pycontrails 0.58.0__cp314-cp314-macosx_10_13_x86_64.whl

pycontrails/models/cocip/contrail_properties.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1530 @@
+"""Contrail Property Calculations."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import logging
+from typing import Any, overload
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+
+from pycontrails.models.cocip import radiative_heating
+from pycontrails.physics import constants, thermo, units
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+####################
+# Initial Contrail Properties
+####################
+
+
+def initial_iwc(
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    specific_humidity: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_dist: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    ei_h2o: float,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""
+    Estimate the initial contrail ice water content (iwc) before the wake vortex phase.
+
+    Note that the ice water content is replaced by zero if it is negative (dry air),
+    and this will end the contrail life-cycle in subsequent steps.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    specific_humidity : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient specific humidity for each waypoint, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial pressure altitude at each waypoint, before the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+    fuel_dist : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        fuel consumption of the flight segment per distance traveled, [:math:`kg m^{-1}`]
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial contrail width, [:math:`m`]
+    depth : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial contrail depth, [:math:`m`]
+    ei_h2o : float
+        water vapor emissions index of fuel, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O} \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Initial contrail ice water content (iwc) at the original waypoint
+        before the wake vortex phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`].
+        Returns zero if iwc is is negative (dry air).
+    """
+    q_sat = thermo.q_sat_ice(air_temperature, air_pressure)
+    q_exhaust_ = q_exhaust(air_temperature, air_pressure, fuel_dist, width, depth, ei_h2o)
+    return np.maximum(q_exhaust_ + specific_humidity - q_sat, 0.0)
+
+
+def q_exhaust(
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_dist: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    ei_h2o: float,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    r"""
+    Calculate the specific humidity released by water vapor from aircraft emissions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial pressure altitude at each waypoint, before the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+    fuel_dist : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        fuel consumption of the flight segment per distance travelled, [:math:`kg m^{-1}`]
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial contrail width, [:math:`m`]
+    depth : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial contrail depth, [:math:`m`]
+    ei_h2o : float
+        water vapor emissions index of fuel, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O} \ kg_{fuel}^{-1}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Humidity released by water vapour from aircraft emissions, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    """
+    rho_air = thermo.rho_d(air_temperature, air_pressure)
+    return (ei_h2o * fuel_dist) / ((np.pi / 4.0) * width * depth * rho_air)
+
+
+def iwc_adiabatic_heating(
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure_1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the change in ice water content due to adiabatic heating from the wake vortex phase.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial pressure altitude at each waypoint, before the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+    air_pressure_1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        pressure altitude at each waypoint, after the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Change in ice water content due to adiabatic heating from the wake
+        vortex phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    """
+    p_ice = thermo.e_sat_ice(air_temperature)
+    air_temperature_1 = temperature_adiabatic_heating(air_temperature, air_pressure, air_pressure_1)
+    p_ice_1 = thermo.e_sat_ice(air_temperature_1)
+
+    out = (constants.R_d / constants.R_v) * ((p_ice_1 / air_pressure_1) - (p_ice / air_pressure))
+    out.clip(min=0.0, out=out)
+    return out
+
+
+def temperature_adiabatic_heating(
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_pressure_1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the ambient air temperature for each waypoint after the wake vortex phase.
+
+    This calculation accounts for adiabatic heating.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial pressure altitude at each waypoint, before the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+    air_pressure_1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        pressure altitude at each waypoint, after the wake vortex phase, [:math:`Pa`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient air temperature after the wake vortex phase, [:math:`K`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Level 1, see Figure 1 of :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+    """
+    exponent = (constants.gamma - 1.0) / constants.gamma
+    return air_temperature * (air_pressure_1 / air_pressure) ** exponent
+
+
+def iwc_post_wake_vortex(
+    iwc: npt.NDArray[np.floating], iwc_ad: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the ice water content after the wake vortex phase (``iwc_1``).
+
+    ``iwc_1`` is calculated by subtracting the initial iwc before the wake vortex phase (``iwc``)
+    by the change in iwc from adiabatic heating experienced during the wake vortex phase.
+
+    Note that the iwc is replaced by zero if it is negative (dry air),
+    and this will end the contrail lifecycle in subsequent steps.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    iwc : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial ice water content at each waypoint before the wake vortex
+        phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    iwc_ad : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        change in iwc from adiabatic heating during the wake vortex
+        phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice water content after the wake vortex phase, ``iwc_1``, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Level 1, see Figure 1 of :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+    """
+    return np.maximum(iwc - iwc_ad, 0.0)
+
+
+def initial_ice_particle_number(
+    aei: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    fuel_dist: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    min_aei: float | None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the initial number of ice particles per distance after the wake vortex phase.
+
+    The initial number of ice particle per distance is calculated from the activated apparent
+    emissions index ``aei`` and fuel burn per distance ``fuel_dist``.
