semantifold 0.3.0 → 0.4.0

package/src/semantic/validate.js

@@ -1,21 +1,46 @@
 // @ts-check
 
 import {semanticFailure, unsupportedCapability, unsupportedSyntax} from "../diagnostic.js"
-import {hasOnlyUnicodeScalars, isScalarTypeName} from "./scalars.js"
+import {recordTypeSubstitutions, substituteValueType, typeContainsAnyVariable} from "./generics.js"
+import {hasOnlyUnicodeScalars, isScalarTypeName, scalarType} from "./scalars.js"
 import {adaptedOperationFor} from "./operators.js"
+import {parserRangeFor} from "./provenance.js"
+import {validateEffectGraph} from "./effects.js"
+import {validateResourceLifetimes} from "./lifetime.js"
+
+const task005Languages = new Set(["php", "ruby", "javascript", "typescript", "java", "dart"])
+
+/** @typedef {Map<string, import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration>} RecordRegistry */
+/** @typedef {Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>} ClassRegistry */
+/** @typedef {Map<string, import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration>} ErrorRegistry */
+/** @type {WeakMap<RecordRegistry, ClassRegistry>} */
+const referenceClassesByRecordRegistry = new WeakMap()
+/** @type {WeakMap<RecordRegistry, Set<string>>} */
+const resourceIdsByRecordRegistry = new WeakMap()
 
 /**
  * @typedef Binding
  * @property {boolean} mutable - Whether assignment is allowed.
- * @property {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName} type - Binding type.
+ * @property {import("./types.js").SemanticBindingType} type - Binding type.
+ * @property {import("./types.js").Expression | undefined} knownValue - Current statically known immutable value.
  */
 
 /**
  * @typedef Scope
  * @property {Map<string, Binding>} bindings - Bindings declared directly in this scope.
  * @property {Set<string>} pending - Names declared later in this scope.
+ * @property {Set<Binding>} presenceProofs - Optional bindings proven present on this path.
  * @property {Scope | undefined} parent - Enclosing lexical scope.
+ * @property {Set<string>} typeParameters - Type parameters visible throughout the enclosing declaration.
  * @property {Set<string>} usedNames - All names used by the enclosing function or entry point.
+ * @property {import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration | undefined} currentClass - Declaring class for receiver-private access.
+ */
+
+/**
+ * @typedef LoopFlowContext
+ * @property {import("./types.js").ForEachStatement | import("./types.js").ForEachMapStatement | import("./types.js").WhileStatement} [nearest] - Nearest active loop.
+ * @property {object} owner - Enclosing function or entry-point identity.
+ * @property {Map<string, object>} owners - Loop owner by module-local loop identity.
  */
 
 /**
@@ -27,34 +52,92 @@ import {adaptedOperationFor} from "./operators.js"
  * Enforces the coherent release-candidate semantic subset after adaptation.
  * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Adapted semantic module.
  * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticLanguage} language - Source language.
+ * @param {{classes?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>, functions?: Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>, records?: Map<string, import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration>, errors?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration>, callEffects?: Map<string, Set<string>>}} [visible] - Program imports visible during validation.
  * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} Validated module.
  */
-export function validateParsedModule(module, language) {
-  validateModuleShape(module, (detail, location) => unsupportedSyntax(language, detail, location))
-  validateModuleTypes(module, (code, detail, location) => semanticFailure(language, code, detail, location), true)
+export function validateParsedModule(module, language, visible = {}) {
+  normalizeParsedOwnedReferences(module, visible.classes)
+  validateModuleShape(module, language, (detail, location) => unsupportedSyntax(language, detail, location))
+  /**
+   * Converts one parser failure into a located semantic diagnostic.
+   * @type {SemanticFail}
+   */
+  const fail = (code, detail, location) => semanticFailure(language, code, detail, location)
+
+  validateModuleTypes(module, language, fail, true, visible)
+  validateResourceLifetimes(module, inferEscapingErrorEffects(module, visible.callEffects), fail)
 
   return module
 }
 
+/**
+ * Promotes parser-authored class spellings after all private field types are known.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Parser-authored module.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>} [visibleClasses] - Imported reference classes.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function normalizeParsedOwnedReferences(module, visibleClasses = new Map()) {
+  const ownedClassIds = new Set([...visibleClasses.values()].filter(({ownership}) => ownership?.kind == "ownedResource")
+    .map(({id}) => /** @type {string} */ (id)))
+
+  for (const declaration of module.classes ?? []) {
+    const fields = declaration.fields.filter(({type}) => type?.kind == "OwnedResourceType")
+    if (fields.length != 1) continue
+    const field = /** @type {import("./types.js").PrivateField & {type: import("./types.js").OwnedResourceType}} */ (fields[0])
+
+    declaration.ownership = {fieldId: /** @type {string} */ (field.id), kind: "ownedResource", resourceId: field.type.resourceId}
+    ownedClassIds.add(/** @type {string} */ (declaration.id))
+  }
+  /** @type {unknown[]} */
+  const pending = [module]
+  /** @type {Set<object>} */
+  const seen = new Set()
+
+  while (pending.length > 0) {
+    const value = pending.pop()
+    if (!value || typeof value != "object" || seen.has(value)) continue
+    seen.add(value)
+    if (!Array.isArray(value) && Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "ReferenceType" &&
+      ownedClassIds.has(Reflect.get(value, "declarationId"))) Reflect.set(value, "kind", "OwnedReferenceType")
+    for (const [key, child] of Object.entries(value)) {
+      if (["location", "sourceProvenance"].includes(key)) continue
+      if (child && typeof child == "object") pending.push(child)
+    }
+  }
+}
+
 /**
  * Validates scalar types and bindings for a caller-supplied semantic module before emission.
  * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Semantic module.
- * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticLanguage} language - Backend language.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").BackendLanguage} language - Backend language or binary target.
+ * @param {{classes?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>, functions?: Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>, records?: Map<string, import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration>, errors?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration>, callEffects?: Map<string, Set<string>>}} [visible] - Resolved program imports.
  * @returns {void}
  */
-export function validateBackendTypes(module, language) {
-  validateModuleTypes(module, (_code, detail, location) => unsupportedCapability(language, detail, location), false)
+export function validateBackendTypes(module, language, visible = {}) {
+  /**
+   * Converts one backend validation failure into an unsupported-capability diagnostic.
+   * @type {SemanticFail}
+   */
+  const fail = (_code, detail, location) => unsupportedCapability(language, detail, location)
+
+  validateModuleTypes(module, language, fail, false, visible)
+  validateResourceLifetimes(module, inferEscapingErrorEffects(module, visible.callEffects), fail)
 }
 
 /**
  * Checks parser-authored block and statement layouts before semantic validation.
  * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Semantic module.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticLanguage} language - Source language.
  * @param {(detail: string, location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation) => never} fail - Shape failure.
  * @returns {void}
  */
-function validateModuleShape(module, fail) {
+function validateModuleShape(module, language, fail) {
+  for (const declaration of module.classes ?? []) {
+    validateBlockShape(declaration.constructor?.body, "constructor body", fail)
+    for (const method of declaration.methods ?? []) validateBlockShape(method.body, "method body", fail)
+  }
   for (const functionDeclaration of module.functions) {
-    if (functionDeclaration.parameters.length != 2) {
+    if (!task005Languages.has(language) && functionDeclaration.parameters.length != 2) {
       fail("function parameter count other than two", functionDeclaration.location)
     }
 
@@ -77,312 +160,2954 @@ function validateBlockShape(block, detail, fail) {
   }
 
   for (const statement of block.statements) {
-    if (!["AssignmentStatement", "IfStatement", "LocalDeclaration", "PrintStatement", "ReturnStatement"].includes(statement.kind)) {
+    if (!["AssignmentStatement", "BreakStatement", "ContinueStatement", "ExpressionStatement", "ForEachMapStatement", "ForEachStatement", "IfStatement", "LocalDeclaration", "PrivateFieldWriteStatement", "PrintStatement", "RaiseStatement", "ReturnStatement", "TryStatement", "WhileStatement"].includes(statement.kind)) {
       fail(`${detail} statement ${statement.kind}`, statement.location)
     }
     if (statement.kind == "IfStatement") {
       validateBlockShape(statement.consequent, "if consequent", fail)
       if (statement.alternate) validateBlockShape(statement.alternate, "if alternate", fail)
     }
+    if (statement.kind == "ForEachStatement" || statement.kind == "ForEachMapStatement" || statement.kind == "WhileStatement") {
+      validateBlockShape(statement.body, "loop body", fail)
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "TryStatement") {
+      validateBlockShape(statement.body, "try body", fail)
+      validateBlockShape(statement.catchBody, "catch body", fail)
+    }
   }
 }
 
 /**
  * Validates declarations and expression types within lexical scopes.
  * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Semantic module.
+ * @param {string} language - Source or backend language identity.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
  * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
+ * @param {{classes?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>, functions?: Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>, records?: Map<string, import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration>, errors?: Map<string, import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration>, callEffects?: Map<string, Set<string>>}} [visible] - Program imports visible during validation.
  * @returns {void}
  */
-function validateModuleTypes(module, fail, normalizeOperations) {
+function validateModuleTypes(module, language, fail, normalizeOperations, visible = {}) {
+  const classes = registerClassDeclarations(module.classes ?? [], fail, normalizeOperations, visible.classes)
+  const records = validateRecordDeclarations(module.records ?? [], fail, normalizeOperations, visible.records, classes)
+  const errors = validateErrorDeclarations(module.errors ?? [], fail, normalizeOperations, visible.errors)
   /** @type {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} */
-  const functions = new Map()
-
-  for (const functionDeclaration of module.functions) {
+  const functions = new Map(visible.functions ?? [])
+  const declarationIds = new Set([...functions.values()].flatMap(({id}) => typeof id == "string" ? [id] : []))
+
+  for (const [index, functionDeclaration] of module.functions.entries()) {
+    if (normalizeOperations) functionDeclaration.id = `function:${index}`
+    if (typeof functionDeclaration.id != "string" || !/^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?function:[0-9]+$/u.test(functionDeclaration.id) ||
+      declarationIds.has(functionDeclaration.id)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", "Duplicate or invalid function declaration identity.", functionDeclaration.location)
+    }
     if (functions.has(functionDeclaration.name)) {
-      fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `duplicate function '${functionDeclaration.name}'.`, functionDeclaration.location)
+      fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `duplicate function '${functionDeclaration.name}'.`, roleLocation(functionDeclaration, "name"))
     }
+    declarationIds.add(functionDeclaration.id)
+    validateTypeParameters(functionDeclaration, fail, normalizeOperations)
     functions.set(functionDeclaration.name, functionDeclaration)
   }
 
-  for (const functionDeclaration of module.functions) validateFunction(functionDeclaration, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+  validateEffectGraph(module, language, functions, fail, normalizeOperations, classes)
+  const capabilityResources = (module.capabilities ?? []).flatMap(({resources}) => resources)
+  const capabilityFailures = (module.capabilities ?? []).flatMap(({failures}) => failures)
+
+  resourceIdsByRecordRegistry.set(records, new Set(capabilityResources.map(({id}) => id)))
+  const existingErrorNames = new Set([...errors.values()].map(({name}) => name))
+  for (const failure of capabilityFailures) {
+    if (errors.has(failure.id) || existingErrorNames.has(failure.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_ERROR", `Duplicate capability failure '${failure.name}'.`, module.location)
+    }
+    errors.set(failure.id, /** @type {import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration} */ (/** @type {unknown} */ (failure)))
+    existingErrorNames.add(failure.name)
+  }
+
+  const loopOwners = prepareLoopIdentities(module, normalizeOperations, fail)
+
+  const reservedValueNames = new Set([
+    ...functions.keys(),
+    ...[...records.values()].map((declaration) => declaration.name),
+    ...[...classes.values()].map((declaration) => declaration.name),
+    ...[...errors.values()].map((declaration) => declaration.name),
+    ...capabilityResources.map(({name}) => name)
+  ])
+
+  const nominalNames = new Set()
+
+  for (const declaration of [...module.records ?? [], ...module.classes ?? [], ...module.errors ?? []]) {
+    if (nominalNames.has(declaration.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `Duplicate nominal declaration '${declaration.name}'.`, roleLocation(declaration, "name"))
+    }
+    nominalNames.add(declaration.name)
+  }
+  for (const declaration of [...capabilityResources, ...capabilityFailures]) {
+    if (nominalNames.has(declaration.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `Duplicate nominal declaration '${declaration.name}'.`, module.location)
+    }
+    nominalNames.add(declaration.name)
+  }
+  const localFunctionNames = new Set(module.functions.map(({name}) => name))
+  const callEffects = inferCallEffects(functions, visible.callEffects, localFunctionNames)
+
+  for (const declaration of module.classes ?? []) {
+    validateClassDeclaration(declaration, functions, records, errors, callEffects, reservedValueNames, fail,
+      normalizeOperations, loopOwners)
+  }
 
-  const callableNames = new Set(functions.keys())
+  for (const functionDeclaration of module.functions) {
+    validateFunction(functionDeclaration, functions, records, errors, callEffects, reservedValueNames, fail, normalizeOperations, loopOwners)
+  }
 
-  const entryScope = createScope(undefined, module.entryPoint.body.statements, callableNames)
+  const entryScope = createScope(undefined, module.entryPoint.body.statements, reservedValueNames)
 
-  validateBlock(module.entryPoint.body, entryScope, undefined, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+  validateBlock(module.entryPoint.body, entryScope, undefined, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail,
+    normalizeOperations, {owner: module.entryPoint, owners: loopOwners})
+  if (normalizeOperations) validateEffectGraph(module, language, functions, fail, true, classes)
 }
 
 /**
- * Validates one non-void function and its complete control flow.
- * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration} declaration - Function declaration.
- * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Function signatures.
+ * Assigns parser-authored loop/control identities and validates caller-owned identities without crossing a function boundary.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Semantic module.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored identities are assigned.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
- * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
- * @returns {void}
+ * @returns {Map<string, object>} Loop owner by identity.
  */
-function validateFunction(declaration, functions, fail, normalizeOperations) {
-  const scope = createScope(undefined, declaration.body.statements, new Set(functions.keys()))
-
-  for (const parameter of declaration.parameters) {
-    const type = validateTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail)
-
-    declareBinding(parameter.name, {mutable: false, type}, parameter.location, scope, fail)
+function prepareLoopIdentities(module, normalizeOperations, fail) {
+  const owners = new Map()
+  let nextLoop = 0
+
+  const classOwners = (module.classes ?? []).flatMap((declaration) => [declaration.constructor, ...declaration.methods])
+
+  for (const owner of [...classOwners, ...module.functions, module.entryPoint]) visit(owner.body, owner, [])
+
+  return owners
+
+  /**
+   * Visits one block in lexical semantic order.
+   * @param {import("./types.js").Block} block - Candidate block.
+   * @param {object} owner - Enclosing function or entry point.
+   * @param {(import("./types.js").ForEachStatement | import("./types.js").ForEachMapStatement | import("./types.js").WhileStatement)[]} active - Active loops.
+   * @returns {void}
+   */
+  function visit(block, owner, active) {
+    if (!block || !Array.isArray(block.statements)) return
+    for (const statement of block.statements) {
+      if (!statement || typeof statement != "object") continue
+      if (["ForEachStatement", "ForEachMapStatement", "WhileStatement"].includes(statement.kind)) {
+        const loop = /** @type {import("./types.js").ForEachStatement | import("./types.js").ForEachMapStatement | import("./types.js").WhileStatement} */ (statement)
+
+        if (normalizeOperations) loop.id = `loop:${nextLoop}`
+        nextLoop += 1
+        if (typeof loop.id != "string" || !/^loop:[0-9]+$/u.test(loop.id) || owners.has(loop.id)) {
+          fail("INVALID_LOOP_TARGET", "Duplicate or invalid loop identity.", loop.location)
+        }
+        owners.set(loop.id, owner)
+        visit(loop.body, owner, [...active, loop])
+      } else if (statement.kind == "BreakStatement" || statement.kind == "ContinueStatement") {
+        if (normalizeOperations && active.length > 0) statement.targetLoopId = /** @type {string} */ (active.at(-1)?.id)
+      } else if (statement.kind == "IfStatement") {
+        visit(statement.consequent, owner, active)
+        if (statement.alternate) visit(statement.alternate, owner, active)
+      } else if (statement.kind == "TryStatement") {
+        visit(statement.body, owner, active)
+        visit(statement.catchBody, owner, active)
+      }
+    }
   }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Derives validator-only unchecked-error effects for a validated module's local functions.
+ * These effects never enter semantic function declarations or public signatures.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Validated semantic module.
+ * @param {{functions?: Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>, callEffects?: Map<string, Set<string>>}} [visible] - Imported functions and already-resolved effects by local binding.
+ * @returns {Map<string, Set<string>>} Local function effects by source-visible name.
+ */
+export function moduleUncheckedErrorEffects(module, visible = {}) {
+  const functions = new Map(visible.functions ?? [])
 
