geoai-py 0.2.2__py2.py3-none-any.whl → 0.3.0__py2.py3-none-any.whl

geoai/extract.py

@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import rasterio
 from rasterio.windows import Window
 from rasterio.features import shapes
 from huggingface_hub import hf_hub_download
+from .preprocess import get_raster_stats
 
 
 class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
@@ -22,7 +23,9 @@ class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
     Using NonGeoDataset to avoid spatial indexing issues.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, raster_path, chip_size=(512, 512), transforms=None):
+    def __init__(
+        self, raster_path, chip_size=(512, 512), transforms=None, verbose=False
+    ):
         """
         Initialize the dataset.
 
@@ -30,6 +33,7 @@ class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
             raster_path: Path to the input raster file
             chip_size: Size of image chips to extract (height, width)
             transforms: Transforms to apply to the image
+            verbose: Whether to print detailed processing information
         """
         super().__init__()
 
@@ -37,6 +41,10 @@ class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
         self.raster_path = raster_path
         self.chip_size = chip_size
         self.transforms = transforms
+        self.verbose = verbose
+
+        # For tracking warnings about multi-band images
+        self.warned_about_bands = False
 
         # Open raster and get metadata
         with rasterio.open(self.raster_path) as src:
@@ -54,15 +62,21 @@ class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
             self.roi = box(*self.bounds)
 
             # Calculate number of chips in each dimension
-            self.rows = self.height // self.chip_size[0]
-            self.cols = self.width // self.chip_size[1]
+            # Use ceil division to ensure we cover the entire image
+            self.rows = (self.height + self.chip_size[0] - 1) // self.chip_size[0]
+            self.cols = (self.width + self.chip_size[1] - 1) // self.chip_size[1]
 
             print(
                 f"Dataset initialized with {self.rows} rows and {self.cols} columns of chips"
             )
+            print(f"Image dimensions: {self.width} x {self.height} pixels")
+            print(f"Chip size: {self.chip_size[1]} x {self.chip_size[0]} pixels")
             if src.crs:
                 print(f"CRS: {src.crs}")
 
+        # get raster stats
+        self.raster_stats = get_raster_stats(raster_path, divide_by=255)
+
     def __getitem__(self, idx):
         """
         Get an image chip from the dataset by index.
@@ -92,11 +106,17 @@ class BuildingFootprintDataset(NonGeoDataset):
 
             # Handle RGBA or multispectral images - keep only first 3 bands
             if image.shape[0] > 3:
-                print(f"Image has {image.shape[0]} bands, using first 3 bands only")
+                if not self.warned_about_bands and self.verbose:
+                    print(f"Image has {image.shape[0]} bands, using first 3 bands only")
+                    self.warned_about_bands = True
                 image = image[:3]
             elif image.shape[0] < 3:
                 # If image has fewer than 3 bands, duplicate the last band to make 3
-                print(f"Image has {image.shape[0]} bands, duplicating bands to make 3")
+                if not self.warned_about_bands and self.verbose:
+                    print(
+                        f"Image has {image.shape[0]} bands, duplicating bands to make 3"
+                    )
+                    self.warned_about_bands = True
                 temp = np.zeros((3, image.shape[1], image.shape[2]), dtype=image.dtype)
                 for c in range(3):
                     temp[c] = image[min(c, image.shape[0] - 1)]
@@ -198,7 +218,7 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
             # Define the repository ID and model filename
             repo_id = "giswqs/geoai"  # Update with your actual username/repo
-            filename = "usa_building_footprints.pth"
+            filename = "building_footprints_usa.pth"
 
             # Ensure cache directory exists
             # cache_dir = os.path.join(
@@ -387,8 +407,279 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
         return gdf.iloc[keep_indices]
 
