tree-set-typed 2.3.0

package/src/data-structures/binary-tree/avl-tree.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,840 @@
+/**
+ * data-structure-typed
+ *
+ * @author Pablo Zeng
+ * @copyright Copyright (c) 2022 Pablo Zeng <zrwusa@gmail.com>
+ * @license MIT License
+ */
+
+import { BST } from './bst';
+import type {
+  AVLTreeOptions,
+  BinaryTreeDeleteResult,
+  BinaryTreeOptions,
+  BSTNOptKeyOrNode,
+  EntryCallback,
+  FamilyPosition,
+  IterationType,
+  RBTNColor
+} from '../../types';
+import { IBinaryTree } from '../../interfaces';
+
+/**
+ * Represents a Node in an AVL (Adelson-Velsky and Landis) Tree.
+ * It extends a BSTNode and ensures the 'height' property is maintained.
+ *
+ * @template K - The type of the key.
+ * @template V - The type of the value.
+ */
+export class AVLTreeNode<K = any, V = any> {
+  key: K;
+  value?: V;
+  parent?: AVLTreeNode<K, V> = undefined;
+
+  /**
+   * Creates an instance of AVLTreeNode.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param key - The key of the node.
+   * @param [value] - The value associated with the key.
+   */
+  constructor(key: K, value?: V) {
+    this.key = key;
+    this.value = value;
+  }
+
+  _left?: AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined = undefined;
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the left child of the node.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The left child.
+   */
+  get left(): AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined {
+    return this._left;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the left child of the node and updates its parent reference.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param v - The node to set as the left child.
+   */
+  set left(v: AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined) {
+    if (v) {
+      v.parent = this;
+    }
+    this._left = v;
+  }
+
+  _right?: AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined = undefined;
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the right child of the node.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The right child.
+   */
+  get right(): AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined {
+    return this._right;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the right child of the node and updates its parent reference.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param v - The node to set as the right child.
+   */
+  set right(v: AVLTreeNode<K, V> | null | undefined) {
+    if (v) {
+      v.parent = this;
+    }
+    this._right = v;
+  }
+
+  _height: number = 0;
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the height of the node (used in self-balancing trees).
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The height.
+   */
+  get height(): number {
+    return this._height;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the height of the node.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param value - The new height.
+   */
+  set height(value: number) {
+    this._height = value;
+  }
+
+  _color: RBTNColor = 'BLACK';
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the color of the node (used in Red-Black trees).
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The node's color.
+   */
+  get color(): RBTNColor {
+    return this._color;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the color of the node.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param value - The new color.
+   */
+  set color(value: RBTNColor) {
+    this._color = value;
+  }
+
+  _count: number = 1;
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the count of nodes in the subtree rooted at this node (used in order-statistic trees).
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The subtree node count.
+   */
+  get count(): number {
+    return this._count;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets the count of nodes in the subtree.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param value - The new count.
+   */
+  set count(value: number) {
+    this._count = value;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Gets the position of the node relative to its parent.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @returns The family position (e.g., 'ROOT', 'LEFT', 'RIGHT').
+   */
+  get familyPosition(): FamilyPosition {
+    if (!this.parent) {
+      return this.left || this.right ? 'ROOT' : 'ISOLATED';
+    }
+
+    if (this.parent.left === this) {
+      return this.left || this.right ? 'ROOT_LEFT' : 'LEFT';
+    } else if (this.parent.right === this) {
+      return this.left || this.right ? 'ROOT_RIGHT' : 'RIGHT';
+    }
+
+    return 'MAL_NODE';
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Represents a self-balancing AVL (Adelson-Velsky and Landis) Tree.
+ * This tree extends BST and performs rotations on set/delete to maintain balance.
+ *
+ * @template K - The type of the key.
+ * @template V - The type of the value.
+ * @template R - The type of the raw data object (if using `toEntryFn`).
+ *
+ * 1. Height-Balanced: Each node's left and right subtrees differ in height by no more than one.
+ * 2. Automatic Rebalancing: AVL trees rebalance themselves automatically during insertions and deletions.