+    Note that a lower bound for ``aei`` is set at ``1e13`` :math:`kg^{-1}` to account
+    for the activation of ambient aerosol particles and organic volatile particles.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 0.55
+
+        The signature of this function has changed. The parameter ``aei`` is now
+        expected to be the previous ``npvm_ei_n`` multiplied by the activation
+        fraction ``f_activation``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    aei : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Apparent contrail emissions index, [:math:`kg^{-1}`]
+    fuel_dist : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fuel consumption of the flight segment per distance traveled, [:math:`kg m^{-1}`]
+    min_aei : float | None
+        Lower bound for ``aei`` to account for ambient aerosol particles for
+        newer engines [:math:`kg^{-1}`]. If None, no clipping is applied.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        The initial number of ice particles per distance before the wake vortex
+        phase, [:math:`# m^{-1}`]
+    """
+    if min_aei is not None:
+        aei = np.clip(aei, min=min_aei)  # type: ignore[call-overload]
+    return fuel_dist * aei
+
+
+def ice_particle_activation_rate(
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating], T_crit_sac: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the activation rate of black carbon particles to contrail ice crystals.
+
+    The activation rate is calculated as a function of the difference between
+    the ambient temperature and the Schmidt-Appleman threshold temperature ``T_crit_sac``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ambient temperature at each waypoint before wake_wortex, [:math:`K`]
+    T_crit_sac : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        estimated Schmidt-Appleman temperature threshold for contrail formation, [:math:`K`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Proportion of black carbon particles that activates to contrail ice parties.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The equation is not published but based on the raw data
+    from :cite:`brauerAirborneMeasurementsContrail2021`.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`brauerAirborneMeasurementsContrail2021`
+    """
+    d_temp = air_temperature - T_crit_sac
+    d_temp.clip(None, 0.0, out=d_temp)
+
+    # NOTE: It seems somewhat unnecessary to do this additional "rounding down"
+    # of d_temp for values below -5. As d_temp near -5, the activation rate approaches
+    # 1. This additional rounding injects a small jump discontinuity into the activation rate that
+    # likely does not match reality. I suggest removing the line below. This will change
+    # model outputs roughly at 0.001 - 0.1%.
+    d_temp[d_temp < -5.0] = -np.inf
+    return -0.661 * np.exp(d_temp) + 1.0
+
+
+def ice_particle_survival_fraction(
+    iwc: npt.NDArray[np.floating], iwc_1: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Estimate the fraction of contrail ice particle number that survive the wake vortex phase.
+
+    CoCiP assumes that this fraction is proportional to the change in ice water content
+    (``iwc_1 - iwc``) before and after the wake vortex phase.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    iwc : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        initial ice water content at each waypoint before the wake vortex
+        phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    iwc_1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice water content after the wake vortex phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Fraction of contrail ice particle number that survive the wake vortex phase.
+    """
+    f_surv = np.empty_like(iwc)
+    is_positive = (iwc > 0.0) & (iwc_1 > 0.0)
+
+    ratio = iwc_1[is_positive] / iwc[is_positive]
+    ratio.clip(None, 1.0, out=ratio)
+
+    f_surv[is_positive] = ratio
+    f_surv[~is_positive] = 0.5
+
+    return f_surv
+
+
+def initial_persistent(
+    iwc_1: npt.NDArray[np.floating], rhi_1: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Determine if waypoints have persistent contrails.
+
+    Conditions for persistent initial_contrails:
+
+    1. ice water content at level 1: ``1e-12 < iwc < 1e10``
+    2. rhi at level 1: ``0 < rhi < 1e10``
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 0.25.1
+        Returned array now has floating dtype. This is consistent with other filtering
+        steps in the CoCiP model (ie, ``sac``).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    iwc_1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice water content after the wake vortex phase, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    rhi_1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        relative humidity with respect to ice after the wake vortex phase
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mask of waypoints with persistent contrails. Waypoints with persistent contrails
+        will have value 1.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The RHi at level 1 does not need to be above 100% if the iwc > 0 kg/kg. If iwc > 0
+    and RHi < 100%, the contrail lifetime will not end immediately as the ice particles
+    will gradually evaporate with the rate depending on the background RHi.
+    """
+    out = (iwc_1 > 1e-12) & (iwc_1 < 1e10) & (rhi_1 > 0.0) & (rhi_1 < 1e10)
+    dtype = np.result_type(iwc_1, rhi_1)
+    return out.astype(dtype)
+
+
+def contrail_persistent(
+    latitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    segment_length: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    age: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64],
+    tau_contrail: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    n_ice_per_m3: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    params: dict[str, Any],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.bool_]:
+    r"""
+    Determine surviving contrail segments after time integration step.
+
+    A contrail waypoint reaches its end of life if any of the following conditions hold:
+
+    1. Contrail age exceeds ``max_age``
+    2. Contrail optical depth lies outside of interval ``[min_tau, max_tau]``
+    3. Ice number density lies outside of interval ``[min_n_ice_per_m3, max_n_ice_per_m3]``
+    4. Altitude lies outside of the interval ``[min_altitude_m, max_altitude_m]``
+    5. Segment length exceeds ``max_seg_length_m``
+    6. Latitude values are within 1 degree of the north or south pole
+
+    This function warns if all values in the ``tau_contrail`` array are nan.
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 0.25.10
+
+        Extreme values of ``latitude`` (ie, close to the north or south pole) now
+        create an end of life condition. This check helps address issues related to
+        divergence in the polar regions. (With large enough integration time delta,
+        it is still possible for post-advection latitude values to lie outside of
+        [-90, 90], but this is no longer possible with typical parameters and wind
+        speeds.)