+    def filter_edge_buildings(self, gdf, raster_path, edge_buffer=10):
+        """
+        Filter out building detections that fall in padding/edge areas of the image.
+
+        Args:
+            gdf: GeoDataFrame with building footprint detections
+            raster_path: Path to the original raster file
+            edge_buffer: Buffer in pixels to consider as edge region
+
+        Returns:
+            GeoDataFrame with filtered building footprints
+        """
+        import rasterio
+        from shapely.geometry import box
+
+        # If no buildings detected, return empty GeoDataFrame
+        if gdf is None or len(gdf) == 0:
+            return gdf
+
+        print(f"Buildings before filtering: {len(gdf)}")
+
+        with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
+            # Get raster bounds
+            raster_bounds = src.bounds
+            raster_width = src.width
+            raster_height = src.height
+
+            # Convert edge buffer from pixels to geographic units
+            # We need the smallest dimension of a pixel in geographic units
+            pixel_width = (raster_bounds[2] - raster_bounds[0]) / raster_width
+            pixel_height = (raster_bounds[3] - raster_bounds[1]) / raster_height
+            buffer_size = min(pixel_width, pixel_height) * edge_buffer
+
+            # Create a slightly smaller bounding box to exclude edge regions
+            inner_bounds = (
+                raster_bounds[0] + buffer_size,  # min x (west)
+                raster_bounds[1] + buffer_size,  # min y (south)
+                raster_bounds[2] - buffer_size,  # max x (east)
+                raster_bounds[3] - buffer_size,  # max y (north)
+            )
+
+            # Check that inner bounds are valid
+            if inner_bounds[0] >= inner_bounds[2] or inner_bounds[1] >= inner_bounds[3]:
+                print("Warning: Edge buffer too large, using original bounds")
+                inner_box = box(*raster_bounds)
+            else:
+                inner_box = box(*inner_bounds)
+
+            # Filter out buildings that intersect with the edge of the image
+            filtered_gdf = gdf[gdf.intersects(inner_box)]
+
+            # Additional check for buildings that have >50% of their area outside the valid region
+            valid_buildings = []
+            for idx, row in filtered_gdf.iterrows():
+                if row.geometry.intersection(inner_box).area >= 0.5 * row.geometry.area:
+                    valid_buildings.append(idx)
+
+            filtered_gdf = filtered_gdf.loc[valid_buildings]
+
+            print(f"Buildings after filtering: {len(filtered_gdf)}")
+
+            return filtered_gdf
+
+    def masks_to_vector(
+        self,
+        mask_path,
+        output_path=None,
+        simplify_tolerance=None,
+        mask_threshold=None,
+        small_building_area=None,
+        nms_iou_threshold=None,
+        regularize=True,
+        angle_threshold=15,
+        rectangularity_threshold=0.7,
+    ):
+        """
+        Convert a building mask GeoTIFF to vector polygons and save as GeoJSON.
+
+        Args:
+            mask_path: Path to the building masks GeoTIFF
+            output_path: Path to save the output GeoJSON (default: mask_path with .geojson extension)
+            simplify_tolerance: Tolerance for polygon simplification (default: self.simplify_tolerance)
+            mask_threshold: Threshold for mask binarization (default: self.mask_threshold)
+            small_building_area: Minimum area in pixels to keep a building (default: self.small_building_area)
+            nms_iou_threshold: IoU threshold for non-maximum suppression (default: self.nms_iou_threshold)
+            regularize: Whether to regularize buildings to right angles (default: True)
+            angle_threshold: Maximum deviation from 90 degrees for regularization (default: 15)
+            rectangularity_threshold: Threshold for rectangle simplification (default: 0.7)
+
+        Returns:
+            GeoDataFrame with building footprints
+        """
+        # Use class defaults if parameters not provided
+        simplify_tolerance = (
+            simplify_tolerance
+            if simplify_tolerance is not None
+            else self.simplify_tolerance
+        )
+        mask_threshold = (
+            mask_threshold if mask_threshold is not None else self.mask_threshold
+        )
+        small_building_area = (
+            small_building_area
+            if small_building_area is not None
+            else self.small_building_area
+        )
+        nms_iou_threshold = (
+            nms_iou_threshold
+            if nms_iou_threshold is not None
+            else self.nms_iou_threshold
+        )
+
+        # Set default output path if not provided
+        # if output_path is None:
+        #     output_path = os.path.splitext(mask_path)[0] + ".geojson"
+
+        print(f"Converting mask to GeoJSON with parameters:")
+        print(f"- Mask threshold: {mask_threshold}")
+        print(f"- Min building area: {small_building_area}")
+        print(f"- Simplify tolerance: {simplify_tolerance}")
+        print(f"- NMS IoU threshold: {nms_iou_threshold}")
+        print(f"- Regularize buildings: {regularize}")
+        if regularize:
+            print(f"- Angle threshold: {angle_threshold}° from 90°")
+            print(f"- Rectangularity threshold: {rectangularity_threshold*100}%")
+
+        # Open the mask raster
+        with rasterio.open(mask_path) as src:
+            # Read the mask data
+            mask_data = src.read(1)
+            transform = src.transform
+            crs = src.crs
+
+            # Print mask statistics
+            print(f"Mask dimensions: {mask_data.shape}")
+            print(f"Mask value range: {mask_data.min()} to {mask_data.max()}")
+
+            # Prepare for connected component analysis
+            # Binarize the mask based on threshold
+            binary_mask = (mask_data > (mask_threshold * 255)).astype(np.uint8)
+
+            # Apply morphological operations for better results (optional)
+            kernel = np.ones((3, 3), np.uint8)
+            binary_mask = cv2.morphologyEx(binary_mask, cv2.MORPH_CLOSE, kernel)
+
+            # Find connected components
+            num_labels, labels, stats, centroids = cv2.connectedComponentsWithStats(
+                binary_mask, connectivity=8
+            )
+
+            print(
+                f"Found {num_labels-1} potential buildings"
+            )  # Subtract 1 for background
+
+            # Create list to store polygons and confidence values
+            all_polygons = []
+            all_confidences = []
+
+            # Process each component (skip the first one which is background)
+            for i in tqdm(range(1, num_labels)):
+                # Extract this building
+                area = stats[i, cv2.CC_STAT_AREA]
+
+                # Skip if too small
+                if area < small_building_area:
+                    continue
+
+                # Create a mask for this building
+                building_mask = (labels == i).astype(np.uint8)
+
+                # Find contours
+                contours, _ = cv2.findContours(
+                    building_mask, cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL, cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE
+                )
+
+                # Process each contour
+                for contour in contours:
+                    # Skip if too few points
+                    if contour.shape[0] < 3:
+                        continue
+
+                    # Simplify contour if it has many points
+                    if contour.shape[0] > 50 and simplify_tolerance > 0:
+                        epsilon = simplify_tolerance * cv2.arcLength(contour, True)
+                        contour = cv2.approxPolyDP(contour, epsilon, True)
+
+                    # Convert to list of (x, y) coordinates
+                    polygon_points = contour.reshape(-1, 2)
+
+                    # Convert pixel coordinates to geographic coordinates
+                    geo_points = []
+                    for x, y in polygon_points:
+                        gx, gy = transform * (x, y)
+                        geo_points.append((gx, gy))
+
+                    # Create Shapely polygon
+                    if len(geo_points) >= 3:
+                        try:
+                            shapely_poly = Polygon(geo_points)
+                            if shapely_poly.is_valid and shapely_poly.area > 0:
+                                all_polygons.append(shapely_poly)
+
+                                # Calculate "confidence" as normalized size
+                                # This is a proxy since we don't have model confidence scores
+                                normalized_size = min(1.0, area / 1000)  # Cap at 1.0
+                                all_confidences.append(normalized_size)
+                        except Exception as e:
+                            print(f"Error creating polygon: {e}")
+
+            print(f"Created {len(all_polygons)} valid polygons")
+
+            # Create GeoDataFrame
+            if not all_polygons:
+                print("No valid polygons found")
+                return None
+
+            gdf = gpd.GeoDataFrame(
+                {
+                    "geometry": all_polygons,
+                    "confidence": all_confidences,
+                    "class": 1,  # Building class
+                },
+                crs=crs,
+            )
+
+            # Apply non-maximum suppression to remove overlapping polygons
+            gdf = self._filter_overlapping_polygons(
+                gdf, nms_iou_threshold=nms_iou_threshold
+            )
+
+            print(f"Building count after NMS filtering: {len(gdf)}")
+
+            # Apply regularization if requested
+            if regularize and len(gdf) > 0:
+                # Convert pixel area to geographic units for min_area parameter
+                # Estimate pixel size in geographic units
+                with rasterio.open(mask_path) as src:
+                    pixel_size_x = src.transform[
+                        0
+                    ]  # width of a pixel in geographic units
+                    pixel_size_y = abs(
+                        src.transform[4]
+                    )  # height of a pixel in geographic units
+                    avg_pixel_area = pixel_size_x * pixel_size_y
+
+                # Use 10 pixels as minimum area in geographic units
+                min_geo_area = 10 * avg_pixel_area
+
+                # Regularize buildings
+                gdf = self.regularize_buildings(
+                    gdf,
+                    min_area=min_geo_area,
+                    angle_threshold=angle_threshold,
+                    rectangularity_threshold=rectangularity_threshold,
+                )
+
+            # Save to file
+            if output_path:
+                gdf.to_file(output_path)
+                print(f"Saved {len(gdf)} building footprints to {output_path}")
+
+            return gdf
+
     @torch.no_grad()
-    def process_raster(self, raster_path, output_path=None, batch_size=4, **kwargs):
+    def process_raster(
+        self,
+        raster_path,
+        output_path=None,
+        batch_size=4,
+        filter_edges=True,
+        edge_buffer=20,
+        **kwargs,
+    ):
         """
         Process a raster file to extract building footprints with customizable parameters.
 