+ * 3. Rotations for Balancing: Utilizes rotations (single or double) to maintain balance after updates.
+ * 4. Order Preservation: Maintains the binary search tree property where left child values are less than the parent, and right child values are greater.
+ * 5. Efficient Lookups: Offers O(log n) search time, where 'n' is the number of nodes, due to its balanced nature.
+ * 6. Complex Insertions and Deletions: Due to rebalancing, these operations are more complex than in a regular BST.
+ * 7. Path Length: The path length from the root to any leaf is longer compared to an unbalanced BST, but shorter than a linear chain of nodes.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * // basic AVLTree creation and add operation
+ *  // Create a simple AVLTree with initial values
+ *     const tree = new AVLTree([5, 2, 8, 1, 9]);
+ *
+ *     tree.print();
+ *     //   _2___
+ *     //  /     \
+ *     //  1    _8_
+ *     //      /   \
+ *     //      5   9
+ *
+ *     // Verify the tree maintains sorted order
+ *     console.log([...tree.keys()]); // [1, 2, 5, 8, 9];
+ *
+ *     // Check size
+ *     console.log(tree.size); // 5;
+ *
+ *     // Add a new element
+ *     tree.set(3);
+ *     console.log(tree.size); // 6;
+ *     console.log([...tree.keys()]); // [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9];
+ * @example
+ * // AVLTree has and get operations
+ *  const tree = new AVLTree<number>([11, 3, 15, 1, 8, 13, 16, 2, 6, 9, 12, 14, 4, 7, 10, 5]);
+ *
+ *     // Check if element exists
+ *     console.log(tree.has(6)); // true;
+ *     console.log(tree.has(99)); // false;
+ *
+ *     // Get node by key
+ *     const node = tree.getNode(6);
+ *     console.log(node?.key); // 6;
+ *
+ *     // Verify tree is balanced
+ *     console.log(tree.isAVLBalanced()); // true;
+ * @example
+ * // AVLTree delete and balance verification
+ *  const tree = new AVLTree([11, 3, 15, 1, 8, 13, 16, 2, 6, 9, 12, 14, 4, 7, 10, 5]);
+ *
+ *     // Delete an element
+ *     tree.delete(10);
+ *     console.log(tree.has(10)); // false;
+ *
+ *     // Tree should remain balanced after deletion
+ *     console.log(tree.isAVLBalanced()); // true;
+ *
+ *     // Size decreased
+ *     console.log(tree.size); // 15;
+ *
+ *     // Remaining elements are still sorted
+ *     const keys = [...tree.keys()];
+ *     console.log(keys); // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16];
+ * @example
+ * // AVLTree for university ranking system with strict balance
+ *  interface University {
+ *       name: string;
+ *       rank: number;
+ *       students: number;
+ *     }
+ *
+ *     // AVLTree provides highest search efficiency with strict balance
+ *     // (every node's left/right subtrees differ by at most 1 in height)
+ *     const universityTree = new AVLTree<number, University>([
+ *       [1, { name: 'MIT', rank: 1, students: 1200 }],
+ *       [5, { name: 'Stanford', rank: 5, students: 1800 }],
+ *       [3, { name: 'Harvard', rank: 3, students: 2300 }],
+ *       [2, { name: 'Caltech', rank: 2, students: 400 }],
+ *       [4, { name: 'CMU', rank: 4, students: 1500 }]
+ *     ]);
+ *
+ *     // Quick lookup by rank
+ *     const mit = universityTree.get(1);
+ *     console.log(mit?.name); // 'MIT';
+ *
+ *     const cmulevel = universityTree.getHeight(4);
+ *     console.log(typeof cmulevel); // 'number';
+ *
+ *     // Tree maintains strict balance during insertions and deletions
+ *     console.log(universityTree.isAVLBalanced()); // true;
+ *
+ *     // Add more universities
+ *     universityTree.set(6, { name: 'Oxford', rank: 6, students: 2000 });
+ *     console.log(universityTree.isAVLBalanced()); // true;
+ *
+ *     // Delete and verify balance is maintained
+ *     universityTree.delete(2);
+ *     console.log(universityTree.has(2)); // false;
+ *     console.log(universityTree.isAVLBalanced()); // true;
+ *
+ *     // Get all remaining universities in rank order
+ *     const remainingRanks = [...universityTree.keys()];
+ *     console.log(remainingRanks); // [1, 3, 4, 5, 6];
+ *     console.log(universityTree.size); // 5;
+ * @example
+ * // Find elements in a range
+ *  // In interval queries, AVL trees, with their strictly balanced structure and lower height, offer better query efficiency, making them ideal for frequent and high-performance interval queries. In contrast, Red-Black trees, with lower update costs, are more suitable for scenarios involving frequent insertions and deletions where the requirements for interval queries are less demanding.