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    latitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail latitude, [:math:`\deg`]
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail altitude, [:math:`m`]
+    segment_length : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail segment length, [:math:`m`]
+    age : npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64]
+        Contrail age
+    tau_contrail : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail optical depth
+    n_ice_per_m3 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail ice particle number per volume of air, [:math:`# m^{-3}`]
+    params : dict[str, Any]
+        Dictionary of :class:`CocipParams` parameters determining the
+        conditions for end of contrail life.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+        Boolean array indicating surviving contrails. Persisting contrails
+        will be marked as True.
+    """
+    status_1 = _within_range(age, max=params["max_age"])
+    status_2 = _within_range(tau_contrail, max=params["max_tau"], min=params["min_tau"])
+    status_3 = _within_range(
+        n_ice_per_m3, max=params["max_n_ice_per_m3"], min=params["min_n_ice_per_m3"]
+    )
+    status_4 = _within_range(altitude, max=params["max_altitude_m"], min=params["min_altitude_m"])
+    status_5 = _within_range(segment_length, max=params["max_seg_length_m"])
+    status_6 = _within_range(latitude, max=89.0, min=-89.0)
+
+    logger.debug(
+        "Survival stats. age: %s, tau: %s, ice: %s, altitude: %s, segment: %s, latitude: %s",
+        np.sum(status_1),
+        np.sum(status_2),
+        np.sum(status_3),
+        np.sum(status_4),
+        np.sum(status_5),
+        np.sum(status_6),
+    )
+    return status_1 & status_2 & status_3 & status_4 & status_5 & status_6
+
+
+@overload
+def _within_range(
+    val: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    max: float | None = None,
+    min: float | None = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.bool_]: ...
+
+
+@overload
+def _within_range(
+    val: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64],
+    max: np.timedelta64 | None = None,
+    min: np.timedelta64 | None = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.bool_]: ...
+
+
+def _within_range(
+    val: np.ndarray,
+    max: float | np.timedelta64 | None = None,
+    min: float | np.timedelta64 | None = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.bool_]:
+    """
+    Check if the input values (val) are each within the specified range.
+
+    If both ``max`` and ``min`` are None, a literal constant True is returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    val : np.ndarray
+        value of selected contrail property
+    max : float | np.timedelta64 | None, optional
+        Upper bound. If None, no upper bound is imposed. None by default.
+    min : float | np.timedelta64 | None, optional
+        Lower bound. If None, no lower bound is imposed. None by default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+        Mask of waypoints. Waypoints with values within the specified range will be marked as true.
+    """
+    cond: npt.NDArray[np.bool_] = True  # type: ignore[assignment]
+    if min is not None:
+        cond &= val >= min
+    if max is not None:
+        cond &= val <= max
+    return cond
+
+
+####################
+# Contrail Properties
+####################
+
+
+def contrail_edges(
+    lon: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    lat: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sin_a: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    cos_a: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> tuple[
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+]:
+    """
+    Calculate the longitude and latitude of the contrail edges to account for contrail spreading.
+
+    (lon_edge_l, lat_edge_l)        x---------------------
+
+    (Contrail midpoint: lon, lat)   X===================== ->
+
+    (lon_edge_r, lat_edge_r)        x---------------------
+
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    lon : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        longitude of contrail waypoint, degrees
+    lat : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        latitude of contrail waypoint, degrees
+    sin_a : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        sin(a), where a is the angle between the plume and the longitudinal axis
+    cos_a : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        cos(a), where a is the angle between the plume and the longitudinal axis
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]
+        (lon_edge_l, lat_edge_l, lon_edge_r, lat_edge_r), longitudes and latitudes
+        at the left and right edges of the contrail, degrees
+    """  # noqa: E501
+    dlon = units.m_to_longitude_distance(width * sin_a * 0.5, lat)
+    dlat = units.m_to_latitude_distance(width * cos_a * 0.5)
+
+    lon_edge_l = lon - dlon
+    lat_edge_l = lat + dlat
+    lon_edge_r = lon + dlon
+    lat_edge_r = lat - dlat
+
+    return lon_edge_l, lat_edge_l, lon_edge_r, lat_edge_r
+
+
+def contrail_vertices(
+    lon: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    lat: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sin_a: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    cos_a: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    segment_length: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> tuple[
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+]:
+    """
+    Calculate the longitude and latitude of the contrail vertices.
+
+    This is equivalent to running :meth:`contrail_edges` at each contrail waypoint
+    and associating the next continuous waypoint with the previous.
+    This method is helpful when you want to treat each contrail waypoint independently.
+
+    (lon_1, lat_1)                  x--------------------x   (lon_4, lat_4)
+
+    (Contrail waypoint: lon, lat)   X==================== ->
+
+    (lon_2, lat_2)                  x--------------------x   (lon_3, lat_3)
+
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    lon : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        longitude of contrail waypoint, degrees
+    lat : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        latitude of contrail waypoint, degrees
+    sin_a : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        sin(a), where a is the angle between the plume and the longitudinal axis
+    cos_a : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        cos(a), where a is the angle between the plume and the longitudinal axis
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    segment_length : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail length at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        (lon_1, lat_1, lon_2, lat_2, lon_3, lat_3, lon_4, lat_4) degrees
+    """
+    dlon_width = units.m_to_longitude_distance(width * sin_a * 0.5, lat)
+    dlat_width = units.m_to_latitude_distance(width * cos_a * 0.5)
+
+    # using "lat" as mean here is a little inaccurate, but its a close approx
+    dlon_length = units.m_to_longitude_distance(segment_length * cos_a, lat)
+    dlat_length = units.m_to_latitude_distance(segment_length * sin_a)
+
+    lon_1 = lon - dlon_width
+    lon_2 = lon + dlon_width
+    lon_3 = lon + dlon_width + dlon_length
+    lon_4 = lon - dlon_width + dlon_length
+
+    lat_1 = lat + dlat_width
+    lat_2 = lat - dlat_width
+    lat_3 = lat - dlat_width + dlat_length
+    lat_4 = lat + dlat_width + dlat_length
+
+    return lon_1, lat_1, lon_2, lat_2, lon_3, lat_3, lon_4, lat_4
+
+
+def plume_effective_cross_sectional_area(
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sigma_yz: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume (``area_eff``).
