pycontrails 0.58.0__cp314-cp314-macosx_10_13_x86_64.whl

pycontrails/physics/jet.py

@@ -0,0 +1,968 @@
+"""Jet aircraft trajectory and performance parameters.
+
+This module includes common functions to calculate jet aircraft trajectory
+and performance parameters, including fuel quantities, mass, thrust setting,
+propulsion efficiency and load factors.
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import functools
+import logging
+import pathlib
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+import pandas as pd
+
+from pycontrails.core import flight
+from pycontrails.physics import constants, units
+from pycontrails.utils.types import ArrayOrFloat, ArrayScalarLike
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+_path_to_static = pathlib.Path(__file__).parent / "static"
+PLF_PATH = _path_to_static / "iata-passenger-load-factors-20250221.csv"
+CLF_PATH = _path_to_static / "iata-cargo-load-factors-20250221.csv"
+
+
+# -------------------
+# Aircraft performance
+# -------------------
+
+
+def acceleration(
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating], segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Calculate the acceleration/deceleration at each waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        True airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+    segment_duration : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Acceleration/deceleration, [:math:`m \ s^{-2}`]
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    pycontrails.Flight.segment_duration
+    """
+    dv_dt = np.empty_like(true_airspeed)
+    dv_dt[:-1] = np.diff(true_airspeed) / segment_duration[:-1]
+    dv_dt[-1] = 0.0
+    np.nan_to_num(dv_dt, copy=False)
+    return dv_dt
+
+
+def climb_descent_angle(
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating], rocd: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Calculate angle between the horizontal plane and the actual flight path.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        True airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+    rocd : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Rate of climb/descent, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Climb (positive value) or descent (negative value) angle, [:math:`\deg`]
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    pycontrails.Flight.segment_rocd
+    pycontrails.Flight.segment_true_airspeed
+    """
+    rocd_ms = units.ft_to_m(rocd) / 60.0
+    sin_theta = rocd_ms / true_airspeed
+    return units.radians_to_degrees(np.arcsin(sin_theta))
+
+
+def clip_mach_number(
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    max_mach_number: ArrayOrFloat,
+) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
+    r"""Compute the Mach number from the true airspeed and ambient temperature.
+
+    This method clips the computed Mach number to the value of ``max_mach_number``.
+
+    If no mach number exceeds ``max_mach_number``, the original array ``true_airspeed``
+    and the computed Mach number are returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Array of true airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Array of ambient temperature, [:math: `K`]
+    max_mach_number : ArrayOrFloat
+        Maximum mach number associated to aircraft. If no clipping
+        is desired, this can be set tp `np.inf`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Array of true airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]. All values are clipped at
+        ``max_mach_number``.
+    mach_num : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Array of Mach numbers, [:math:`Ma`]. All values are clipped at
+        ``max_mach_number``.
+    """
+    mach_num = units.tas_to_mach_number(true_airspeed, air_temperature)
+
+    is_unrealistic = mach_num > max_mach_number
+    if not np.any(is_unrealistic):
+        return true_airspeed, mach_num
+
+    msg = (
+        f"Unrealistic Mach numbers found. Discovered {np.sum(is_unrealistic)} / "
+        f"{is_unrealistic.size} values exceeding this, the largest of which "
+        f"is {np.nanmax(mach_num):.4f}. These are all clipped at {max_mach_number}."
+    )
+    logger.debug(msg)
+
+    max_tas = units.mach_number_to_tas(max_mach_number, air_temperature)
+    adjusted_mach_num = np.where(is_unrealistic, max_mach_number, mach_num)
+    adjusted_true_airspeed = np.where(is_unrealistic, max_tas, true_airspeed)
+
+    return adjusted_true_airspeed, adjusted_mach_num
+
+
+def overall_propulsion_efficiency(
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    F_thrust: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    q_fuel: float,
+    is_descent: npt.NDArray[np.bool_] | bool | None,
+    threshold: float = 0.5,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Calculate the overall propulsion efficiency (OPE).
+
+    Negative OPE values can occur during the descent phase and is clipped to a
+    lower bound of 0, while an upper bound of ``threshold`` is also applied.
+    The most efficient engines today do not exceed this value.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        True airspeed for each waypoint, [:math:`m s^{-1}`].
+    F_thrust: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Thrust force provided by the engine, [:math:`N`].
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel mass flow rate, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`].
+    q_fuel : float
+        Lower calorific value (LCV) of fuel, [:math:`J \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}`].