+ *     type Datum = { timestamp: Date; temperature: number };
+ *     // Fixed dataset of CPU temperature readings
+ *     const cpuData: Datum[] = [
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:00:00'), temperature: 55.1 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:01:00'), temperature: 56.3 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:02:00'), temperature: 54.8 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:03:00'), temperature: 57.2 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:04:00'), temperature: 58.0 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:05:00'), temperature: 59.4 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:06:00'), temperature: 60.1 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:07:00'), temperature: 61.3 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:08:00'), temperature: 62.0 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:09:00'), temperature: 63.5 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:10:00'), temperature: 64.0 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:11:00'), temperature: 62.8 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:12:00'), temperature: 61.5 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:13:00'), temperature: 60.2 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:14:00'), temperature: 59.8 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:15:00'), temperature: 58.6 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:16:00'), temperature: 57.4 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:17:00'), temperature: 56.2 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:18:00'), temperature: 55.7 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:19:00'), temperature: 54.5 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:20:00'), temperature: 53.2 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:21:00'), temperature: 52.8 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:22:00'), temperature: 51.9 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:23:00'), temperature: 50.5 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:24:00'), temperature: 49.8 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:25:00'), temperature: 48.7 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:26:00'), temperature: 47.5 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:27:00'), temperature: 46.3 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:28:00'), temperature: 45.9 },
+ *       { timestamp: new Date('2024-12-02T00:29:00'), temperature: 45.0 }
+ *     ];
+ *
+ *     // Create an AVL tree to store CPU temperature data
+ *     const cpuTemperatureTree = new AVLTree<Date, number, Datum>(cpuData, {
+ *       toEntryFn: ({ timestamp, temperature }) => [timestamp, temperature]
+ *     });
+ *
+ *     // Query a specific time range (e.g., from 00:05 to 00:15)
+ *     const rangeStart = new Date('2024-12-02T00:05:00');
+ *     const rangeEnd = new Date('2024-12-02T00:15:00');
+ *     const rangeResults = cpuTemperatureTree.rangeSearch([rangeStart, rangeEnd], node => ({
+ *       minute: node ? node.key.getMinutes() : 0,
+ *       temperature: cpuTemperatureTree.get(node ? node.key : undefined)
+ *     }));
+ *
+ *     console.log(rangeResults); // [
+ *  //      { minute: 5, temperature: 59.4 },
+ *  //      { minute: 6, temperature: 60.1 },
+ *  //      { minute: 7, temperature: 61.3 },
+ *  //      { minute: 8, temperature: 62 },
+ *  //      { minute: 9, temperature: 63.5 },
+ *  //      { minute: 10, temperature: 64 },
+ *  //      { minute: 11, temperature: 62.8 },
+ *  //      { minute: 12, temperature: 61.5 },
+ *  //      { minute: 13, temperature: 60.2 },
+ *  //      { minute: 14, temperature: 59.8 },
+ *  //      { minute: 15, temperature: 58.6 }
+ *  //    ];
+ */
+export class AVLTree<K = any, V = any, R = any> extends BST<K, V, R> implements IBinaryTree<K, V, R> {
+  /**
+   * Creates an instance of AVLTree.
+   * @remarks Time O(N log N) (from `setMany` with balanced set). Space O(N).
