universal-physics-tensor 0.47.1 → 1.0.2

package/dist/cases/damped-resonator.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/index.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+import type { AppliedCase, CaseResult } from './types.js';
+export type { AppliedCase, CaseCheck, CaseComparison, CaseExample, CaseOutput, CaseResult } from './types.js';
+/** Case id → case. @internal */
+export declare const APPLIED_CASES: ReadonlyMap<string, AppliedCase>;
+/**
+ * Run a case with a numeric input record.
+ * @throws Error on an unknown id, a missing input, or an input outside the model's domain.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function runAppliedCase(id: string, inputs: Readonly<Record<string, number>>): CaseResult;
+//# sourceMappingURL=index.d.ts.map

package/dist/cases/index.d.ts.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/index.js

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+/**
+ * The applied-case registry behind `upt evaluate case-<id>`.
+ *
+ * @module cases
+ */
+import { BROWNIAN_SPHERE_CASE } from './brownian-sphere.js';
+import { DAMPED_RESONATOR_CASE } from './damped-resonator.js';
+import { KEPLER_RV_CASE } from './kepler-rv.js';
+import { LUMPED_COOLING_CASE } from './lumped-cooling.js';
+import { RESISTOR_NOISE_CASE } from './resistor-noise.js';
+import { SKIN_DEPTH_CASE } from './skin-depth.js';
+/** Case id → case. @internal */
+export const APPLIED_CASES = new Map([RESISTOR_NOISE_CASE, BROWNIAN_SPHERE_CASE, DAMPED_RESONATOR_CASE, SKIN_DEPTH_CASE, LUMPED_COOLING_CASE, KEPLER_RV_CASE].map((c) => [c.id, c]));
+/**
+ * Run a case with a numeric input record.
+ * @throws Error on an unknown id, a missing input, or an input outside the model's domain.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function runAppliedCase(id, inputs) {
+    const c = APPLIED_CASES.get(id);
+    if (c === undefined)
+        throw new Error(`runAppliedCase: no case '${id}' (cases: ${[...APPLIED_CASES.keys()].join(', ')})`);
+    const missing = c.parameters.filter((p) => p.optional !== true || p.key in inputs).map((p) => p.key).filter((k) => !(k in inputs) || !Number.isFinite(inputs[k]));
+    if (missing.length > 0) {
+        throw new Error(`${id} needs {${c.parameters.map((p) => p.key).join(', ')}}; missing/non-finite: ${missing.join(', ')}`);
+    }
+    return c.run(inputs);
+}
+//# sourceMappingURL=index.js.map

package/dist/cases/index.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/kepler-rv.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+import { type AppliedCase } from './types.js';
+/** The Julian year, the year BE-52 takes (s). @internal */
+export declare const JULIAN_YEAR_S: number;
+/** m_p/M_* ceiling: the test-mass K then exceeds the two-body K by (1 + q)^{2/3} − 1 ≤ 0.67%. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_MASS_RATIO = 0.01;
+/** Ceiling on the stellar radius over the periastron separation, for point masses. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_RADIUS_RATIO = 0.1;
+/** G(M_* + m_p)/(c² a) ceiling for Newtonian gravity. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_WEAK_FIELD = 0.0001;
+/** e·Δω accumulated over the record (rad) ceiling for a fixed ellipse. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_APSIDAL_MISFIT = 0.01;
+export declare const KEPLER_RV_CASE: AppliedCase;
+//# sourceMappingURL=kepler-rv.d.ts.map

package/dist/cases/kepler-rv.d.ts.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/kepler-rv.js

@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+/**
+ * Applied case: the radial-velocity semi-amplitude of a star orbited by a
+ * companion — what a spectrograph reads as the star's reflex motion, from the
+ * two masses, the period, the eccentricity and the inclination.
+ *
+ * The scalar is the test-mass form of the Keplerian RV curve used to infer
+ * m_p sin i (Lovis & Fischer, "Radial Velocity Techniques for Exoplanets", in
+ * Seager (ed.), Exoplanets, 2010, eq. 1; Murray & Dermott, Solar System
+ * Dynamics, 1999, §2.7). The parent is the two-body problem of two extended
+ * bodies in general relativity. The case compares the test-mass K with the
+ * exact Newtonian two-body K, and checks the three premises that make a fixed
+ * Keplerian ellipse the right curve: a companion light beside the star, point
+ * masses (no tides), and a weak field whose apsidal advance (BE-52, with the
+ * total mass; Robertson 1938) does not reshape the curve over the record.
