))
     for i in range(0, n - 1):
-        q[:] = 0.0
+        q = xp.zeros((3,))
         left = Z[i, 0]
         right = Z[i, 1]
         if left >= n:
-            q[0] = B[xp.asarray(left, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            b_left = B[xp.asarray(left, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            q = xpx.at(q, 0).set(b_left)
         if right >= n:
-            q[1] = B[xp.asarray(right, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
-        q[2] = Z[i, 2]
-        B[i] = xp.max(q)
+            b_right = B[xp.asarray(right, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            q = xpx.at(q, 1).set(b_right)
+        q = xpx.at(q, 2).set(Z[i, 2])
+        B = xpx.at(B, i).set(xp.max(q))
     return B
 
 
@@ -1167,46 +1134,27 @@ def calculate_maximum_inconsistencies(Z, R, k=3, xp=np):
     n = Z.shape[0] + 1
     dtype = xp.result_type(Z, R)
     B = xp.zeros((n-1,), dtype=dtype)
-    q = xp.zeros((3,))
     for i in range(0, n - 1):
-        q[:] = 0.0
+        q = xp.zeros((3,))
         left = Z[i, 0]
         right = Z[i, 1]
         if left >= n:
-            q[0] = B[xp.asarray(left, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            b_left = B[xp.asarray(left, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            q = xpx.at(q, 0).set(b_left)
         if right >= n:
-            q[1] = B[xp.asarray(right, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
-        q[2] = R[i, k]
-        B[i] = xp.max(q)
+            b_right = B[xp.asarray(right, dtype=xp.int64) - n]
+            q = xpx.at(q, 1).set(b_right)
+        q = xpx.at(q, 2).set(R[i, k])
+        B = xpx.at(B, i).set(xp.max(q))
     return B
 
 
-@pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-def test_unsupported_uncondensed_distance_matrix_linkage_warning(xp):
-    assert_warns(ClusterWarning, linkage, xp.asarray([[0, 1], [1, 0]]))
-
-
-def test_euclidean_linkage_value_error(xp):
-    for method in scipy.cluster.hierarchy._EUCLIDEAN_METHODS:
-        assert_raises(ValueError, linkage, xp.asarray([[1, 1], [1, 1]]),
-                      method=method, metric='cityblock')
-
-
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-def test_2x2_linkage(xp):
-    Z1 = linkage(xp.asarray([1]), method='single', metric='euclidean')
-    Z2 = linkage(xp.asarray([[0, 1], [0, 0]]), method='single', metric='euclidean')
-    xp_assert_close(Z1, Z2, rtol=1e-15)
-
-
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(to_tree)
 def test_node_compare(xp):
     np.random.seed(23)
     nobs = 50
     X = np.random.randn(nobs, 4)
-    X = xp.asarray(X)
-    Z = scipy.cluster.hierarchy.ward(X)
+    Z = xp.asarray(ward(X))
     tree = to_tree(Z)
     assert_(tree > tree.get_left())
     assert_(tree.get_right() > tree.get_left())
@@ -1214,13 +1162,12 @@ def test_node_compare(xp):
     assert_(tree.get_right() != tree.get_left())
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(np_only=True, reason='`cut_tree` uses non-standard indexing')
+@make_xp_test_case(cut_tree)
 def test_cut_tree(xp):
     np.random.seed(23)
     nobs = 50
     X = np.random.randn(nobs, 4)
-    X = xp.asarray(X)
-    Z = scipy.cluster.hierarchy.ward(X)
+    Z = xp.asarray(ward(X))
     cutree = cut_tree(Z)
 
     # cutree.dtype varies between int32 and int64 over platforms
@@ -1243,16 +1190,16 @@ def test_cut_tree(xp):
                     cut_tree(Z, height=[10, 5]), rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
+@make_xp_test_case(optimal_leaf_ordering)
 def test_optimal_leaf_ordering(xp):
     # test with the distance vector y
-    Z = optimal_leaf_ordering(linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist)),
+    Z = optimal_leaf_ordering(xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist)),
                               xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.ytdist))
     expectedZ = hierarchy_test_data.linkage_ytdist_single_olo
     xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-10)
 
     # test with the observation matrix X
-    Z = optimal_leaf_ordering(linkage(xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.X), 'ward'),
+    Z = optimal_leaf_ordering(xp.asarray(linkage(hierarchy_test_data.X, 'ward')),
                               xp.asarray(hierarchy_test_data.X))
     expectedZ = hierarchy_test_data.linkage_X_ward_olo
     xp_assert_close(Z, xp.asarray(expectedZ), atol=1e-06)
@@ -1289,12 +1236,3 @@ def test_Heap(xp):
     pair = heap.get_min()
     assert_equal(pair['key'], 1)
     assert_equal(pair['value'], 10)
-
-
-@skip_xp_backends(cpu_only=True)
-def test_centroid_neg_distance(xp):
-    # gh-21011
-    values = xp.asarray([0, 0, -1])
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
-        # This is just checking that this doesn't crash
-        linkage(values, method='centroid')