+   *
+   * @param [keysNodesEntriesOrRaws=[]] - An iterable of items to set.
+   * @param [options] - Configuration options for the AVL tree.
+   */
+  constructor(
+    keysNodesEntriesOrRaws: Iterable<
+      K | AVLTreeNode<K, V> | [K | null | undefined, V | undefined] | null | undefined | R
+    > = [],
+    options?: AVLTreeOptions<K, V, R>
+  ) {
+    super([], options);
+    // Note: super.setMany is called, which in BST defaults to balanced set.
+    if (keysNodesEntriesOrRaws) super.setMany(keysNodesEntriesOrRaws);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Creates a new AVL tree node.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param key - The key for the new node.
+   * @param [value] - The value for the new node.
+   * @returns The newly created AVLTreeNode.
+   */
+  override createNode(key: K, value?: V): AVLTreeNode<K, V> {
+    return new AVLTreeNode<K, V>(key, this._isMapMode ? undefined : value) as AVLTreeNode<K, V>;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Checks if the given item is an `AVLTreeNode` instance.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param keyNodeOrEntry - The item to check.
+   * @returns True if it's an AVLTreeNode, false otherwise.
+   */
+  override isNode(
+    keyNodeOrEntry: K | AVLTreeNode<K, V> | [K | null | undefined, V | undefined] | null | undefined
+  ): keyNodeOrEntry is AVLTreeNode<K, V> {
+    return keyNodeOrEntry instanceof AVLTreeNode;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Sets a new node to the AVL tree and balances the tree path.
+   * @remarks Time O(log N) (O(H) for BST set + O(H) for `_balancePath`). Space O(H) for path/recursion.
+   *
+   * @param keyNodeOrEntry - The key, node, or entry to set.
+   * @param [value] - The value, if providing just a key.
+   * @returns True if the addition was successful, false otherwise.
+   */
+  override set(
+    keyNodeOrEntry: K | AVLTreeNode<K, V> | [K | null | undefined, V | undefined] | null | undefined,
+    value?: V
+  ): boolean {
+    if (keyNodeOrEntry === null) return false;
+    const inserted = super.set(keyNodeOrEntry, value);
+    // If insertion was successful, balance the path from the new node up to the root.
+    if (inserted) this._balancePath(keyNodeOrEntry);
+    return inserted;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Deletes a node from the AVL tree and re-balances the tree.
+   * @remarks Time O(log N) (O(H) for BST delete + O(H) for `_balancePath`). Space O(H) for path/recursion.
+   *
+   * @param keyNodeOrEntry - The node to delete.
+   * @returns An array containing deletion results.
+   */
+  override delete(
+    keyNodeOrEntry: K | AVLTreeNode<K, V> | [K | null | undefined, V | undefined] | null | undefined
+  ): BinaryTreeDeleteResult<AVLTreeNode<K, V>>[] {
+    const deletedResults = super.delete(keyNodeOrEntry);
+    // After deletion, balance the path from the parent of the *physically deleted* node.
+    for (const { needBalanced } of deletedResults) {
+      if (needBalanced) {
+        this._balancePath(needBalanced);
+      }
+    }
+    return deletedResults;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Rebuilds the tree to be perfectly balanced.
+   * @remarks AVL trees are already height-balanced, but this makes them *perfectly* balanced (minimal height and all leaves at N or N-1).
+   * Time O(N) (O(N) for DFS, O(N) for sorted build). Space O(N) for node array and recursion stack.
+   *
+   * @param [iterationType=this.iterationType] - The traversal method for the initial node export.
+   * @returns True if successful, false if the tree was empty.
