universal-physics-tensor 0.47.1 → 1.0.1

package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.js

@@ -0,0 +1,261 @@
+/**
+ * Applied case: a solid sphere cooling (or warming) in a fluid — its
+ * temperature after a time t by Newton's law of cooling, with the Biot-number
+ * check that makes one uniform temperature a fair stand-in for the field
+ * inside it.
+ *
+ * The parent is the heat equation in the sphere (`model-heat` in radial
+ * form, diffusivity `CE-thermal-diffusivity`) with a convective boundary. The
+ * lumped-capacitance simplification T(t) = T∞ + (T0 − T∞) e^{−t/τ},
+ * τ = ρcV/(hA), holds for Bi = h L_c/k ≤ 0.1 with L_c = V/A (Incropera,
+ * DeWitt, Bergman & Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed.,
+ * §5.1–5.2). The parent's exact series (Carslaw & Jaeger, Conduction of Heat
+ * in Solids, 2nd ed., §9.4; Incropera §5.6.2) is summed here for the volume
+ * mean, the centre and the surface. A second check keeps radiation, which is
+ * not linear in T − T∞, small beside convection. Where it is not small, the
+ * lumped equation is also integrated with the T⁴ loss kept (Incropera §5.3,
+ * general lumped capacitance analysis), provided the Biot number with the
+ * radiative conductance added still allows one temperature.
+ *
+ * @module cases/lumped-cooling
+ */
+import { C_SI, H_SI, K_B_SI } from '../core/constants.js';
+import { check, requirePositive } from './types.js';
+const ID = 'case-lumped-cooling';
+/** Stefan–Boltzmann constant 2π⁵k_B⁴/(15h³c²), from the exact SI constants (W m⁻² K⁻⁴). @internal */
+export const SIGMA_SB_SI = (2 * Math.PI ** 5 * K_B_SI ** 4) / (15 * H_SI ** 3 * C_SI ** 2);
+/** Bi = h L_c/k ceiling, L_c = V/A (Incropera §5.2, eq. 5.10). @internal */
+export const MAX_BIOT = 0.1;
+/** h_rad,max/h ceiling for a loss linear in T − T∞. @internal */
+export const MAX_RADIATION_RATIO = 0.1;
+/**
+ * T(t) of ρcV dT/dt = −A[h(T − T∞) + εσ_SB(T⁴ − T∞⁴)] for a sphere (V/A =
+ * a/3), by RK4 with each step 1/100 of the local relaxation time
+ * ρca/(3(h + 4εσ_SB T³)). Stops early once |T − T∞| is below 1e-15 |T0 − T∞|.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function lumpedRadiatingTemperature(p) {
+    const k = 3 / (p.rho * p.c * p.a);
+    const f = (T) => -k * (p.h * (T - p.Tinf) + p.eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * (T ** 4 - p.Tinf ** 4));
+    const floor = 1e-15 * Math.abs(p.T0 - p.Tinf);
+    let T = p.T0;
+    let s = 0;
+    while (s < p.t && Math.abs(T - p.Tinf) > floor) {
+        const rate = k * (p.h + 4 * p.eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * Math.max(T, p.Tinf) ** 3);
+        const dt = Math.min(p.t - s, 0.01 / rate);
+        const k1 = f(T);
+        const k2 = f(T + (dt / 2) * k1);
+        const k3 = f(T + (dt / 2) * k2);
+        const k4 = f(T + dt * k3);
+        T += (dt / 6) * (k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4);
+        s += dt;
+    }
+    return T;
+}
+/**
+ * The first n roots of 1 − ζ cot ζ = Bi (Bi = h a/k, radius-based): the n-th
+ * lies in ((n−1)π, nπ), where the left side runs from −∞ (0 for n = 1) to +∞.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function sphereEigenvalues(biRadius, n) {
+    const f = (z) => 1 - z / Math.tan(z) - biRadius;
+    const roots = [];
+    for (let k = 1; k <= n; k++) {
+        let lo = (k - 1) * Math.PI;
+        let hi = k * Math.PI;
+        for (let it = 0; it < 200 && hi - lo > 4 * Number.EPSILON * hi; it++) {
+            const mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
+            if (mid === lo || mid === hi)
+                break;
+            if (f(mid) < 0)
+                lo = mid;
+            else
+                hi = mid;
+        }
+        roots.push((lo + hi) / 2);
+    }
+    return roots;
+}
+/**
+ * θ/θ0 = (T − T∞)/(T0 − T∞) from the series solution of the sphere with a
+ * convective surface, at Fourier number Fo = αt/a², for the volume mean, the
+ * centre and the surface. Terms are summed until e^{−ζ²Fo} < 1e-18.