@@ -396,6 +687,8 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
             raster_path: Path to input raster file
             output_path: Path to output GeoJSON file (optional)
             batch_size: Batch size for processing
+            filter_edges: Whether to filter out buildings at the edges of the image
+            edge_buffer: Size of edge buffer in pixels to filter out buildings (if filter_edges=True)
             **kwargs: Additional parameters:
                 confidence_threshold: Minimum confidence score to keep a detection (0.0-1.0)
                 overlap: Overlap between adjacent tiles (0.0-1.0)
@@ -430,9 +723,13 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
         print(f"- Mask threshold: {mask_threshold}")
         print(f"- Min building area: {small_building_area}")
         print(f"- Simplify tolerance: {simplify_tolerance}")
+        print(f"- Filter edge buildings: {filter_edges}")
+        if filter_edges:
+            print(f"- Edge buffer size: {edge_buffer} pixels")
 
         # Create dataset
         dataset = BuildingFootprintDataset(raster_path=raster_path, chip_size=chip_size)
+        self.raster_stats = dataset.raster_stats
 
         # Custom collate function to handle Shapely objects
         def custom_collate(batch):
@@ -603,6 +900,10 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
             gdf, nms_iou_threshold=nms_iou_threshold
         )
 
+        # Filter edge buildings if requested
+        if filter_edges:
+            gdf = self.filter_edge_buildings(gdf, raster_path, edge_buffer=edge_buffer)
+
         # Save to file if requested
         if output_path:
             gdf.to_file(output_path, driver="GeoJSON")
@@ -610,22 +911,473 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
         return gdf
 