+    is_descent : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None
+        Boolean array that indicates if a waypoint is in a descent phase.
+    threshold : float
+        Upper bound for realistic engine efficiency.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Overall propulsion efficiency (OPE)
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannConditionsContrailFormation1996`
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    ope = (F_thrust * true_airspeed) / (fuel_flow * q_fuel)
+    if is_descent is not None:
+        ope[is_descent] = 0.0
+
+    n_unrealistic = np.sum(ope > threshold)
+    if n_unrealistic:
+        logger.debug(
+            "Found %s engine efficiency values exceeding %s. These are clipped.",
+            n_unrealistic,
+            threshold,
+        )
+    ope.clip(0.0, threshold, out=ope)  # clip in place
+    return ope
+
+
+# -------------------
+# Aircraft fuel quantities
+# -------------------
+
+
+def fuel_burn(
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating], segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the fuel consumption at each waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel mass flow rate, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel consumption at each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+    """
+    return fuel_flow * segment_duration
+
+
+def equivalent_fuel_flow_rate_at_sea_level(
+    fuel_flow_cruise: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    theta_amb: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    delta_amb: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    mach_num: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Convert fuel mass flow rate at cruise conditions to equivalent flow rate at sea level.
+
+    Refer to Eq. (40) in :cite:`duboisFuelFlowMethod22006`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    fuel_flow_cruise : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel mass flow rate per engine, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+    theta_amb : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of the ambient temperature to the temperature at mean sea-level.
+    delta_amb : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of the pressure altitude to the surface pressure.
+    mach_num : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mach number, [:math: `Ma`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Estimate of fuel flow per engine at sea level, [:math:`kg \ s^{-1}`].
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`duboisFuelFlowMethod22006`
+    """
+    return fuel_flow_cruise * (theta_amb**3.8 / delta_amb) * np.exp(0.2 * mach_num**2)
+
+
+def equivalent_fuel_flow_rate_at_cruise(
+    fuel_flow_sls: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    theta_amb: ArrayOrFloat,
+    delta_amb: ArrayOrFloat,
+    mach_num: ArrayOrFloat,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Convert fuel mass flow rate at sea level to equivalent fuel flow rate at cruise conditions.
+
+    Refer to Eq. (40) in :cite:`duboisFuelFlowMethod22006`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    fuel_flow_sls : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Fuel mass flow rate, [:math:`kg s^{-1}`]
+    theta_amb : ArrayOrFloat
+        Ratio of the ambient temperature to the temperature at mean sea-level.
+    delta_amb : ArrayOrFloat
+        Ratio of the pressure altitude to the surface pressure.
+    mach_num : ArrayOrFloat
+        Mach number
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Estimate of fuel mass flow rate at sea level, [:math:`kg \ s^{-1}`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`duboisFuelFlowMethod22006`
+    """
+    denom = (theta_amb**3.8 / delta_amb) * np.exp(0.2 * mach_num**2)
+    # denominator must be >= 1, otherwise corrected_fuel_flow > fuel_flow_max_sls
+    denom.clip(min=1.0, out=denom)
+    return fuel_flow_sls / denom
+
+
+def reserve_fuel_requirements(
+    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> float:
+    r"""
+    Estimate reserve fuel requirements.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Rate of climb and descent, [:math:`ft \ min^{-1}`]
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Altitude, [:math:`ft`]
+    fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel mass flow rate, [:math:`kg \ s^{-1}`].
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel consumption for each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Reserve fuel requirements, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`wasiukAircraftPerformanceModel2015`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The real-world calculation of the reserve fuel requirements is highly complex
+    (refer to Section 2.3.3 of :cite:`wasiukAircraftPerformanceModel2015`).
+    This implementation is simplified by taking the maximum between the following two conditions:
+
+    1. Fuel required to fly +90 minutes at the main cruise altitude at the end of the
+       cruise aircraft weight.