-  const returnType = validateTypeReference(declaration.returnType, declaration.location, fail)
-  const returns = validateBlock(declaration.body, scope, returnType, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+  for (const declaration of module.functions) functions.set(declaration.name, declaration)
+  const localFunctionNames = new Set(module.functions.map(({name}) => name))
+  const effects = inferCallEffects(functions, visible.callEffects, localFunctionNames)
 
-  if (!returns) fail("MISSING_RETURN", `Function '${declaration.name}' does not return on every reachable path.`, declaration.location)
+  return new Map(module.functions.map((declaration) => [declaration.name, new Set(effects.get(declaration.name) ?? [])]))
 }
 
 /**
- * Validates one ordered block and reports whether every path returns.
- * @param {import("./types.js").Block} block - Semantic block.
- * @param {Scope} scope - Scope belonging to this block.
- * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName | undefined} returnType - Function return type, absent for entry points.
- * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Function signatures.
+ * Assigns and validates the closed nominal identities owned by reference classes.
+ * @param {unknown} declarations - Candidate declarations.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
- * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
- * @returns {boolean} Whether every path through the block returns.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored identities are assigned.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration>} [visibleClasses] - Imported classes by identity.
+ * @returns {ClassRegistry} Classes by stable identity.
  */
-function validateBlock(block, scope, returnType, functions, fail, normalizeOperations) {
-  let alwaysReturns = false
-
-  for (const statement of block.statements) {
-    if (alwaysReturns) fail("UNREACHABLE_STATEMENT", "Statement is unreachable.", statement.location)
+function registerClassDeclarations(declarations, fail, normalizeOperations, visibleClasses = new Map()) {
+  if (!Array.isArray(declarations)) {
+    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Reference class declarations must be an ordered array.", /** @type {never} */ (undefined))
+  }
+  /** @type {ClassRegistry} */
+  const classes = new Map(visibleClasses)
+  const names = new Set([...visibleClasses.values()].map(({name}) => name))
 
-    if (statement.kind == "LocalDeclaration") {
-      const declaredType = validateTypeReference(statement.type, statement.location, fail)
-      const initializerType = inferExpressionType(statement.initializer, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+  for (let classIndex = 0; classIndex < declarations.length; classIndex += 1) {
+    const declaration = /** @type {import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration} */ (declarations[classIndex])
 
-      scope.pending.delete(statement.name)
-      if (initializerType != declaredType) {
-        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Initializer type ${initializerType}; expected ${declaredType}.`, statement.initializer.location)
-      }
-      declareBinding(statement.name, {mutable: statement.mutable, type: declaredType}, statement.location, scope, fail)
-      continue
+    if (!declaration || declaration.kind != "ClassDeclaration" || !Array.isArray(declaration.fields) ||
+      !Array.isArray(declaration.methods) || !declaration.constructor || declaration.constructor.kind != "ConstructorDeclaration") {
+      return fail("DUPLICATE_CLASS", "Malformed or invalid reference class declaration.", declaration?.location)
     }
-    if (statement.kind == "AssignmentStatement") {
-      const expressionType = inferExpressionType(statement.expression, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-      const binding = resolveBinding(statement.target.name, statement.target.location, scope, fail)
+    if (declaration.fields.length == 0) {
+      fail("INCOMPLETE_INITIALIZATION", "Reference classes must declare private instance state.", declaration.location)
+    }
+    if (normalizeOperations) declaration.id = `class:${classIndex}`
+    if (typeof declaration.id != "string" || !/^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?class:[0-9]+$/u.test(declaration.id) ||
+      classes.has(declaration.id) || typeof declaration.name != "string" || declaration.name.length == 0 || names.has(declaration.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_CLASS", `Duplicate or invalid reference class '${String(declaration.name)}'.`, roleLocation(declaration, "name"))
+    }
+    names.add(declaration.name)
+    classes.set(declaration.id, declaration)
 
-      if (!binding.mutable) {
-        fail("IMMUTABLE_ASSIGNMENT", `Cannot assign to immutable binding '${statement.target.name}'.`, statement.target.location)
+    const fieldNames = new Set()
+
+    for (let fieldIndex = 0; fieldIndex < declaration.fields.length; fieldIndex += 1) {
+      const field = declaration.fields[fieldIndex]
+      const expectedId = `${declaration.id}:field:${fieldIndex}`
+
+      if (!field || field.kind != "PrivateField") {
+        fail("DUPLICATE_PRIVATE_FIELD", "Malformed or invalid private field.", field?.location ?? declaration.location)
       }
-      if (expressionType != binding.type) {
-        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Assignment type ${expressionType}; expected ${binding.type}.`, statement.expression.location)
+      if (normalizeOperations) field.id = expectedId
+      if (field.id != expectedId || typeof field.name != "string" || field.name.length == 0 || fieldNames.has(field.name)) {
+        fail("DUPLICATE_PRIVATE_FIELD", `Duplicate or invalid private field '${String(field.name)}'.`, roleLocation(field, "name"))
       }
-      continue
-    }
-    if (statement.kind == "PrintStatement") {
-      inferExpressionType(statement.expression, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-      continue
+      fieldNames.add(field.name)
     }
-    if (statement.kind == "ReturnStatement") {
-      if (!returnType) fail("ILLEGAL_RETURN_CONTEXT", "Return statement outside a function.", statement.location)
-      const actualType = inferExpressionType(statement.expression, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+    const invalidOwnedField = declaration.fields.find(({type}) => containsOwnedType(type) && type.kind != "OwnedResourceType")
 
-      if (actualType != returnType) {
-        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Return type ${actualType}; expected ${returnType}.`, statement.expression.location)
-      }
-      alwaysReturns = true
-      continue
+    if (invalidOwnedField) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", `Class '${declaration.name}' may contain ownership only in one direct resource field.`, invalidOwnedField.location)
     }
-    if (statement.kind == "IfStatement") {
-      const conditionType = inferExpressionType(statement.condition, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
+    const ownedFields = declaration.fields.filter(({type}) => type?.kind == "OwnedResourceType")
 
-      if (conditionType != "boolean") {
-        fail("NON_BOOLEAN_CONDITION", `If condition type ${conditionType}; expected boolean.`, statement.condition.location)
+    if (ownedFields.length > 1) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", `Class '${declaration.name}' may own exactly one direct resource field.`, declaration.location)
+    }
+    if (ownedFields.length == 1) {
+      const field = /** @type {import("./types.js").PrivateField & {type: import("./types.js").OwnedResourceType}} */ (ownedFields[0])
+      const expected = {fieldId: /** @type {string} */ (field.id), kind: /** @type {const} */ ("ownedResource"),
+        resourceId: field.type.resourceId}
+
+      if (normalizeOperations) declaration.ownership = expected
+      else if (JSON.stringify(declaration.ownership) != JSON.stringify(expected)) {
+        fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", `Class '${declaration.name}' has malformed resource ownership metadata.`, declaration.location)
       }
-      const consequentScope = createScope(scope, statement.consequent.statements)
-      const consequentReturns = validateBlock(statement.consequent, consequentScope, returnType, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-      let alternateReturns = false
+    } else if (declaration.ownership?.kind == "ownedResource") {
+      fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", `Class '${declaration.name}' does not contain its declared resource field.`, declaration.location)
+    }
 
-      if (statement.alternate) {
-        const alternateScope = createScope(scope, statement.alternate.statements)
+    const constructorId = `${declaration.id}:constructor`
 
-        alternateReturns = validateBlock(statement.alternate, alternateScope, returnType, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-      }
-      alwaysReturns = consequentReturns && alternateReturns
-      continue
+    if (normalizeOperations) declaration.constructor.id = constructorId
+    if (declaration.constructor.id != constructorId || !Array.isArray(declaration.constructor.parameters) ||
+      !declaration.constructor.body || declaration.constructor.body.kind != "Block") {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_CONSTRUCTOR", "Malformed or invalid constructor declaration.", declaration.constructor.location)
     }
 
-    const unexpected = /** @type {{kind: string, location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation}} */ (statement)
-
-    fail("UNSUPPORTED_STATEMENT", unexpected.kind, unexpected.location)
-  }
+    const methodNames = new Set()
 
-  return alwaysReturns
-}
+    for (let methodIndex = 0; methodIndex < declaration.methods.length; methodIndex += 1) {
+      const method = declaration.methods[methodIndex]
+      const expectedId = `${declaration.id}:method:${methodIndex}`
 
-/**
- * Creates a lexical scope with declarations marked pending until visited.
- * @param {Scope | undefined} parent - Enclosing scope.
- * @param {{kind: string, name?: string}[]} statements - Scope statements.
- * @param {Set<string>} [reservedNames] - Names unavailable to root bindings.
- * @returns {Scope} Scope.
- */
-function createScope(parent, statements, reservedNames = new Set()) {
-  const pending = new Set(statements.filter((statement) => statement.kind == "LocalDeclaration")
-    .map((statement) => /** @type {{name: string}} */ (statement).name))
+      if (!method || method.kind != "MethodDeclaration") {
+        fail("DUPLICATE_METHOD", "Malformed or invalid method declaration.", method?.location ?? declaration.location)
+      }
+      if (normalizeOperations) method.id = expectedId
+      if (method.id != expectedId || typeof method.name != "string" || method.name.length == 0 || methodNames.has(method.name) ||
+        !Array.isArray(method.parameters) || !method.body || method.body.kind != "Block") {
+        fail("DUPLICATE_METHOD", `Duplicate or invalid method '${String(method.name)}'.`, roleLocation(method, "name"))
+      }
+      methodNames.add(method.name)
+    }
+  }
 
-  return {bindings: new Map(), parent, pending, usedNames: parent?.usedNames ?? new Set(reservedNames)}
+  return classes
 }
 
 /**
- * Adds one binding while rejecting duplicates and shadowing.
- * @param {string} name - Binding name.
- * @param {Binding} binding - Binding metadata.
- * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Declaration location.
- * @param {Scope} scope - Current scope.
+ * Validates exact construction, private state, and method bodies for one class.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration} declaration - Class declaration.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record and reference-class registries.
+ * @param {ErrorRegistry} errors - Error declarations.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} callEffects - Function call effects.
+ * @param {Set<string>} reservedValueNames - Module-reserved names.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored resolutions are assigned.
+ * @param {Map<string, object>} loopOwners - Loop ownership registry.
  * @returns {void}
  */
-function declareBinding(name, binding, location, scope, fail) {
-  if (scope.usedNames.has(name)) fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `Duplicate or shadowed binding '${name}'.`, location)
+function validateClassDeclaration(declaration, functions, records, errors, callEffects, reservedValueNames, fail,
+  normalizeOperations, loopOwners) {
+  for (const field of declaration.fields) {
+    validateValueTypeReference(field.type, field.location, fail, undefined, records)
+  }
 
-  scope.bindings.set(name, binding)
-  scope.usedNames.add(name)
+  const constructor = declaration.constructor
+  const acquisitionStatement = constructor.body.statements[0]
+  const acquisitionExpression = acquisitionStatement?.kind == "PrivateFieldWriteStatement"
+    ? acquisitionStatement.expression : undefined
+  const ownedAcquisition = declaration.ownership?.kind == "ownedResource" && declaration.fields.length == 1 &&
+    constructor.body.statements.length == 1 && acquisitionStatement?.kind == "PrivateFieldWriteStatement" &&
+    acquisitionStatement.field == declaration.ownership.fieldId && acquisitionStatement.receiver.kind == "ReceiverExpression" &&
+    acquisitionStatement.receiver.classId == declaration.id && acquisitionExpression?.kind == "EffectCallExpression" &&
+    acquisitionExpression.resolution.resourceFlow.kind == "acquire" &&
+    acquisitionExpression.resolution.resourceFlow.resourceId == declaration.ownership.resourceId
+
+  if (syntacticBlockEffects(constructor.body, callEffects).size > 0 && !ownedAcquisition) {
+    fail("UNSUPPORTED_STATEMENT", "Reference constructors cannot expose unchecked-error effects in Task 033.", constructor.location)
+  }
+
+  if (!ownedAcquisition &&
+    (constructor.parameters.length != declaration.fields.length || constructor.body.statements.length != declaration.fields.length)) {
+    fail("INCOMPLETE_INITIALIZATION", `Constructor for '${declaration.name}' must initialize every private field exactly once in declaration order.`,
+      constructor.location)
+  }
+  const constructorScope = createScope(undefined, constructor.body.statements, reservedValueNames, new Set(), declaration)
+
+  for (let index = 0; index < constructor.parameters.length; index += 1) {
+    const parameter = constructor.parameters[index]
+    const field = declaration.fields[index]
+    const type = validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records)
+
+    if (!ownedAcquisition && !sameType(type, field.type)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Constructor parameter '${parameter.name}' must exactly match private field '${field.name}'.`, parameter.location)
+    }
+    declareBinding(parameter.name, {knownValue: undefined, mutable: false, type}, roleLocation(parameter, "name"), constructorScope, fail)
+    if (ownedAcquisition) continue
+    const statement = constructor.body.statements[index]
+    const initializer = statement?.kind == "PrivateFieldWriteStatement"
+      ? statement.expression.kind == "OwnedMoveExpression" ? statement.expression.expression : statement.expression
+      : undefined
+
+    if (!statement || statement.kind != "PrivateFieldWriteStatement" || statement.field != field.id ||
+      statement.receiver?.kind != "ReceiverExpression" || statement.receiver.classId != declaration.id ||
+      initializer?.kind != "IdentifierExpression" || initializer.name != parameter.name) {
+      fail("INCOMPLETE_INITIALIZATION", `Constructor for '${declaration.name}' must initialize '${field.name}' from its corresponding parameter.`,
+        statement?.location ?? constructor.location)
+    }
+  }
+  validateBlock(constructor.body, constructorScope, {kind: "TypeReference", name: "void"}, functions, records,
+    errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, {owner: constructor, owners: loopOwners})
+
+  for (const method of declaration.methods) {
+    const unsupportedMethodEffects = [...syntacticBlockEffects(method.body, callEffects)]
+      .filter((id) => !/^(?:module:[0-9]+\/)?capability:[0-9]+\/failure:[0-9]+$/u.test(id))
+
+    if (declaration.ownership?.kind != "ownedResource" && unsupportedMethodEffects.length > 0) {
+      fail("UNSUPPORTED_STATEMENT", `Reference method '${method.name}' cannot expose unchecked-error effects in Task 033.`, method.location)
+    }
+    const scope = createScope(undefined, method.body.statements, reservedValueNames, new Set(), declaration)
+
+    for (const parameter of method.parameters) {
+      const type = validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records)
+
+      declareBinding(parameter.name, {knownValue: undefined, mutable: false, type}, roleLocation(parameter, "name"), scope, fail)
+    }
+    const returnType = validateReturnTypeReference(method.returnType, method.location, fail, records)
+    const flow = validateBlock(method.body, scope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail,
+      normalizeOperations, {owner: method, owners: loopOwners})
+
+    if (declaration.ownership?.kind == "ownedResource") ownedMethodResourceFlow(declaration, method, fail)
+
+    if (!isVoidType(returnType) && flow.normal) {
+      fail("MISSING_RETURN", `Method '${method.name}' does not return on every reachable path.`, method.location)
+    }
+  }
 }
 
 /**
- * Resolves one identifier and distinguishes use-before-declaration.
- * @param {string} name - Binding name.
- * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Reference location.
- * @param {Scope} scope - Current scope.
+ * Validates nominal unchecked-error declarations.
+ * @param {unknown} declarations - Candidate declarations.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
- * @returns {Binding} Binding.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored identities are assigned.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").ErrorDeclaration>} [visibleErrors] - Imported error declarations by identity.
+ * @returns {ErrorRegistry} Validated declarations by identity.
  */
-function resolveBinding(name, location, scope, fail) {
-  for (let current = /** @type {Scope | undefined} */ (scope); current; current = current.parent) {
-    const binding = current.bindings.get(name)
+function validateErrorDeclarations(declarations, fail, normalizeOperations, visibleErrors = new Map()) {
+  if (!Array.isArray(declarations)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Error declarations must be an ordered array.", /** @type {never} */ (undefined))
+  /** @type {ErrorRegistry} */
+  const errors = new Map(visibleErrors)
+  const names = new Set()
 
-    if (binding) return binding
-    if (current.pending.has(name)) {
-      return fail("USE_BEFORE_DECLARATION", `Binding '${name}' is used before its declaration.`, location)
+  for (let index = 0; index < declarations.length; index += 1) {
+    const declaration = declarations[index]
+
+    if (!declaration || declaration.kind != "ErrorDeclaration") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed error declaration.", declaration?.location)
+    }
+    if (normalizeOperations) declaration.id = `error:${index}`
+    if (typeof declaration.id != "string" || !/^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?error:[0-9]+$/u.test(declaration.id) || errors.has(declaration.id)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_ERROR", "Duplicate or invalid error declaration identity.", declaration.location)
+    }
+    if (typeof declaration.name != "string" || names.has(declaration.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_ERROR", `Duplicate or invalid error '${String(declaration.name)}'.`, roleLocation(declaration, "name"))
     }
+    names.add(declaration.name)
+    errors.set(declaration.id, declaration)
   }
 