+    def save_masks_as_geotiff(
+        self, raster_path, output_path=None, batch_size=4, verbose=False, **kwargs
+    ):
+        """
+        Process a raster file to extract building footprint masks and save as GeoTIFF.
+
+        Args:
+            raster_path: Path to input raster file
+            output_path: Path to output GeoTIFF file (optional, default: input_masks.tif)
+            batch_size: Batch size for processing
+            verbose: Whether to print detailed processing information
+            **kwargs: Additional parameters:
+                confidence_threshold: Minimum confidence score to keep a detection (0.0-1.0)
+                chip_size: Size of image chips for processing (height, width)
+                mask_threshold: Threshold for mask binarization (0.0-1.0)
+
+        Returns:
+            Path to the saved GeoTIFF file
+        """
+
+        # Get parameters from kwargs or use instance defaults
+        confidence_threshold = kwargs.get(
+            "confidence_threshold", self.confidence_threshold
+        )
+        chip_size = kwargs.get("chip_size", self.chip_size)
+        mask_threshold = kwargs.get("mask_threshold", self.mask_threshold)
+
+        # Set default output path if not provided
+        if output_path is None:
+            output_path = os.path.splitext(raster_path)[0] + "_masks.tif"
+
+        # Print parameters being used
+        print(f"Processing masks with parameters:")
+        print(f"- Confidence threshold: {confidence_threshold}")
+        print(f"- Chip size: {chip_size}")
+        print(f"- Mask threshold: {mask_threshold}")
+
+        # Create dataset
+        dataset = BuildingFootprintDataset(
+            raster_path=raster_path, chip_size=chip_size, verbose=verbose
+        )
+
+        # Store a flag to avoid repetitive messages
+        self.raster_stats = dataset.raster_stats
+        seen_warnings = {
+            "bands": False,
+            "resize": {},  # Dictionary to track resize warnings by shape
+        }
+
+        # Open original raster to get metadata
+        with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
+            # Create output binary mask raster with same dimensions as input
+            output_profile = src.profile.copy()
+            output_profile.update(
+                dtype=rasterio.uint8,
+                count=1,  # Single band for building mask
+                compress="lzw",
+                nodata=0,
+            )
+
+            # Create output mask raster
+            with rasterio.open(output_path, "w", **output_profile) as dst:
+                # Initialize mask with zeros
+                mask_array = np.zeros((src.height, src.width), dtype=np.uint8)
+
+                # Custom collate function to handle Shapely objects
+                def custom_collate(batch):
+                    """Custom collate function for DataLoader"""
+                    elem = batch[0]
+                    if isinstance(elem, dict):
+                        result = {}
+                        for key in elem:
+                            if key == "bbox":
+                                # Don't collate shapely objects, keep as list
+                                result[key] = [d[key] for d in batch]
+                            else:
+                                # For tensors and other collatable types
+                                try:
+                                    result[key] = (
+                                        torch.utils.data._utils.collate.default_collate(
+                                            [d[key] for d in batch]
+                                        )
+                                    )
+                                except TypeError:
+                                    # Fall back to list for non-collatable types
+                                    result[key] = [d[key] for d in batch]
+                        return result
+                    else:
+                        # Default collate for non-dict types
+                        return torch.utils.data._utils.collate.default_collate(batch)
+
+                # Create dataloader
+                dataloader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader(
+                    dataset,
+                    batch_size=batch_size,
+                    shuffle=False,
+                    num_workers=0,
+                    collate_fn=custom_collate,
+                )
+
+                # Process batches
+                print(f"Processing raster with {len(dataloader)} batches")
+                for batch in tqdm(dataloader):
+                    # Move images to device
+                    images = batch["image"].to(self.device)
+                    coords = batch["coords"]  # (i, j) coordinates in pixels
+
+                    # Run inference
+                    with torch.no_grad():
+                        predictions = self.model(images)
+
+                    # Process predictions
+                    for idx, prediction in enumerate(predictions):
+                        masks = prediction["masks"].cpu().numpy()
+                        scores = prediction["scores"].cpu().numpy()
+
+                        # Skip if no predictions
+                        if len(scores) == 0:
+                            continue
+
+                        # Filter by confidence threshold
+                        valid_indices = scores >= confidence_threshold
+                        masks = masks[valid_indices]
+                        scores = scores[valid_indices]
+
+                        # Skip if no valid predictions
+                        if len(scores) == 0:
+                            continue
+
+                        # Get window coordinates
+                        if isinstance(coords, list):
+                            coord_item = coords[idx]
+                            if isinstance(coord_item, tuple) and len(coord_item) == 2:
+                                i, j = coord_item
+                            elif isinstance(coord_item, torch.Tensor):
+                                i, j = coord_item.cpu().numpy().tolist()
+                            else:
+                                print(f"Unexpected coords format: {type(coord_item)}")
+                                continue
+                        elif isinstance(coords, torch.Tensor):
+                            i, j = coords[idx].cpu().numpy().tolist()
+                        else:
+                            print(f"Unexpected coords type: {type(coords)}")
+                            continue
+
+                        # Get window size
+                        if isinstance(batch["window_size"], list):
+                            window_item = batch["window_size"][idx]
+                            if isinstance(window_item, tuple) and len(window_item) == 2:
+                                window_width, window_height = window_item
+                            elif isinstance(window_item, torch.Tensor):
+                                window_width, window_height = (
+                                    window_item.cpu().numpy().tolist()
+                                )
+                            else:
+                                print(
+                                    f"Unexpected window_size format: {type(window_item)}"
+                                )
+                                continue
+                        elif isinstance(batch["window_size"], torch.Tensor):
+                            window_width, window_height = (
+                                batch["window_size"][idx].cpu().numpy().tolist()
+                            )
+                        else:
+                            print(
+                                f"Unexpected window_size type: {type(batch['window_size'])}"
+                            )
+                            continue
+
+                        # Combine all masks for this window
+                        combined_mask = np.zeros(
+                            (window_height, window_width), dtype=np.uint8
+                        )
+
+                        for mask in masks:
+                            # Get the binary mask
+                            binary_mask = (mask[0] > mask_threshold).astype(
+                                np.uint8
+                            ) * 255
+
+                            # Handle size mismatch - resize binary_mask if needed
+                            mask_h, mask_w = binary_mask.shape
+                            if mask_h != window_height or mask_w != window_width:
+                                resize_key = f"{(mask_h, mask_w)}->{(window_height, window_width)}"
+                                if resize_key not in seen_warnings["resize"]:
+                                    if verbose:
+                                        print(
+                                            f"Resizing mask from {binary_mask.shape} to {(window_height, window_width)}"
+                                        )
+                                    else:
+                                        if not seen_warnings[
+                                            "resize"
+                                        ]:  # If this is the first resize warning
+                                            print(
+                                                f"Resizing masks at image edges (set verbose=True for details)"
+                                            )
+                                    seen_warnings["resize"][resize_key] = True
+
+                                # Crop or pad the binary mask to match window size
+                                resized_mask = np.zeros(
+                                    (window_height, window_width), dtype=np.uint8
+                                )
+                                copy_h = min(mask_h, window_height)
+                                copy_w = min(mask_w, window_width)