+ *
+ * @module cases/kepler-rv
+ */
+import { C_SI, G_SI } from '../core/constants.js';
+import { evaluatePerihelionPrecession } from '../bridges/perihelion-precession.js';
+import { check, requirePositive } from './types.js';
+const ID = 'case-kepler-rv';
+/** The Julian year, the year BE-52 takes (s). @internal */
+export const JULIAN_YEAR_S = 365.25 * 86400;
+/** m_p/M_* ceiling: the test-mass K then exceeds the two-body K by (1 + q)^{2/3} − 1 ≤ 0.67%. @internal */
+export const MAX_MASS_RATIO = 0.01;
+/** Ceiling on the stellar radius over the periastron separation, for point masses. @internal */
+export const MAX_RADIUS_RATIO = 0.1;
+/** G(M_* + m_p)/(c² a) ceiling for Newtonian gravity. @internal */
+export const MAX_WEAK_FIELD = 1e-4;
+/** e·Δω accumulated over the record (rad) ceiling for a fixed ellipse. @internal */
+export const MAX_APSIDAL_MISFIT = 0.01;
+export const KEPLER_RV_CASE = {
+    id: ID,
+    title: 'Radial-velocity semi-amplitude of a star with a companion (mass ratio, tides, GR apsidal advance)',
+    parameters: [
+        { key: 'M_star_kg', quantity: 'stellar mass', symbol: 'M_*', unit: 'kg', meaning: 'mass of the star whose radial velocity is measured (1Msun = 1.989e30 kg), > 0' },
+        { key: 'm_p_kg', quantity: 'companion mass', symbol: 'm_p', unit: 'kg', meaning: 'true mass of the companion (Jupiter ≈ 1.898e27 kg), > 0' },
+        { key: 'P_s', quantity: 'orbital period', symbol: 'P', unit: 's', meaning: 'the orbital period the RV curve repeats with, > 0' },
+        { key: 'e', quantity: 'eccentricity', symbol: 'e', unit: '', meaning: 'orbital eccentricity, 0 ≤ e < 1' },
+        { key: 'sin_i', quantity: 'sine of the inclination', symbol: 'sin i', unit: '', meaning: 'sin of the angle between the orbit normal and the line of sight, 0 < sin i ≤ 1 (1 is edge-on)' },
+        { key: 'R_star_m', quantity: 'stellar radius', symbol: 'R_*', unit: 'm', meaning: 'radius of the star (the Sun ≈ 6.957e8 m), > 0' },
+        { key: 'T_obs_s', quantity: 'observing baseline', symbol: 'T_obs', unit: 's', meaning: 'time span of the RV record fitted with one fixed ellipse, > 0' },
+    ],
+    governing: {
+        parent: [
+            'r̈ = −G(M_* + m_p) r/r³ + O(G(M_* + m_p)/(c² r)) · (G(M_* + m_p)/r²)   (relative orbit, Newtonian term plus the 1PN Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann terms)',
+            'M_* r_* + m_p r_p = 0 about the barycentre; the measured v_r is the line-of-sight component of ṙ_*',
+            'extended bodies: each is a point mass only if spherical and undeformed; tides and spin add quadrupole terms ∝ (R/r)²',
+        ],
+        scalar: [
+            'K = (2πG/P)^{1/3} m_p sin i / M_*^{2/3} / √(1 − e²)   (test-mass form, m_p ≪ M_*)',
+            'v_r(t) = K [cos(ν(t) + ω) + e cos ω],  ω fixed over the record',
+            'a³ = G(M_* + m_p) P²/(4π²)   (Kepler III for the relative orbit; CE-kepler-third)',
+        ],
+        distinction: 'The parent is a coupled vector problem for two finite, deformable bodies in curved spacetime; the scalar keeps one ' +
+            'number K for a fixed Keplerian ellipse of the star about the barycentre and puts the whole mass in the star. Dropped: ' +
+            'the companion\'s share of the total mass (O(q)), the apsidal advance and the other 1PN terms (O(GM/(c²a))), and ' +
+            'the tidal and rotational quadrupoles (O((R_*/r)²)).',
+    },
+    observable: 'K_m_per_s',
+    outputs: [
+        { key: 'q', symbol: 'q', unit: '', meaning: 'mass ratio m_p/M_*' },
+        { key: 'a_m', symbol: 'a', unit: 'm', meaning: 'semi-major axis of the relative orbit, from Kepler III with the total mass' },
+        { key: 'a_star_m', symbol: 'a_*', unit: 'm', meaning: 'semi-major axis of the star\'s own orbit about the barycentre, a m_p/(M_* + m_p)' },
+        { key: 'K_m_per_s', symbol: 'K', unit: 'm/s', meaning: 'RV semi-amplitude of the star, test-mass form (the scalar result)' },
+        { key: 'K_two_body_m_per_s', symbol: 'K_2b', unit: 'm/s', meaning: 'the exact Newtonian two-body semi-amplitude (2πG/P)^{1/3} m_p sin i/(M_* + m_p)^{2/3}/√(1 − e²)' },
+        { key: 'two_body_deviation', symbol: 'K/K_2b − 1', unit: '', meaning: 'relative excess of the test-mass K over the two-body K: (1 + q)^{2/3} − 1' },
+        { key: 'r_peri_m', symbol: 'r_p', unit: 'm', meaning: 'periastron separation a(1 − e)' },