+
+    ``sigma_yy``, ``sigma_zz`` and ``sigma_yz`` are the parameters governing the
+    contrail plume's temporal evolution.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    depth : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail depth at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    sigma_yz : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        temporal evolution of the contrail plume parameters
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    """
+    sigma_yy = 0.125 * (width**2)
+    sigma_zz = 0.125 * (depth**2)
+    return new_effective_area_from_sigma(sigma_yy, sigma_zz, sigma_yz)
+
+
+def plume_effective_depth(
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating], area_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the effective depth of the contrail plume (``depth_eff``).
+
+    ``depth_eff`` is calculated from the effective cross-sectional area (``area_eff``)
+    and the contrail width.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    area_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        effective depth of the contrail plume, [:math:`m`]
+    """
+    return area_eff / width
+
+
+def plume_mass_per_distance(
+    area_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating], rho_air: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the contrail plume mass per unit length.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    area_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    rho_air : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        density of air for each waypoint, [:math:`kg m^{-3}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail plume mass per unit length, [:math:`kg m^{-1}`]
+    """
+    return area_eff * rho_air
+
+
+def ice_particle_number_per_volume_of_plume(
+    n_ice_per_m: npt.NDArray[np.floating], area_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the number of contrail ice particles per volume of plume (``n_ice_per_vol``).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_ice_per_m : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per distance at time t, [:math:`m^{-1}`]
+    area_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per volume of contrail plume at time t, [:math:`# m^{-3}`]
+    """
+    return n_ice_per_m / area_eff
+
+
+def ice_particle_number_per_mass_of_air(
+    n_ice_per_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating], rho_air: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the number of contrail ice particles per mass of air.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_ice_per_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per volume of contrail plume at time t, [:math:`# m^{-3}`]
+    rho_air : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        density of air for each waypoint, [:math:`kg m^{-3}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per mass of air at time t, [:math:`# kg^{-1}`]
+    """
+    return n_ice_per_vol / rho_air
+
+
+def ice_particle_volume_mean_radius(
+    iwc: npt.NDArray[np.floating], n_ice_per_kg_air: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the ice particle volume mean radius.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    iwc : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail ice water content, i.e., contrail ice mass per
+        kg of air, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+
+    n_ice_per_kg_air : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per mass of air, [:math:`# kg^{-1}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    ``r_ice_vol`` is the mean radius of a sphere that has the same volume as the
+    contrail ice particle.
+
+    ``r_ice_vol`` calculated by dividing the total volume of contrail
+    ice particle per kg of air (``total_ice_volume``, :math:`m**3/kg-air`) with the
+    number of contrail ice particles per kg of air (``n_ice_per_kg_air``, :math:`#/kg-air`).
+    """
+    total_ice_volume = iwc / constants.rho_ice
+    r_ice_vol = ((3 / (4.0 * np.pi)) * (total_ice_volume / n_ice_per_kg_air)) ** (1 / 3)
+    zero_negative_values = iwc <= 0.0
+    r_ice_vol[zero_negative_values] = iwc[zero_negative_values]
+    r_ice_vol.clip(min=1e-10, out=r_ice_vol)
+    return r_ice_vol
+
+
+def ice_particle_terminal_fall_speed(
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the terminal fall speed of contrail ice particles.
+
+    ``v_t`` is calculated based on a parametric model
+    from :cite:`spichtingerModellingCirrusClouds2009`, using inputs of pressure
+    level, ambient temperature and the ice particle volume mean radius. See
+    Table 2 for the model parameters.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Pressure altitude at each waypoint, [:math:`Pa`]
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Terminal fall speed of contrail ice particles, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`spichtingerModellingCirrusClouds2009`
+    """
+    ipm = ice_particle_mass(r_ice_vol)
+
+    alpha = np.full_like(r_ice_vol, np.nan)
+
+    # For ice particle mass >= 4.264e-8 kg
+    particle_mass = ipm >= 4.264e-8
+    alpha[particle_mass] = 8.80 * ipm[particle_mass] ** 0.096
+
+    # For ice particle mass in [2.166e-9 kg, 4.264e-8 kg)
+    particle_mass = (ipm < 4.264e-8) & (ipm >= 2.166e-9)
+    alpha[particle_mass] = 329.8 * ipm[particle_mass] ** 0.31
+
+    # For ice particle mass in [2.146e-13 kg, 2.166e-9 kg)
+    particle_mass = (ipm < 2.166e-9) & (ipm >= 2.146e-13)
+    alpha[particle_mass] = 63292.4 * ipm[particle_mass] ** 0.57
+
+    # For ice particle mass < 2.146e-13 kg
+    particle_mass = ipm < 2.146e-13
+    alpha[particle_mass] = 735.4 * ipm[particle_mass] ** 0.42
+
+    return alpha * (30000.0 / air_pressure) ** 0.178 * (233.0 / air_temperature) ** 0.394
+
+
+def ice_particle_mass(r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating]) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the contrail ice particle mass.