+    2. Uplift the total fuel consumption for the flight by +15%
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    pycontrails.Flight.segment_phase
+    fuel_burn
+    """
+    segment_phase = flight.segment_phase(rocd, altitude_ft)
+
+    is_cruise = (segment_phase == flight.FlightPhase.CRUISE) & np.isfinite(fuel_flow)
+
+    # If there is no cruise phase, take the mean over the whole flight
+    if not np.any(is_cruise):
+        ff_end_of_cruise = np.nanmean(fuel_flow).item()
+
+    # Otherwise, take the average of the final 10 waypoints
+    else:
+        ff_end_of_cruise = np.mean(fuel_flow[is_cruise][-10:]).item()
+
+    reserve_fuel_1 = (90.0 * 60.0) * ff_end_of_cruise  # 90 minutes at cruise fuel flow
+    reserve_fuel_2 = 0.15 * np.nansum(fuel_burn).item()  # 15% uplift on total fuel burn
+
+    return max(reserve_fuel_1, reserve_fuel_2)
+
+
+# -------------
+# Aircraft mass
+# -------------
+
+
+@functools.cache
+def _historical_regional_load_factor(path: pathlib.Path) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """Load the historical regional load factor database.
+
+    Daily load factors are estimated from linearly interpolating the monthly statistics.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        Historical regional load factor for each day.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The monthly **passenger load factor** for each region is compiled from IATA's monthly
+    publication of the Air Passenger Market Analysis, where the static file will be continuously
+    updated. The report estimates the regional passenger load factor by dividing the revenue
+    passenger-km (RPK) by the available seat-km (ASK).
+
+    The monthly **cargo load factor** for each region is compiled from IATA's monthly publication
+    of the Air Cargo Market Analysis, where the static file will be continuously updated.
+    The report estimates the regional cargo load factor by dividing the freight tonne-km (FTK)
+    by the available freight tonne-km (AFTK).
+    """
+    df = pd.read_csv(path, index_col="Date", parse_dates=True, date_format="%d/%m/%Y")
+    return df.resample("D").interpolate()
+
+
+AIRPORT_TO_REGION = {
+    "A": "Asia Pacific",
+    "B": "Europe",
+    "C": "North America",
+    "D": "Africa",
+    "E": "Europe",
+    "F": "Africa",
+    "G": "Africa",
+    "H": "Africa",
+    "K": "North America",
+    "L": "Europe",
+    "M": "Latin America",
+    "N": "Asia Pacific",
+    "O": "Middle East",
+    "P": "Asia Pacific",
+    "R": "Asia Pacific",
+    "S": "Latin America",
+    "T": "Latin America",
+    "U": "Asia Pacific",
+    "V": "Asia Pacific",
+    "W": "Asia Pacific",
+    "Y": "Asia Pacific",
+    "Z": "Asia Pacific",
+}
+
+
+def aircraft_load_factor(
+    origin_airport_icao: str | None = None,
+    first_waypoint_time: pd.Timestamp | None = None,
+    *,
+    freighter: bool = False,
+) -> float:
+    """
+    Estimate passenger/cargo load factor based on historical data.
+
+    Accounts for regional and seasonal differences.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    origin_airport_icao : str | None
+        ICAO code of origin airport. If None is provided, then globally averaged values will be
+        assumed at `first_waypoint_time`.
+    first_waypoint_time : pd.Timestamp | None
+        First waypoint UTC time. If None is provided, then regionally or globally averaged values
+        from the trailing twelve months will be used.
+    freighter: bool
+        Historical cargo load factor will be used if true, otherwise use passenger load factor.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float
+        Passenger/cargo load factor [0 - 1], unitless
+    """
+    # If origin airport is provided, use regional load factor.
+    # Otherwise, do not allow empty string and `None` to pass
+    if origin_airport_icao:
+        first_letter = origin_airport_icao[0]
+        region = AIRPORT_TO_REGION.get(first_letter, "Global")
+    else:
+        region = "Global"
+
+    # Use passenger or cargo database
+    if freighter:
+        lf_database = _historical_regional_load_factor(CLF_PATH)
+    else:
+        lf_database = _historical_regional_load_factor(PLF_PATH)
+
+    # If `first_waypoint_time` is None, global/regional averages for the trailing twelve months
+    # will be assumed.
+    if first_waypoint_time is None:
+        t1 = lf_database.index[-1]
+        t0 = t1 - pd.DateOffset(months=12) + pd.DateOffset(days=1)
+        return lf_database.loc[t0:t1, region].mean().item()
+
+    date = first_waypoint_time.floor("D")
+
+    # If `date` is more recent than the historical data, then use most recent load factors
+    # from trailing twelve months as seasonal values are stable except in COVID years (2020-22).
+    if date > lf_database.index[-1]:
+        if date.month == 2 and date.day == 29:  # remove any leap day
+            date = date.replace(day=28)
+
+        filt = (lf_database.index.month == date.month) & (lf_database.index.day == date.day)
+        date = lf_database.index[filt][-1]
+
+    # (2) If `date` is before the historical data, then use 2019 load factors.