-  return fail("UNRESOLVED_BINDING", `Unknown binding '${name}'.`, location)
+  return errors
 }
 
 /**
- * Validates one semantic type reference.
- * @param {unknown} type - Candidate semantic type reference.
- * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Owning source location.
+ * Assigns and validates one declaration's invariant unbounded type parameters.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration | import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration} declaration - Owning declaration.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
- * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName} Validated scalar name.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored identities are assigned.
+ * @returns {void}
  */
-function validateTypeReference(type, location, fail) {
-  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type)) {
-    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported scalar type.", location)
+function validateTypeParameters(declaration, fail, normalizeOperations) {
+  if (declaration.typeParameters === undefined) return
+  if (!Array.isArray(declaration.typeParameters)) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Type parameters must be a dense ordered array.", declaration.location)
   }
+  const names = new Set()
+
+  for (let index = 0; index < declaration.typeParameters.length; index += 1) {
+    const parameter = declaration.typeParameters[index]
+    const keys = parameter && typeof parameter == "object" && !Array.isArray(parameter)
+      ? Object.keys(parameter).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") : ""
 
-  const candidate = /** @type {import("./types.js").TypeReference} */ (type)
+    if (!Object.hasOwn(declaration.typeParameters, index) || !parameter || parameter.kind != "TypeParameter" ||
+      keys != "id,kind,location,name" || typeof parameter.name != "string" || parameter.name.length == 0) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed type parameter declaration.", parameter?.location ?? declaration.location)
+    }
+    if (names.has(parameter.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_TYPE_PARAMETER", `Duplicate type parameter '${parameter.name}'.`, roleLocation(parameter, "name"))
+    }
+    names.add(parameter.name)
+    const expectedId = `${declaration.id}:type:${index}`
 
-  if (candidate.kind != "TypeReference" || !isScalarTypeName(candidate.name)) {
-    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported scalar type.", location)
+    if (normalizeOperations) parameter.id = expectedId
+    if (parameter.id != expectedId) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_TYPE_PARAMETER", "Duplicate or invalid type parameter identity.", parameter.location)
+    }
   }
+}
 
-  return candidate.name
+/**
+ * Returns the closed identity scope owned by one validated declaration.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration | import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration} declaration - Declaration.
+ * @returns {Set<string>} Type-parameter identities.
+ */
+function declarationTypeParameterIds(declaration) {
+  return new Set((declaration.typeParameters ?? []).map(({id}) => /** @type {string} */ (id)))
 }
 
 /**
- * Infers and validates one expression.
- * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Semantic expression.
- * @param {Scope} scope - Visible lexical scope.
- * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Module function signatures.
+ * Validates nominal declarations and returns their stable identity registry.
+ * @param {unknown} declarations - Candidate ordered declarations.
  * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
- * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
- * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName} Expression type.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether parser-authored identities are assigned.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration>} [visibleRecords] - Imported record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {ClassRegistry} [classes] - Module reference classes by identity.
+ * @returns {RecordRegistry} Validated declarations by identity.
  */
-function inferExpressionType(expression, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations) {
-  if (expression.kind == "IdentifierExpression") return resolveBinding(expression.name, expression.location, scope, fail).type
+function validateRecordDeclarations(declarations, fail, normalizeOperations, visibleRecords = new Map(), classes = new Map()) {
+  if (!Array.isArray(declarations)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Record declarations must be an ordered array.", /** @type {never} */ (undefined))
+  /** @type {RecordRegistry} */
+  const records = new Map(visibleRecords)
 
-  if (expression.kind == "IntegerLiteral") {
-    if (!Number.isSafeInteger(expression.value)) fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Non-safe integer literal.", expression.location)
-    return "integer"
-  }
-  if (expression.kind == "BooleanLiteral") {
-    if (typeof Reflect.get(expression, "value") != "boolean") {
-      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Invalid boolean literal value.", expression.location)
-    }
-    return "boolean"
-  }
-  if (expression.kind == "StringLiteral") {
-    const value = Reflect.get(expression, "value")
+  referenceClassesByRecordRegistry.set(records, classes)
+  const names = new Set()
 
-    if (typeof value != "string" || !hasOnlyUnicodeScalars(value)) {
-      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Invalid Unicode string literal.", expression.location)
+  for (let recordIndex = 0; recordIndex < declarations.length; recordIndex += 1) {
+    const declaration = declarations[recordIndex]
+
+    if (!declaration || declaration.kind != "RecordDeclaration" || !Array.isArray(declaration.fields)) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed record declaration.", declaration?.location)
+    }
+    if (normalizeOperations) declaration.id = `record:${recordIndex}`
+    if (typeof declaration.id != "string" || !/^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?record:[0-9]+$/u.test(declaration.id) || records.has(declaration.id)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_RECORD", "Duplicate or invalid record declaration identity.", declaration.location)
     }
-    return "string"
+    if (names.has(declaration.name)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_RECORD", `Duplicate record '${declaration.name}'.`, roleLocation(declaration, "name"))
+    }
+    names.add(declaration.name)
+    validateTypeParameters(declaration, fail, normalizeOperations)
+    records.set(declaration.id, declaration)
   }
-  if (expression.kind == "CallExpression") {
-    const functionDeclaration = functions.get(expression.callee)
 
-    if (!functionDeclaration) return fail("UNRESOLVED_BINDING", `Unknown function '${expression.callee}'.`, expression.location)
-    if (expression.arguments.length != functionDeclaration.parameters.length) {
-      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument count for '${expression.callee}'.`, expression.location)
-    }
-    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index++) {
-      const argument = expression.arguments[index]
-      const actualType = inferExpressionType(argument, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-      const expectedType = validateTypeReference(functionDeclaration.parameters[index].type, functionDeclaration.parameters[index].location, fail)
+  for (const declaration of declarations) {
+    const fieldNames = new Set()
+    const typeParameters = declarationTypeParameterIds(declaration)
 
-      if (actualType != expectedType) {
-        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${actualType}; expected ${expectedType}.`, argument.location)
+    for (let fieldIndex = 0; fieldIndex < declaration.fields.length; fieldIndex += 1) {
+      const field = declaration.fields[fieldIndex]
+
+      if (!field || field.kind != "RecordField") fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed record field.", field?.location ?? declaration.location)
+      if (normalizeOperations) field.id = `${declaration.id}:field:${fieldIndex}`
+      if (typeof field.id != "string" || field.id != `${declaration.id}:field:${fieldIndex}`) {
+        fail("DUPLICATE_FIELD", "Duplicate or invalid record field identity.", field.location)
+      }
+      if (fieldNames.has(field.name)) fail("DUPLICATE_FIELD", `Duplicate field '${field.name}'.`, roleLocation(field, "name"))
+      fieldNames.add(field.name)
+      if (containsOwnedType(field.type)) {
+        fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", "Owned resources cannot be stored in immutable records.", field.location)
       }
+      validateValueTypeReference(field.type, field.location, fail, undefined, records, typeParameters)
     }
-    return validateTypeReference(functionDeclaration.returnType, functionDeclaration.location, fail)
   }
-  if (expression.kind == "UnaryExpression") {
-    const operandType = inferExpressionType(expression.operand, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-    const operation = normalizeOperations
-      ? normalizeUnaryOperation(adaptedOperationFor(expression), operandType, expression.operand.location, fail)
-      : expression.operation
+  validateDirectRecordRecursion(declarations, records, fail)
 
-    if (normalizeOperations) setNormalizedOperation(expression, operation, unaryOperationSignatures[operation].result)
+  return records
+}
 
-    const signature = unaryOperationSignatures[operation]
+/**
+ * Rejects cycles composed solely of unmediated record fields.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration[]} declarations - Valid declarations.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function validateDirectRecordRecursion(declarations, records, fail) {
+  const complete = new Set()
+
+  /**
+   * Visits one declaration along an unmediated record path.
+   * @param {import("./types.js").RecordDeclaration} declaration - Current declaration.
+   * @param {Set<string>} active - Declaration identities active on this path.
+   * @returns {void}
+   */
+  function visit(declaration, active) {
+    if (complete.has(/** @type {string} */ (declaration.id))) return
+    const next = new Set(active)
+
+    next.add(/** @type {string} */ (declaration.id))
+    for (const field of declaration.fields) {
+      if (field.type.kind != "RecordType") continue
+      if (next.has(field.type.declarationId)) {
+        fail("ILLEGAL_RECORD_RECURSION", `Direct value-recursive field '${field.name}'.`, typeLocation(field.type, field.location))
+      }
+      const referenced = records.get(field.type.declarationId)
 
-    if (!signature) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown unary operation ${String(operation)}.`, expression.location)
-    if (operandType != signature.operand) {
-      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.operand}; received ${operandType}.`, expression.operand.location)
-    }
-    if (expression.type != signature.result) {
-      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `${operation} result type ${String(expression.type)}; expected ${signature.result}.`, expression.location)
+      if (referenced) visit(referenced, next)
     }
-    return signature.result
+    complete.add(/** @type {string} */ (declaration.id))
   }
-  if (expression.kind == "BinaryExpression") {
-    const leftType = inferExpressionType(expression.left, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-    const rightType = inferExpressionType(expression.right, scope, functions, fail, normalizeOperations)
-    const operation = normalizeOperations
-      ? normalizeBinaryOperation(adaptedOperationFor(expression), leftType, rightType, expression.left.location, expression.right.location, expression.location, fail)
-      : expression.operation
 
-    if (normalizeOperations) setNormalizedOperation(expression, operation, binaryOperationSignatures[operation].result)
+  for (const declaration of declarations) visit(declaration, new Set())
+}
 
-    const signature = binaryOperationSignatures[operation]
+/**
+ * Validates one non-void function and its complete control flow.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration} declaration - Function declaration.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {ErrorRegistry} errors - Error declarations by identity.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} callEffects - Internally inferred unchecked-error effects.
+ * @param {Set<string>} reservedValueNames - Module functions and nominal constructors unavailable to lexical bindings.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
+ * @param {Map<string, object>} loopOwners - Loop owner by module-local identity.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function validateFunction(declaration, functions, records, errors, callEffects, reservedValueNames, fail, normalizeOperations, loopOwners) {
+  const typeParameters = declarationTypeParameterIds(declaration)
+  const scope = createScope(undefined, declaration.body.statements, reservedValueNames, typeParameters)
 
-    if (!signature) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown binary operation ${String(operation)}.`, expression.location)
-    if (leftType != signature.left) {
-      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.left} left operand; received ${leftType}.`, expression.left.location)
-    }
-    if (rightType != signature.right) {
-      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.right} right operand; received ${rightType}.`, expression.right.location)
-    }
-    if (expression.type != signature.result) {
-      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `${operation} result type ${String(expression.type)}; expected ${signature.result}.`, expression.location)
-    }
-    return signature.result
+  for (const parameter of declaration.parameters) {
+    const type = validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records, typeParameters)
+
+    declareBinding(parameter.name, {knownValue: undefined, mutable: false, type}, roleLocation(parameter, "name"), scope, fail)
   }
 
-  const unexpected = /** @type {{kind: string, location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation}} */ (expression)
+  const returnType = validateReturnTypeReference(declaration.returnType, declaration.location, fail, records, typeParameters)
+  const returns = validateBlock(declaration.body, scope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail,
+    normalizeOperations, {owner: declaration, owners: loopOwners})
 