+   */
+  override perfectlyBalance(iterationType: IterationType = this.iterationType): boolean {
+    const nodes = this.dfs(node => node, 'IN', false, this._root, iterationType);
+    const n = nodes.length;
+    if (n === 0) return false;
+
+    this._clearNodes();
+
+    // Build balanced tree from sorted array
+    const build = (l: number, r: number, parent?: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): AVLTreeNode<K, V> | undefined => {
+      if (l > r) return undefined;
+      const m = l + ((r - l) >> 1);
+      const root = nodes[m]!;
+      root.left = build(l, m - 1, root);
+      root.right = build(m + 1, r, root);
+      root.parent = parent;
+
+      // Update height during the build
+      const lh = root.left ? (root.left as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+      const rh = root.right ? (root.right as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+      root.height = Math.max(lh, rh) + 1;
+      return root;
+    };
+
+    const newRoot = build(0, n - 1, undefined);
+    this._setRoot(newRoot);
+    this._size = n;
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a new AVLTree by mapping each [key, value] pair.
+   * @remarks Time O(N log N) (O(N) iteration + O(log M) `set` for each item into the new tree). Space O(N) for the new tree.
+   *
+   * @template MK - New key type.
+   * @template MV - New value type.
+   * @template MR - New raw type.
+   * @param callback - A function to map each [key, value] pair.
+   * @param [options] - Options for the new AVLTree.
+   * @param [thisArg] - `this` context for the callback.
+   * @returns A new, mapped AVLTree.
+   */
+  override map<MK = K, MV = V, MR = any>(
+    callback: EntryCallback<K, V | undefined, [MK, MV]>,
+    options?: Partial<BinaryTreeOptions<MK, MV, MR>>,
+    thisArg?: unknown
+  ): AVLTree<MK, MV, MR> {
+    const out = this._createLike<MK, MV, MR>([], options);
+
+    let index = 0;
+    // Iterates in-order
+    for (const [key, value] of this) {
+      // `set` on the new tree will be O(log N) and will self-balance.
+      out.set(callback.call(thisArg, value, key, index++, this));
+    }
+    return out;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Creates a new, empty instance of the same AVLTree constructor.
+   * @remarks Time O(1)
+   *
+   * @template TK, TV, TR - Generic types for the new instance.
+   * @param [options] - Options for the new tree.
+   * @returns A new, empty tree.
+   */
+  protected override _createInstance<TK = K, TV = V, TR = R>(options?: Partial<AVLTreeOptions<TK, TV, TR>>): this {
+    const Ctor = this.constructor as unknown as new (
+      iter?: Iterable<TK | AVLTreeNode<TK, TV> | [TK | null | undefined, TV | undefined] | null | undefined | TR>,
+      opts?: AVLTreeOptions<TK, TV, TR>
+    ) => this;
+    return new Ctor([], { ...this._snapshotOptions<TK, TV, TR>(), ...(options ?? {}) }) as unknown as this;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Creates a new instance of the same AVLTree constructor, potentially with different generic types.
+   * @remarks Time O(N log N) (from constructor) due to processing the iterable.
+   *
+   * @template TK, TV, TR - Generic types for the new instance.
+   * @param [iter=[]] - An iterable to populate the new tree.
+   * @param [options] - Options for the new tree.
+   * @returns A new AVLTree.
+   */
+  protected override _createLike<TK = K, TV = V, TR = R>(
+    iter: Iterable<TK | AVLTreeNode<TK, TV> | [TK | null | undefined, TV | undefined] | null | undefined | TR> = [],
+    options?: Partial<AVLTreeOptions<TK, TV, TR>>
+  ): AVLTree<TK, TV, TR> {
+    const Ctor = this.constructor as unknown as new (
+      iter?: Iterable<TK | AVLTreeNode<TK, TV> | [TK | null | undefined, TV | undefined] | null | undefined | TR>,
+      opts?: AVLTreeOptions<TK, TV, TR>
+    ) => AVLTree<TK, TV, TR>;
+    return new Ctor(iter, { ...this._snapshotOptions<TK, TV, TR>(), ...(options ?? {}) });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Swaps properties of two nodes, including height.
+   * @remarks Time O(H) (due to `ensureNode`), but O(1) if nodes are passed directly.
+   *
+   * @param srcNode - The source node.
+   * @param destNode - The destination node.
+   * @returns The `destNode` (now holding `srcNode`'s properties).