+ * @throws Error when Fo is so small that the series would need over 1e5 terms.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function sphereSeries(biRadius, fo) {
+    if (fo === 0)
+        return { mean: 1, centre: 1, surface: 1 };
+    const terms = Math.ceil(Math.sqrt(42 / fo) / Math.PI) + 2;
+    if (terms > 1e5)
+        throw new Error(`${ID}: Fo = ${fo} is too small for the series (needs ${terms} terms)`);
+    let mean = 0;
+    let centre = 0;
+    let surface = 0;
+    for (const z of sphereEigenvalues(biRadius, terms)) {
+        const s = Math.sin(z);
+        const c = Math.cos(z);
+        const cn = (4 * (s - z * c)) / (2 * z - Math.sin(2 * z));
+        const decay = Math.exp(-z * z * fo);
+        centre += cn * decay;
+        surface += (cn * decay * s) / z;
+        mean += (cn * decay * 3 * (s - z * c)) / z ** 3;
+    }
+    return { mean, centre, surface };
+}
+export const LUMPED_COOLING_CASE = {
+    id: ID,
+    title: 'Lumped-capacitance cooling of a sphere (Biot number, radiation linearity)',
+    parameters: [
+        {
+            key: 'a_m',
+            quantity: 'sphere radius',
+            symbol: 'a',
+            unit: 'm',
+            meaning: 'radius of the solid sphere, > 0',
+            geometry: 'radius',
+            alternates: [{ key: 'diameter_m', meaning: 'the diameter 2a of the sphere', toKey: 0.5 }],
+        },
+        { key: 'rho_kg_per_m3', quantity: 'density', symbol: 'ρ', unit: 'kg/m^3', meaning: 'mass density of the solid (copper ≈ 8933), > 0' },
+        { key: 'c_J_per_kg_K', quantity: 'specific heat', symbol: 'c', unit: 'J/(kg*K)', meaning: 'specific heat capacity of the solid (copper ≈ 385), > 0' },
+        { key: 'k_W_per_m_K', quantity: 'thermal conductivity', symbol: 'k', unit: 'W/(m*K)', meaning: 'thermal conductivity of the solid (copper ≈ 401), > 0' },
+        { key: 'h_W_per_m2_K', quantity: 'heat-transfer coefficient', symbol: 'h', unit: 'W/(m^2*K)', meaning: 'convective coefficient at the surface, uniform and constant (still air ≈ 5–25, stirred water ≈ 500–10000), > 0' },
+        { key: 'emissivity', quantity: 'surface emissivity', symbol: 'ε', unit: '', meaning: 'total hemispherical emissivity of the surface, 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1 (polished copper ≈ 0.03–0.05)' },
+        { key: 'T0_K', quantity: 'initial temperature', symbol: 'T0', unit: 'K', meaning: 'uniform temperature of the sphere at t = 0, > 0 K', temperature: 'absolute' },
+        { key: 'T_inf_K', quantity: 'fluid temperature', symbol: 'T∞', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature of the fluid far from the sphere, and of the radiating surroundings, > 0 K', temperature: 'absolute' },
+        { key: 't_s', quantity: 'elapsed time', symbol: 't', unit: 's', meaning: 'time since immersion, ≥ 0' },
+    ],
+    governing: {
+        parent: [
+            'ρc ∂T/∂t = k (1/r²) ∂/∂r (r² ∂T/∂r),  0 ≤ r < a   (the heat equation of model-heat, radially symmetric)',
+            '−k ∂T/∂r = h (T − T∞) + εσ_SB (T⁴ − T∞⁴) at r = a;  T(r, 0) = T0',
+            'without the radiation term: θ/θ0 = Σ C_n e^{−ζ_n² Fo} sin(ζ_n r/a)/(ζ_n r/a),  1 − ζ_n cot ζ_n = h a/k,  C_n = 4(sin ζ_n − ζ_n cos ζ_n)/(2ζ_n − sin 2ζ_n),  Fo = αt/a²',
+        ],
+        scalar: [
+            'ρcV dT/dt = −hA (T − T∞)   (lumped capacitance: one temperature for the whole sphere)',
+            'T(t) = T∞ + (T0 − T∞) e^{−t/τ},  τ = ρcV/(hA) = ρca/(3h)   (Newton\'s law of cooling)',
+            'Bi = h L_c/k,  L_c = V/A = a/3',
+        ],
+        distinction: 'The parent is a temperature field T(r, t) with a boundary condition that is nonlinear once radiation is kept; the ' +
+            'scalar replaces the field by one number and the surface loss by a linear conductance hA. Dropped: the internal ' +
+            'gradient (of relative size ~Bi), every eigenmode but the slowest (and that one\'s rate shifted by O(Bi)), and the ' +
+            'T⁴ dependence of radiation.',
+    },
+    observable: 'T_K',
+    outputs: [
+        { key: 'tau_s', symbol: 'τ', unit: 's', meaning: 'lumped time constant ρcV/(hA) = ρca/(3h)' },
+        { key: 'Bi', symbol: 'Bi', unit: '', meaning: 'Biot number h L_c/k with L_c = V/A = a/3 (the lumped criterion\'s form)' },
+        { key: 'Bi_radius', symbol: 'Bi_a', unit: '', meaning: 'h a/k: the radius-based Biot number of the series solution (3 Bi)' },
+        { key: 'alpha_m2_per_s', symbol: 'α', unit: 'm^2/s', meaning: 'thermal diffusivity k/(ρc)' },
+        { key: 'Fo', symbol: 'Fo', unit: '', meaning: 'Fourier number αt/a²' },
+        { key: 'theta', symbol: 'θ/θ0', unit: '', meaning: 'lumped excess-temperature ratio e^{−t/τ}' },
+        { key: 'T_K', symbol: 'T(t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'the lumped temperature at t: what a thermometer in or on the sphere reads' },