-  return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", unexpected.kind, unexpected.location)
+  if (!isVoidType(returnType) && returns.normal) {
+    fail("MISSING_RETURN", `Function '${declaration.name}' does not return on every reachable path.`, declaration.location)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates one ordered block and reports whether every path returns.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Block} block - Semantic block.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Scope belonging to this block.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType | undefined} returnType - Function return type, absent for entry points.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {ErrorRegistry} errors - Error declarations by identity.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} callEffects - Internally inferred unchecked-error effects.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
+ * @param {LoopFlowContext} loopContext - Active loop and owner identities.
+ * @returns {{normal: boolean, raises: Set<string>}} Reachable normal continuation and escaping error identities.
+ */
+function validateBlock(block, scope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, loopContext) {
+  let normal = true
+  const raises = new Set()
+
+  for (const statement of block.statements) {
+    if (!normal) fail("UNREACHABLE_STATEMENT", "Statement is unreachable.", statement.location)
+
+    if (statement.kind == "LocalDeclaration") {
+      const declaredType = validateValueTypeReference(statement.type, statement.location, fail, undefined, records, scope.typeParameters)
+      statement.initializer = normalizeOwnedMove(statement.initializer, declaredType, normalizeOperations, fail)
+      const initializerType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        statement.initializer, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an initializer", declaredType
+      )
+
+      scope.pending.delete(statement.name)
+      if (!sameType(initializerType, declaredType)) {
+        if (initializerType.kind == "OptionalType" && declaredType.kind != "OptionalType") {
+          fail("FAILURE_ABSENCE_CONFLATION", "Optional absence cannot be coerced into a value or typed failure.", statement.initializer.location)
+        }
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Initializer type ${typeDescription(initializerType)}; expected ${typeDescription(declaredType)}.`, statement.initializer.location)
+      }
+      declareBinding(statement.name, {
+        knownValue: knownValueForExpression(statement.initializer, scope),
+        mutable: statement.mutable,
+        type: declaredType
+      }, roleLocation(statement, "name"), scope, fail)
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.initializer, callEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "AssignmentStatement") {
+      const binding = resolveBinding(statement.target.name, statement.target.location, scope, fail)
+
+      if (binding.type.kind == "ErrorType") {
+        fail("IMMUTABLE_ASSIGNMENT", `Cannot assign to immutable catch binding '${statement.target.name}'.`, statement.target.location)
+      }
+      if (binding.type.kind == "OwnedResourceType" || binding.type.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") {
+        fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", "Owned resources cannot be reassigned or aliased.", statement.location)
+      }
+      const expressionType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        statement.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an assignment", binding.type
+      )
+
+      if (!binding.mutable) {
+        fail("IMMUTABLE_ASSIGNMENT", `Cannot assign to immutable binding '${statement.target.name}'.`, statement.target.location)
+      }
+      if (!sameType(expressionType, binding.type)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Assignment type ${typeDescription(expressionType)}; expected ${typeDescription(binding.type)}.`, statement.expression.location)
+      }
+      binding.knownValue = knownValueForExpression(statement.expression, scope)
+      scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.expression, callEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "PrivateFieldWriteStatement") {
+      const declaration = scope.currentClass
+
+      if (!declaration || !statement.receiver || statement.receiver.kind != "ReceiverExpression" ||
+        statement.receiver.classId != declaration.id) {
+        fail("ILLEGAL_PRIVATE_ACCESS", "Private field receiver must be the declaring class receiver.", statement.location)
+      }
+      const field = declaration.fields.find((candidate) => candidate.id == statement.field)
+
+      if (!field) fail("ILLEGAL_PRIVATE_ACCESS", "Private field identity is not owned by the declaring class.", statement.location)
+      statement.expression = normalizeOwnedMove(statement.expression, field.type, normalizeOperations, fail)
+      const expressionType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        statement.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a private field assignment", field.type
+      )
+
+      if (!sameType(expressionType, field.type)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Private field assignment type ${typeDescription(expressionType)}; expected ${typeDescription(field.type)}.`,
+          statement.expression.location)
+      }
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.expression, callEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "PrintStatement") {
+      const printedType = inferValueExpressionType(statement.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a print value")
+
+      if (printedType.kind == "OwnedResourceType" || printedType.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") {
+        fail("BORROW_ESCAPE", "Owned values cannot escape through printing or serialization.", statement.expression.location)
+      }
+      if (printedType.kind != "TypeReference") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Collections and records cannot be printed directly.", statement.expression.location)
+      }
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.expression, callEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "ExpressionStatement") {
+      if (!statement.expression || !["CallExpression", "EffectCallExpression", "MethodCallExpression"].includes(statement.expression.kind)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Expression statement must contain a direct or receiver call.", statement.location)
+      }
+      const expressionType = inferExpressionType(statement.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations)
+
+      if (expressionType != "void") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Expression statements may contain only void calls.", statement.expression.location)
+      }
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.expression, callEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "BreakStatement" || statement.kind == "ContinueStatement") {
+      const control = statement.kind == "BreakStatement" ? "break" : "continue"
+
+      if (!loopContext.nearest) {
+        if (typeof statement.targetLoopId == "string" && loopContext.owners.has(statement.targetLoopId) &&
+          loopContext.owners.get(statement.targetLoopId) !== loopContext.owner) {
+          fail("CROSS_FUNCTION_LOOP_TARGET", `${control[0].toUpperCase()}${control.slice(1)} target crosses a function boundary.`, statement.location)
+        }
+        fail(`ILLEGAL_${control.toUpperCase()}_CONTEXT`, `${control[0].toUpperCase()}${control.slice(1)} statement outside a loop.`, statement.location)
+      }
+      if (typeof statement.targetLoopId != "string" || !loopContext.owners.has(statement.targetLoopId)) {
+        fail("INVALID_LOOP_TARGET", `${control[0].toUpperCase()}${control.slice(1)} has an invalid loop target identity.`, statement.location)
+      }
+      if (loopContext.owners.get(statement.targetLoopId) !== loopContext.owner) {
+        fail("CROSS_FUNCTION_LOOP_TARGET", `${control[0].toUpperCase()}${control.slice(1)} target crosses a function boundary.`, statement.location)
+      }
+      if (statement.targetLoopId != loopContext.nearest.id) {
+        fail("INVALID_LOOP_TARGET", `${control[0].toUpperCase()}${control.slice(1)} must target the nearest enclosing loop.`, statement.location)
+      }
+      normal = false
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "ReturnStatement") {
+      if (!returnType) fail("ILLEGAL_RETURN_CONTEXT", "Return statement outside a function.", statement.location)
+      if (isVoidType(returnType)) {
+        if (statement.expression) {
+          fail("VOID_RETURN_VALUE", "Void function cannot return a value.", statement.expression.location)
+        }
+      } else {
+        if (!statement.expression) {
+          fail("MISSING_RETURN_VALUE", `Function return requires a ${typeDescription(returnType)} value.`, statement.location)
+        }
+        statement.expression = normalizeOwnedMove(statement.expression, returnType, normalizeOperations, fail)
+        const actualType = inferValueExpressionType(
+          statement.expression,
+          scope,
+          functions,
+          records,
+          fail,
+          normalizeOperations,
+          "a returned value",
+          returnType
+        )
+
+        if (!sameType(actualType, returnType)) {
+          fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Return type ${typeDescription(actualType)}; expected ${typeDescription(returnType)}.`, statement.expression.location)
+        }
+      }
+      if (statement.expression) addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.expression, callEffects)
+      normal = false
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "IfStatement") {
+      const conditionType = inferValueExpressionType(statement.condition, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a condition")
+
+      if (!isScalarType(conditionType, "boolean")) {
+        fail("NON_BOOLEAN_CONDITION", `If condition type ${typeDescription(conditionType)}; expected boolean.`, statement.condition.location)
+      }
+      const visibleBindings = bindingsVisibleFrom(scope)
+      const initialKnownValues = visibleBindings.map((binding) => binding.knownValue)
+      const consequentScope = createScope(scope, statement.consequent.statements)
+      const alternateScope = createScope(scope, statement.alternate?.statements ?? [])
+      applyPresenceNarrowing(statement.condition, scope, consequentScope, true)
+      applyPresenceNarrowing(statement.condition, scope, alternateScope, false)
+      const consequentReturns = validateBlock(statement.consequent, consequentScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, loopContext)
+      const consequentKnownValues = visibleBindings.map((binding) => binding.knownValue)
+
+      visibleBindings.forEach((binding, index) => {
+        binding.knownValue = initialKnownValues[index]
+      })
+      let alternateReturns = {normal: true, raises: new Set()}
+
+      if (statement.alternate) {
+        alternateReturns = validateBlock(statement.alternate, alternateScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, loopContext)
+      }
+      const alternateKnownValues = visibleBindings.map((binding) => binding.knownValue)
+
+      visibleBindings.forEach((binding, index) => {
+        if (!consequentReturns.normal && alternateReturns.normal) binding.knownValue = alternateKnownValues[index]
+        else if (consequentReturns.normal && !alternateReturns.normal) binding.knownValue = consequentKnownValues[index]
+        else if (consequentReturns.normal && alternateReturns.normal && consequentKnownValues[index] === alternateKnownValues[index]) {
+          binding.knownValue = consequentKnownValues[index]
+        } else binding.knownValue = undefined
+      })
+      const continuingProofs = !consequentReturns.normal && alternateReturns.normal
+        ? alternateScope.presenceProofs
+        : consequentReturns.normal && !alternateReturns.normal
+          ? consequentScope.presenceProofs
+          : consequentReturns.normal && alternateReturns.normal
+            ? new Set([...consequentScope.presenceProofs].filter((binding) => alternateScope.presenceProofs.has(binding)))
+            : new Set()
+      const visibleSet = new Set(visibleBindings)
+
+      scope.presenceProofs.clear()
+      for (const binding of continuingProofs) {
+        if (visibleSet.has(binding)) scope.presenceProofs.add(binding)
+      }
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.condition, callEffects)
+      addAll(raises, consequentReturns.raises)
+      addAll(raises, alternateReturns.raises)
+      normal = consequentReturns.normal || alternateReturns.normal
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "WhileStatement") {
+      const assignedOuterBindings = outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, scope)
+
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      const conditionType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        statement.condition, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a condition-controlled loop condition"
+      )
+
+      if (!isScalarType(conditionType, "boolean")) {
+        fail("NON_BOOLEAN_CONDITION", `While condition type ${typeDescription(conditionType)}; expected boolean.`, statement.condition.location)
+      }
+      const loopScope = createScope(scope, statement.body.statements)
+
+      applyPresenceNarrowing(statement.condition, scope, loopScope, true)
+      const bodyFlow = validateBlock(statement.body, loopScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail,
+        normalizeOperations, {nearest: statement, owner: loopContext.owner, owners: loopContext.owners})
+
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.condition, callEffects)
+      addAll(raises, bodyFlow.raises)
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "ForEachStatement") {
+      const listType = inferValueExpressionType(statement.list, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an iteration collection")
+
+      if (listType.kind != "ListType") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Iteration collection type ${typeDescription(listType)}; expected list.`, statement.list.location)
+      }
+      if (!statement.valueBinding || statement.valueBinding.kind != "ValueBinding") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Iteration requires one typed value binding.", statement.location)
+      }
+      if (statement.valueBinding.mutable !== false) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Iteration binding must be immutable.", statement.valueBinding.location ?? statement.location)
+      }
+      const bindingType = validateValueTypeReference(statement.valueBinding.type, statement.valueBinding.location, fail, undefined, records, scope.typeParameters)
+
+      if (!sameType(bindingType, listType.elementType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Iteration binding type ${typeDescription(bindingType)}; expected ${typeDescription(listType.elementType)}.`,
+          typeLocation(statement.valueBinding.type, statement.valueBinding.location))
+      }
+      const assignedOuterBindings = outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, scope)
+
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      const loopScope = createScope(scope, statement.body.statements)
+
+      declareBinding(statement.valueBinding.name, {
+        knownValue: undefined,
+        mutable: false,
+        type: bindingType
+      }, roleLocation(statement.valueBinding, "name"), loopScope, fail)
+      const bodyFlow = validateBlock(statement.body, loopScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail,
+        normalizeOperations, {nearest: statement, owner: loopContext.owner, owners: loopContext.owners})
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.list, callEffects)
+      addAll(raises, bodyFlow.raises)
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "ForEachMapStatement") {
+      const mapType = inferValueExpressionType(statement.map, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations,
+        "a map iteration collection")
+
+      if (mapType.kind != "OrderedMapType") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map iteration collection type ${typeDescription(mapType)}; expected ordered map.`, statement.map.location)
+      }
+      if (!statement.keyBinding || statement.keyBinding.kind != "ValueBinding" ||
+        !statement.valueBinding || statement.valueBinding.kind != "ValueBinding") {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Map iteration requires exact key and value bindings.", statement.location)
+      }
+      if (statement.keyBinding.mutable !== false || statement.valueBinding.mutable !== false) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Map iteration bindings must be immutable.",
+          statement.keyBinding.mutable !== false ? statement.keyBinding.location : statement.valueBinding.location)
+      }
+      const keyType = validateValueTypeReference(statement.keyBinding.type, statement.keyBinding.location, fail,
+        undefined, records, scope.typeParameters)
+      const valueType = validateValueTypeReference(statement.valueBinding.type, statement.valueBinding.location, fail,
+        undefined, records, scope.typeParameters)
+
+      if (!sameType(keyType, mapType.keyType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map iteration key binding type ${typeDescription(keyType)}; expected ${typeDescription(mapType.keyType)}.`,
+          typeLocation(statement.keyBinding.type, statement.keyBinding.location))
+      }
+      if (!sameType(valueType, mapType.valueType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map iteration value binding type ${typeDescription(valueType)}; expected ${typeDescription(mapType.valueType)}.`,
+          typeLocation(statement.valueBinding.type, statement.valueBinding.location))
+      }
+      const assignedOuterBindings = outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, scope)
+
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      const loopScope = createScope(scope, statement.body.statements)
+
+      declareBinding(statement.keyBinding.name, {knownValue: undefined, mutable: false, type: keyType},
+        roleLocation(statement.keyBinding, "name"), loopScope, fail)
+      declareBinding(statement.valueBinding.name, {knownValue: undefined, mutable: false, type: valueType},
+        roleLocation(statement.valueBinding, "name"), loopScope, fail)
+      const bodyFlow = validateBlock(statement.body, loopScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects,
+        fail, normalizeOperations, {nearest: statement, owner: loopContext.owner, owners: loopContext.owners})
+
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.map, callEffects)
+      addAll(raises, bodyFlow.raises)
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "RaiseStatement") {
+      if (!statement.error || statement.error.kind != "ErrorConstruction") {
+        fail("NON_ERROR_RAISE", "Raise requires one constructed semantic error.", statement.location)
+      }
+      const raisedType = validateErrorType(statement.error.error, statement.error.location, errors, fail)
+      const messageType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        statement.error.message, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an error message", scalarType("string")
+      )
+
+      if (!isScalarType(messageType, "string")) {
+        fail("NON_ERROR_RAISE", `Error message type ${typeDescription(messageType)}; expected string.`, statement.error.message.location)
+      }
+      addExpressionEffects(raises, statement.error.message, callEffects)
+      raises.add(raisedType.declarationId)
+      normal = false
+      continue
+    }
+    if (statement.kind == "TryStatement") {
+      const caughtType = validateErrorType(statement.catchType, statement.location, errors, fail)
+
+      if (!statement.catchBinding || statement.catchBinding.kind != "CatchBinding" || statement.catchBinding.mutable !== false) {
+        fail("INVALID_ERROR_HANDLER", "Catch requires one immutable typed binding.", statement.catchBinding?.location ?? statement.location)
+      }
+      const bindingType = validateErrorType(statement.catchBinding.type, statement.catchBinding.location, errors, fail)
+
+      if (bindingType.declarationId != caughtType.declarationId) {
+        fail("INVALID_ERROR_HANDLER", "Catch binding type must exactly match its handler type.", statement.catchBinding.location)
+      }
+      const bodyAssignedOuterBindings = outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, scope)
+      const assignedOuterBindings = new Set(bodyAssignedOuterBindings)
+
+      outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.catchBody, scope, assignedOuterBindings)
+      const bodyScope = createScope(scope, statement.body.statements)
+      const bodyFlow = validateBlock(statement.body, bodyScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, loopContext)
+      const catchScope = createScope(scope, statement.catchBody.statements)
+
+      for (const binding of bodyAssignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        catchScope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+
+      declareBinding(statement.catchBinding.name, {
+        knownValue: undefined,
+        mutable: false,
+        type: bindingType
+      }, roleLocation(statement.catchBinding, "name"), catchScope, fail)
+      const catchFlow = validateBlock(statement.catchBody, catchScope, returnType, functions, records, errors, callEffects, fail, normalizeOperations, loopContext)
+
+      if (!bodyFlow.raises.has(caughtType.declarationId)) {
+        fail("UNREACHABLE_HANDLER", `Handler for '${errors.get(caughtType.declarationId)?.name}' cannot be reached.`, typeLocation(statement.catchType, statement.location))
+      }
+      bodyFlow.raises.delete(caughtType.declarationId)
+      addAll(raises, bodyFlow.raises)
+      addAll(raises, catchFlow.raises)
+      normal = bodyFlow.normal || catchFlow.normal
+      for (const binding of assignedOuterBindings) {
+        binding.knownValue = undefined
+        scope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+      }
+      continue
+    }
+
+    const unexpected = /** @type {{kind: string, location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation}} */ (statement)
+
+    fail("UNSUPPORTED_STATEMENT", unexpected.kind, unexpected.location)
+  }
+
+  return {normal, raises}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates one exact nominal error type.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Owning location.
+ * @param {ErrorRegistry} errors - Visible error declarations.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").ErrorType} Validated type.
+ */
+function validateErrorType(type, location, errors, fail) {
+  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type)) {
+    return fail("UNKNOWN_ERROR", "Handler or raise is missing an exact error type.", location)
+  }
+  const candidate = /** @type {import("./types.js").ErrorType} */ (type)
+
+  if (candidate.kind != "ErrorType" ||
+    Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "declarationId,kind" ||
+    typeof candidate.declarationId != "string" || !errors.has(candidate.declarationId)) {
+    fail("UNKNOWN_ERROR", `Unknown error declaration '${String(candidate.declarationId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+  }
+
+  return candidate
+}
+
+/**
+ * Adds every source value to one set.
+ * @param {Set<string>} target - Destination identities.
+ * @param {Set<string>} source - Source identities.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function addAll(target, source) {