+    elif date < lf_database.index[0]:
+        if date.month == 2 and date.day == 29:  # remove any leap day
+            date = date.replace(day=28)
+
+        filt = (lf_database.index.month == date.month) & (lf_database.index.day == date.day)
+        date = lf_database.index[filt][0]
+
+    return lf_database.at[date, region].item()
+
+
+def aircraft_weight(aircraft_mass: ArrayOrFloat) -> ArrayOrFloat:
+    """Calculate the aircraft weight at each waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    aircraft_mass : ArrayOrFloat
+        Aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayOrFloat
+        Aircraft weight, [:math:`N`]
+    """
+    return aircraft_mass * constants.g
+
+
+def initial_aircraft_mass(
+    *,
+    operating_empty_weight: float,
+    max_takeoff_weight: float,
+    max_payload: float,
+    total_fuel_burn: float,
+    total_reserve_fuel: float,
+    load_factor: float,
+) -> float:
+    """Estimate initial aircraft mass as a function of load factor and fuel requirements.
+
+    This function uses the following equation::
+
+        TOM = OEM + PM + FM_nc + TFM
+            = OEM + LF * MPM + FM_nc + TFM
+
+    where:
+    - TOM is the aircraft take-off mass
+    - OEM is the aircraft operating empty weight
+    - PM is the payload mass
+    - FM_nc is the mass of the fuel not consumed
+    - TFM is the trip fuel mass
+    - LF is the load factor
+    - MPM is the maximum payload mass
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    operating_empty_weight: float
+        Aircraft operating empty weight, i.e. the basic weight of an aircraft including
+        the crew and necessary equipment, but excluding usable fuel and payload, [:math:`kg`]
+    max_takeoff_weight: float
+        Aircraft maximum take-off weight, [:math:`kg`]
+    max_payload: float
+        Aircraft maximum payload, [:math:`kg`]
+    total_fuel_burn: float
+        Total fuel consumption for the flight, obtained from prior iterations, [:math:`kg`]
+    total_reserve_fuel: float
+        Total reserve fuel requirements, [:math:`kg`]
+    load_factor: float
+        Aircraft load factor assumption (between 0 and 1)
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float
+        Aircraft mass at the initial waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`wasiukAircraftPerformanceModel2015`
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    reserve_fuel_requirements
+    aircraft_load_factor
+    """
+    tom = operating_empty_weight + load_factor * max_payload + total_fuel_burn + total_reserve_fuel
+    return min(tom, max_takeoff_weight)
+
+
+def update_aircraft_mass(
+    *,
+    operating_empty_weight: float,
+    max_takeoff_weight: float,
+    max_payload: float,
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    total_reserve_fuel: float,
+    load_factor: float,
+    takeoff_mass: float | None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Update aircraft mass based on the simulated total fuel consumption.
+
+    Used internally for finding aircraft mass iteratively.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    operating_empty_weight: float
+        Aircraft operating empty weight, i.e. the basic weight of an aircraft including
+        the crew and necessary equipment, but excluding usable fuel and payload, [:math:`kg`].
+    ref_mass: float
+        Aircraft reference mass, [:math:`kg`].
+    max_takeoff_weight: float
+        Aircraft maximum take-off weight, [:math:`kg`].
+    max_payload: float
+        Aircraft maximum payload, [:math:`kg`]
+    fuel_burn: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel consumption for each waypoint, [:math:`kg`]
+    total_reserve_fuel: float
+        Total reserve fuel requirements, [:math:`kg`]
+    load_factor: float
+        Aircraft load factor assumption (between 0 and 1). This is the ratio of the
+        actual payload weight to the maximum payload weight.