+        { key: 'weak_field', symbol: 'G(M_* + m_p)/(c²a)', unit: '', meaning: 'the 1PN expansion parameter (half the Schwarzschild radius of the total mass, over a)' },
+        { key: 'dphi_rad_per_orbit', symbol: 'Δω', unit: 'rad', meaning: 'GR apsidal advance per orbit 6πG(M_* + m_p)/(c²a(1 − e²)) (BE-52 with the total mass)' },
+        { key: 'omega_dot_deg_per_yr', symbol: 'ω̇', unit: 'deg/yr', meaning: 'the same advance as a rate, degrees per Julian year' },
+        { key: 'apsidal_misfit', symbol: 'e Δω T_obs/P', unit: '', meaning: 'eccentricity times the apsidal advance accumulated over the record (rad)' },
+    ],
+    conditions: [
+        'an isolated binary: no third body within the record, the systemic velocity constant (it is fitted out as an offset)',
+        'initial condition: the orbital elements (P, e, ω, time of periastron) are those at the start of the record',
+        'the line of sight is fixed; the star\'s light traces its centre of mass (no spots, no convective blueshift variation)',
+    ],
+    comparison: {
+        reference: 'the parent\'s Newtonian limit: the exact two-body semi-amplitude with the companion\'s mass in the total',
+        valueKey: 'K_m_per_s',
+        referenceKey: 'K_two_body_m_per_s',
+        deviationKey: 'two_body_deviation',
+        method: 'closed form of the two-body Keplerian semi-amplitude',
+    },
+    notIncluded: [
+        'stellar activity (jitter), instrumental drift and the gravitational redshift and light-travel-time terms of the RV itself',
+        'the other 1PN terms beside the apsidal advance (O(GM/(c²a)) in the P–a relation and in K), bounded by the weak-field check but not applied',
+        'tidal orbital decay (dP/dt) and the tidal and rotational quadrupole precession, which the point-mass check bounds only by R_*/r_p',
+        'the inclination itself: RV alone gives m_p sin i; sin i must come from a transit or astrometry',
+    ],
+    measurement: [
+        'fit a Keplerian (P, K, e, ω, time of periastron, systemic offset) to the RV time series and compare the fitted K with K_m_per_s; ' +
+            'with P and e fixed, the fitted K inverts to the minimum mass m_p sin i through the same relation',
+        'where the two-body check fails, compare with K_two_body_m_per_s, which is the Newtonian parent',
+        '`upt confront --bridge=be-52`: Mercury\'s anomalous perihelion advance, which tests the Δω formula the apsidal check uses',
+    ],
+    links: [
+        { id: 'CE-kepler-third', role: 'T² = 4π²a³/(GM), with the assumptions two-body and M ≫ m; here with M → M_* + m_p' },
+        { id: 'be-52', role: 'the GR perihelion advance Δφ = 6πGM/(c²a(1 − e²)), evaluated with the total mass (`upt evaluate be-52`)' },
+        { id: 'CE-perihelion-precession', role: 'the canonical entry restating BE-52' },
+        { id: 'CE-schwarzschild-radius', role: 'r_s = 2GM/c², whose ratio to a (halved) is the weak-field check\'s quantity' },
+    ],
+    examples: {
+        valid: {
+            args: ['M_star_kg=1Msun', 'm_p_kg=1.898e27', 'P_s=4332.59d', 'e=0.0489', 'sin_i=1', 'R_star_m=6.957e8', 'T_obs_s=12yr'],
+            note: 'the Sun\'s reflex motion from Jupiter, seen edge-on over one orbit: K ≈ 12.5 m/s',
+            fails: [],
+        },
+        failures: [
+            {
+                args: ['M_star_kg=1.434Msun', 'm_p_kg=2.79e27', 'P_s=1.09142d', 'e=0', 'sin_i=0.993', 'R_star_m=1.153e9', 'T_obs_s=10yr'],
+                note: 'WASP-12 b, a 1.47 M_J planet on a 1.09 d orbit: the star\'s radius is a third of the separation, and the orbit is observed to decay by tides',
+                fails: ['point-mass'],
+            },
+            {
+                args: ['M_star_kg=1.3381Msun', 'm_p_kg=1.2489Msun', 'P_s=0.10225156248d', 'e=0.0877775', 'sin_i=0.99974', 'R_star_m=12km', 'T_obs_s=1yr'],
+                note: 'the double pulsar PSR J0737−3039A/B timed for a year: equal masses, and a GR apsidal advance of ≈ 17°/yr',
+                fails: ['test-mass', 'apsidal'],
+            },
+        ],
+    },
+    /** Evaluate the test-mass radial-velocity amplitude and checks for the supplied binary inputs. */
+    run(i) {
+        requirePositive(ID, i, ['M_star_kg', 'm_p_kg', 'P_s', 'sin_i', 'R_star_m', 'T_obs_s']);
+        const { M_star_kg: M, m_p_kg: m, P_s: P, e, sin_i: sinI, R_star_m: R, T_obs_s: tObs } = i;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(e) || e < 0 || e >= 1)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: e must be in [0, 1) (got ${e})`);