+   */
+  protected override _swapProperties(
+    srcNode: BSTNOptKeyOrNode<K, AVLTreeNode<K, V>>,
+    destNode: BSTNOptKeyOrNode<K, AVLTreeNode<K, V>>
+  ): AVLTreeNode<K, V> | undefined {
+    const srcNodeEnsured = this.ensureNode(srcNode);
+    const destNodeEnsured = this.ensureNode(destNode);
+
+    if (srcNodeEnsured && destNodeEnsured) {
+      const { key, value, height } = destNodeEnsured;
+      const tempNode = this.createNode(key, value);
+
+      if (tempNode) {
+        tempNode.height = height;
+
+        // Copy src to dest
+        destNodeEnsured.key = srcNodeEnsured.key;
+        if (!this._isMapMode) destNodeEnsured.value = srcNodeEnsured.value;
+        destNodeEnsured.height = srcNodeEnsured.height;
+
+        // Copy temp (original dest) to src
+        srcNodeEnsured.key = tempNode.key;
+        if (!this._isMapMode) srcNodeEnsured.value = tempNode.value;
+        srcNodeEnsured.height = tempNode.height;
+      }
+
+      return destNodeEnsured;
+    }
+    return undefined;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Calculates the balance factor (height(right) - height(left)).
+   * @remarks Time O(1) (assumes heights are stored).
+   *
+   * @param node - The node to check.
+   * @returns The balance factor (positive if right-heavy, negative if left-heavy).
+   */
+  protected _balanceFactor(node: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): number {
+    const left = node.left ? (node.left as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+    const right = node.right ? (node.right as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+    return right - left;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Recalculates and updates the height of a node based on its children's heights.
+   * @remarks Time O(1) (assumes children's heights are correct).
+   *
+   * @param node - The node to update.
+   */
+  protected _updateHeight(node: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): void {
+    const leftHeight = node.left ? (node.left as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+    const rightHeight = node.right ? (node.right as AVLTreeNode<K, V>).height : -1;
+    node.height = 1 + Math.max(leftHeight, rightHeight);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Performs a Left-Left (LL) rotation (a single right rotation).
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param A - The unbalanced node (root of the unbalanced subtree).
+   */
+  protected _balanceLL(A: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): void {
+    const parentOfA = A.parent;
+    const B = A.left; // The left child
+    if (B !== null) A.parent = B;
+    if (B && B.right) {
+      B.right.parent = A;
+    }
+    if (B) B.parent = parentOfA;
+
+    // Update parent's child pointer
+    if (A === this.root) {
+      if (B) this._setRoot(B);
+    } else {
+      if (parentOfA?.left === A) {
+        parentOfA.left = B;
+      } else {
+        if (parentOfA) parentOfA.right = B;
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Perform rotation
+    if (B) {
+      A.left = B.right;
+      B.right = A;
+    }
+    this._updateHeight(A);
+    if (B) this._updateHeight(B);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Performs a Left-Right (LR) double rotation.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param A - The unbalanced node (root of the unbalanced subtree).
+   */
+  protected _balanceLR(A: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): void {
+    const parentOfA = A.parent;
+    const B = A.left;
+    let C = undefined;
+    if (B) {
+      C = B.right; // The "middle" node
+    }
+    if (A && C !== null) A.parent = C;
+    if (B && C !== null) B.parent = C;
+
+    if (C) {
+      if (C.left) {
+        if (B !== null) C.left.parent = B;
+      }
+      if (C.right) {
+        C.right.parent = A;
+      }
+      C.parent = parentOfA;
+    }
+
+    // Update parent's child pointer
+    if (A === this.root) {
+      if (C) this._setRoot(C);
+    } else {
+      if (parentOfA) {
+        if (parentOfA.left === A) {
+          parentOfA.left = C;
+        } else {
+          parentOfA.right = C;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Perform rotation
+    if (C) {
+      A.left = C.right;
+      if (B) B.right = C.left;
+      C.left = B;
+      C.right = A;
+    }
+
+    this._updateHeight(A);
+    if (B) this._updateHeight(B);
+    if (C) this._updateHeight(C);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Performs a Right-Right (RR) rotation (a single left rotation).