+                                resized_mask[:copy_h, :copy_w] = binary_mask[
+                                    :copy_h, :copy_w
+                                ]
+                                binary_mask = resized_mask
+
+                            # Update combined mask (taking maximum where masks overlap)
+                            combined_mask = np.maximum(combined_mask, binary_mask)
+
+                        # Write combined mask to output array
+                        # Handle edge cases where window might be smaller than chip size
+                        h, w = combined_mask.shape
+                        valid_h = min(h, src.height - j)
+                        valid_w = min(w, src.width - i)
+
+                        if valid_h > 0 and valid_w > 0:
+                            mask_array[j : j + valid_h, i : i + valid_w] = np.maximum(
+                                mask_array[j : j + valid_h, i : i + valid_w],
+                                combined_mask[:valid_h, :valid_w],
+                            )
+
+                # Write the final mask to the output file
+                dst.write(mask_array, 1)
+
+        print(f"Building masks saved to {output_path}")
+        return output_path
+
+    def regularize_buildings(
+        self,
+        gdf,
+        min_area=10,
+        angle_threshold=15,
+        orthogonality_threshold=0.3,
+        rectangularity_threshold=0.7,
+    ):
+        """
+        Regularize building footprints to enforce right angles and rectangular shapes.
+
+        Args:
+            gdf: GeoDataFrame with building footprints
+            min_area: Minimum area in square units to keep a building
+            angle_threshold: Maximum deviation from 90 degrees to consider an angle as orthogonal (degrees)
+            orthogonality_threshold: Percentage of angles that must be orthogonal for a building to be regularized
+            rectangularity_threshold: Minimum area ratio to building's oriented bounding box for rectangular simplification
+
+        Returns:
+            GeoDataFrame with regularized building footprints
+        """
+        import numpy as np
+        from shapely.geometry import Polygon, MultiPolygon, box
+        from shapely.affinity import rotate, translate
+        import geopandas as gpd
+        import math
+        from tqdm import tqdm
+        import cv2
+
+        def get_angle(p1, p2, p3):
+            """Calculate angle between three points in degrees (0-180)"""
+            a = np.array(p1)
+            b = np.array(p2)
+            c = np.array(p3)
+
+            ba = a - b
+            bc = c - b
+
+            cosine_angle = np.dot(ba, bc) / (np.linalg.norm(ba) * np.linalg.norm(bc))
+            # Handle numerical errors that could push cosine outside [-1, 1]
+            cosine_angle = np.clip(cosine_angle, -1.0, 1.0)
+            angle = np.degrees(np.arccos(cosine_angle))
+
+            return angle
+
+        def is_orthogonal(angle, threshold=angle_threshold):
+            """Check if angle is close to 90 degrees"""
+            return abs(angle - 90) <= threshold
+
+        def calculate_dominant_direction(polygon):
+            """Find the dominant direction of a polygon using PCA"""
+            # Extract coordinates
+            coords = np.array(polygon.exterior.coords)
+
+            # Mean center the coordinates
+            mean = np.mean(coords, axis=0)
+            centered_coords = coords - mean
+
+            # Calculate covariance matrix and its eigenvalues/eigenvectors
+            cov_matrix = np.cov(centered_coords.T)
+            eigenvalues, eigenvectors = np.linalg.eig(cov_matrix)
+
+            # Get the index of the largest eigenvalue
+            largest_idx = np.argmax(eigenvalues)
+
+            # Get the corresponding eigenvector (principal axis)
+            principal_axis = eigenvectors[:, largest_idx]
+
+            # Calculate the angle in degrees
+            angle_rad = np.arctan2(principal_axis[1], principal_axis[0])
+            angle_deg = np.degrees(angle_rad)
+
+            # Normalize to range 0-180
+            if angle_deg < 0:
+                angle_deg += 180
+
+            return angle_deg
+
+        def create_oriented_envelope(polygon, angle_deg):
+            """Create an oriented minimum area rectangle for the polygon"""
+            # Create a rotated rectangle using OpenCV method (more robust than Shapely methods)
+            coords = np.array(polygon.exterior.coords)[:-1].astype(
+                np.float32
+            )  # Skip the last point (same as first)
+
+            # Use OpenCV's minAreaRect
+            rect = cv2.minAreaRect(coords)
+            box_points = cv2.boxPoints(rect)
+
+            # Convert to shapely polygon
+            oriented_box = Polygon(box_points)
+
+            return oriented_box
+
+        def get_rectangularity(polygon, oriented_box):
+            """Calculate the rectangularity (area ratio to its oriented bounding box)"""
+            if oriented_box.area == 0:
+                return 0
+            return polygon.area / oriented_box.area
+
+        def check_orthogonality(polygon):
+            """Check what percentage of angles in the polygon are orthogonal"""
+            coords = list(polygon.exterior.coords)
+            if len(coords) <= 4:  # Triangle or point
+                return 0
+
+            # Remove last point (same as first)
+            coords = coords[:-1]
+
+            orthogonal_count = 0
+            total_angles = len(coords)
+
+            for i in range(total_angles):
+                p1 = coords[i]
+                p2 = coords[(i + 1) % total_angles]
+                p3 = coords[(i + 2) % total_angles]
+
+                angle = get_angle(p1, p2, p3)
+                if is_orthogonal(angle):
+                    orthogonal_count += 1
+
+            return orthogonal_count / total_angles
+
+        def simplify_to_rectangle(polygon):
+            """Simplify a polygon to a rectangle using its oriented bounding box"""
+            # Get dominant direction
+            angle = calculate_dominant_direction(polygon)
+
+            # Create oriented envelope
+            rect = create_oriented_envelope(polygon, angle)
+
+            return rect
+
+        if gdf is None or len(gdf) == 0:
+            print("No buildings to regularize")
+            return gdf
+
+        print(f"Regularizing {len(gdf)} building footprints...")
+        print(f"- Angle threshold: {angle_threshold}° from 90°")
+        print(f"- Min orthogonality: {orthogonality_threshold*100}% of angles")
+        print(
+            f"- Min rectangularity: {rectangularity_threshold*100}% of bounding box area"
+        )
+
+        # Create a copy to avoid modifying the original
+        result_gdf = gdf.copy()
+
+        # Track statistics
+        total_buildings = len(gdf)
+        regularized_count = 0
+        rectangularized_count = 0
+
+        # Process each building
+        for idx, row in tqdm(gdf.iterrows(), total=len(gdf)):
+            geom = row.geometry
+
+            # Skip invalid or empty geometries
+            if geom is None or geom.is_empty:
+                continue
+
+            # Handle MultiPolygons by processing the largest part
+            if isinstance(geom, MultiPolygon):
+                areas = [p.area for p in geom.geoms]
+                if not areas:
+                    continue
+                geom = list(geom.geoms)[np.argmax(areas)]
+
+            # Filter out tiny buildings
+            if geom.area < min_area:
+                continue
+
+            # Check orthogonality
+            orthogonality = check_orthogonality(geom)
+
+            # Create oriented envelope
+            oriented_box = create_oriented_envelope(
+                geom, calculate_dominant_direction(geom)
+            )
+
+            # Check rectangularity
+            rectangularity = get_rectangularity(geom, oriented_box)
+
+            # Decide how to regularize
+            if rectangularity >= rectangularity_threshold:
+                # Building is already quite rectangular, simplify to a rectangle
+                result_gdf.at[idx, "geometry"] = oriented_box
+                result_gdf.at[idx, "regularized"] = "rectangle"
+                rectangularized_count += 1
+            elif orthogonality >= orthogonality_threshold:
+                # Building has many orthogonal angles but isn't rectangular
+                # Could implement more sophisticated regularization here
+                # For now, we'll still use the oriented rectangle
+                result_gdf.at[idx, "geometry"] = oriented_box
+                result_gdf.at[idx, "regularized"] = "orthogonal"
+                regularized_count += 1
+            else:
+                # Building doesn't have clear orthogonal structure
+                # Keep original but flag as unmodified
+                result_gdf.at[idx, "regularized"] = "original"
+
+        # Report statistics
+        print(f"Regularization completed:")
+        print(f"- Total buildings: {total_buildings}")
+        print(
+            f"- Rectangular buildings: {rectangularized_count} ({rectangularized_count/total_buildings*100:.1f}%)"
+        )
+        print(
+            f"- Other regularized buildings: {regularized_count} ({regularized_count/total_buildings*100:.1f}%)"
+        )
+        print(
+            f"- Unmodified buildings: {total_buildings-rectangularized_count-regularized_count} ({(total_buildings-rectangularized_count-regularized_count)/total_buildings*100:.1f}%)"
+        )
+
+        return result_gdf
+
     def visualize_results(
         self, raster_path, gdf=None, output_path=None, figsize=(12, 12)
     ):
         """
-        Visualize building detection results.
+        Visualize building detection results with proper coordinate transformation.
+
+        This function displays building footprints on top of the raster image,
+        ensuring proper alignment between the GeoDataFrame polygons and the image.
 