+    takeoff_mass: float | None
+        Initial aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]. If None, the initial mass is calculated
+        using :func:`initial_aircraft_mass`. If supplied, all other parameters except
+        ``fuel_burn`` are ignored.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Updated aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    fuel_burn
+    reserve_fuel_requirements
+    initial_aircraft_mass
+    aircraft_load_factor
+    """
+    if takeoff_mass is None:
+        takeoff_mass = initial_aircraft_mass(
+            operating_empty_weight=operating_empty_weight,
+            max_takeoff_weight=max_takeoff_weight,
+            max_payload=max_payload,
+            total_fuel_burn=np.nansum(fuel_burn).item(),
+            total_reserve_fuel=total_reserve_fuel,
+            load_factor=load_factor,
+        )
+
+    # Calculate updated aircraft mass for each waypoint
+    amass = np.empty_like(fuel_burn)
+    amass[0] = takeoff_mass
+    amass[1:] = takeoff_mass - np.nancumsum(fuel_burn)[:-1]
+
+    return amass
+
+
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Temperature and pressure at different sections of the jet engine
+# ------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def compressor_inlet_temperature(T: ArrayScalarLike, mach_num: ArrayScalarLike) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    """Calculate compressor inlet temperature for Jet engine, :math:`T_{2}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    T : ArrayScalarLike
+        Ambient temperature, [:math:`K`]
+    mach_num : ArrayScalarLike
+        Mach number
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`stettlerGlobalCivilAviation2013`
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    return T * (1.0 + ((constants.kappa - 1.0) / 2.0) * mach_num**2)
+
+
+def compressor_inlet_pressure(p: ArrayScalarLike, mach_num: ArrayScalarLike) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    """Calculate compressor inlet pressure for Jet engine, :math:`P_{2}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    p : ArrayScalarLike
+        Ambient pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+    mach_num : ArrayScalarLike
+        Mach number
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`stettlerGlobalCivilAviation2013`
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    power_term = constants.kappa / (constants.kappa - 1.0)
+    return p * (1.0 + ((constants.kappa - 1.0) / 2.0) * mach_num**2) ** power_term
+
+
+def combustor_inlet_pressure(
+    pressure_ratio: float,
+    p_comp_inlet: ArrayScalarLike,
+    thrust_setting: ArrayScalarLike,
+) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    """Calculate combustor inlet pressure, :math:`P_{3}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    pressure_ratio : float
+        Engine pressure ratio, unitless
+    p_comp_inlet : ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+    thrust_setting : ArrayScalarLike
+        Engine thrust setting, unitless
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Combustor inlet pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`stettlerGlobalCivilAviation2013`
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    return (p_comp_inlet * (pressure_ratio - 1.0) * thrust_setting) + p_comp_inlet
+
+
+def combustor_inlet_temperature(
+    comp_efficiency: float,
+    T_comp_inlet: ArrayScalarLike,
+    p_comp_inlet: ArrayScalarLike,
+    p_comb_inlet: ArrayScalarLike,
+) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    """Calculate combustor inlet temperature, :math:`T_{3}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    comp_efficiency : float
+        Engine compressor efficiency, [:math:`0 - 1`]
+    T_comp_inlet : ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+    p_comp_inlet : ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+    p_comb_inlet : ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Combustor inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`stettlerGlobalCivilAviation2013`
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    power_term = (constants.kappa - 1.0) / (constants.kappa * comp_efficiency)
+    return T_comp_inlet * (p_comb_inlet / p_comp_inlet) ** power_term
+
+
+def turbine_inlet_temperature(
+    afr: ArrayScalarLike, T_comb_inlet: ArrayScalarLike, q_fuel: float
+) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    r"""Calculate turbine inlet temperature, :math:`T_{4}`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    afr : ArrayScalarLike
+        Air-to-fuel ratio, unitless
+    T_comb_inlet : ArrayScalarLike
+        Combustor inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+    q_fuel : float
+        Lower calorific value (LCV) of fuel, :math:`[J \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}]`
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Tubrine inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    """
+    return (afr * constants.c_pd * T_comb_inlet + q_fuel) / (constants.c_p_combustion * (1.0 + afr))
+
+
+# --------------------------------------
+# Engine thrust force and thrust settings
+# --------------------------------------
+
+
+def thrust_force(
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    F_drag: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Calculate the thrust force at each waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Waypoint altitude, [:math:`m`]
+    true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        True airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+    segment_duration : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`]
+    aircraft_mass : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]
+    F_drag : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Draft force, [:math:`N`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Thrust force, [:math:`N`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`eurocontrolUSERMANUALBASE2010`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The model balances the rate of forces acting on the aircraft
+    with the rate in increase in energy.
+
+    This estimate of thrust force is used in the BADA Total-Energy Model (Eq. 3.2-1).
+
+    Negative thrust must be corrected.