+  for (const value of source) target.add(value)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Adds unchecked errors raised while evaluating one expression.
+ * @param {Set<string>} target - Destination identities.
+ * @param {unknown} expression - Candidate semantic expression.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} callEffects - Inferred call effects.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} [methodEffects] - Inferred effects by resolved method identity.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function addExpressionEffects(target, expression, callEffects, methodEffects = new Map()) {
+  const pending = [expression]
+  const seen = new Set()
+
+  while (pending.length > 0) {
+    const value = pending.pop()
+
+    if (!value || typeof value != "object" || seen.has(value)) continue
+    seen.add(value)
+    if (Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "CallExpression") addAll(target, callEffects.get(Reflect.get(value, "callee")) ?? new Set())
+    if (Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "MethodCallExpression" || Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "ReferenceConstruction") {
+      const failures = Reflect.get(value, "failureIds")
+      if (Array.isArray(failures)) for (const failure of failures) if (typeof failure == "string") target.add(failure)
+      if (Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "MethodCallExpression") {
+        addAll(target, methodEffects.get(Reflect.get(value, "method")) ?? new Set())
+      }
+    }
+    if (Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "EffectCallExpression") {
+      const resolution = Reflect.get(value, "resolution")
+      const failures = resolution && typeof resolution == "object" ? Reflect.get(resolution, "failureIds") : undefined
+
+      if (Array.isArray(failures)) for (const failure of failures) if (typeof failure == "string") target.add(failure)
+    }
+    for (const [key, child] of Object.entries(value)) {
+      if (["location", "sourceProvenance", "resolution"].includes(key)) continue
+      if (Array.isArray(child)) pending.push(...child)
+      else if (child && typeof child == "object") pending.push(child)
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Derives unchecked-error propagation over the resolved finite function graph.
+ * This is validator state, never a checked effect in the public function signature.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Resolved functions.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} [seedEffects] - Dependency effects keyed by local import name.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [localFunctionNames] - Functions whose bodies belong to the current module.
+ * @returns {Map<string, Set<string>>} Escaping error identities by source-visible function name.
+ */
+function inferCallEffects(functions, seedEffects = new Map(), localFunctionNames = new Set(functions.keys())) {
+  const effects = new Map([...functions.keys()].map((name) => [name, new Set(seedEffects.get(name) ?? [])]))
+  let changed = true
+
+  while (changed) {
+    changed = false
+    for (const name of localFunctionNames) {
+      const declaration = functions.get(name)
+
+      if (!declaration) continue
+      const next = syntacticBlockEffects(declaration.body, effects)
+      const current = /** @type {Set<string>} */ (effects.get(name))
+
+      for (const error of next) {
+        if (!current.has(error)) {
+          current.add(error)
+          changed = true
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return effects
+}
+
+/**
+ * Computes escaping identities from one block for the call-effect fixed point.
+ * @param {unknown} block - Candidate block.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} callEffects - Current fixed-point state.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} [methodEffects] - Current method fixed-point state.
+ * @returns {Set<string>} Escaping identities.
+ */
+function syntacticBlockEffects(block, callEffects, methodEffects = new Map()) {
+  const result = new Set()
+  const statements = Reflect.get(/** @type {object} */ (block ?? {}), "statements")
+
+  if (!Array.isArray(statements)) return result
+  for (const statement of statements) {
+    if (!statement || typeof statement != "object") continue
+    const kind = Reflect.get(statement, "kind")
+
+    if (kind == "RaiseStatement") {
+      const construction = Reflect.get(statement, "error")
+      const type = construction && typeof construction == "object" ? Reflect.get(construction, "error") : undefined
+      const declarationId = type && typeof type == "object" ? Reflect.get(type, "declarationId") : undefined
+
+      if (typeof declarationId == "string") result.add(declarationId)
+      if (construction && typeof construction == "object") {
+        addExpressionEffects(result, Reflect.get(construction, "message"), callEffects, methodEffects)
+      }
+      continue
+    }
+    if (kind == "TryStatement") {
+      const bodyEffects = syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "body"), callEffects, methodEffects)
+      const catchType = Reflect.get(statement, "catchType")
+      const caughtId = catchType && typeof catchType == "object" ? Reflect.get(catchType, "declarationId") : undefined
+
+      if (typeof caughtId == "string" && bodyEffects.delete(caughtId)) {
+        addAll(bodyEffects, syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "catchBody"), callEffects, methodEffects))
+      }
+      addAll(result, bodyEffects)
+      continue
+    }
+    if (kind == "IfStatement") {
+      addExpressionEffects(result, Reflect.get(statement, "condition"), callEffects, methodEffects)
+      addAll(result, syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "consequent"), callEffects, methodEffects))
+      addAll(result, syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "alternate"), callEffects, methodEffects))
+      continue
+    }
+    if (kind == "ForEachStatement" || kind == "ForEachMapStatement") {
+      addExpressionEffects(result, Reflect.get(statement, kind == "ForEachStatement" ? "list" : "map"), callEffects,
+        methodEffects)
+      addAll(result, syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "body"), callEffects, methodEffects))
+      continue
+    }
+    if (kind == "WhileStatement") {
+      addExpressionEffects(result, Reflect.get(statement, "condition"), callEffects, methodEffects)
+      addAll(result, syntacticBlockEffects(Reflect.get(statement, "body"), callEffects, methodEffects))
+      continue
+    }
+    for (const key of ["expression", "initializer"]) {
+      addExpressionEffects(result, Reflect.get(statement, key), callEffects, methodEffects)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return result
+}
+
+/**
+ * Derives the escaping user-defined error sets for local functions and resolved class methods.
+ * The fixed point is computed over every unchecked error; capability failures are projected out
+ * because call sites already carry their capability-failure boundary through resolution metadata.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticModule} module - Resolved module.
+ * @param {Map<string, Set<string>>} [seedEffects] - Dependency effects keyed by local import name.
+ * @returns {{functions: Map<string, Set<string>>, methods: Map<string, Set<string>>}} Escaping user-defined error identities by function name and method identity.
+ */
+export function inferEscapingErrorEffects(module, seedEffects = new Map()) {
+  const functions = new Map(module.functions.map((declaration) => [declaration.name, declaration]))
+  const functionEffects = new Map([...functions.keys()].map((name) => [name, new Set(seedEffects.get(name) ?? [])]))
+  const classes = module.classes ?? []
+  const methodEffects = new Map()
+  const capabilityFailureIds = new Set((module.capabilities ?? []).flatMap(({failures}) => failures).map(({id}) => id))
+
+  for (const declaration of classes) for (const method of declaration.methods) methodEffects.set(method.id, new Set())
+  let changed = true
+
+  while (changed) {
+    changed = false
+    for (const declaration of module.functions) {
+      const current = /** @type {Set<string>} */ (functionEffects.get(declaration.name))
+      for (const error of syntacticBlockEffects(declaration.body, functionEffects, methodEffects)) {
+        if (!current.has(error)) { current.add(error); changed = true }
+      }
+    }
+    for (const declaration of classes) {
+      for (const method of declaration.methods) {
+        const current = /** @type {Set<string>} */ (methodEffects.get(method.id))
+        for (const error of syntacticBlockEffects(method.body, functionEffects, methodEffects)) {
+          if (!current.has(error)) { current.add(error); changed = true }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (const effects of [functionEffects, methodEffects]) {
+    for (const errors of effects.values()) {
+      for (const error of [...errors]) if (capabilityFailureIds.has(error)) errors.delete(error)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {functions: functionEffects, methods: methodEffects}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a lexical scope with declarations marked pending until visited.
+ * @param {Scope | undefined} parent - Enclosing scope.
+ * @param {{kind: string, name?: string}[]} statements - Scope statements.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [reservedNames] - Names unavailable to root bindings.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [typeParameters] - Declaration-scoped type parameters.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration} [currentClass] - Declaring class for receiver-private access.
+ * @returns {Scope} Scope.
+ */
+function createScope(parent, statements, reservedNames = new Set(), typeParameters = parent?.typeParameters ?? new Set(),
+  currentClass = parent?.currentClass) {
+  const pending = new Set(statements.filter((statement) => statement.kind == "LocalDeclaration")
+    .map((statement) => /** @type {{name: string}} */ (statement).name))
+
+  return {
+    bindings: new Map(),
+    currentClass,
+    parent,
+    pending,
+    presenceProofs: new Set(parent?.presenceProofs ?? []),
+    typeParameters,
+    usedNames: parent?.usedNames ?? new Set(reservedNames)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Applies a simple-identifier presence proof to exactly the branch where the test is true.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} condition - Validated branch condition.
+ * @param {Scope} sourceScope - Scope containing the tested binding.
+ * @param {Scope} branchScope - Branch-local proof scope.
+ * @param {boolean} branchWhenTrue - Whether this is the condition's true branch.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function applyPresenceNarrowing(condition, sourceScope, branchScope, branchWhenTrue) {
+  let test = condition
+  let presentWhenTrue = true
+
+  if (condition.kind == "UnaryExpression" && condition.operation == "BooleanNot" &&
+    condition.operand.kind == "OptionalIsPresent") {
+    test = condition.operand
+    presentWhenTrue = false
+  }
+  if (test.kind != "OptionalIsPresent") return
+  const binding = findBinding(test.operand.name, sourceScope)
+
+  if (!binding) return
+  if (branchWhenTrue == presentWhenTrue) branchScope.presenceProofs.add(binding)
+  else branchScope.presenceProofs.delete(binding)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Adds one binding while rejecting duplicates and shadowing.
+ * @param {string} name - Binding name.
+ * @param {Binding} binding - Binding metadata.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Declaration location.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Current scope.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function declareBinding(name, binding, location, scope, fail) {
+  if (scope.usedNames.has(name)) fail("DUPLICATE_BINDING", `Duplicate or shadowed binding '${name}'.`, location)
+
+  scope.bindings.set(name, binding)
+  scope.usedNames.add(name)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Resolves one identifier and distinguishes use-before-declaration.
+ * @param {string} name - Binding name.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Reference location.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Current scope.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {Binding} Binding.
+ */
+function resolveBinding(name, location, scope, fail) {
+  for (let current = /** @type {Scope | undefined} */ (scope); current; current = current.parent) {
+    const binding = current.bindings.get(name)
+
+    if (binding) return binding
+    if (current.pending.has(name)) {
+      return fail("USE_BEFORE_DECLARATION", `Binding '${name}' is used before its declaration.`, location)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return fail("UNRESOLVED_BINDING", `Unknown binding '${name}'.`, location)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates one semantic value type reference.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate semantic type reference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Owning source location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {Set<object>} [seen] - Active recursive type path.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} [records] - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [typeParameters] - Type-variable identities in declaration scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} Validated value type.
+ */
+function validateValueTypeReference(type, location, fail, seen, records = new Map(), typeParameters = new Set()) {
+  const candidate = validateTypeReference(type, location, fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+
+  if (isVoidType(candidate)) return fail("VOID_AS_VALUE", "Void is valid only as a function return type.", typeLocation(type, location))
+
+  return candidate
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates one function return type reference.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate semantic return type reference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Owning source location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} [records] - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [typeParameters] - Type-variable identities in declaration scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} Validated return type.
+ */
+function validateReturnTypeReference(type, location, fail, records = new Map(), typeParameters = new Set()) {
+  return validateTypeReference(type, location, fail, new Set(), records, typeParameters)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates one recursive semantic type-reference shape.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate semantic type reference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Owning source location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {Set<object>} [seen] - Active recursive type path.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} [records] - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {Set<string>} [typeParameters] - Type-variable identities in declaration scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} Validated type.
+ */
+function validateTypeReference(type, location, fail, seen = new Set(), records = new Map(), typeParameters = new Set()) {
+  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type)) {
+    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported semantic type.", location)
+  }
+
+  const candidate = /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} */ (type)
+
+  if (["ListType", "MapType", "OptionalType", "OrderedMapType", "RecordType"].includes(candidate.kind) &&
+    containsOwnedType(candidate)) {
+    fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", "Owned resources and references cannot be nested in value or generic types.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+  }
+
+  if (candidate.kind == "TypeReference") {
+    if (!isScalarTypeName(candidate.name) && candidate.name != "void") {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported scalar or void return type.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "TypeVariableReference") {
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "kind,location,parameterId" ||
+      typeof candidate.parameterId != "string" || !typeParameters.has(candidate.parameterId)) {
+      fail("FREE_TYPE_VARIABLE", `Free or unknown type variable '${String(candidate.parameterId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "RecordType") {
+    const keys = Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",")
+    const declaration = records.get(candidate.declarationId)
+
+    if (!(["arguments,declarationId,kind", "declarationId,kind"].includes(keys)) ||
+      typeof candidate.declarationId != "string" || !declaration) {
+      fail("UNKNOWN_RECORD", `Unknown record declaration '${String(candidate.declarationId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    const expectedArity = declaration.typeParameters?.length ?? 0
+
+    if (expectedArity > 0 && candidate.arguments === undefined) {
+      fail("RAW_GENERIC_APPLICATION", `Generic record '${declaration.name}' requires ${expectedArity} type arguments.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    if (expectedArity == 0 && candidate.arguments !== undefined) {
+      fail("GENERIC_ARITY_MISMATCH", `Non-generic record '${declaration.name}' does not accept type arguments.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    const candidateArguments = candidate.arguments
+
+    if (candidateArguments !== undefined && (!Array.isArray(candidateArguments) ||
+      candidateArguments.some((_argument, index) => !Object.hasOwn(candidateArguments, index)))) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Generic record arguments must be a dense ordered array.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    const arguments_ = candidate.arguments ?? []
+
+    if (arguments_.length != expectedArity) {
+      fail("GENERIC_ARITY_MISMATCH", `Record '${declaration.name}' has ${arguments_.length} type arguments; expected ${expectedArity}.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    if (seen.has(candidate)) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Recursive generic applications cannot contain cycles.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    seen.add(candidate)
+    for (const argument of arguments_) {
+      validateValueTypeReference(argument, typeLocation(argument, location), fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+    }
+    seen.delete(candidate)
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "ReferenceType") {
+    const classes = referenceClassesFor(records)
+
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "declarationId,kind" ||
+      typeof candidate.declarationId != "string" || !classes.has(candidate.declarationId)) {
+      fail("UNKNOWN_CLASS", `Unknown reference class declaration '${String(candidate.declarationId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "OwnedResourceType") {
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "kind,resourceId" ||
+      typeof candidate.resourceId != "string" || !resourceIdsByRecordRegistry.get(records)?.has(candidate.resourceId)) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown owned resource '${String(candidate.resourceId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") {
+    const classes = referenceClassesFor(records)
+
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "declarationId,kind" ||
+      typeof candidate.declarationId != "string" || classes.get(candidate.declarationId)?.ownership?.kind != "ownedResource") {
+      fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown owned reference '${String(candidate.declarationId)}'.`, typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "ListType") {
+    if (seen.has(candidate)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Recursive collection types cannot contain cycles.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    seen.add(candidate)
+    const elementType = validateValueTypeReference(candidate.elementType, typeLocation(candidate, location, "elementType"), fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+
+    seen.delete(candidate)
+
+    if (candidate.elementType !== elementType) candidate.elementType = elementType
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "MapType" || candidate.kind == "OrderedMapType") {
+    const expectedFields = candidate.kind == "OrderedMapType" ? "keyType,kind,order,valueType" : "keyType,kind,valueType"
+
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != expectedFields) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Malformed ${candidate.kind == "OrderedMapType" ? "ordered map" : "map"} type.`,
+        typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    if (candidate.kind == "OrderedMapType" && candidate.order != "insertion") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Ordered map type requires insertion order.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    if (seen.has(candidate)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Recursive collection types cannot contain cycles.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    seen.add(candidate)
+    const keyType = validateValueTypeReference(candidate.keyType, typeLocation(candidate, location, "keyType"), fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+
+    if (!isScalarType(keyType, "string")) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map key type ${typeDescription(keyType)}; expected string.`, typeLocation(candidate.keyType, location))
+    }
+    const valueType = validateValueTypeReference(candidate.valueType, typeLocation(candidate, location, "valueType"), fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+
+    seen.delete(candidate)
+
+    if (candidate.keyType !== keyType) candidate.keyType = /** @type {import("./types.js").TypeReference} */ (keyType)
+    if (candidate.valueType !== valueType) candidate.valueType = valueType
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+  if (candidate.kind == "OptionalType") {
+    if (Object.keys(candidate).filter((key) => key != "sourceProvenance").sort().join(",") != "kind,valueType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed optional type.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    }
+    if (seen.has(candidate)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Recursive optional types cannot contain cycles.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+    seen.add(candidate)
+    const valueType = validateValueTypeReference(candidate.valueType, typeLocation(candidate, location, "valueType"), fail, seen, records, typeParameters)
+
+    seen.delete(candidate)
+    if (valueType.kind == "OptionalType") {
+      fail("INVALID_OPTIONAL_CONSTITUENT", "Optional values cannot directly contain another optional.", typeLocation(candidate, location, "valueType"))
+    }
+    if (candidate.valueType !== valueType) candidate.valueType = valueType
+
+    return candidate
+  }
+
+  return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported semantic type.", typeLocation(candidate, location))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Retrieves the reference-class registry attached to the record validation context.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record validation registry.
+ * @returns {ClassRegistry} Reference classes.
+ */
+function referenceClassesFor(records) {