         Args:
             raster_path: Path to input raster
             gdf: GeoDataFrame with building polygons (optional)
             output_path: Path to save visualization (optional)
             figsize: Figure size (width, height) in inches
+
+        Returns:
+            bool: True if visualization was successful
         """
         # Check if raster file exists
         if not os.path.exists(raster_path):
             print(f"Error: Raster file '{raster_path}' not found.")
-            return
+            return False
 
         # Process raster if GeoDataFrame not provided
         if gdf is None:
@@ -633,7 +1385,26 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
         if gdf is None or len(gdf) == 0:
             print("No buildings to visualize")
-            return
+            return False
+
+        # Check if confidence column exists in the GeoDataFrame
+        has_confidence = False
+        if hasattr(gdf, "columns") and "confidence" in gdf.columns:
+            # Try to access a confidence value to confirm it works
+            try:
+                if len(gdf) > 0:
+                    # Try getitem access
+                    conf_val = gdf["confidence"].iloc[0]
+                    has_confidence = True
+                    print(
+                        f"Using confidence values (range: {gdf['confidence'].min():.2f} - {gdf['confidence'].max():.2f})"
+                    )
+            except Exception as e:
+                print(f"Confidence column exists but couldn't access values: {e}")
+                has_confidence = False
+        else:
+            print("No confidence column found in GeoDataFrame")
+            has_confidence = False
 