+
+    It is calculated by multiplying the mean ice particle volume with the density of ice
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mean contrail ice particle mass, [:math:`kg`]
+    """
+    return ((4 / 3) * np.pi * r_ice_vol**3) * constants.rho_ice
+
+
+def horizontal_diffusivity(
+    ds_dz: npt.NDArray[np.floating], depth: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate contrail horizontal diffusivity.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    ds_dz : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Total wind shear (eastward and northward winds) with respect
+        to altitude (``dz``), [:math:`m s^{-1} / Pa`]
+    depth : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail depth at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        horizontal diffusivity, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Accounts for the turbulence-induced diffusive contrail spreading in
+    the horizontal direction.
+    """
+    return 0.1 * ds_dz * depth**2
+
+
+def vertical_diffusivity(
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    dT_dz: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    terminal_fall_speed: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    sedimentation_impact_factor: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    eff_heat_rate: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate contrail vertical diffusivity.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    air_pressure : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Pressure altitude at each waypoint, [:math:`Pa`]
+    air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ambient temperature for each waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+    dT_dz : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Temperature gradient with respect to altitude (dz), [:math:`K m^{-1}`]
+    depth_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Effective depth of the contrail plume, [:math:`m`]
+    terminal_fall_speed : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Terminal fall speed of contrail ice particles, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+    sedimentation_impact_factor : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Enhancement parameter denoted by `f_T` in eq. (35) Schumann (2012).
+    eff_heat_rate: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None
+        Effective heating rate, i.e., rate of which the contrail plume
+        is heated, [:math:`K s^{-1}`]. If None is passed, the radiative
+        heating effects on contrail cirrus properties are not included.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        vertical diffusivity, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`
+    - :cite:`schumannAviationinducedCirrusRadiation2013`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Accounts for the turbulence-induced diffusive contrail spreading in the vertical direction.
+    See eq. (35) of :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012`.
+
+    The first term in Eq. (35) of :cite:`schumannContrailCirrusPrediction2012` is
+    (c_V * w'_N^2 / N_BV, where c_V = 0.2 and w'_N^2 = 0.1) is different
+    than outlined below. Here, a constant of 0.01 is used when radiative
+    heating effects are not activated. This update comes from
+    :cite:`schumannAviationinducedCirrusRadiation2013`
+    , which found that the original formulation estimated thinner
+    contrails relative to satellite observations. The vertical diffusivity
+    was enlarged so that the simulated contrails are more consistent with observations.
+    """
+    n_bv = thermo.brunt_vaisala_frequency(air_pressure, air_temperature, dT_dz)
+    n_bv.clip(min=0.001, out=n_bv)
+
+    cvs: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+    if eff_heat_rate is not None:
+        cvs = radiative_heating.convective_velocity_scale(depth_eff, eff_heat_rate, air_temperature)
+        cvs.clip(min=0.01, out=cvs)
+    else:
+        cvs = 0.01
+
+    return cvs / n_bv + sedimentation_impact_factor * terminal_fall_speed * depth_eff
+
+
+####################
+# Ice particle losses
+####################
+
+
+def particle_losses_aggregation(
+    r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    terminal_fall_speed: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    area_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    agg_efficiency: float = 1.0,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the rate of contrail ice particle losses due to sedimentation-induced aggregation.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+    terminal_fall_speed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Terminal fall speed of contrail ice particles, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+    area_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    agg_efficiency : float, optional
+        Aggregation efficiency
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Rate of contrail ice particle losses due to sedimentation-induced
+        aggregation, [:math:`# s^{-1}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The aggregation efficiency (``agg_efficiency = 1``) was calibrated based on
+    the observed lifetime and optical properties from the Contrail Library (COLI)
+    database (:cite:`schumannPropertiesIndividualContrails2017`).
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannPropertiesIndividualContrails2017`
+    """
+    return (8.0 * agg_efficiency * np.pi * r_ice_vol**2 * terminal_fall_speed) / area_eff
+
+
+def particle_losses_turbulence(
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth_eff: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    diffuse_h: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    diffuse_v: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    turb_efficiency: float = 0.1,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the rate of contrail ice particle losses due to plume-internal turbulence.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail width at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    depth : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail depth at each waypoint, [:math:`m`]
+    depth_eff : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Effective depth of the contrail plume, [:math:`m`]
+    diffuse_h : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Horizontal diffusivity, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+    diffuse_v : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Vertical diffusivity, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+    turb_efficiency : float, optional
+        Turbulence sublimation efficiency
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Rate of contrail ice particle losses due to plume-internal turbulence, [:math:`# s^{-1}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The turbulence sublimation efficiency (``turb_efficiency = 0.1``) was calibrated
+    based on the observed lifetime and optical properties from the Contrail Library (COLI)
+    database (:cite:`schumannPropertiesIndividualContrails2017`).