+        { key: 'Q_J', symbol: 'Q', unit: 'J', meaning: 'heat released to the fluid by t, ρcV(T0 − T(t)) (negative when the sphere warms)' },
+        { key: 'theta_parent_mean', symbol: 'θ̄/θ0', unit: '', meaning: 'volume-mean excess-temperature ratio of the series solution (convection only)' },
+        { key: 'parent_deviation', symbol: 'θ/θ̄ − 1', unit: '', meaning: 'relative excess of the lumped ratio over the parent\'s volume mean' },
+        { key: 'T_centre_K', symbol: 'T(0, t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature at the centre from the series solution' },
+        { key: 'T_surface_K', symbol: 'T(a, t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'temperature at the surface from the series solution' },
+        { key: 'h_rad_max_W_per_m2_K', symbol: 'h_rad', unit: 'W/(m^2*K)', meaning: 'εσ_SB(T_s + T∞)(T_s² + T∞²) at the hotter of T0 and T∞: the largest linearized radiative coefficient over the run' },
+        { key: 'Bi_radiating', symbol: 'Bi_r', unit: '', meaning: '(h + h_rad)(a/3)/k: the Biot number with the largest radiative conductance added' },
+        { key: 'T_radiating_K', symbol: 'T_r(t)', unit: 'K', meaning: 'the lumped temperature with the T⁴ loss kept (RK4). The linear-loss check does not apply to it; its premise is Bi_radiating ≤ 0.1, and it is null otherwise' },
+    ],
+    conditions: [
+        'initial condition: the sphere is at the uniform temperature T0 when it is immersed at t = 0',
+        'boundary: a uniform, constant coefficient h over the whole surface into fluid at T∞; the surroundings it radiates to are also at T∞',
+        'constant ρ, c and k over the temperature range; no internal heat source; the sphere is solid and homogeneous',
+    ],
+    comparison: {
+        reference: 'the parent: the series solution of the sphere\'s heat equation with the convective boundary, volume mean',
+        valueKey: 'theta',
+        referenceKey: 'theta_parent_mean',
+        deviationKey: 'parent_deviation',
+        method: 'eigenfunction series, roots of 1 − ζ cot ζ = Bi_a by bisection, summed until e^{−ζ²Fo} < 1e-18',
+    },
+    notIncluded: [
+        'radiation in T_K and in the series: the linear-loss check bounds it; T_radiating_K keeps it, in the lumped model only',
+        'the temperature dependence of h (natural convection has h ∝ ΔT^{1/4}) and of ρ, c, k',
+        'the thermometer\'s own heat capacity and contact resistance, and conduction along its leads',
+        'phase change at the surface (boiling in a quench), which makes h neither uniform nor constant',
+    ],
+    measurement: [
+        'record T(t) with a thermocouple embedded at the centre; plot ln((T − T∞)/(T0 − T∞)) against t — a straight line of slope ' +
+            '−1/τ tests the lumped premise directly, and T_centre_K is the parent\'s prediction for that sensor',
+        'compare the measured τ with tau_s; the difference between T_centre_K and T_surface_K is the internal gradient the lumped model drops',
+        'to use this as a calorimetric measurement of h, invert τ = ρca/(3h), valid only where both checks hold',
+    ],
+    links: [
+        { id: 'model-heat', role: 'ρc_p ∂T/∂t = κ ∂²T/∂x², the heat equation; here in its radial form for a sphere' },
+        { id: 'CE-thermal-diffusivity', role: 'α = k/(ρc_p), the diffusivity in the Fourier number' },
+        { id: 'CE-heat-capacity', role: 'Q = mcΔT, the heat released as the sphere cools' },
+        { id: 'CE-stefan-boltzmann', role: 'j = σT⁴, the radiative loss the linear-loss check bounds' },
+    ],
+    examples: {
+        valid: {
+            args: ['a_m=5mm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=8933', 'c_J_per_kg_K=385', 'k_W_per_m_K=401', 'h_W_per_m2_K=20', 'emissivity=0.05', 'T0_K=100degC', 'T_inf_K=20degC', 't_s=300'],
+            note: 'a 1 cm polished copper ball cooling from 100 °C in still air at 20 °C, read after 5 minutes',
+            fails: [],
+        },
+        failures: [
+            {
+                args: ['a_m=5cm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=7854', 'c_J_per_kg_K=434', 'k_W_per_m_K=60.5', 'h_W_per_m2_K=1000', 'emissivity=0', 'T0_K=90degC', 'T_inf_K=20degC', 't_s=600'],
+                note: 'a 10 cm steel ball from 90 °C into stirred water: Bi ≈ 0.28, the centre lags the surface and one temperature does not describe it',
+                fails: ['lumped'],
+            },
+            {
+                args: ['a_m=5mm', 'rho_kg_per_m3=7854', 'c_J_per_kg_K=434', 'k_W_per_m_K=60.5', 'h_W_per_m2_K=10', 'emissivity=0.8', 'T0_K=1000', 'T_inf_K=300', 't_s=60'],
+                note: 'a 1 cm oxidized steel ball at 1000 K in still air: radiation (h_rad ≈ 64 W/m²K) outweighs convection and the loss is not linear',
+                fails: ['linear-loss'],
+            },
+        ],
+    },
+    /** Evaluate the lumped sphere temperature, parent-series comparison and heat-transfer checks for the supplied inputs. */
+    run(i) {