         # Read raster for visualization
         with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
@@ -651,8 +1422,27 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
                 image = src.read(
                     out_shape=out_shape, resampling=rasterio.enums.Resampling.bilinear
                 )
+
+                # Create a scaled transform for the resampled image
+                # Calculate scaling factors
+                x_scale = src.width / out_shape[2]
+                y_scale = src.height / out_shape[1]
+
+                # Get the original transform
+                orig_transform = src.transform
+
+                # Create a scaled transform
+                scaled_transform = rasterio.transform.Affine(
+                    orig_transform.a * x_scale,
+                    orig_transform.b,
+                    orig_transform.c,
+                    orig_transform.d,
+                    orig_transform.e * y_scale,
+                    orig_transform.f,
+                )
             else:
                 image = src.read()
+                scaled_transform = src.transform
 
             # Convert to RGB for display
             if image.shape[0] > 3:
@@ -671,60 +1461,134 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
             # Get image bounds
             bounds = src.bounds
+            crs = src.crs
 
         # Create figure with appropriate aspect ratio
         aspect_ratio = image.shape[1] / image.shape[0]  # width / height
         plt.figure(figsize=(figsize[0], figsize[0] / aspect_ratio))
-
-        # Create axis with the right projection if CRS is available
         ax = plt.gca()
 
         # Display image
         ax.imshow(image)
 
-        # Convert GeoDataFrame to pixel coordinates for plotting
-        with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
+        # Make sure the GeoDataFrame has the same CRS as the raster
+        if gdf.crs != crs:
+            print(f"Reprojecting GeoDataFrame from {gdf.crs} to {crs}")
+            gdf = gdf.to_crs(crs)
+
+        # Set up colors for confidence visualization
+        if has_confidence:
+            try:
+                import matplotlib.cm as cm
+                from matplotlib.colors import Normalize
+
+                # Get min/max confidence values
+                min_conf = gdf["confidence"].min()
+                max_conf = gdf["confidence"].max()
 
-            def geo_to_pixel(x, y):
-                return ~src.transform * (x, y)
+                # Set up normalization and colormap
+                norm = Normalize(vmin=min_conf, vmax=max_conf)
+                cmap = cm.viridis
+
+                # Create scalar mappable for colorbar
+                sm = cm.ScalarMappable(cmap=cmap, norm=norm)
+                sm.set_array([])
+
+                # Add colorbar
+                cbar = plt.colorbar(
+                    sm, ax=ax, orientation="vertical", shrink=0.7, pad=0.01
+                )
+                cbar.set_label("Confidence Score")
+            except Exception as e:
+                print(f"Error setting up confidence visualization: {e}")
+                has_confidence = False
+
+        # Function to convert coordinates
+        def geo_to_pixel(geometry, transform):
+            """Convert geometry to pixel coordinates using the provided transform."""
+            if geometry.is_empty:
+                return None
+
+            if geometry.geom_type == "Polygon":
+                # Get exterior coordinates
+                exterior_coords = list(geometry.exterior.coords)
+
+                # Convert to pixel coordinates
+                pixel_coords = [~transform * (x, y) for x, y in exterior_coords]
+
+                # Split into x and y lists
+                pixel_x = [coord[0] for coord in pixel_coords]
+                pixel_y = [coord[1] for coord in pixel_coords]
+
+                return pixel_x, pixel_y
+            else:
+                print(f"Unsupported geometry type: {geometry.geom_type}")
+                return None
 
-            # Plot each building footprint
-            for _, row in gdf.iterrows():
+        # Plot each building footprint
+        for idx, row in gdf.iterrows():
+            try:
                 # Convert polygon to pixel coordinates
-                geom = row.geometry
-                if geom.is_empty:
-                    continue
+                coords = geo_to_pixel(row.geometry, scaled_transform)
 
-                try:
-                    # Get polygon exterior coordinates
-                    x, y = geom.exterior.xy
+                if coords:
+                    pixel_x, pixel_y = coords
 
-                    # Convert to pixel coordinates
-                    pixel_coords = [geo_to_pixel(x[i], y[i]) for i in range(len(x))]
-                    pixel_x = [coord[0] for coord in pixel_coords]
-                    pixel_y = [coord[1] for coord in pixel_coords]
+                    if has_confidence:
+                        try:
+                            # Get confidence value using different methods
+                            # Method 1: Try direct attribute access
+                            confidence = None
+                            try:
+                                confidence = row.confidence
+                            except:
+                                pass
+
+                            # Method 2: Try dictionary-style access
+                            if confidence is None:
+                                try:
+                                    confidence = row["confidence"]
+                                except:
+                                    pass
 
-                    # Plot polygon
-                    ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1)
-                except Exception as e:
-                    print(f"Error plotting polygon: {e}")
+                            # Method 3: Try accessing by index from the GeoDataFrame
+                            if confidence is None:
+                                try:
+                                    confidence = gdf.iloc[idx]["confidence"]
+                                except:
+                                    pass
+
+                            if confidence is not None:
+                                color = cmap(norm(confidence))
+                                # Fill polygon with semi-transparent color
+                                ax.fill(pixel_x, pixel_y, color=color, alpha=0.5)
+                                # Draw border
+                                ax.plot(
+                                    pixel_x,
+                                    pixel_y,
+                                    color=color,
+                                    linewidth=1,
+                                    alpha=0.8,
+                                )
+                            else:
+                                # Fall back to red if confidence value couldn't be accessed
+                                ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1)
+                        except Exception as e:
+                            print(
+                                f"Error using confidence value for polygon {idx}: {e}"
+                            )
+                            ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1)
+                    else:
+                        # No confidence data, just plot outlines in red
+                        ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1)
+            except Exception as e:
+                print(f"Error plotting polygon {idx}: {e}")
 
         # Remove axes
         ax.set_xticks([])
         ax.set_yticks([])
         ax.set_title(f"Building Footprints (Found: {len(gdf)})")
 