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - :cite:`schumannPropertiesIndividualContrails2017`
+    """
+    inner_term = (diffuse_h / (np.maximum(width, depth)) ** 2) + (diffuse_v / depth_eff**2)
+    return turb_efficiency * np.abs(inner_term)
+
+
+####################
+# Optical properties
+####################
+
+
+def contrail_optical_depth(
+    r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    n_ice_per_m: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the contrail optical depth for each waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+    n_ice_per_m : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Number of contrail ice particles per distance, [:math:`m^{-1}`]
+    width : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail width, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail optical depth
+    """
+    q_ext = scattering_extinction_efficiency(r_ice_vol)
+    tau_contrail = constants.c_r * np.pi * r_ice_vol**2 * (n_ice_per_m / width) * q_ext
+
+    bool_small = r_ice_vol <= 1e-9
+    tau_contrail[bool_small] = 0.0
+    tau_contrail.clip(min=0.0, out=tau_contrail)
+    return tau_contrail
+
+
+def scattering_extinction_efficiency(
+    r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the scattering extinction efficiency (``q_ext``) based on Mie-theory.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        scattering extinction efficiency
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie_scattering
+    """
+    phase_delay = light_wave_phase_delay(r_ice_vol)
+    return 2.0 - (4.0 / phase_delay) * (
+        np.sin(phase_delay) - ((1.0 - np.cos(phase_delay)) / phase_delay)
+    )
+
+
+def light_wave_phase_delay(r_ice_vol: npt.NDArray[np.floating]) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the phase delay of the light wave passing through the contrail ice particle.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    r_ice_vol : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        ice particle volume mean radius, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        phase delay of the light wave passing through the contrail ice particle
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie_scattering
+    """
+    phase_delay = (4.0 * np.pi * (constants.mu_ice - 1.0) / constants.lambda_light) * r_ice_vol
+    phase_delay.clip(min=None, max=100.0, out=phase_delay)
+    return phase_delay
+
+
+#######################################################
+# Contrail evolution: second-order Runge Kutta scheme
+#######################################################
+# Notation "t1" implies properties at the start of the time step (before the time integration step)
+# Notation "t2" implies properties at the end of the time step (after the time integration step)
+
+
+def segment_length_ratio(
+    seg_length_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    seg_length_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the ratio of contrail segment length pre-advection to post-advection.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    seg_length_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Segment length of contrail waypoint at the start of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    seg_length_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Segment length of contrail waypoint after time step and advection, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Ratio of segment length before advection to segment length after advection.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    This implementation differs from the original fortran implementation.
+    Instead of taking a geometric mean between
+    the previous and following segments, a simple ratio is computed.
+
+    For terminal waypoints along a flight trajectory, the associated segment length is 0. In this
+    case, the segment ratio is set to 1 (the naive ratio 0 / 0 is undefined). According to CoCiP
+    conventions, terminus waypoints are "discontinuous" within the flight trajectory, and will not
+    contribute to contrail calculations.
+
+    More broadly, any undefined (nan values, or division by 0) segment ratio is set to 1.
+    This convention ensures that the contrail calculations are not affected by undefined
+    segment-based properties.
+
+    Presently, the output of this function is only used by :func:`plume_temporal_evolution`
+    and :func:`new_ice_particle_number` as a scaling term.
+
+    A `seg_ratio` value of 1 is the same as not applying any scaling in these two functions.
+    """
+    is_defined = (seg_length_t2 > 0.0) & np.isfinite(seg_length_t1)
+    default_value = np.ones_like(seg_length_t1)
+    return np.divide(seg_length_t1, seg_length_t2, out=default_value, where=is_defined)
+
+
+def plume_temporal_evolution(
+    width_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    depth_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sigma_yz_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    dsn_dz_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    diffuse_h_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    diffuse_v_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    seg_ratio: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    dt: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64,
+    max_depth: float | None,
+) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
+    """
+    Calculate the temporal evolution of the contrail plume parameters.
+
+    Refer to equation (6) of Schumann (2012). See also equations (29), (30), and (31).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    width_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at the start of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    depth_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail depth at the start of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    sigma_yz_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        sigma_yz governs the contrail plume's temporal evolution at the start of the time step
+    dsn_dz_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        vertical gradient of the horizontal velocity (wind shear) normal to the contrail axis
+        at the start of the time step, [:math:`m s^{-1} / Pa`]::
+
+                           X-----------------------X               X
+                                        ^                           |
+                                        | (dsn_dz)                  |  <-- (dsn_dz)
+                                        |                           |
+                                                                    X
+    diffuse_h_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        horizontal diffusivity at the start of the time step, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+    diffuse_v_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        vertical diffusivity at the start of the time step, [:math:`m^{2} s^{-1}`]
+    seg_ratio : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Segment length ratio before and after it is advected to the new location.
+        See :func:`segment_length_ratio`.
+    dt : npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64
+        integrate contrails with time steps of dt, [:math:`s`]
+    max_depth: float | None
+        Constrain maximum plume depth to prevent unrealistic values, [:math:`m`].
+        If None is passed, the maximum plume depth is not constrained.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    sigma_yy_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        The ``yy`` component of convariance matrix, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    sigma_zz_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        The ``zz`` component of convariance matrix, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    sigma_yz_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        The ``yz`` component of convariance matrix, [:math:`m^{2}`]
+    """
+    # Convert dt to seconds value and use dtype of other variables
+    dtype = np.result_type(width_t1, depth_t1, sigma_yz_t1, dsn_dz_t1, diffuse_h_t1, diffuse_v_t1)
+    dt_s = units.dt_to_seconds(dt, dtype)
+
+    sigma_yy = 0.125 * width_t1**2
+    sigma_zz = 0.125 * depth_t1**2
+
+    # Convert from max_depth to an upper bound for diffuse_v_t1
+    # All three terms involve the diffuse_v_t1 variable, so we need to
+    # calculate the max value for diffuse_v_t1 and apply it to all three terms.