+        requirePositive(ID, i, ['a_m', 'rho_kg_per_m3', 'c_J_per_kg_K', 'k_W_per_m_K', 'h_W_per_m2_K', 'T0_K', 'T_inf_K']);
+        const { a_m: a, rho_kg_per_m3: rho, c_J_per_kg_K: c, k_W_per_m_K: k, h_W_per_m2_K: h, emissivity: eps, T0_K: T0, T_inf_K: Tinf, t_s: t, } = i;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(eps) || eps < 0 || eps > 1)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: emissivity must be in [0, 1] (got ${eps})`);
+        if (!Number.isFinite(t) || t < 0)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: t_s must be a finite number ≥ 0 (got ${t})`);
+        const tau = (rho * c * a) / (3 * h);
+        const bi = (h * (a / 3)) / k;
+        const biRadius = (h * a) / k;
+        const alpha = k / (rho * c);
+        const fo = (alpha * t) / (a * a);
+        const theta = Math.exp(-t / tau);
+        const series = sphereSeries(biRadius, fo);
+        const dT0 = T0 - Tinf;
+        const Tmax = Math.max(T0, Tinf);
+        const hRad = eps * SIGMA_SB_SI * (Tmax + Tinf) * (Tmax * Tmax + Tinf * Tinf);
+        const volume = (4 / 3) * Math.PI * a ** 3;
+        const biRadiating = ((h + hRad) * (a / 3)) / k;
+        const tRadiating = biRadiating <= MAX_BIOT ? lumpedRadiatingTemperature({ a, rho, c, h, eps, T0, Tinf, t }) : null;
+        return {
+            outputs: {
+                tau_s: tau,
+                Bi: bi,
+                Bi_radius: biRadius,
+                alpha_m2_per_s: alpha,
+                Fo: fo,
+                theta,
+                T_K: Tinf + dT0 * theta,
+                Q_J: rho * c * volume * dT0 * -Math.expm1(-t / tau),
+                theta_parent_mean: series.mean,
+                parent_deviation: theta / series.mean - 1,
+                T_centre_K: Tinf + dT0 * series.centre,
+                T_surface_K: Tinf + dT0 * series.surface,
+                h_rad_max_W_per_m2_K: hRad,
+                Bi_radiating: biRadiating,
+                T_radiating_K: tRadiating,
+            },
+            checks: [
+                check('lumped', 'one temperature for the sphere: internal conduction fast beside surface loss, Bi ≪ 1', 'h (a/3)/k', bi, '<=', MAX_BIOT, 'the conventional criterion Bi ≤ 0.1 with L_c = V/A (Incropera §5.2); parent_deviation shows the error it leaves at t'),
+                check('linear-loss', 'the loss is linear in T − T∞: radiation small beside convection', 'εσ_SB(T_max + T∞)(T_max² + T∞²)/h', hRad / h, '<=', MAX_RADIATION_RATIO, 'chosen threshold: the neglected radiative conductance is ≤ 10% of h at the hottest point of the run (Incropera eq. 1.9 linearization)'),
+            ],
+            unchecked: [
+                'h is uniform over the sphere and constant in time; for natural convection it falls as the sphere approaches T∞',
+                'ρ, c and k are constant over [min(T0, T∞), max(T0, T∞)]',
+            ],
+        };
+    },
+};
+//# sourceMappingURL=lumped-cooling.js.map

package/dist/cases/lumped-cooling.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/quadrature.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+/**
+ * Adaptive Simpson quadrature for the parent-model comparisons of the applied
+ * cases. The integrands there are smooth and monotone over bands that can span
+ * many decades, which a fixed grid resolves badly at the low end.
+ *
+ * @module cases/quadrature
+ */
+/**
+ * ∫ₐᵇ f by adaptive Simpson with Richardson correction.
+ * @throws Error if the recursion hits `maxDepth` without meeting `relTol`.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function adaptiveSimpson(f: (x: number) => number, a: number, b: number, relTol?: number, maxDepth?: number): number;
+//# sourceMappingURL=quadrature.d.ts.map

package/dist/cases/quadrature.d.ts.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"version":3,"file":"quadrature.d.ts","sourceRoot":"","sources":["../../src/cases/quadrature.ts"],"names":[],"mappings":"AAAA;;;;;;GAMG;AAEH;;;;GAIG;AACH,wBAAgB,eAAe,CAAC,CAAC,EAAE,CAAC,CAAC,EAAE,MAAM,KAAK,MAAM,EAAE,CAAC,EAAE,MAAM,EAAE,CAAC,EAAE,MAAM,EAAE,MAAM,SAAQ,EAAE,QAAQ,SAAK,GAAG,MAAM,CAwBrH"}

package/dist/cases/quadrature.js

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+/**
+ * Adaptive Simpson quadrature for the parent-model comparisons of the applied
+ * cases. The integrands there are smooth and monotone over bands that can span
+ * many decades, which a fixed grid resolves badly at the low end.
+ *
+ * @module cases/quadrature
+ */
+/**
+ * ∫ₐᵇ f by adaptive Simpson with Richardson correction.
+ * @throws Error if the recursion hits `maxDepth` without meeting `relTol`.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export function adaptiveSimpson(f, a, b, relTol = 1e-10, maxDepth = 60) {
+    const fa = f(a);
+    const fb = f(b);
+    const m = (a + b) / 2;
+    const fm = f(m);
+    const whole = ((b - a) / 6) * (fa + 4 * fm + fb);
+    // The tolerance is relative to the whole integral, estimated from a coarse pass.