-        # Add colorbar for confidence if available
-        if "confidence" in gdf.columns:
-            # Create a colorbar legend
-            sm = plt.cm.ScalarMappable(
-                cmap=plt.cm.viridis,
-                norm=plt.Normalize(gdf.confidence.min(), gdf.confidence.max()),
-            )
-            sm.set_array([])
-            cbar = plt.colorbar(sm, ax=ax, orientation="vertical", shrink=0.7)
-            cbar.set_label("Confidence")
-
         # Save if requested
         if output_path:
             plt.tight_layout()
@@ -734,14 +1598,12 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
         plt.close()
 
         # Create a simpler visualization focused just on a subset of buildings
-        # This helps when the raster is very large
-        plt.figure(figsize=figsize)
-        ax = plt.gca()
+        if len(gdf) > 0:
+            plt.figure(figsize=figsize)
+            ax = plt.gca()
 
-        # Choose a subset of the image to show
-        with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
-            # Get a sample window based on the first few buildings
-            if len(gdf) > 0:
+            # Choose a subset of the image to show
+            with rasterio.open(raster_path) as src:
                 # Get centroid of first building
                 sample_geom = gdf.iloc[0].geometry
                 centroid = sample_geom.centroid
@@ -776,36 +1638,109 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
 
                 sample_image = np.clip(sample_image, 0, 1)
 
-                # Get transform for this window
-                window_transform = src.window_transform(window)
-
                 # Display sample image
-                ax.imshow(sample_image)
+                ax.imshow(sample_image, extent=[0, window.width, window.height, 0])
 
-                # Filter buildings that intersect with this window
+                # Get the correct transform for this window
+                window_transform = src.window_transform(window)
+
+                # Calculate bounds of the window
                 window_bounds = rasterio.windows.bounds(window, src.transform)
                 window_box = box(*window_bounds)
+
+                # Filter buildings that intersect with this window
                 visible_gdf = gdf[gdf.intersects(window_box)]
 
-                # Plot building footprints in this view
-                for _, row in visible_gdf.iterrows():
+                # Set up colors for sample view if confidence data exists
+                if has_confidence:
+                    try:
+                        # Reuse the same normalization and colormap from main view
+                        sample_sm = cm.ScalarMappable(cmap=cmap, norm=norm)
+                        sample_sm.set_array([])
+
+                        # Add colorbar to sample view
+                        sample_cbar = plt.colorbar(
+                            sample_sm,
+                            ax=ax,
+                            orientation="vertical",
+                            shrink=0.7,
+                            pad=0.01,
+                        )
+                        sample_cbar.set_label("Confidence Score")
+                    except Exception as e:
+                        print(f"Error setting up sample confidence visualization: {e}")
+
+                # Plot building footprints in sample view
+                for idx, row in visible_gdf.iterrows():
                     try:
-                        # Get polygon exterior coordinates
+                        # Get window-relative pixel coordinates
                         geom = row.geometry
+
+                        # Skip empty geometries
                         if geom.is_empty:
                             continue
 
-                        x, y = geom.exterior.xy
+                        # Get exterior coordinates
+                        exterior_coords = list(geom.exterior.coords)
+
+                        # Convert to pixel coordinates relative to window origin
+                        pixel_coords = []
+                        for x, y in exterior_coords:
+                            px, py = ~src.transform * (x, y)  # Convert to image pixels
+                            # Make coordinates relative to window
+                            px = px - window.col_off
+                            py = py - window.row_off
+                            pixel_coords.append((px, py))
 
-                        # Convert to pixel coordinates relative to window
-                        pixel_coords = [
-                            ~window_transform * (x[i], y[i]) for i in range(len(x))
-                        ]
+                        # Extract x and y coordinates
                         pixel_x = [coord[0] for coord in pixel_coords]
                         pixel_y = [coord[1] for coord in pixel_coords]
 
-                        # Plot polygon
-                        ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1.5)
+                        # Use confidence colors if available
+                        if has_confidence:
+                            try:
+                                # Try different methods to access confidence
+                                confidence = None
+                                try:
+                                    confidence = row.confidence
+                                except:
+                                    pass
+
+                                if confidence is None:
+                                    try:
+                                        confidence = row["confidence"]
+                                    except:
+                                        pass
+
+                                if confidence is None:
+                                    try:
+                                        confidence = visible_gdf.iloc[idx]["confidence"]
+                                    except:
+                                        pass
+
+                                if confidence is not None:
+                                    color = cmap(norm(confidence))
+                                    # Fill polygon with semi-transparent color
+                                    ax.fill(pixel_x, pixel_y, color=color, alpha=0.5)
+                                    # Draw border
+                                    ax.plot(
+                                        pixel_x,
+                                        pixel_y,
+                                        color=color,
+                                        linewidth=1.5,
+                                        alpha=0.8,
+                                    )
+                                else:
+                                    ax.plot(
+                                        pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1.5
+                                    )
+                            except Exception as e:
+                                print(
+                                    f"Error using confidence in sample view for polygon {idx}: {e}"
+                                )
+                                ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1.5)
+                        else:
+                            ax.plot(pixel_x, pixel_y, color="red", linewidth=1.5)
                     except Exception as e:
                         print(f"Error plotting polygon in sample view: {e}")
 
@@ -828,5 +1763,3 @@ class BuildingFootprintExtractor:
                     plt.tight_layout()
                     plt.savefig(sample_output, dpi=300, bbox_inches="tight")
                     print(f"Sample visualization saved to {sample_output}")
-
-        return True