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param A - The unbalanced node (root of the unbalanced subtree).
+   */
+  protected _balanceRR(A: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): void {
+    const parentOfA = A.parent;
+    const B = A.right; // The right child
+    if (B !== null) A.parent = B;
+    if (B) {
+      if (B.left) {
+        B.left.parent = A;
+      }
+      B.parent = parentOfA;
+    }
+
+    // Update parent's child pointer
+    if (A === this.root) {
+      if (B) this._setRoot(B);
+    } else {
+      if (parentOfA) {
+        if (parentOfA.left === A) {
+          parentOfA.left = B;
+        } else {
+          parentOfA.right = B;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Perform rotation
+    if (B) {
+      A.right = B.left;
+      B.left = A;
+    }
+    this._updateHeight(A);
+    if (B) this._updateHeight(B);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Performs a Right-Left (RL) double rotation.
+   * @remarks Time O(1), Space O(1)
+   *
+   * @param A - The unbalanced node (root of the unbalanced subtree).
+   */
+  protected _balanceRL(A: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): void {
+    const parentOfA = A.parent;
+    const B = A.right;
+    let C = undefined;
+    if (B) {
+      C = B.left; // The "middle" node
+    }
+
+    if (C !== null) A.parent = C;
+    if (B && C !== null) B.parent = C;
+
+    if (C) {
+      if (C.left) {
+        C.left.parent = A;
+      }
+      if (C.right) {
+        if (B !== null) C.right.parent = B;
+      }
+      C.parent = parentOfA;
+    }
+
+    // Update parent's child pointer
+    if (A === this.root) {
+      if (C) this._setRoot(C);
+    } else {
+      if (parentOfA) {
+        if (parentOfA.left === A) {
+          parentOfA.left = C;
+        } else {
+          parentOfA.right = C;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Perform rotation
+    if (C) A.right = C.left;
+    if (B && C) B.left = C.right;
+    if (C) C.left = A;
+    if (C) C.right = B;
+
+    this._updateHeight(A);
+    if (B) this._updateHeight(B);
+    if (C) this._updateHeight(C);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Traverses up the tree from the specified node, updating heights and performing rotations as needed.
+   * @remarks Time O(log N) (O(H)), as it traverses the path to root. Space O(H) for the path array.
+   *
+   * @param node - The node to start balancing from (e.g., the newly inserted node or parent of the deleted node).
+   */
+  protected _balancePath(node: K | AVLTreeNode<K, V> | [K | null | undefined, V | undefined] | null | undefined): void {
+    // Get the path from the node to the root.
+    node = this.ensureNode(node);
+    const path = this.getPathToRoot(node, node => node, false);
+
+    // Iterate up the path (from node to root)
+    for (let i = 0; i < path.length; i++) {
+      const A = path[i];
+      if (A) {
+        this._updateHeight(A);
+
+        // Check the balance factor
+        switch (this._balanceFactor(A)) {
+          case -2: // Left-heavy
+            if (A && A.left) {
+              if (this._balanceFactor(A.left) <= 0) {
+                // Left-Left case
+                this._balanceLL(A);
+              } else {
+                // Left-Right case
+                this._balanceLR(A);
+              }
+            }
+            break;
+          case +2: // Right-heavy
+            if (A && A.right) {
+              if (this._balanceFactor(A.right) >= 0) {
+                // Right-Right case
+                this._balanceRR(A);
+              } else {
+                // Right-Left case
+                this._balanceRL(A);
+              }
+            }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * (Protected) Replaces a node, ensuring height is copied.
+   * @remarks Time O(1)
+   *
+   * @param oldNode - The node to be replaced.
+   * @param newNode - The node to insert.
+   * @returns The `newNode`.
+   */
+  protected override _replaceNode(oldNode: AVLTreeNode<K, V>, newNode: AVLTreeNode<K, V>): AVLTreeNode<K, V> {
+    // When replacing a node (e.g., on duplicate key), preserve the height.
+    newNode.height = oldNode.height;
+    return super._replaceNode(oldNode, newNode);
+  }
+}