+    let scale = Math.abs(whole);
+    for (let i = 1; i < 64; i++)
+        scale = Math.max(scale, Math.abs(f(a + ((b - a) * i) / 64)) * (b - a));
+    const eps = relTol * (scale > 0 ? scale : 1);
+    const step = (lo, hi, flo, fmid, fhi, s, tol, depth) => {
+        const mid = (lo + hi) / 2;
+        const lm = (lo + mid) / 2;
+        const rm = (mid + hi) / 2;
+        const flm = f(lm);
+        const frm = f(rm);
+        const left = ((mid - lo) / 6) * (flo + 4 * flm + fmid);
+        const right = ((hi - mid) / 6) * (fmid + 4 * frm + fhi);
+        const diff = left + right - s;
+        if (Math.abs(diff) <= 15 * tol)
+            return left + right + diff / 15;
+        if (depth >= maxDepth)
+            throw new Error(`adaptiveSimpson: no convergence on [${lo}, ${hi}] at depth ${depth}`);
+        return step(lo, mid, flo, flm, fmid, left, tol / 2, depth + 1) + step(mid, hi, fmid, frm, fhi, right, tol / 2, depth + 1);
+    };
+    return step(a, b, fa, fm, fb, whole, eps, 0);
+}
+//# sourceMappingURL=quadrature.js.map

package/dist/cases/quadrature.js.map

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package/dist/cases/resistor-noise.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+import { type AppliedCase } from './types.js';
+/** h f_hi/(k_B T) ceiling: the Planck factor x/(eˣ−1) is then within x/2 ≤ 0.5% of 1. @internal */
+export declare const CLASSICAL_MAX_X = 0.01;
+/** 2π f_hi R_eff C_in ceiling: the input RC pole then passes 1/(1+w²) ≥ 99% at f_hi. @internal */
+export declare const FLAT_BAND_MAX_WRC = 0.1;
+/**
+ * Ceiling on σ(S_R)/S_R = 1/(φ√(B t_avg)): the resistor's noise power, left after
+ * subtracting an exactly known amplifier power, scatters by ≤ 1%. The total
+ * power scatters by 1/√(B t_avg) (Dicke 1946); φ is the resistor's share of it.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare const AMPLIFIER_MAX_REL_SIGMA = 0.01;
+export declare const RESISTOR_NOISE_CASE: AppliedCase;
+//# sourceMappingURL=resistor-noise.d.ts.map

package/dist/cases/resistor-noise.d.ts.map

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package/dist/cases/resistor-noise.js

@@ -0,0 +1,210 @@
+/**
+ * Applied case: the thermal (Johnson–Nyquist) noise voltage of a resistor as an
+ * instrument reads it — over a finite band, loaded by the instrument's input
+ * resistance and capacitance.
+ *
+ * The catalog's BE-58 gives the flat spectral density S_V = 4 k_B T R. A
+ * measurement reads an RMS voltage over a band, through an input network, so
+ * this case adds the band, the loading, and the two premises that make the
+ * spectrum flat (hf ≪ k_BT, and the input RC pole above the band), and checks
+ * both. The parent spectrum is integrated numerically for comparison. Given
+ * the amplifier's e_n and i_n, it adds them to the reading and checks that the
+ * resistor's share can still be resolved in the averaging time.
+ *
+ * @module cases/resistor-noise
+ */
+import { H_SI, K_B_SI } from '../core/constants.js';
+import { evaluateJohnsonNyquist } from '../bridges/be58-johnson-nyquist.js';
+import { adaptiveSimpson } from './quadrature.js';
+import { check, requirePositive } from './types.js';
+const ID = 'case-resistor-noise';
+/** h f_hi/(k_B T) ceiling: the Planck factor x/(eˣ−1) is then within x/2 ≤ 0.5% of 1. @internal */
+export const CLASSICAL_MAX_X = 0.01;
+/** 2π f_hi R_eff C_in ceiling: the input RC pole then passes 1/(1+w²) ≥ 99% at f_hi. @internal */
+export const FLAT_BAND_MAX_WRC = 0.1;
+/**
+ * Ceiling on σ(S_R)/S_R = 1/(φ√(B t_avg)): the resistor's noise power, left after
+ * subtracting an exactly known amplifier power, scatters by ≤ 1%. The total
+ * power scatters by 1/√(B t_avg) (Dicke 1946); φ is the resistor's share of it.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export const AMPLIFIER_MAX_REL_SIGMA = 0.01;
+/** Nyquist's thermal spectral density at f, shaped by the input RC; `x/expm1(x)` → 1 as x → 0. */
+function parentDensity(f, T, rEff, c) {
+    const x = (H_SI * f) / (K_B_SI * T);
+    const planck = x === 0 ? 1 : x / Math.expm1(x);
+    const w = 2 * Math.PI * f * rEff * c;
+    return (4 * K_B_SI * T * rEff * planck) / (1 + w * w);
+}
+export const RESISTOR_NOISE_CASE = {
+    id: ID,
+    title: 'Resistor thermal-noise measurement (bandwidth, instrument loading)',
+    parameters: [
+        { key: 'T_K', quantity: 'temperature', symbol: 'T', unit: 'K', meaning: 'absolute temperature of the resistor and of the instrument input, > 0 K', temperature: 'absolute' },