+    """
+    dh_dt = np.empty_like(altitude)
+    dh_dt[:-1] = np.diff(altitude) / segment_duration[:-1]
+    dh_dt[-1] = 0.0
+    np.nan_to_num(dh_dt, copy=False)
+
+    dv_dt = acceleration(true_airspeed, segment_duration)
+
+    return (
+        F_drag
+        + (aircraft_mass * constants.g * dh_dt + aircraft_mass * true_airspeed * dv_dt)
+        / true_airspeed
+    )
+
+
+def thrust_setting_nd(
+    true_airspeed: ArrayScalarLike,
+    thrust_setting: ArrayScalarLike,
+    T: ArrayScalarLike,
+    p: ArrayScalarLike,
+    pressure_ratio: float,
+    q_fuel: float,
+    *,
+    comp_efficiency: float = 0.9,
+    cruise: bool = False,
+) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    r"""Calculate the non-dimensionalized thrust setting of a Jet engine.
+
+    Result is in terms of the ratio of turbine inlet to the
+    compressor inlet temperature (t4_t2)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    true_airspeed : ArrayScalarLike
+        True airspeed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+    thrust_setting : ArrayScalarLike
+        Engine thrust setting, unitless
+    T : ArrayScalarLike
+        Ambient temperature, [:math:`K`]
+    p : ArrayScalarLike
+        Ambient pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+    pressure_ratio : float
+        Engine pressure ratio, unitless
+    q_fuel : float
+        Lower calorific value (LCV) of fuel, :math:`[J \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}]`
+    comp_efficiency : float, optional
+        Engine compressor efficiency, [:math:`0 - 1`].
+        Defaults to 0.9
+    cruise : bool, optional
+        Defaults to False
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Ratio of turbine inlet to the compressor inlet temperature, unitless
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    - :cite:`teohAviationContrailClimate2022`
+    """
+    mach_num = units.tas_to_mach_number(true_airspeed, T)
+    T_compressor_inlet = compressor_inlet_temperature(T, mach_num)
+    p_compressor_inlet = compressor_inlet_pressure(p, mach_num)
+    p_combustor_inlet = combustor_inlet_pressure(pressure_ratio, p_compressor_inlet, thrust_setting)
+    T_combustor_inlet = combustor_inlet_temperature(
+        comp_efficiency, T_compressor_inlet, p_compressor_inlet, p_combustor_inlet
+    )
+    afr = air_to_fuel_ratio(thrust_setting, cruise=cruise, T_compressor_inlet=T_compressor_inlet)
+    T_turbine_inlet = turbine_inlet_temperature(afr, T_combustor_inlet, q_fuel)
+    return T_turbine_inlet / T_compressor_inlet
+
+
+def air_to_fuel_ratio(
+    thrust_setting: ArrayScalarLike,
+    *,
+    cruise: bool = False,
+    T_compressor_inlet: None | ArrayScalarLike = None,
+) -> ArrayScalarLike:
+    """Calculate air-to-fuel ratio from thrust setting.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    thrust_setting : ArrayScalarLike
+        Engine thrust setting, unitless
+    cruise : bool
+        Estimate thrust setting for cruise conditions. Defaults to False.
+    T_compressor_inlet : None | ArrayScalarLike
+        Compressor inlet temperature, [:math:`K`]
+        Required if ``cruise`` is True.
+        Defaults to None
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    ArrayScalarLike
+        Air-to-fuel ratio, unitless
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
+    - AFR equation from :cite:`stettlerGlobalCivilAviation2013`
+    - Scaling factor to cruise from Eq. (30) of :cite:`duboisFuelFlowMethod22006`
+
+    """
+    afr = (0.0121 * thrust_setting + 0.008) ** (-1)
+
+    if not cruise:
+        return afr
+
+    if T_compressor_inlet is None:
+        raise ValueError("`T_compressor_inlet` is required when `cruise` is True")
+
+    return afr * (T_compressor_inlet / constants.T_msl)
+
+
+# -------------------
+# Atmospheric ratios
+# -------------------
+
+
+def temperature_ratio(T: npt.NDArray[np.floating]) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the ratio of ambient temperature relative to the temperature at mean sea level.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    T : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Air temperature, [:math:`K`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of the temperature to the temperature at mean sea-level (MSL).
+    """
+    return T / constants.T_msl
+
+
+def pressure_ratio(p: npt.NDArray[np.floating]) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the ratio of ambient pressure relative to the surface pressure.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    p : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Air pressure, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of the pressure altitude to the surface pressure.
+    """
+    return p / constants.p_surface
+
+
+def density_ratio(rho: npt.NDArray[np.floating]) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""Calculate the ratio of air density relative to the air density at mean-sea-level.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rho : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Air density, [:math:`kg \ m^{3}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of the density to the air density at mean sea-level (MSL).
+    """
+    return rho / constants.rho_msl