+  return referenceClassesByRecordRegistry.get(records) ?? new Map()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Infers a value expression and rejects the non-value result of a void call.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Semantic expression.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible lexical scope.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Module function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to normalize frontend intent and call resolution.
+ * @param {string} context - Value context for diagnostics.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} [expectedType] - Contextual collection type.
+ * @param {boolean} [inferCollectionElements] - Whether a generic-call evidence pass may infer nonempty collection literals.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} Expression value type.
+ */
+function inferValueExpressionType(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, context, expectedType,
+  inferCollectionElements = false) {
+  const allowOwnedBorrow = context == "an effect argument" || context == "a method receiver"
+  const type = inferExpressionType(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, expectedType,
+    inferCollectionElements, allowOwnedBorrow)
+
+  if (type == "void") return fail("VOID_AS_VALUE", `Void call cannot be used as ${context}.`, expression.location)
+  if (type.kind == "ErrorType") return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Error value cannot be used as ${context}.`, expression.location)
+
+  return type
+}
+
+/**
+ * Infers and validates one expression.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Semantic expression.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible lexical scope.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Module function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to replace transient frontend operation intent.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} [expectedType] - Contextual collection type.
+ * @param {boolean} [inferCollectionElements] - Whether a generic-call evidence pass may infer nonempty collection literals.
+ * @param {boolean} [allowOwnedBorrow] - Whether this exact call position admits an immediate borrow.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticBindingType | "void"} Expression type.
+ */
+function inferExpressionType(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, expectedType,
+  inferCollectionElements = false, allowOwnedBorrow = false) {
+  if (expression.kind == "IdentifierExpression") return resolveBinding(expression.name, expression.location, scope, fail).type
+
+  if (expression.kind == "ReceiverExpression") {
+    if (!scope.currentClass || expression.classId != scope.currentClass.id) {
+      return fail("ILLEGAL_PRIVATE_ACCESS", "Receiver expression is valid only inside its declaring class.", expression.location)
+    }
+
+    return {declarationId: /** @type {string} */ (scope.currentClass.id), kind: "ReferenceType"}
+  }
+
+  if (expression.kind == "PrivateFieldRead") {
+    const declaration = scope.currentClass
+
+    if (!declaration || !expression.receiver || expression.receiver.kind != "ReceiverExpression" ||
+      expression.receiver.classId != declaration.id) {
+      return fail("ILLEGAL_PRIVATE_ACCESS", "Private field receiver must be the declaring class receiver.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const field = declaration.fields.find((candidate) => candidate.id == expression.field)
+
+    if (!field) return fail("ILLEGAL_PRIVATE_ACCESS", "Private field identity is not owned by the declaring class.", expression.location)
+
+    return field.type
+  }
+
+  if (expression.kind == "OwnedBorrowExpression") {
+    if (!allowOwnedBorrow) {
+      return fail("BORROW_ESCAPE", "BORROW_ESCAPE: Owned borrows are valid only as immediate capability arguments or method receivers.",
+        expression.location)
+    }
+    if (expression.mode != "shared" && expression.mode != "exclusive") {
+      return fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", "INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW: Owned borrow mode must be shared or exclusive.",
+        expression.location)
+    }
+    const borrowed = inferValueExpressionType(expression.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an owned borrow")
+
+    if (borrowed.kind != "OwnedResourceType" && borrowed.kind != "OwnedReferenceType") {
+      return fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", "Borrowed expression must be an owned resource or owned reference.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (!sameType(borrowed, expression.type)) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", "Borrow metadata does not match its resource place.", expression.location)
+    }
+    return borrowed
+  }
+
+  if (expression.kind == "OwnedMoveExpression") {
+    const moved = inferValueExpressionType(expression.expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an owned move")
+
+    if (moved.kind != "OwnedResourceType" && moved.kind != "OwnedReferenceType") {
+      return fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_TRANSFER", "Moved expression must be an owned resource or owned reference.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (!sameType(moved, expression.type)) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", "Move metadata does not match its resource place.", expression.location)
+    }
+    return moved
+  }
+
+  if (expression.kind == "ErrorMessageRead") {
+    if (!expression.receiver || expression.receiver.kind != "IdentifierExpression") {
+      return fail("INVALID_MEMBER_RECEIVER", "Error message receiver must be one catch binding.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const receiver = resolveBinding(expression.receiver.name, expression.receiver.location, scope, fail)
+
+    if (receiver.type.kind != "ErrorType") {
+      return fail("INVALID_MEMBER_RECEIVER", "Message member requires a typed error catch binding.", expression.receiver.location)
+    }
+
+    return scalarType("string")
+  }
+
+  if (expression.kind == "IntegerLiteral") {
+    if (!Number.isSafeInteger(expression.value)) fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Non-safe integer literal.", expression.location)
+    return scalarType("integer")
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "BooleanLiteral") {
+    if (typeof Reflect.get(expression, "value") != "boolean") {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Invalid boolean literal value.", expression.location)
+    }
+    return scalarType("boolean")
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "StringLiteral") {
+    const value = Reflect.get(expression, "value")
+
+    if (typeof value != "string" || !hasOnlyUnicodeScalars(value)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Invalid Unicode string literal.", expression.location)
+    }
+    return scalarType("string")
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "OptionalNone") {
+    if (!expectedType || expectedType.kind != "OptionalType") {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "Optional absence requires an explicit optional type.", expression.location)
+    }
+
+    return expectedType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "OptionalSome") {
+    if (!expectedType || expectedType.kind != "OptionalType") {
+      const valueType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        expression.value, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an optional present value"
+      )
+
+      if (valueType.kind == "OptionalType") {
+        return fail("INVALID_OPTIONAL_CONSTITUENT", "Optional values cannot directly contain another optional.", expression.value.location)
+      }
+
+      return {kind: "OptionalType", valueType}
+    }
+    const valueType = inferValueExpressionType(
+      expression.value, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an optional present value", expectedType.valueType
+    )
+
+    if (!sameType(valueType, expectedType.valueType)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Optional present type ${typeDescription(valueType)}; expected ${typeDescription(expectedType.valueType)}.`, expression.value.location)
+    }
+
+    return expectedType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "OptionalIsPresent") {
+    if (!expression.operand || expression.operand.kind != "IdentifierExpression") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Optional presence test requires one simple identifier.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const operandType = resolveBinding(expression.operand.name, expression.operand.location, scope, fail).type
+
+    if (operandType.kind != "OptionalType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Presence test received ${typeDescription(operandType)}; expected optional.`, expression.operand.location)
+    }
+
+    return scalarType("boolean")
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "OptionalUnwrap") {
+    if (!expression.operand || expression.operand.kind != "IdentifierExpression") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Optional unwrap requires one simple identifier.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const binding = resolveBinding(expression.operand.name, expression.operand.location, scope, fail)
+
+    if (binding.type.kind != "OptionalType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Optional unwrap received ${typeDescription(binding.type)}; expected optional.`, expression.operand.location)
+    }
+    if (!scope.presenceProofs.has(binding)) {
+      return fail("UNCHECKED_OPTIONAL_UNWRAP", `Optional binding '${expression.operand.name}' is not proven present.`, expression.location)
+    }
+
+    return binding.type.valueType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "ListLiteral") {
+    if (!Array.isArray(expression.elements)) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "List literal elements must be a dense source-ordered array.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if ((!expectedType || expectedType.kind != "ListType") &&
+      (!inferCollectionElements || expression.elements.length == 0)) {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "List literal requires an explicit recursive list type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType | undefined} */
+    let inferredElementType
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.elements.length; index++) {
+      if (!Object.hasOwn(expression.elements, index)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Sparse list literals are outside the implemented subset.", expression.location)
+      }
+      const element = expression.elements[index]
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(
+        element, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a list element",
+        expectedType?.kind == "ListType" ? expectedType.elementType : inferredElementType, inferCollectionElements
+      )
+
+      inferredElementType ??= actual
+      const requiredElementType = expectedType?.kind == "ListType" ? expectedType.elementType : inferredElementType
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, requiredElementType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `List element type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(requiredElementType)}.`, element.location)
+      }
+    }
+
+    return expectedType?.kind == "ListType"
+      ? expectedType
+      : {elementType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (inferredElementType), kind: "ListType"}
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "MapLiteral") {
+    if (expectedType && expectedType.kind != "MapType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map literal context ${typeDescription(expectedType)}; expected map.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    if (!expectedType && !inferCollectionElements) {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "Map literal requires an explicit recursive map type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (expectedType?.kind == "MapType" && !isScalarType(expectedType.keyType, "string")) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Map key type must be string.", typeLocation(expectedType.keyType, expression.location))
+    }
+    const entries = validateMapLiteralEntries(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations,
+      inferCollectionElements)
+
+    if (!expectedType && entries.length == 0) {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "Empty map literal requires an explicit recursive map type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType | undefined} */
+    let inferredValueType
+
+    for (const entry of entries) {
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(
+        entry.value, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a map value",
+        expectedType?.kind == "MapType" ? expectedType.valueType : inferredValueType, inferCollectionElements
+      )
+      inferredValueType ??= actual
+      const requiredValueType = expectedType?.kind == "MapType" ? expectedType.valueType : inferredValueType
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, requiredValueType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map value type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(requiredValueType)}.`, entry.value.location)
+      }
+    }
+
+    return expectedType?.kind == "MapType" ? expectedType : {
+      keyType: scalarType("string"),
+      kind: "MapType",
+      valueType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (inferredValueType)
+    }
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "OrderedMapLiteral") {
+    if (expectedType && expectedType.kind != "OrderedMapType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Ordered-map literal context ${typeDescription(expectedType)}; expected ordered map.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    if (!expectedType && !inferCollectionElements) {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "Ordered-map literal requires an explicit recursive ordered-map type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (expectedType?.kind == "OrderedMapType" && !isScalarType(expectedType.keyType, "string")) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Ordered-map key type must be string.", typeLocation(expectedType.keyType, expression.location))
+    }
+    const entries = validateMapLiteralEntries(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations,
+      inferCollectionElements)
+
+    if (!expectedType && entries.length == 0) {
+      return fail("MISSING_TYPE", "Empty ordered-map literal requires an explicit recursive ordered-map type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType | undefined} */
+    let inferredValueType
+
+    for (const entry of entries) {
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(
+        entry.value, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "an ordered-map value",
+        expectedType?.kind == "OrderedMapType" ? expectedType.valueType : inferredValueType, inferCollectionElements
+      )
+      inferredValueType ??= actual
+      const requiredValueType = expectedType?.kind == "OrderedMapType" ? expectedType.valueType : inferredValueType
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, requiredValueType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Ordered-map value type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(requiredValueType)}.`,
+          entry.value.location)
+      }
+    }
+
+    return expectedType?.kind == "OrderedMapType" ? expectedType : {
+      keyType: scalarType("string"),
+      kind: "OrderedMapType",
+      order: "insertion",
+      valueType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (inferredValueType)
+    }
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "ListIndexExpression") {
+    const collectionType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.collection, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a list receiver")
+    const indexType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.index, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a list index", scalarType("integer"))
+
+    if (collectionType.kind != "ListType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `List index receiver type ${typeDescription(collectionType)}; expected list.`, expression.collection.location)
+    }
+    if (!isScalarType(indexType, "integer")) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `List index type ${typeDescription(indexType)}; expected integer.`, expression.index.location)
+    }
+    const knownCollection = knownValueForExpression(expression.collection, scope)
+    const knownIndex = knownValueForExpression(expression.index, scope)
+
+    if (knownCollection?.kind == "ListLiteral" && knownIndex?.kind == "IntegerLiteral" &&
+      (knownIndex.value < 0 || knownIndex.value >= knownCollection.elements.length)) {
+      fail("INDEX_OUT_OF_BOUNDS", `List index ${knownIndex.value} is outside a literal list of size ${knownCollection.elements.length}.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    const proven = provenListElement(expression.collection, expression.index, scope)
+
+    validateAccessTotality(expression, proven !== undefined, normalizeOperations, fail)
+
+    return collectionType.elementType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "MapLookupExpression") {
+    const collectionType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.collection, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a map receiver")
+    const keyType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.key, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a map key", scalarType("string"))
+
+    if (collectionType.kind != "MapType" && collectionType.kind != "OrderedMapType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map lookup receiver type ${typeDescription(collectionType)}; expected map.`, expression.collection.location)
+    }
+    if (!isScalarType(keyType, "string")) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Map lookup key type ${typeDescription(keyType)}; expected string.`, expression.key.location)
+    }
+    const knownCollection = knownValueForExpression(expression.collection, scope)
+    const knownKey = knownValueForExpression(expression.key, scope)
+
+    if ((knownCollection?.kind == "MapLiteral" || knownCollection?.kind == "OrderedMapLiteral") &&
+      knownKey?.kind == "StringLiteral" &&
+      !knownCollection.entries.some((entry) => entry.key.value == knownKey.value)) {
+      fail("MISSING_MAP_KEY", `Map key '${knownKey.value}' is absent from the literal initializer.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    const proven = provenMapValue(expression.collection, expression.key, scope)
+
+    validateAccessTotality(expression, proven !== undefined, normalizeOperations, fail)
+
+    return collectionType.valueType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "CollectionSizeExpression") {
+    const collectionType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.collection, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a collection-size receiver")
+
+    if (collectionType.kind != "ListType" && collectionType.kind != "MapType" && collectionType.kind != "OrderedMapType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Collection size receiver type ${typeDescription(collectionType)}; expected list or map.`, expression.collection.location)
+    }
+    const collectionKind = collectionType.kind == "ListType" ? "list" : "map"
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) {
+      if (expression.collectionKind !== undefined && expression.collectionKind != collectionKind) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Collection size operation does not match its receiver type.", expression.location)
+      }
+      expression.collectionKind = collectionKind
+    }
+    else if (expression.collectionKind != collectionKind) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Collection size kind does not match its receiver type.", expression.location)
+    }
+
+    return scalarType("integer")
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "EffectCallExpression") {
+    if (!Array.isArray(expression.arguments) || expression.arguments.length != expression.resolution.parameterTypes.length) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Effect call argument count does not match its authorized operation.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const resourceFlow = expression.resolution.resourceFlow
+
+    if (resourceFlow.kind == "borrow" || resourceFlow.kind == "close") {
+      const borrow = expression.arguments[resourceFlow.parameterIndex]
+      const expectedMode = resourceFlow.kind == "close" ? "exclusive" : "shared"
+
+      if (borrow?.kind != "OwnedBorrowExpression" || borrow.mode != expectedMode) {
+        fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", `INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW: ${resourceFlow.kind} requires an immediate ${expectedMode} borrow.`,
+          borrow?.location ?? expression.location)
+      }
+    }
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index += 1) {
+      const expected = identityAsValueType(expression.resolution.parameterTypes[index], expression.arguments[index].location, fail)
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(expression.arguments[index], scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations,
+        "an effect argument", expected)
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, expected)) {
+        fail("RESOURCE_TYPE_MISMATCH", `Effect argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(expected)}.`,
+          expression.arguments[index].location)
+      }
+    }
+    if (expression.resolution.returnType == "void") return "void"
+    return identityAsValueType(expression.resolution.returnType, expression.location, fail)
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "ReferenceConstruction") {
+    const referenceType = validateValueTypeReference(expression.reference, expression.location, fail, undefined, records,
+      scope.typeParameters)
+
+    if (referenceType.kind != "ReferenceType" && referenceType.kind != "OwnedReferenceType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Reference construction requires a nominal reference class type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const declaration = referenceClassesFor(records).get(referenceType.declarationId)
+
+    if (!declaration) return fail("UNKNOWN_CLASS", `Unknown reference class '${referenceType.declarationId}'.`, expression.location)
+    if (!isDenseArray(expression.arguments)) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Constructor arguments must be a dense ordered array.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (expression.arguments.length != declaration.constructor.parameters.length) {
+      return fail("CONSTRUCTOR_ARITY_MISMATCH",
+        `Constructor for '${declaration.name}' has ${expression.arguments.length} arguments; expected ${declaration.constructor.parameters.length}.`,
+        expression.location)
+    }
+    const parameterTypes = declaration.constructor.parameters.map((parameter) =>
+      validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records))
+
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index += 1) {
+      expression.arguments[index] = normalizeOwnedMove(expression.arguments[index], parameterTypes[index], normalizeOperations, fail)
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(expression.arguments[index], scope, functions, records, fail,
+        normalizeOperations, "a constructor argument", parameterTypes[index])
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, parameterTypes[index])) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Constructor argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(parameterTypes[index])}.`,
+          expression.arguments[index].location)
+      }
+    }
+    const resolution = {