+    # If we don't do this, we violate the some mathematical constraints of the
+    # covariance matrix (positive definite). In particular, for downstream
+    # calculations, we required that
+    #   sigma_yy_t2 * sigma_zz_t2 - sigma_yz_t2**2 >= 0
+    if max_depth is not None:
+        max_sigma_zz = 0.125 * max_depth**2
+        max_diffuse_v = (max_sigma_zz - sigma_zz) / (2.0 * dt_s)
+        diffuse_v_t1 = np.minimum(diffuse_v_t1, max_diffuse_v)
+
+    # Avoid some redundant calculations
+    dsn_dz_t1_2 = dsn_dz_t1**2
+    dt_s_2 = dt_s**2
+    dt_s_3 = dt_s * dt_s_2
+
+    # Calculate the return arrays
+    sigma_yy_t2 = (
+        ((2 / 3) * dsn_dz_t1_2 * diffuse_v_t1 * dt_s_3)
+        + (dsn_dz_t1_2 * sigma_zz * dt_s_2)
+        + (2.0 * (diffuse_h_t1 + dsn_dz_t1 * sigma_yz_t1) * dt_s)
+        + sigma_yy
+    ) * (seg_ratio**2)
+
+    sigma_zz_t2 = (2.0 * diffuse_v_t1 * dt_s) + sigma_zz
+
+    sigma_yz_t2 = (
+        (dsn_dz_t1 * diffuse_v_t1 * dt_s_2) + (dsn_dz_t1 * sigma_zz * dt_s) + sigma_yz_t1
+    ) * seg_ratio
+
+    return sigma_yy_t2, sigma_zz_t2, sigma_yz_t2
+
+
+def new_contrail_dimensions(
+    sigma_yy_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sigma_zz_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
+    """
+    Calculate the new contrail width and depth.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    sigma_yy_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        element yy, covariance matrix of the Gaussian concentration
+        field, Eq. (6) of Schumann (2012)
+    sigma_zz_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        element zz, covariance matrix of the Gaussian concentration
+        field, Eq. (6) of Schumann (2012)
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    width_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail width at the end of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    depth_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail depth at the end of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    """
+    width_t2 = (8 * sigma_yy_t2) ** 0.5
+    depth_t2 = (8 * sigma_zz_t2) ** 0.5
+    return width_t2, depth_t2
+
+
+def new_effective_area_from_sigma(
+    sigma_yy: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sigma_zz: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    sigma_yz: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate effective cross-sectional area of contrail plume (``area_eff``) from sigma parameters.
+
+    This method calculates the same output as :func`plume_effective_cross_sectional_area`, but
+    calculated with different input parameters.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    sigma_yy : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        element yy, covariance matrix of the Gaussian concentration
+        field, Eq. (6) of Schumann (2012)
+    sigma_zz : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        element zz, covariance matrix of the Gaussian concentration
+        field, Eq. (6) of Schumann (2012)
+    sigma_yz : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        element yz, covariance matrix of the Gaussian concentration
+        field, Eq. (6) of Schumann (2012)
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Effective cross-sectional area of the contrail plume (area_eff)
+    """
+    det_sigma = sigma_yy * sigma_zz - sigma_yz**2
+    return 2.0 * np.pi * det_sigma**0.5
+
+
+def new_ice_water_content(
+    iwc_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    q_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    q_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    q_sat_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    q_sat_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    mass_plume_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    mass_plume_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """
+    Calculate the new contrail ice water content after the time integration step (``iwc_t2``).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    iwc_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail ice water content, i.e., contrail ice mass per kg of air,
+        at the start of the time step, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    q_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        specific humidity for each waypoint at the start of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    q_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        specific humidity for each waypoint at the end of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    q_sat_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        saturation humidity for each waypoint at the start of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    q_sat_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        saturation humidity for each waypoint at the end of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{H_{2}O}/kg_{air}`]
+    mass_plume_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail plume mass per unit length at the start of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{air} m^{-1}`]
+    mass_plume_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail plume mass per unit length at the end of the
+        time step, [:math:`kg_{air} m^{-1}`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail ice water content at the end of the time step, [:math:`kg_{ice} kg_{air}^{-1}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    (1) The ice water content is fully conservative.
+    (2) ``mass_h2o_t2``: the total H2O mass (ice + vapour) per unit of
+        contrail plume [Units of kg-H2O/m]
+    (3) ``q_sat`` is used to calculate mass_h2o because air inside the
+        contrail is assumed to be ice saturated.
+    (4) ``(mass_plume_t2 - mass_plume) * q_mean``: contrail absorbs
+        (releases) H2O from (to) surrounding air.
+    (5) ``iwc_t2 = mass_h2o_t2 / mass_plume_t2 - q_sat_t2``: H2O in the
+        gas phase is removed (``- q_sat_t2``).