+        { key: 'R_ohm', quantity: 'resistance under test', symbol: 'R', unit: 'ohm', meaning: 'the resistor whose noise is measured, > 0' },
+        { key: 'R_in_ohm', quantity: 'instrument input resistance', symbol: 'R_in', unit: 'ohm', meaning: 'the input resistance in parallel with R, > 0 (a physical resistor at T)' },
+        { key: 'C_in_F', quantity: 'input capacitance', symbol: 'C_in', unit: 'F', meaning: 'instrument input plus cable capacitance in parallel with R, ≥ 0' },
+        { key: 'f_lo_Hz', quantity: 'lower band edge', symbol: 'f_lo', unit: 'Hz', meaning: 'lower edge of the ideal (brick-wall) measurement band, ≥ 0' },
+        { key: 'f_hi_Hz', quantity: 'upper band edge', symbol: 'f_hi', unit: 'Hz', meaning: 'upper edge of the band, > f_lo; B = f_hi − f_lo is the noise-equivalent bandwidth' },
+        { key: 't_avg_s', quantity: 'averaging time', symbol: 't_avg', unit: 's', meaning: 'how long the RMS is averaged, > 0' },
+        {
+            key: 'e_n2_V2_per_Hz',
+            quantity: 'amplifier voltage-noise power density',
+            symbol: 'e_n²',
+            unit: 'V^2/Hz',
+            meaning: "the square of the amplifier's input voltage noise e_n, white over the band (4 nV/√Hz → 1.6e-17), ≥ 0",
+            optional: true,
+        },
+        {
+            key: 'i_n2_A2_per_Hz',
+            quantity: 'amplifier current-noise power density',
+            symbol: 'i_n²',
+            unit: 'A^2/Hz',
+            meaning: "the square of the amplifier's input current noise i_n, white over the band (1 pA/√Hz → 1e-24), ≥ 0",
+            optional: true,
+        },
+    ],
+    governing: {
+        parent: [
+            'S_V(f) = 4 R_eff · hf/(e^{hf/k_BT} − 1) · 1/(1 + (2πf R_eff C_in)²)   (Nyquist 1928, thermal part; seen through the input RC)',
+            'V_rms² = ∫_{f_lo}^{f_hi} S_V(f) df',
+        ],
+        scalar: [
+            'S_V = 4 k_B T R_eff,  R_eff = R R_in/(R + R_in)   (BE-58 with the loaded resistance)',
+            'V_rms = √(4 k_B T R_eff B),  B = f_hi − f_lo',
+            'through an amplifier: V_rms,total² = (4 k_B T R_eff + e_n² + i_n² R_eff²) B, e_n and i_n uncorrelated (the e_n–i_n model; Motchenbacher & Connelly 1993)',
+        ],
+        distinction: 'S_V(f) is a spectral density — a function of frequency fixed by the fluctuation–dissipation theorem and shaped by ' +
+            'the input network; 4k_BTR_eff is its flat, classical value, and √(4k_BT R_eff B) integrates that constant over an ' +
+            'ideal band. Nyquist derived it from the thermal modes of a transmission line (a 1-D field); the lumped circuit keeps ' +
+            'only the port voltage.',
+    },
+    observable: 'V_rms_V',
+    outputs: [
+        { key: 'B_Hz', symbol: 'B', unit: 'Hz', meaning: 'noise-equivalent bandwidth f_hi − f_lo' },
+        { key: 'R_eff_ohm', symbol: 'R_eff', unit: 'ohm', meaning: 'R in parallel with R_in: the resistance the instrument sees' },
+        { key: 'S_V_V2_per_Hz', symbol: 'S_V', unit: 'V^2/Hz', meaning: 'flat one-sided spectral density 4k_BT R_eff' },
+        { key: 'V_rms_unloaded_V', symbol: 'V_rms,0', unit: 'V', meaning: 'open-circuit value √(4k_BTRB), with no instrument attached' },
+        { key: 'V_rms_V', symbol: 'V_rms', unit: 'V', meaning: 'the RMS noise voltage the instrument reads (scalar model)' },
+        { key: 'loading_ratio', symbol: 'V_rms/V_rms,0', unit: '', meaning: '√(R_in/(R + R_in)): what the input resistance removes' },
+        { key: 'V_rms_parent_V', symbol: 'V_rms,parent', unit: 'V', meaning: 'the parent spectrum integrated over the band (adaptive Simpson)' },
+        { key: 'parent_deviation', symbol: 'V_rms/V_rms,parent − 1', unit: '', meaning: 'relative excess of the scalar result over the parent' },
+        { key: 'V_rms_rel_sigma', symbol: 'σ(V_rms)/V_rms', unit: '', meaning: 'statistical scatter of an RMS averaged over t_avg: 1/(2√(B t_avg)) (Dicke radiometer relation)' },
+        { key: 'V_rms_total_V', symbol: 'V_rms,total', unit: 'V', meaning: 'what the instrument reads with its amplifier noise added in quadrature; null without e_n2/i_n2' },
+        { key: 'resistor_fraction', symbol: 'φ', unit: '', meaning: "the thermal share of the read noise power, 4k_BTR_eff/(4k_BTR_eff + e_n² + i_n²R_eff²); null without e_n2/i_n2" },