+      declarationId: /** @type {string} */ (declaration.constructor.id),
+      kind: /** @type {const} */ ("ResolvedConstructorSignature"),
+      parameterTypes: parameterTypes.map((type) => /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type)))
+    }
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.resolution = resolution
+    else validateReferenceResolution(expression.resolution, resolution, expression.location, fail, "constructor")
+
+    return referenceType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "MethodCallExpression") {
+    const receiverType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.receiver, scope, functions, records, fail,
+      normalizeOperations, "a method receiver")
+
+    if (receiverType.kind != "ReferenceType" && receiverType.kind != "OwnedReferenceType") {
+      return fail("INVALID_METHOD_RECEIVER", "Method call receiver must have a reference class type.", expression.receiver.location)
+    }
+    const declaration = referenceClassesFor(records).get(receiverType.declarationId)
+
+    if (!declaration) return fail("UNKNOWN_CLASS", `Unknown reference class '${receiverType.declarationId}'.`, expression.receiver.location)
+    const method = declaration.methods.find((candidate) => candidate.id == expression.method) ??
+      (normalizeOperations ? declaration.methods.find((candidate) => candidate.name == expression.method) : undefined)
+
+    if (!method) return fail("UNKNOWN_METHOD", `Class '${declaration.name}' has no method '${expression.method}'.`,
+      roleLocation(expression, "member"))
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.method = /** @type {string} */ (method.id)
+    if (!isDenseArray(expression.arguments)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Method arguments must be a dense ordered array.", expression.location)
+    if (expression.arguments.length != method.parameters.length) {
+      return fail("METHOD_ARITY_MISMATCH",
+        `Method '${method.name}' has ${expression.arguments.length} arguments; expected ${method.parameters.length}.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    const parameterTypes = method.parameters.map((parameter) =>
+      validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records))
+
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index += 1) {
+      expression.arguments[index] = normalizeOwnedMove(expression.arguments[index], parameterTypes[index], normalizeOperations, fail)
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(expression.arguments[index], scope, functions, records, fail,
+        normalizeOperations, "a method argument", parameterTypes[index])
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, parameterTypes[index])) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Method argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(parameterTypes[index])}.`,
+          expression.arguments[index].location)
+      }
+    }
+    const returnType = validateReturnTypeReference(method.returnType, method.location, fail, records)
+    const resourceFlow = declaration.ownership?.kind == "ownedResource"
+      ? ownedMethodResourceFlow(declaration, method, fail) : undefined
+    const resolution = {
+      declarationId: /** @type {string} */ (method.id),
+      kind: /** @type {const} */ ("ResolvedMethodSignature"),
+      parameterTypes: parameterTypes.map((type) => /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type))),
+      returnType: typeIdentity(returnType),
+      ...(resourceFlow ? {resourceFlow} : {})
+    }
+
+    if (expression.receiver.kind == "OwnedBorrowExpression" && resourceFlow) {
+      const expectedMode = resourceFlow.kind == "terminal" ? "exclusive" : "shared"
+
+      if (expression.receiver.mode != expectedMode) {
+        fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", `INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW: Owned method requires an immediate ${expectedMode} receiver borrow.`,
+          expression.receiver.location)
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (receiverType.kind == "OwnedReferenceType" && expression.receiver.kind != "OwnedBorrowExpression") {
+      if (!normalizeOperations) fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", "Owned method receiver requires an immediate borrow.", expression.receiver.location)
+      if (expression.receiver.kind != "IdentifierExpression") {
+        fail("BORROW_ESCAPE", "Owned method receiver borrow must name one immediate binding.", expression.receiver.location)
+      }
+      expression.receiver = {
+        expression: expression.receiver,
+        kind: "OwnedBorrowExpression",
+        location: expression.receiver.location,
+        mode: resourceFlow?.kind == "terminal" ? "exclusive" : "shared",
+        sourceProvenance: expression.receiver.sourceProvenance,
+        type: receiverType
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.resolution = resolution
+    else validateReferenceResolution(expression.resolution, resolution, expression.location, fail, "method")
+
+    return isVoidType(returnType) ? "void" : returnType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "RecordConstruction") {
+    const recordType = validateValueTypeReference(expression.record, expression.location, fail, undefined, records, scope.typeParameters)
+
+    if (recordType.kind != "RecordType") {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Record construction requires a nominal record type.", expression.location)
+    }
+    const declaration = records.get(recordType.declarationId)
+
+    if (!declaration) return fail("UNKNOWN_RECORD", `Unknown record declaration '${recordType.declarationId}'.`, expression.location)
+    if (!Array.isArray(expression.arguments) || expression.arguments.some((_argument, index) => !Object.hasOwn(expression.arguments, index))) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Record construction arguments must be a dense ordered array.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (expression.arguments.length != declaration.fields.length) {
+      return fail(
+        "RECORD_ARITY_MISMATCH",
+        `Record '${declaration.name}' construction has ${expression.arguments.length} arguments; expected ${declaration.fields.length}.`,
+        expression.location
+      )
+    }
+    const substitutions = recordTypeSubstitutions(recordType, declaration)
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index += 1) {
+      const argument = expression.arguments[index]
+      const field = declaration.fields[index]
+      const fieldType = substituteValueType(field.type, substitutions)
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(
+        argument, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, `record field '${field.name}'`, fieldType
+      )
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, fieldType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Record field '${field.name}' argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(fieldType)}.`, argument.location)
+      }
+    }
+
+    return recordType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "MemberRead") {
+    const receiverType = inferValueExpressionType(expression.receiver, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a member receiver")
+
+    if (receiverType.kind != "RecordType") {
+      return fail("INVALID_MEMBER_RECEIVER", `Member receiver type ${typeDescription(receiverType)}; expected record.`, expression.receiver.location)
+    }
+    const declaration = records.get(receiverType.declarationId)
+
+    if (!declaration) return fail("UNKNOWN_RECORD", `Unknown record declaration '${receiverType.declarationId}'.`, expression.receiver.location)
+    const field = declaration.fields.find((candidate) => candidate.id == expression.field) ??
+      (normalizeOperations ? declaration.fields.find((candidate) => candidate.name == expression.field) : undefined)
+
+    if (!field) fail("UNKNOWN_FIELD", `Record '${declaration.name}' has no field '${expression.field}'.`, roleLocation(expression, "member"))
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.field = /** @type {string} */ (field.id)
+
+    return substituteValueType(field.type, recordTypeSubstitutions(receiverType, declaration))
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "CallExpression") {
+    const functionDeclaration = functions.get(expression.callee)
+
+    if (!functionDeclaration) {
+      return fail("UNRESOLVED_BINDING", `Unknown function '${expression.callee}'.`, roleLocation(expression, "callee"))
+    }
+    if (expression.arguments.length != functionDeclaration.parameters.length) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument count for '${expression.callee}'.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    const declarationTypeParameters = declarationTypeParameterIds(functionDeclaration)
+    /** @type {Map<string, import("./types.js").SemanticValueType>} */
+    const substitutions = new Map()
+    const parameterTypes = functionDeclaration.parameters.map((parameter) => validateValueTypeReference(
+      parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records, declarationTypeParameters
+    ))
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index += 1) {
+      expression.arguments[index] = normalizeOwnedMove(expression.arguments[index], parameterTypes[index], normalizeOperations, fail)
+    }
+    for (let index = 0; index < expression.arguments.length; index++) {
+      const argument = expression.arguments[index]
+      const expectedType = parameterTypes[index]
+      const gathersGenericEvidence = typeContainsAnyVariable(expectedType)
+
+      if (gathersGenericEvidence) {
+        inferGenericArgumentEvidence(expectedType, argument, substitutions, scope, functions, records, fail,
+          normalizeOperations)
+        continue
+      }
+      const actualType = inferValueExpressionType(
+        argument, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a call argument", expectedType
+      )
+
+      if ((functionDeclaration.typeParameters?.length ?? 0) > 0) {
+        inferTypeArguments(expectedType, actualType, substitutions, argument.location, fail)
+      } else if (!sameType(actualType, expectedType)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actualType)}; expected ${typeDescription(expectedType)}.`, argument.location)
+      }
+    }
+    for (const parameter of functionDeclaration.typeParameters ?? []) {
+      if (!substitutions.has(/** @type {string} */ (parameter.id))) {
+        const evidenceFreeIndex = parameterTypes.findIndex((type) =>
+          typeContainsVariable(type, /** @type {string} */ (parameter.id)))
+
+        if (evidenceFreeIndex >= 0) {
+          fail("GENERIC_INFERENCE_FAILURE", "Cannot infer a type parameter from an evidence-free call argument.",
+            expression.arguments[evidenceFreeIndex].location)
+        }
+        fail("GENERIC_INFERENCE_FAILURE", `Cannot infer type parameter '${parameter.name}' from call arguments.`, expression.location)
+      }
+    }
+    if ([...substitutions.values()].some((type) => containsOwnedType(type))) {
+      fail("RESOURCE_ALIAS", "Owned resources and references cannot be inferred as generic arguments.", expression.location)
+    }
+    for (let index = 0; index < functionDeclaration.parameters.length; index += 1) {
+      const expected = substituteValueType(functionDeclaration.parameters[index].type, substitutions)
+      const actual = inferValueExpressionType(expression.arguments[index], scope, functions, records, fail,
+        normalizeOperations, "a call argument", expected)
+
+      if (!sameType(actual, expected)) {
+        fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(expected)}.`, expression.arguments[index].location)
+      }
+    }
+    const resolution = signatureFor(functionDeclaration, records, fail, substitutions)
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.resolution = resolution
+    else validateResolution(expression.resolution, resolution, expression.location, fail)
+    const returnType = substituteReturnType(validateReturnTypeReference(functionDeclaration.returnType,
+      functionDeclaration.location, fail, records, declarationTypeParameters), substitutions)
+
+    return isVoidType(returnType) ? "void" : returnType
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "UnaryExpression") {
+    const operand = inferValueExpressionType(expression.operand, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a unary operand")
+    const operandType = scalarNameForOperation(operand, expression.operand.location, fail)
+    const operation = normalizeOperations
+      ? normalizeUnaryOperation(adaptedOperationFor(expression), operandType, expression.operand.location, fail)
+      : expression.operation
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) setNormalizedOperation(expression, operation, unaryOperationSignatures[operation].result)
+
+    const signature = unaryOperationSignatures[operation]
+
+    if (!signature) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown unary operation ${String(operation)}.`, expression.location)
+    if (operandType != signature.operand) {
+      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.operand}; received ${operandType}.`, expression.operand.location)
+    }
+    if (expression.type != signature.result) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `${operation} result type ${String(expression.type)}; expected ${signature.result}.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    return scalarType(signature.result)
+  }
+  if (expression.kind == "BinaryExpression") {
+    const left = inferValueExpressionType(expression.left, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a binary operand")
+    const right = inferValueExpressionType(expression.right, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a binary operand")
+    const leftType = scalarNameForOperation(left, expression.left.location, fail)
+    const rightType = scalarNameForOperation(right, expression.right.location, fail)
+    const operation = normalizeOperations
+      ? normalizeBinaryOperation(adaptedOperationFor(expression), leftType, rightType, expression.left.location, expression.right.location, expression.location, fail)
+      : expression.operation
+
+    if (normalizeOperations) setNormalizedOperation(expression, operation, binaryOperationSignatures[operation].result)
+
+    const signature = binaryOperationSignatures[operation]
+
+    if (!signature) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Unknown binary operation ${String(operation)}.`, expression.location)
+    if (leftType != signature.left) {
+      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.left} left operand; received ${leftType}.`, expression.left.location)
+    }
+    if (rightType != signature.right) {
+      return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `${operation} requires ${signature.right} right operand; received ${rightType}.`, expression.right.location)
+    }
+    if (expression.type != signature.result) {
+      return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `${operation} result type ${String(expression.type)}; expected ${signature.result}.`, expression.location)
+    }
+    return scalarType(signature.result)
+  }
+
+  const unexpected = /** @type {{kind: string, location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation}} */ (expression)
+
+  return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", unexpected.kind, unexpected.location)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates map layout and fixed string keys independently of contextual value inference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").MapLiteral | import("./types.js").OrderedMapLiteral} expression - Candidate map literal.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible lexical scope.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Module function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to normalize frontend intent.
+ * @param {boolean} inferCollectionElements - Whether nested collection evidence may be inferred.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").MapEntry[]} Validated dense entries.
+ */
+function validateMapLiteralEntries(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations,
+  inferCollectionElements) {
+  if (!Array.isArray(expression.entries)) {
+    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Map literal entries must be a dense source-ordered array.", expression.location)
+  }
+  if (!isDenseArray(expression.entries)) {
+    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Sparse map literals are outside the implemented subset.", expression.location)
+  }
+  const keys = new Set()
+
+  for (const entry of expression.entries) {
+    if (!entry || entry.kind != "MapEntry" || !entry.key || entry.key.kind != "StringLiteral") {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Map entries require literal string keys.", entry?.location ?? expression.location)
+    }
+    inferValueExpressionType(entry.key, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a map key",
+      scalarType("string"), inferCollectionElements)
+    if (isNumericString(entry.key.value)) {
+      fail("INVALID_MAP_KEY", "Map initializer keys must be nonnumeric strings.", entry.key.location)
+    }
+    if (keys.has(entry.key.value)) {
+      fail("DUPLICATE_MAP_KEY", `Duplicate ${expression.kind == "OrderedMapLiteral" ? "ordered-map" : "map"} key '${entry.key.value}'.`,
+        entry.key.location)
+    }
+    keys.add(entry.key.value)
+  }
+
+  return expression.entries
+}
+
+/**
+ * Collects argument-only generic evidence while deferring recursively contextual literals.
+ * The complete argument is validated against its closed substituted type after inference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} formal - Open declaration parameter type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Call argument or nested collection value.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").SemanticValueType>} substitutions - Inference state.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible lexical scope.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration>} functions - Module function signatures.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether to normalize frontend intent.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function inferGenericArgumentEvidence(formal, expression, substitutions, scope, functions, records, fail,
+  normalizeOperations) {
+  if (expression.kind == "OptionalNone") return
+  if (formal.kind == "OptionalType" && expression.kind == "OptionalSome") {
+    inferGenericArgumentEvidence(formal.valueType, expression.value, substitutions, scope, functions, records, fail,
+      normalizeOperations)
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "ListType" && expression.kind == "ListLiteral") {
+    if (!Array.isArray(expression.elements)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "List literal elements must be a dense source-ordered array.", expression.location)
+    }
+    if (!isDenseArray(expression.elements)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Sparse list literals are outside the implemented subset.", expression.location)
+    }
+    for (const element of expression.elements) {
+      inferGenericArgumentEvidence(formal.elementType, element, substitutions, scope, functions, records, fail,
+        normalizeOperations)
+    }
+    return
+  }
+  if ((formal.kind == "MapType" && expression.kind == "MapLiteral") ||
+    (formal.kind == "OrderedMapType" && expression.kind == "OrderedMapLiteral")) {
+    const entries = validateMapLiteralEntries(expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, true)
+
+    for (const entry of entries) {
+      inferGenericArgumentEvidence(formal.valueType, entry.value, substitutions, scope, functions, records, fail,
+        normalizeOperations)
+    }
+    return
+  }
+  const actual = inferValueExpressionType(
+    expression, scope, functions, records, fail, normalizeOperations, "a call argument", undefined, true
+  )
+
+  inferTypeArguments(formal, actual, substitutions, expression.location, fail)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Unifies one declaration-owned formal type with one argument type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} formal - Generic signature type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} actual - Inferred argument type.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").SemanticValueType>} substitutions - Inference state.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Argument location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function inferTypeArguments(formal, actual, substitutions, location, fail) {
+  if (formal.kind == "TypeVariableReference") {
+    const prior = substitutions.get(formal.parameterId)
+
+    if (prior) {
+      if (!sameType(prior, actual)) {
+        fail("GENERIC_INFERENCE_CONFLICT", `Conflicting inference for type parameter '${formal.parameterId}'.`, location)
+      }
+      return
+    }
+    if (!(actual.kind == "TypeVariableReference" && actual.parameterId == formal.parameterId) &&
+      typeContainsVariable(actual, formal.parameterId)) {
+      fail("GENERIC_INFERENCE_RECURSION", `Recursive inference for type parameter '${formal.parameterId}'.`, location)
+    }
+    substitutions.set(formal.parameterId, actual)
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind != actual.kind) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(formal)}.`, location)
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "TypeReference") {
+    if (!sameType(formal, actual)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(formal)}.`, location)
+    }
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "ReferenceType" && actual.kind == "ReferenceType") {
+    if (formal.declarationId != actual.declarationId) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(formal)}.`, location)
+    }
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "RecordType" && actual.kind == "RecordType") {
+    if (formal.declarationId != actual.declarationId || (formal.arguments?.length ?? 0) != (actual.arguments?.length ?? 0)) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Call argument type ${typeDescription(actual)}; expected ${typeDescription(formal)}.`, location)
+    }
+    for (let index = 0; index < (formal.arguments?.length ?? 0); index += 1) {
+      inferTypeArguments(/** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (formal.arguments?.[index]),
+        /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (actual.arguments?.[index]), substitutions, location, fail)
+    }
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "ListType" && actual.kind == "ListType") {
+    inferTypeArguments(formal.elementType, actual.elementType, substitutions, location, fail)
+    return
+  }
+  if (formal.kind == "OptionalType" && actual.kind == "OptionalType") {
+    inferTypeArguments(formal.valueType, actual.valueType, substitutions, location, fail)
+    return
+  }
+  if ((formal.kind == "MapType" && actual.kind == "MapType") ||
+    (formal.kind == "OrderedMapType" && actual.kind == "OrderedMapType")) {
+    inferTypeArguments(formal.keyType, actual.keyType, substitutions, location, fail)
+    inferTypeArguments(formal.valueType, actual.valueType, substitutions, location, fail)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks the occurs constraint for first-order inference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} type - Candidate inferred type.
+ * @param {string} parameterId - Parameter being inferred.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether the type recursively contains the parameter.
+ */
+function typeContainsVariable(type, parameterId) {