+    """
+    q_mean = 0.5 * (q_t1 + q_t2)
+    mass_h2o_t1 = mass_plume_t1 * (iwc_t1 + q_sat_t1)
+    mass_h2o_t2 = mass_h2o_t1 + (mass_plume_t2 - mass_plume_t1) * q_mean
+    iwc_t2 = (mass_h2o_t2 / mass_plume_t2) - q_sat_t2
+    iwc_t2.clip(min=0.0, out=iwc_t2)
+    return iwc_t2
+
+
+def new_ice_particle_number(
+    n_ice_per_m_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    dn_dt_agg: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    dn_dt_turb: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    seg_ratio: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    dt: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the number of ice particles per distance at the end of the time step.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_ice_per_m_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of contrail ice particles per distance at the start of
+        the time step, [:math:`m^{-1}`]
+    dn_dt_agg : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        rate of ice particle losses due to sedimentation-induced aggregation, [:math:`# s^{-1}`]
+    dn_dt_turb : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        rate of contrail ice particle losses due to plume-internal turbulence, [:math:`# s^{-1}`]
+    seg_ratio : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Segment length ratio before and after it is advected to the new location.
+    dt : npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64
+        integrate contrails with time steps of dt, [:math:`s`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        number of ice particles per distance at the end of the time step, [:math:`m^{-1}`]
+    """
+    # Convert dt to seconds value and use dtype of other variables
+    dtype = np.result_type(n_ice_per_m_t1, dn_dt_agg, dn_dt_turb, seg_ratio)
+    dt_s = units.dt_to_seconds(dt, dtype)
+
+    n_ice_per_m_t1 = np.maximum(n_ice_per_m_t1, 0.0)
+
+    exp_term = np.where(dn_dt_turb * dt_s < 80.0, np.exp(-dn_dt_turb * dt_s), 0.0)
+
+    numerator = dn_dt_turb * n_ice_per_m_t1 * exp_term
+    denominator = dn_dt_turb + (dn_dt_agg * n_ice_per_m_t1 * (1 - exp_term))
+    n_ice_per_m_t2 = (numerator / denominator) * seg_ratio
+
+    small_loss = (dn_dt_turb * dt_s) < 1e-5  # For small ice particle losses
+    denom = 1 + (dn_dt_agg * dt_s * n_ice_per_m_t1)
+    n_ice_per_m_t2[small_loss] = n_ice_per_m_t1[small_loss] / denom[small_loss]
+    n_ice_per_m_t2.clip(min=0.0, out=n_ice_per_m_t2)
+    return n_ice_per_m_t2
+
+
+########
+# Energy Forcing
+########
+# TODO: This should be moved closer to the radiative forcing calculations
+
+
+def energy_forcing(
+    rf_net_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    rf_net_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    seg_length_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+    dt: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the contrail energy forcing over time step.
+
+    The contrail energy forcing is calculated as the local contrail net
+    radiative forcing (RF', change in energy flux per contrail area) multiplied
+    by its width and integrated over its length and lifetime.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rf_net_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        local contrail net radiative forcing at the start of the time step, [:math:`W m^{-2}`]
+    rf_net_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        local contrail net radiative forcing at the end of the time step, [:math:`W m^{-2}`]
+    width_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at the start of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    width_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at the end of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    seg_length_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        Segment length of contrail waypoint at the end of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    dt : npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64
+        integrate contrails with time steps of dt, [:math:`s`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Contrail energy forcing over time step dt, [:math:`J`].
+    """
+    rad_flux_per_m = mean_radiative_flux_per_m(rf_net_t1, rf_net_t2, width_t1, width_t2)
+    energy_flux_per_m = mean_energy_flux_per_m(rad_flux_per_m, dt)
+    return energy_flux_per_m * seg_length_t2
+
+
+def mean_radiative_flux_per_m(
+    rf_net_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    rf_net_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width_t1: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    width_t2: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the mean radiative flux per length of contrail between two time steps.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rf_net_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        local contrail net radiative forcing at the start of the time step, [:math:`W m^{-2}`]
+    rf_net_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        local contrail net radiative forcing at the end of the time step, [:math:`W m^{-2}`]
+    width_t1 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at the start of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+    width_t2 : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        contrail width at the end of the time step, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mean radiative flux between time steps, [:math:`W m^{-1}`]
+    """
+    rad_flux_per_m_t1 = width_t1 * rf_net_t1
+    rad_flux_per_m_t2 = width_t2 * rf_net_t2
+    return (rad_flux_per_m_t1 + rad_flux_per_m_t2) * 0.5
+
+
+def mean_energy_flux_per_m(
+    rad_flux_per_m: npt.NDArray[np.floating], dt: npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
+    """Calculate the mean energy flux per length of contrail on segment following waypoint.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rad_flux_per_m : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mean radiative flux between time steps for waypoint, [:math:`W m^{-1}`].
+        See :func:`mean_radiative_flux_per_m`.
+    dt : npt.NDArray[np.timedelta64] | np.timedelta64
+        timedelta of integration timestep for each waypoint.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Mean energy flux per length of contrail after waypoint, [:math:`J m^{-1}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Implementation differs from original fortran in two ways:
+
+    - Discontinuity is no longer set to 0 (this occurs directly in model :class:`Cocip`)
+    - Instead of taking an average of the previous and following segments,
+      energy flux is only calculated for the following segment.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :func:`mean_radiative_flux_per_m`
+    """
+    dt_s = units.dt_to_seconds(dt, rad_flux_per_m.dtype)
+    return rad_flux_per_m * dt_s