+        if (sinI > 1)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: sin_i must be in (0, 1] (got ${sinI})`);
+        const total = M + m;
+        const a = Math.cbrt((G_SI * total * P * P) / (4 * Math.PI * Math.PI));
+        const root = Math.sqrt(1 - e * e);
+        const n13 = Math.cbrt((2 * Math.PI * G_SI) / P);
+        const K = (n13 * m * sinI) / Math.cbrt(M * M) / root;
+        const K2b = (n13 * m * sinI) / Math.cbrt(total * total) / root;
+        const rPeri = a * (1 - e);
+        const weak = (G_SI * total) / (C_SI * C_SI * a);
+        const dphi = evaluatePerihelionPrecession({ M_kg: total, a_m: a, e, T_yr: P / JULIAN_YEAR_S }).dphi_rad_per_orbit;
+        const misfit = (e * dphi * tObs) / P;
+        return {
+            outputs: {
+                q: m / M,
+                a_m: a,
+                a_star_m: (a * m) / total,
+                K_m_per_s: K,
+                K_two_body_m_per_s: K2b,
+                two_body_deviation: K / K2b - 1,
+                r_peri_m: rPeri,
+                weak_field: weak,
+                dphi_rad_per_orbit: dphi,
+                omega_dot_deg_per_yr: ((dphi / P) * JULIAN_YEAR_S * 180) / Math.PI,
+                apsidal_misfit: misfit,
+            },
+            checks: [
+                check('test-mass', 'the companion is light beside the star, m_p ≪ M_*', 'm_p/M_*', m / M, '<=', MAX_MASS_RATIO, 'chosen threshold: the test-mass K then exceeds the two-body K by (1 + q)^{2/3} − 1 ≤ 0.67%'),
+                check('point-mass', 'point masses: the star is small beside the closest approach, R_* ≪ r_p', 'R_*/(a(1 − e))', R / rPeri, '<=', MAX_RADIUS_RATIO, 'chosen threshold: tidal and rotational quadrupole terms scale as (R_*/r)² times a Love number or J2 (each < 1), kept ≤ 1%'),
+                check('weak-field', 'Newtonian gravity: G(M_* + m_p)/(c²a) ≪ 1', 'G(M_* + m_p)/(c² a)', weak, '<=', MAX_WEAK_FIELD, 'chosen threshold: the 1PN corrections to the P–a relation and to the orbital velocity are of this relative order'),
+                check('apsidal', 'a fixed ellipse over the record: the GR apsidal advance does not reshape the RV curve', 'e Δω T_obs/P', misfit, '<=', MAX_APSIDAL_MISFIT, 'chosen threshold: beyond the mean longitude (absorbed by the fitted phase), v_r depends on ω only at O(e), so the misfit is of order e Δω K; its coefficient (order one) is not encoded'),
+            ],
+            unchecked: [
+                'no third body: an outer companion adds its own reflex signal and perturbs P and ω',
+                'the companion\'s radius is also small beside r_p (only the star\'s is checked)',
+            ],
+        };
+    },
+};
+//# sourceMappingURL=kepler-rv.js.map

package/dist/cases/kepler-rv.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+import { type AppliedCase } from './types.js';
+/** Stefan–Boltzmann constant 2π⁵k_B⁴/(15h³c²), from the exact SI constants (W m⁻² K⁻⁴). @internal */
+export declare const SIGMA_SB_SI: number;
+/** Bi = h L_c/k ceiling, L_c = V/A (Incropera §5.2, eq. 5.10). @internal */
+export declare const MAX_BIOT = 0.1;
+/** h_rad,max/h ceiling for a loss linear in T − T∞. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_RADIATION_RATIO = 0.1;
+/** Parameters of the lumped equation with the radiative loss kept, in SI units. @internal */
+export interface LumpedRadiating {
+    readonly a: number;
+    readonly rho: number;
+    readonly c: number;
+    /** ≥ 0; 0 is pure radiation. */
+    readonly h: number;
+    readonly eps: number;
+    readonly T0: number;
+    readonly Tinf: number;
+    readonly t: number;
+}
+/**
+ * T(t) of ρcV dT/dt = −A[h(T − T∞) + εσ_SB(T⁴ − T∞⁴)] for a sphere (V/A =
+ * a/3), by RK4 with each step 1/100 of the local relaxation time
+ * ρca/(3(h + 4εσ_SB T³)). Stops early once |T − T∞| is below 1e-15 |T0 − T∞|.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function lumpedRadiatingTemperature(p: LumpedRadiating): number;
+/**
+ * The first n roots of 1 − ζ cot ζ = Bi (Bi = h a/k, radius-based): the n-th
+ * lies in ((n−1)π, nπ), where the left side runs from −∞ (0 for n = 1) to +∞.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function sphereEigenvalues(biRadius: number, n: number): number[];
+/**
+ * θ/θ0 = (T − T∞)/(T0 − T∞) from the series solution of the sphere with a
+ * convective surface, at Fourier number Fo = αt/a², for the volume mean, the
+ * centre and the surface. Terms are summed until e^{−ζ²Fo} < 1e-18.