+        { key: 'T_n_K', symbol: 'T_n', unit: 'K', meaning: "the amplifier's noise temperature for the source R_eff, (e_n² + i_n²R_eff²)/(4k_B R_eff); null without e_n2/i_n2" },
+    ],
+    conditions: [
+        'thermal equilibrium: R and the instrument input at one temperature T, no DC current through R',
+        'the instrument reads the voltage across R ∥ R_in ∥ C_in (open-circuit source, no other load)',
+        'stationary Gaussian noise; the band is an ideal brick wall of width B (the real filter enters only through its noise-equivalent bandwidth)',
+    ],
+    comparison: {
+        reference: "the parent: Nyquist's thermal spectrum through the input RC, integrated over [f_lo, f_hi]",
+        valueKey: 'V_rms_V',
+        referenceKey: 'V_rms_parent_V',
+        deviationKey: 'parent_deviation',
+        method: 'adaptive Simpson quadrature, relative tolerance 1e-10',
+    },
+    notIncluded: [
+        "the amplifier's noise when e_n2 and i_n2 are left out; when given, their 1/f corners and their correlation (taken white and uncorrelated)",
+        '1/f (excess) noise, which needs a current through R',
+        'the zero-point term hf/2 of the quantum fluctuation–dissipation theorem (the parent here is the thermal part)',
+        'frequency dependence of R and R_in over the band',
+    ],
+    measurement: [
+        'digitize the voltage across R through a band-pass of noise-equivalent bandwidth B and average the RMS over t_avg; ' +
+            'compare with V_rms_V ± V_rms_rel_sigma·V_rms_V (statistical scatter only)',
+        "measure the amplifier's own noise with its input shorted and subtract it in quadrature before comparing",
+        '`upt confront --bridge=be-58`: the NIST Johnson-noise-thermometry k_B, which tests S_V = 4k_BTR with R traceable to the quantum Hall effect',
+    ],
+    links: [
+        { id: 'be-58', role: 'the flat spectral density S_V = 4k_BTR (catalog evaluator: `upt evaluate be-58`)' },
+        { id: 'be-55', role: 'quantum Hall resistance standard to which R is traceable in the JNT comparison' },
+    ],
+    examples: {
+        valid: {
+            args: ['T_K=300', 'R_ohm=1kohm', 'R_in_ohm=1Mohm', 'C_in_F=20pF', 'f_lo_Hz=0', 'f_hi_Hz=10kHz', 't_avg_s=10', 'e_n2_V2_per_Hz=1e-18', 'i_n2_A2_per_Hz=1e-24'],
+            note: 'a 1 kΩ resistor at 300 K, a 1 MΩ ∥ 20 pF input with 1 nV/√Hz and 1 pA/√Hz of amplifier noise, a 10 kHz band, 10 s of averaging',
+            fails: [],
+        },
+        failures: [
+            {
+                args: ['T_K=20mK', 'R_ohm=50', 'R_in_ohm=1Mohm', 'C_in_F=0', 'f_lo_Hz=1GHz', 'f_hi_Hz=2GHz', 't_avg_s=1'],
+                note: 'a 50 Ω load at 20 mK read at 1–2 GHz: hf/k_BT ≈ 4.8, the spectrum is not flat and 4k_BTR overstates it',
+                fails: ['classical'],
+            },
+            {
+                args: ['T_K=300', 'R_ohm=1Mohm', 'R_in_ohm=10Mohm', 'C_in_F=100pF', 'f_lo_Hz=0', 'f_hi_Hz=100kHz', 't_avg_s=1'],
+                note: 'a 1 MΩ resistor through 100 pF: the RC pole sits near 1.7 Hz, far below the 100 kHz band edge',
+                fails: ['flat-band'],
+            },
+            {
+                args: ['T_K=300', 'R_ohm=10', 'R_in_ohm=1Mohm', 'C_in_F=20pF', 'f_lo_Hz=0', 'f_hi_Hz=10kHz', 't_avg_s=10', 'e_n2_V2_per_Hz=1.6e-17', 'i_n2_A2_per_Hz=1e-24'],
+                note: 'a 10 Ω resistor through a 4 nV/√Hz amplifier: the amplifier adds ~100× the resistor\'s noise power, which 10 s cannot resolve to 1%',
+                fails: ['amplifier'],
+            },
+        ],
+    },
+    /** Evaluate the measured Johnson-Nyquist RMS voltage and instrument-regime checks for the supplied inputs. */
+    run(i) {
+        requirePositive(ID, i, ['T_K', 'R_ohm', 'R_in_ohm', 'f_hi_Hz', 't_avg_s']);
+        const { T_K: T, R_ohm: R, R_in_ohm: Rin, C_in_F: C, f_lo_Hz: fLo, f_hi_Hz: fHi, t_avg_s: tAvg } = i;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(C) || C < 0)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: C_in_F must be a finite number ≥ 0 (got ${C})`);
+        if (!Number.isFinite(fLo) || fLo < 0 || fLo >= fHi)
+            throw new Error(`${ID}: need 0 ≤ f_lo_Hz < f_hi_Hz (got ${fLo}, ${fHi})`);
+        const B = fHi - fLo;
+        const rEff = (R * Rin) / (R + Rin);
+        const S = evaluateJohnsonNyquist({ T_K: T, R_ohm: rEff }).S_V_V2_per_Hz;
+        const S0 = evaluateJohnsonNyquist({ T_K: T, R_ohm: R }).S_V_V2_per_Hz;