+ * @throws Error when Fo is so small that the series would need over 1e5 terms.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function sphereSeries(biRadius: number, fo: number): {
+    mean: number;
+    centre: number;
+    surface: number;
+};
+export declare const LUMPED_COOLING_CASE: AppliedCase;
+//# sourceMappingURL=lumped-cooling.d.ts.map

package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.d.ts.map

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package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.js

@@ -0,0 +1,261 @@
+/**
+ * Applied case: a solid sphere cooling (or warming) in a fluid — its
+ * temperature after a time t by Newton's law of cooling, with the Biot-number
+ * check that makes one uniform temperature a fair stand-in for the field
+ * inside it.
+ *
+ * The parent is the heat equation in the sphere (`model-heat` in radial
+ * form, diffusivity `CE-thermal-diffusivity`) with a convective boundary. The
+ * lumped-capacitance simplification T(t) = T∞ + (T0 − T∞) e^{−t/τ},
+ * τ = ρcV/(hA), holds for Bi = h L_c/k ≤ 0.1 with L_c = V/A (Incropera,
+ * DeWitt, Bergman & Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed.,
+ * §5.1–5.2). The parent's exact series (Carslaw & Jaeger, Conduction of Heat
+ * in Solids, 2nd ed., §9.4; Incropera §5.6.2) is summed here for the volume
+ * mean, the centre and the surface. A second check keeps radiation, which is
+ * not linear in T − T∞, small beside convection. Where it is not small, the
+ * lumped equation is also integrated with the T⁴ loss kept (Incropera §5.3,
+ * general lumped capacitance analysis), provided the Biot number with the
+ * radiative conductance added still allows one temperature.
+ *
+ * @module cases/lumped-cooling
+ */
+import { C_SI, H_SI, K_B_SI } from '../core/constants.js';
+import { check, requirePositive } from './types.js';
+const ID = 'case-lumped-cooling';
+/** Stefan–Boltzmann constant 2π⁵k_B⁴/(15h³c²), from the exact SI constants (W m⁻² K⁻⁴). @internal */
+export const SIGMA_SB_SI = (2 * Math.PI ** 5 * K_B_SI ** 4) / (15 * H_SI ** 3 * C_SI ** 2);
+/** Bi = h L_c/k ceiling, L_c = V/A (Incropera §5.2, eq. 5.10). @internal */
+export const MAX_BIOT = 0.1;
+/** h_rad,max/h ceiling for a loss linear in T − T∞. @internal */
+export const MAX_RADIATION_RATIO = 0.1;
+/**
+ * T(t) of ρcV dT/dt = −A[h(T − T∞) + εσ_SB(T⁴ − T∞⁴)] for a sphere (V/A =
+ * a/3), by RK4 with each step 1/100 of the local relaxation time
+ * ρca/(3(h + 4εσ_SB T³)). Stops early once |T − T∞| is below 1e-15 |T0 − T∞|.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function lumpedRadiatingTemperature(p) {
+    const k = 3 / (p.rho * p.c * p.a);
+    const f = (T) => -k * (p.h * (T - p.Tinf) + p.eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * (T ** 4 - p.Tinf ** 4));
+    const floor = 1e-15 * Math.abs(p.T0 - p.Tinf);
+    let T = p.T0;
+    let s = 0;
+    while (s < p.t && Math.abs(T - p.Tinf) > floor) {
+        const rate = k * (p.h + 4 * p.eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * Math.max(T, p.Tinf) ** 3);
+        const dt = Math.min(p.t - s, 0.01 / rate);
+        const k1 = f(T);
+        const k2 = f(T + (dt / 2) * k1);
+        const k3 = f(T + (dt / 2) * k2);
+        const k4 = f(T + dt * k3);
+        T += (dt / 6) * (k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4);
+        s += dt;
+    }
+    return T;
+}
+/**
+ * The first n roots of 1 − ζ cot ζ = Bi (Bi = h a/k, radius-based): the n-th
+ * lies in ((n−1)π, nπ), where the left side runs from −∞ (0 for n = 1) to +∞.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function sphereEigenvalues(biRadius, n) {
+    const f = (z) => 1 - z / Math.tan(z) - biRadius;
+    const roots = [];
+    for (let k = 1; k <= n; k++) {
+        let lo = (k - 1) * Math.PI;
+        let hi = k * Math.PI;
+        for (let it = 0; it < 200 && hi - lo > 4 * Number.EPSILON * hi; it++) {
+            const mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
+            if (mid === lo || mid === hi)
+                break;
+            if (f(mid) < 0)
+                lo = mid;
+            else
+                hi = mid;
+        }
+        roots.push((lo + hi) / 2);
+    }
+    return roots;
+}
+/**
+ * θ/θ0 = (T − T∞)/(T0 − T∞) from the series solution of the sphere with a
+ * convective surface, at Fourier number Fo = αt/a², for the volume mean, the
+ * centre and the surface. Terms are summed until e^{−ζ²Fo} < 1e-18.
+ * @throws Error when Fo is so small that the series would need over 1e5 terms.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function sphereSeries(biRadius, fo) {
+    if (fo === 0)
+        return { mean: 1, centre: 1, surface: 1 };
+    const terms = Math.ceil(Math.sqrt(42 / fo) / Math.PI) + 2;
+    if (terms > 1e5)
+        throw new Error(`${ID}: Fo = ${fo} is too small for the series (needs ${terms} terms)`);
+    let mean = 0;
+    let centre = 0;
+    let surface = 0;
+    for (const z of sphereEigenvalues(biRadius, terms)) {
+        const s = Math.sin(z);
+        const c = Math.cos(z);
+        const cn = (4 * (s - z * c)) / (2 * z - Math.sin(2 * z));
+        const decay = Math.exp(-z * z * fo);
+        centre += cn * decay;
+        surface += (cn * decay * s) / z;
+        mean += (cn * decay * 3 * (s - z * c)) / z ** 3;
+    }
+    return { mean, centre, surface };
+}
+export const LUMPED_COOLING_CASE = {
+    id: ID,
+    title: 'Lumped-capacitance cooling of a sphere (Biot number, radiation linearity)',
+    parameters: [
+        {
+            key: 'a_m',
+            quantity: 'sphere radius',
+            symbol: 'a',
+            unit: 'm',
+            meaning: 'radius of the solid sphere, > 0',
+            geometry: 'radius',
+            alternates: [{ key: 'diameter_m', meaning: 'the diameter 2a of the sphere', toKey: 0.5 }],
+        },
+        { key: 'rho_kg_per_m3', quantity: 'density', symbol: 'ρ', unit: 'kg/m^3', meaning: 'mass density of the solid (copper ≈ 8933), > 0' },
+        { key: 'c_J_per_kg_K', quantity: 'specific heat', symbol: 'c', unit: 'J/(kg*K)', meaning: 'specific heat capacity of the solid (copper ≈ 385), > 0' },
+        { key: 'k_W_per_m_K', quantity: 'thermal conductivity', symbol: 'k', unit: 'W/(m*K)', meaning: 'thermal conductivity of the solid (copper ≈ 401), > 0' },
+        { key: 'h_W_per_m2_K', quantity: 'heat-transfer coefficient', symbol: 'h', unit: 'W/(m^2*K)', meaning: 'convective coefficient at the surface, uniform and constant (still air ≈ 5–25, stirred water ≈ 500–10000), > 0' },
+        { key: 'emissivity', quantity: 'surface emissivity', symbol: 'ε', unit: '', meaning: 'total hemispherical emissivity of the surface, 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1 (polished copper ≈ 0.03–0.05)' },
+        { key: 'T0_K', quantity: 'initial temperature', symbol: 'T0', unit: 'K', meaning: 'uniform temperature of the sphere at t = 0, > 0 K', temperature: 'absolute' },
+        { key: 'T_inf_K', quantity: 'fluid temperature', symbol: 'T∞', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature of the fluid far from the sphere, and of the radiating surroundings, > 0 K', temperature: 'absolute' },
+        { key: 't_s', quantity: 'elapsed time', symbol: 't', unit: 's', meaning: 'time since immersion, ≥ 0' },
+    ],
+    governing: {
+        parent: [
+            'ρc ∂T/∂t = k (1/r²) ∂/∂r (r² ∂T/∂r),  0 ≤ r < a   (the heat equation of model-heat, radially symmetric)',
+            '−k ∂T/∂r = h (T − T∞) + εσ_SB (T⁴ − T∞⁴) at r = a;  T(r, 0) = T0',
+            'without the radiation term: θ/θ0 = Σ C_n e^{−ζ_n² Fo} sin(ζ_n r/a)/(ζ_n r/a),  1 − ζ_n cot ζ_n = h a/k,  C_n = 4(sin ζ_n − ζ_n cos ζ_n)/(2ζ_n − sin 2ζ_n),  Fo = αt/a²',
+        ],
+        scalar: [
+            'ρcV dT/dt = −hA (T − T∞)   (lumped capacitance: one temperature for the whole sphere)',
+            'T(t) = T∞ + (T0 − T∞) e^{−t/τ},  τ = ρcV/(hA) = ρca/(3h)   (Newton\'s law of cooling)',
+            'Bi = h L_c/k,  L_c = V/A = a/3',
+        ],
+        distinction: 'The parent is a temperature field T(r, t) with a boundary condition that is nonlinear once radiation is kept; the ' +
+            'scalar replaces the field by one number and the surface loss by a linear conductance hA. Dropped: the internal ' +
+            'gradient (of relative size ~Bi), every eigenmode but the slowest (and that one\'s rate shifted by O(Bi)), and the ' +
+            'T⁴ dependence of radiation.',
+    },
+    observable: 'T_K',
+    outputs: [
+        { key: 'tau_s', symbol: 'τ', unit: 's', meaning: 'lumped time constant ρcV/(hA) = ρca/(3h)' },
+        { key: 'Bi', symbol: 'Bi', unit: '', meaning: 'Biot number h L_c/k with L_c = V/A = a/3 (the lumped criterion\'s form)' },