+        const vRms = Math.sqrt(S * B);
+        const vParent = Math.sqrt(adaptiveSimpson((f) => parentDensity(f, T, rEff, C), fLo, fHi));
+        const x = (H_SI * fHi) / (K_B_SI * T);
+        const wrc = 2 * Math.PI * fHi * rEff * C;
+        const checks = [
+            check('classical', 'flat, classical spectrum: hf ≪ k_BT across the band', 'h f_hi/(k_B T)', x, '<=', CLASSICAL_MAX_X, 'chosen threshold for ≪ 1: the Planck factor at f_hi is then within x/2 ≤ 0.5% of 1'),
+            check('flat-band', 'the input RC pole lies above the band', '2π f_hi R_eff C_in', wrc, '<=', FLAT_BAND_MAX_WRC, 'chosen threshold for ≪ 1: the RC low-pass then passes ≥ 99% of the density at f_hi'),
+        ];
+        const unchecked = [
+            'R_in is a physical resistance at T; an actively synthesized or cold input adds less noise than its resistance would, ' +
+                'down to the resistor alone divided by the input: V_rms,0 · R_in/(R + R_in)',
+            'no DC current through R, so no 1/f excess noise',
+        ];
+        const withAmplifier = i.e_n2_V2_per_Hz !== undefined || i.i_n2_A2_per_Hz !== undefined;
+        let amp = null;
+        if (withAmplifier) {
+            const en2 = i.e_n2_V2_per_Hz ?? 0;
+            const in2 = i.i_n2_A2_per_Hz ?? 0;
+            for (const [k, v] of [['e_n2_V2_per_Hz', en2], ['i_n2_A2_per_Hz', in2]]) {
+                if (!Number.isFinite(v) || v < 0)
+                    throw new Error(`${ID}: ${k} must be a finite number ≥ 0 (got ${v})`);
+            }
+            const excess = en2 + in2 * rEff * rEff;
+            const fraction = S / (S + excess);
+            amp = { total: Math.sqrt((S + excess) * B), fraction, tN: excess / (4 * K_B_SI * rEff) };
+            checks.push(check('amplifier', "the resistor's noise is resolved above the amplifier's in t_avg", '1/(φ √(B t_avg))', 1 / (fraction * Math.sqrt(B * tAvg)), '<=', AMPLIFIER_MAX_REL_SIGMA, "chosen threshold: after subtracting the amplifier's power (known exactly, e.g. from a long shorted-input run) the resistor's power scatters by ≤ 1%"));
+            unchecked.push(`e_n and i_n are white over the band and uncorrelated${i.e_n2_V2_per_Hz === undefined ? '; e_n was not given and is taken as 0' : ''}` +
+                `${i.i_n2_A2_per_Hz === undefined ? '; i_n was not given and is taken as 0' : ''}`);
+        }
+        return {
+            outputs: {
+                B_Hz: B,
+                R_eff_ohm: rEff,
+                S_V_V2_per_Hz: S,
+                V_rms_unloaded_V: Math.sqrt(S0 * B),
+                V_rms_V: vRms,
+                loading_ratio: Math.sqrt(S / S0),
+                V_rms_parent_V: vParent,
+                parent_deviation: vRms / vParent - 1,
+                V_rms_rel_sigma: 1 / (2 * Math.sqrt(B * tAvg)),
+                V_rms_total_V: amp?.total ?? null,
+                resistor_fraction: amp?.fraction ?? null,
+                T_n_K: amp?.tN ?? null,
+            },
+            checks,
+            unchecked,
+        };
+    },
+};
+//# sourceMappingURL=resistor-noise.js.map

package/dist/cases/resistor-noise.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/cases/skin-depth.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+import { type AppliedCase } from './types.js';
+/** Vacuum permeability μ0, CODATA 2018 (N/A²). @internal */
+export declare const MU_0_SI = 0.00000125663706212;
+/** Vacuum permittivity ε0 = 1/(μ0 c²) (F/m). @internal */
+export declare const EPS_0_SI: number;
+/** ωε/σ ceiling: the displacement current then moves the penetration depth by ≈ ωε/(2σ) ≤ 0.5%. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_DISPLACEMENT_RATIO = 0.01;
+/** l/δ ceiling for a local (classical) conductivity. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_MFP_RATIO = 0.1;
+/** ωτ ceiling: the Drude σ(ω) = σ0/(1 − iωτ) is then within 0.5% of σ0 in modulus. @internal */
+export declare const MAX_OMEGA_TAU = 0.1;
+/** d/δ floor: the field reaching the back face is then ≤ e^{−5} ≈ 0.7% of the surface field. @internal */
+export declare const MIN_THICKNESS_RATIO = 5;
+/**
+ * δ_Maxwell/δ for the plane wave k² = ω²με + iωμσ, as a function of r = ωε/σ:
+ * 1/Im k = δ √(√(1 + r²) + r), written without the cancellation of |z| − Re z.
+ * @internal
+ */
+export declare function maxwellDepthFactor(r: number): number;
+export declare const SKIN_DEPTH_CASE: AppliedCase;
+//# sourceMappingURL=skin-depth.d.ts.map