+        { key: 'Bi_radius', symbol: 'Bi_a', unit: '', meaning: 'h a/k: the radius-based Biot number of the series solution (3 Bi)' },
+        { key: 'alpha_m2_per_s', symbol: 'α', unit: 'm^2/s', meaning: 'thermal diffusivity k/(ρc)' },
+        { key: 'Fo', symbol: 'Fo', unit: '', meaning: 'Fourier number αt/a²' },
+        { key: 'theta', symbol: 'θ/θ0', unit: '', meaning: 'lumped excess-temperature ratio e^{−t/τ}' },
+        { key: 'T_K', symbol: 'T(t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'the lumped temperature at t: what a thermometer in or on the sphere reads' },
+        { key: 'Q_J', symbol: 'Q', unit: 'J', meaning: 'heat released to the fluid by t, ρcV(T0 − T(t)) (negative when the sphere warms)' },
+        { key: 'theta_parent_mean', symbol: 'θ̄/θ0', unit: '', meaning: 'volume-mean excess-temperature ratio of the series solution (convection only)' },
+        { key: 'parent_deviation', symbol: 'θ/θ̄ − 1', unit: '', meaning: 'relative excess of the lumped ratio over the parent\'s volume mean' },
+        { key: 'T_centre_K', symbol: 'T(0, t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature at the centre from the series solution' },
+        { key: 'T_surface_K', symbol: 'T(a, t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature at the surface from the series solution' },
+        { key: 'h_rad_max_W_per_m2_K', symbol: 'h_rad', unit: 'W/(m^2*K)', meaning: 'εσ_SB(T_s + T∞)(T_s² + T∞²) at the hotter of T0 and T∞: the largest linearized radiative coefficient over the run' },
+        { key: 'Bi_radiating', symbol: 'Bi_r', unit: '', meaning: '(h + h_rad)(a/3)/k: the Biot number with the largest radiative conductance added' },
+        { key: 'T_radiating_K', symbol: 'T_r(t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'the lumped temperature with the T⁴ loss kept (RK4). The linear-loss check does not apply to it; its premise is Bi_radiating ≤ 0.1, and it is null otherwise' },
+    ],
+    conditions: [
+        'initial condition: the sphere is at the uniform temperature T0 when it is immersed at t = 0',
+        'boundary: a uniform, constant coefficient h over the whole surface into fluid at T∞; the surroundings it radiates to are also at T∞',
+        'constant ρ, c and k over the temperature range; no internal heat source; the sphere is solid and homogeneous',
+    ],
+    comparison: {
+        reference: 'the parent: the series solution of the sphere\'s heat equation with the convective boundary, volume mean',
+        valueKey: 'theta',
+        referenceKey: 'theta_parent_mean',
+        deviationKey: 'parent_deviation',
+        method: 'eigenfunction series, roots of 1 − ζ cot ζ = Bi_a by bisection, summed until e^{−ζ²Fo} < 1e-18',
+    },
+    notIncluded: [
+        'radiation in T_K and in the series: the linear-loss check bounds it; T_radiating_K keeps it, in the lumped model only',
+        'the temperature dependence of h (natural convection has h ∝ ΔT^{1/4}) and of ρ, c, k',
+        'the thermometer\'s own heat capacity and contact resistance, and conduction along its leads',
+        'phase change at the surface (boiling in a quench), which makes h neither uniform nor constant',
+    ],
+    measurement: [
+        'record T(t) with a thermocouple embedded at the centre; plot ln((T − T∞)/(T0 − T∞)) against t — a straight line of slope ' +
+            '−1/τ tests the lumped premise directly, and T_centre_K is the parent\'s prediction for that sensor',
+        'compare the measured τ with tau_s; the difference between T_centre_K and T_surface_K is the internal gradient the lumped model drops',
+        'to use this as a calorimetric measurement of h, invert τ = ρca/(3h), valid only where both checks hold',
+    ],
+    links: [
+        { id: 'model-heat', role: 'ρc_p ∂T/∂t = κ ∂²T/∂x², the heat equation; here in its radial form for a sphere' },
+        { id: 'CE-thermal-diffusivity', role: 'α = k/(ρc_p), the diffusivity in the Fourier number' },
+        { id: 'CE-heat-capacity', role: 'Q = mcΔT, the heat released as the sphere cools' },
+        { id: 'CE-stefan-boltzmann', role: 'j = σT⁴, the radiative loss the linear-loss check bounds' },
+    ],
+    examples: {
+        valid: {
+            args: ['a_m=5mm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=8933', 'c_J_per_kg_K=385', 'k_W_per_m_K=401', 'h_W_per_m2_K=20', 'emissivity=0.05', 'T0_K=100degC', 'T_inf_K=20degC', 't_s=300'],
+            note: 'a 1 cm polished copper ball cooling from 100 °C in still air at 20 °C, read after 5 minutes',
+            fails: [],
+        },
+        failures: [
+            {
+                args: ['a_m=5cm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=7854', 'c_J_per_kg_K=434', 'k_W_per_m_K=60.5', 'h_W_per_m2_K=1000', 'emissivity=0', 'T0_K=90degC', 'T_inf_K=20degC', 't_s=600'],
+                note: 'a 10 cm steel ball from 90 °C into stirred water: Bi ≈ 0.28, the centre lags the surface and one temperature does not describe it',
+                fails: ['lumped'],
+            },
+            {
+                args: ['a_m=5mm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=7854', 'c_J_per_kg_K=434', 'k_W_per_m_K=60.5', 'h_W_per_m2_K=10', 'emissivity=0.8', 'T0_K=1000', 'T_inf_K=300', 't_s=60'],
+                note: 'a 1 cm oxidized steel ball at 1000 K in still air: radiation (h_rad ≈ 64 W/m²K) outweighs convection and the loss is not linear',
+                fails: ['linear-loss'],
+            },
+        ],
+    },
+    /** Evaluate the lumped sphere temperature, parent-series comparison and heat-transfer checks for the supplied inputs. */
+    run(i) {
+        requirePositive(ID, i, ['a_m', 'rho_kg_per_m3', 'c_J_per_kg_K', 'k_W_per_m_K', 'h_W_per_m2_K', 'T0_K', 'T_inf_K']);
+        const { a_m: a, rho_kg_per_m3: rho, c_J_per_kg_K: c, k_W_per_m_K: k, h_W_per_m2_K: h, emissivity: eps, T0_K: T0, T_inf_K: Tinf, t_s: t, } = i;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(eps) || eps < 0 || eps > 1)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: emissivity must be in [0, 1] (got ${eps})`);
+        if (!Number.isFinite(t) || t < 0)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: t_s must be a finite number ≥ 0 (got ${t})`);
+        const tau = (rho * c * a) / (3 * h);
+        const bi = (h * (a / 3)) / k;
+        const biRadius = (h * a) / k;
+        const alpha = k / (rho * c);
+        const fo = (alpha * t) / (a * a);
+        const theta = Math.exp(-t / tau);
+        const series = sphereSeries(biRadius, fo);
+        const dT0 = T0 - Tinf;
+        const Tmax = Math.max(T0, Tinf);
+        const hRad = eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * (Tmax + Tinf) * (Tmax * Tmax + Tinf * Tinf);
+        const volume = (4 / 3) * Math.PI * a ** 3;
+        const biRadiating = ((h + hRad) * (a / 3)) / k;
+        const tRadiating = biRadiating <= MAX_BIOT ? lumpedRadiatingTemperature({ a, rho, c, h, eps, T0, Tinf, t }) : null;
+        return {
+            outputs: {
+                tau_s: tau,
+                Bi: bi,
+                Bi_radius: biRadius,
+                alpha_m2_per_s: alpha,
+                Fo: fo,
+                theta,
+                T_K: Tinf + dT0 * theta,
+                Q_J: rho * c * volume * dT0 * -Math.expm1(-t / tau),
+                theta_parent_mean: series.mean,
+                parent_deviation: theta / series.mean - 1,
+                T_centre_K: Tinf + dT0 * series.centre,
+                T_surface_K: Tinf + dT0 * series.surface,
+                h_rad_max_W_per_m2_K: hRad,
+                Bi_radiating: biRadiating,
+                T_radiating_K: tRadiating,
+            },
+            checks: [
+                check('lumped', 'one temperature for the sphere: internal conduction fast beside surface loss, Bi ≪ 1', 'h (a/3)/k', bi, '<=', MAX_BIOT, 'the conventional criterion Bi ≤ 0.1 with L_c = V/A (Incropera §5.2); parent_deviation shows the error it leaves at t'),
+                check('linear-loss', 'the loss is linear in T − T∞: radiation small beside convection', 'εσ_SB(T_max + T∞)(T_max² + T∞²)/h', hRad / h, '<=', MAX_RADIATION_RATIO, 'chosen threshold: the neglected radiative conductance is ≤ 10% of h at the hottest point of the run (Incropera eq. 1.9 linearization)'),
+            ],
+            unchecked: [
+                'h is uniform over the sphere and constant in time; for natural convection it falls as the sphere approaches T∞',
+                'ρ, c and k are constant over [min(T0, T∞), max(T0, T∞)]',
+            ],
+        };
+    },
+};
+//# sourceMappingURL=lumped-cooling.js.map

package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.js.map

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