+  if (type.kind == "TypeVariableReference") return type.parameterId == parameterId
+  if (type.kind == "RecordType") return type.arguments?.some((argument) => typeContainsVariable(argument, parameterId)) ?? false
+  if (type.kind == "ListType") return typeContainsVariable(type.elementType, parameterId)
+  if (type.kind == "MapType" || type.kind == "OrderedMapType") {
+    return typeContainsVariable(type.keyType, parameterId) || typeContainsVariable(type.valueType, parameterId)
+  }
+  if (type.kind == "OptionalType") return typeContainsVariable(type.valueType, parameterId)
+
+  return false
+}
+
+/**
+ * Applies substitutions to a value or void return type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} type - Open return type.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").SemanticValueType>} substitutions - Closed substitutions.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} Substituted return type.
+ */
+function substituteReturnType(type, substitutions) {
+  return isVoidType(type) ? type : substituteValueType(type, substitutions)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Builds the exact semantic signature bound to one declaration.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionDeclaration} declaration - Resolved declaration.
+ * @param {RecordRegistry} records - Record declarations by identity.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {Map<string, import("./types.js").SemanticValueType>} [substitutions] - Inferred generic substitutions.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").ResolvedFunctionSignature} Detached signature binding.
+ */
+function signatureFor(declaration, records, fail, substitutions = new Map()) {
+  const typeParameters = declarationTypeParameterIds(declaration)
+  const declaredParameters = declaration.typeParameters ?? []
+  const parameterTypes = declaration.parameters.map((parameter) =>
+    substituteValueType(validateValueTypeReference(parameter.type, parameter.location, fail, undefined, records, typeParameters), substitutions))
+  const returnType = substituteReturnType(
+    validateReturnTypeReference(declaration.returnType, declaration.location, fail, records, typeParameters), substitutions)
+
+  return {
+    declarationId: /** @type {string} */ (declaration.id),
+    kind: "ResolvedFunctionSignature",
+    parameterTypes: parameterTypes.map((type) => /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type))),
+    returnType: typeIdentity(returnType),
+    ...(declaredParameters.length > 0 ? {
+      typeArguments: declaredParameters.map((parameter) =>
+        /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(/** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} */ (
+          substitutions.get(/** @type {string} */ (parameter.id))
+        ))))
+    } : {})
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates an externally supplied call binding against the declaration collected for this module.
+ * @param {unknown} actual - Candidate call resolution.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ResolvedFunctionSignature} expected - Exact declaration signature.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Call location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function validateResolution(actual, expected, location, fail) {
+  const expectedKeys = expected.typeArguments ? "declarationId,kind,parameterTypes,returnType,typeArguments" :
+    "declarationId,kind,parameterTypes,returnType"
+
+  if (!actual || typeof actual != "object" || Array.isArray(actual) ||
+    Object.keys(actual).sort().join(",") != expectedKeys) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Call is missing an exact resolved function signature.", location)
+  }
+  const candidate = /** @type {import("./types.js").ResolvedFunctionSignature} */ (actual)
+
+  if (candidate.kind != "ResolvedFunctionSignature" || typeof candidate.declarationId != "string" ||
+    !Array.isArray(candidate.parameterTypes) || !validTypeIdentity(candidate.returnType, true) ||
+    candidate.declarationId != expected.declarationId ||
+    !sameTypeIdentity(candidate.returnType, expected.returnType) || candidate.parameterTypes.length != expected.parameterTypes.length) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Call resolution does not match its declaration signature.", location)
+  }
+  if (expected.typeArguments) {
+    const candidateTypeArguments = candidate.typeArguments
+
+    if (!isDenseArray(candidateTypeArguments) || candidateTypeArguments.length != expected.typeArguments.length ||
+      candidateTypeArguments.some((type, index) =>
+        !validTypeIdentity(type, false) || !sameTypeIdentity(type, expected.typeArguments?.[index]))) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Call resolution does not match its inferred type arguments.", location)
+    }
+  }
+  for (let index = 0; index < candidate.parameterTypes.length; index++) {
+    const type = candidate.parameterTypes[index]
+
+    if (!Object.hasOwn(candidate.parameterTypes, index) || !validTypeIdentity(type, false) ||
+      !sameTypeIdentity(type, expected.parameterTypes[index])) {
+      fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Call resolution does not match its declaration signature.", location)
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Validates exact caller-owned constructor or method resolution metadata.
+ * @param {unknown} actual - Candidate resolution.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ResolvedConstructorSignature | import("./types.js").ResolvedMethodSignature} expected - Exact resolution.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Expression location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @param {"constructor" | "method"} role - Resolution role.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function validateReferenceResolution(actual, expected, location, fail, role) {
+  const expectedMethod = role == "method" ? /** @type {import("./types.js").ResolvedMethodSignature} */ (expected) : undefined
+  const expectedKeys = role == "constructor" ? "declarationId,kind,parameterTypes" :
+    expectedMethod?.resourceFlow ? "declarationId,kind,parameterTypes,resourceFlow,returnType" :
+      "declarationId,kind,parameterTypes,returnType"
+
+  if (!actual || typeof actual != "object" || Array.isArray(actual) || Object.keys(actual).sort().join(",") != expectedKeys) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Reference ${role} call is missing an exact resolved ${role} signature.`, location)
+  }
+  const candidate = /** @type {Record<string, unknown>} */ (actual)
+
+  if (candidate.kind != expected.kind || candidate.declarationId != expected.declarationId ||
+    !isDenseArray(candidate.parameterTypes) || candidate.parameterTypes.length != expected.parameterTypes.length ||
+    candidate.parameterTypes.some((type, index) => !validTypeIdentity(type, false) ||
+      !sameTypeIdentity(type, expected.parameterTypes[index])) ||
+    role == "method" && (!validTypeIdentity(candidate.returnType, true) ||
+      !sameTypeIdentity(candidate.returnType, /** @type {import("./types.js").ResolvedMethodSignature} */ (expected).returnType) ||
+      JSON.stringify(candidate.resourceFlow) != JSON.stringify(expectedMethod?.resourceFlow))) {
+    fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", `Resolved ${role} signature does not match its declaration.`, location)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Makes a source identifier's ownership transfer explicit in normalized IR.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Candidate transfer expression.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} expected - Destination type.
+ * @param {boolean} normalize - Whether parser intent may be normalized.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Located failure.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").Expression} Explicit expression.
+ */
+function normalizeOwnedMove(expression, expected, normalize, fail) {
+  if (expected.kind != "OwnedResourceType" && expected.kind != "OwnedReferenceType") return expression
+  if (expression.kind == "OwnedMoveExpression") return expression
+  if (expression.kind == "PrivateFieldRead") {
+    return fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_TRANSFER", "Private resource fields cannot be moved or exposed; transfer the owning reference.",
+      expression.location)
+  }
+  if (expression.kind != "IdentifierExpression") return expression
+  if (!normalize) return fail("RESOURCE_MOVE_REQUIRED", "Owned transfer requires an explicit move expression.", expression.location)
+
+  return {
+    expression,
+    kind: "OwnedMoveExpression",
+    location: expression.location,
+    sourceProvenance: expression.sourceProvenance,
+    type: expected
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Classifies the deliberately bounded Task 034 receiver transition.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ClassDeclaration} declaration - Owned class.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").MethodDeclaration} method - Candidate method.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Located failure.
+ * @returns {{kind: "preserve" | "terminal", terminalFailureId?: string}} Receiver transition.
+ */
+function ownedMethodResourceFlow(declaration, method, fail) {
+  const effectStatements = method.body.statements.flatMap((statement) => {
+    const expression = statement.kind == "ExpressionStatement" || statement.kind == "ReturnStatement" ? statement.expression :
+      statement.kind == "LocalDeclaration" ? statement.initializer : undefined
+
+    return expression?.kind == "EffectCallExpression" ? [expression] : []
+  })
+  const allEffects = methodEffectExpressions(method.body)
+
+  if (allEffects.length == 0) return {kind: "preserve"}
+  if (method.body.statements.length != 1 || effectStatements.length != 1 || allEffects.length != 1 ||
+    allEffects[0] !== effectStatements[0]) {
+    return fail("UNSUPPORTED_STATEMENT",
+      `Owned method '${method.name}' must contain one direct resource operation or only pure statements.`, method.location)
+  }
+  const operation = effectStatements[0]
+  const flow = operation.resolution.resourceFlow
+
+  if (flow.kind == "none" || flow.kind == "acquire") return {kind: "preserve"}
+  const argument = operation.arguments[flow.parameterIndex]
+
+  const owned = declaration.ownership?.kind == "ownedResource" ? declaration.ownership : undefined
+  const borrowedParameterName = argument?.kind == "OwnedBorrowExpression" && argument.expression.kind == "IdentifierExpression"
+    ? argument.expression.name : undefined
+  const borrowedParameter = borrowedParameterName !== undefined &&
+    method.parameters.some((parameter) => parameter.name == borrowedParameterName && containsOwnedType(parameter.type))
+
+  if (borrowedParameter) return {kind: "preserve"}
+
+  if (!argument || argument.kind != "OwnedBorrowExpression" || argument.expression.kind != "PrivateFieldRead" ||
+    argument.expression.field != owned?.fieldId) {
+    return fail("INVALID_RESOURCE_BORROW", `Owned method '${method.name}' must operate on its private resource field.`, operation.location)
+  }
+  return {kind: flow.kind == "close" ? "terminal" : "preserve", terminalFailureId: flow.terminalFailureId}
+}
+
+/**
+ * Collects every host-effect site nested in one owned method body.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Block} block - Method body.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").Expression[]} Effectful expressions.
+ */
+function methodEffectExpressions(block) {
+  /** @type {import("./types.js").Expression[]} */
+  const effects = []
+  const pending = [/** @type {unknown} */ (block)]
+  const seen = new Set()
+
+  while (pending.length > 0) {
+    const value = pending.pop()
+
+    if (!value || typeof value != "object" || seen.has(value)) continue
+    seen.add(value)
+    if (!Array.isArray(value) && (Reflect.get(value, "kind") == "EffectCallExpression" ||
+      typeof Reflect.get(value, "effectSiteId") == "string")) {
+      effects.push(/** @type {import("./types.js").Expression} */ (value))
+    }
+    for (const [key, child] of Object.entries(value)) {
+      if (["location", "resolution", "sourceProvenance"].includes(key)) continue
+      if (Array.isArray(child)) pending.push(...child)
+      else if (child && typeof child == "object") pending.push(child)
+    }
+  }
+  return effects
+}
+
+/**
+ * Rehydrates a closed capability type identity for ordinary expression checks.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").FunctionReturnTypeIdentity} identity - Closed identity.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Diagnostic location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Located failure.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} Value type.
+ */
+function identityAsValueType(identity, location, fail) {
+  if (typeof identity == "string") {
+    if (!isScalarTypeName(identity)) return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Void or invalid identity used as an effect value type.", location)
+    return scalarType(identity)
+  }
+  if (!identity || typeof identity != "object" || Array.isArray(identity)) {
+    return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Malformed effect type identity.", location)
+  }
+  const candidate = /** @type {Exclude<import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity, string>} */ (identity)
+
+  if (candidate.kind == "OwnedResourceType") return {kind: "OwnedResourceType", resourceId: candidate.resourceId}
+  if (candidate.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") return {declarationId: candidate.declarationId, kind: "OwnedReferenceType"}
+  if (candidate.kind == "OptionalType") return {kind: "OptionalType", valueType: identityAsValueType(candidate.valueType, location, fail)}
+  return fail("TYPE_MISMATCH", "Unsupported effect type identity.", location)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts a semantic type to its detached call-resolution identity.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} type - Validated semantic type.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").FunctionReturnTypeIdentity} Detached identity.
+ */
+function typeIdentity(type) {
+  if (type.kind == "TypeReference") return type.name
+  if (type.kind == "TypeVariableReference") return {kind: "TypeVariableReference", parameterId: type.parameterId}
+  if (type.kind == "RecordType") return {
+    declarationId: type.declarationId,
+    kind: "RecordType",
+    ...(type.arguments ? {arguments: type.arguments.map((argument) =>
+      /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(argument)))} : {})
+  }
+  if (type.kind == "ReferenceType") return {declarationId: type.declarationId, kind: "ReferenceType"}
+  if (type.kind == "OwnedResourceType") return {kind: "OwnedResourceType", resourceId: type.resourceId}
+  if (type.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") return {declarationId: type.declarationId, kind: "OwnedReferenceType"}
+  if (type.kind == "ListType") return {elementType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.elementType)), kind: "ListType"}
+  if (type.kind == "OptionalType") return {kind: "OptionalType", valueType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.valueType))}
+  if (type.kind == "OrderedMapType") return {
+    keyType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.keyType)),
+    kind: "OrderedMapType",
+    order: "insertion",
+    valueType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.valueType))
+  }
+
+  return {
+    keyType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.keyType)),
+    kind: "MapType",
+    valueType: /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeIdentity} */ (typeIdentity(type.valueType))
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks one externally supplied recursive type identity.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate identity.
+ * @param {boolean} allowVoid - Whether void is permitted.
+ * @param {Set<object>} [seen] - Active recursion path.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether the identity is closed and acyclic.
+ */
+function validTypeIdentity(type, allowVoid, seen = new Set()) {
+  if (typeof type == "string") return isScalarTypeName(type) || allowVoid && type == "void"
+  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type) || seen.has(type)) return false
+
+  seen.add(type)
+  const candidate = /** @type {Record<string, unknown>} */ (type)
+  let valid = false
+
+  if (candidate.kind == "ListType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "elementType,kind") {
+    valid = validTypeIdentity(candidate.elementType, false, seen)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "MapType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "keyType,kind,valueType") {
+    valid = candidate.keyType == "string" && validTypeIdentity(candidate.valueType, false, seen)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "OrderedMapType" &&
+    Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "keyType,kind,order,valueType") {
+    valid = candidate.keyType == "string" && candidate.order == "insertion" &&
+      validTypeIdentity(candidate.valueType, false, seen)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "OptionalType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "kind,valueType") {
+    valid = validTypeIdentity(candidate.valueType, false, seen) &&
+      !(candidate.valueType && typeof candidate.valueType == "object" && Reflect.get(candidate.valueType, "kind") == "OptionalType")
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "TypeVariableReference" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "kind,parameterId") {
+    valid = typeof candidate.parameterId == "string" && /^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?(?:record|function):[0-9]+:type:[0-9]+$/u.test(candidate.parameterId)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "RecordType" &&
+    ["arguments,declarationId,kind", "declarationId,kind"].includes(Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(","))) {
+    const candidateArguments = candidate.arguments
+
+    valid = typeof candidate.declarationId == "string" && /^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?record:[0-9]+$/u.test(candidate.declarationId) &&
+      (candidateArguments === undefined || isDenseArray(candidateArguments) &&
+        candidateArguments.every((argument) => validTypeIdentity(argument, false, seen)))
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "ReferenceType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "declarationId,kind") {
+    valid = typeof candidate.declarationId == "string" &&
+      /^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?class:[0-9]+$/u.test(candidate.declarationId)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "OwnedResourceType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "kind,resourceId") {
+    valid = typeof candidate.resourceId == "string" && /^(?:module:[0-9]+\/)?capability:[0-9]+\/resource:[0-9]+$/u
+      .test(candidate.resourceId)
+  } else if (candidate.kind == "OwnedReferenceType" && Object.keys(candidate).sort().join(",") == "declarationId,kind") {
+    valid = typeof candidate.declarationId == "string" && /^(?:[a-z][a-z0-9._-]*#)?class:[0-9]+$/u.test(candidate.declarationId)
+  }
+  seen.delete(type)
+
+  return valid
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks array identity without relying on iteration methods that skip sparse slots.
+ * @param {unknown} value - Candidate array.
+ * @returns {value is unknown[]} Whether every indexed slot is present.
+ */
+function isDenseArray(value) {
+  if (!Array.isArray(value)) return false
+
+  for (let index = 0; index < value.length; index += 1) {
+    if (!Object.hasOwn(value, index)) return false
+  }
+
+  return true
+}
+
+/**
+ * Compares two closed type identities structurally.
+ * @param {unknown} left - First identity.
+ * @param {unknown} right - Second identity.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether the identities are equal.
+ */
+function sameTypeIdentity(left, right) {
+  if (typeof left == "string" || typeof right == "string") return left === right
+  if (!left || !right || typeof left != "object" || typeof right != "object") return false
+  const leftType = /** @type {Record<string, unknown>} */ (left)
+  const rightType = /** @type {Record<string, unknown>} */ (right)
+
+  if (leftType.kind != rightType.kind) return false
+  if (leftType.kind == "ListType") return sameTypeIdentity(leftType.elementType, rightType.elementType)
+  if (leftType.kind == "OptionalType") return sameTypeIdentity(leftType.valueType, rightType.valueType)
+  if (leftType.kind == "TypeVariableReference") return leftType.parameterId == rightType.parameterId
+  if (leftType.kind == "RecordType") {
+    const leftArguments = Array.isArray(leftType.arguments) ? leftType.arguments : []
+    const rightArguments = Array.isArray(rightType.arguments) ? rightType.arguments : []
+
+    return leftType.declarationId == rightType.declarationId && leftArguments.length == rightArguments.length &&
+      leftArguments.every((argument, index) => sameTypeIdentity(argument, rightArguments[index]))
+  }
+  if (leftType.kind == "ReferenceType") return leftType.declarationId == rightType.declarationId
+  if (leftType.kind == "OwnedResourceType") return leftType.resourceId == rightType.resourceId
+  if (leftType.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") return leftType.declarationId == rightType.declarationId
+  if (leftType.kind == "MapType" || leftType.kind == "OrderedMapType") {
+    return sameTypeIdentity(leftType.keyType, rightType.keyType) && sameTypeIdentity(leftType.valueType, rightType.valueType)
+  }
+
+  return false
+}
+
+/**
+ * Compares two validated semantic types structurally.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} left - First type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} right - Second type.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether the types are equal.
+ */
+function sameType(left, right) {
+  return sameTypeIdentity(typeIdentity(left), typeIdentity(right))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Formats one validated semantic type for diagnostics.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType | import("./types.js").ErrorType} type - Semantic type.
+ * @returns {string} Stable recursive spelling.
+ */
+function typeDescription(type) {
+  if (type.kind == "TypeReference") return type.name
+  if (type.kind == "TypeVariableReference") return `type-variable<${type.parameterId}>`
+  if (type.kind == "RecordType") return `record<${type.declarationId}${type.arguments?.length
+    ? `, ${type.arguments.map(typeDescription).join(", ")}` : ""}>`
+  if (type.kind == "ReferenceType") return `reference<${type.declarationId}>`
+  if (type.kind == "OwnedResourceType") return `owned-resource<${type.resourceId}>`
+  if (type.kind == "OwnedReferenceType") return `owned-reference<${type.declarationId}>`
+  if (type.kind == "ErrorType") return `error<${type.declarationId}>`
+  if (type.kind == "ListType") return `list<${typeDescription(type.elementType)}>`
+  if (type.kind == "OptionalType") return `optional<${typeDescription(type.valueType)}>`
+  if (type.kind == "OrderedMapType") return `ordered-map<string, ${typeDescription(type.valueType)}, insertion>`
+
+  return `map<string, ${typeDescription(type.valueType)}>`
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks whether a type graph contains linear ownership.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate semantic type.
+ * @param {Set<object>} [seen] - Visited type containers.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether ownership occurs at any depth.
+ */
+function containsOwnedType(type, seen = new Set()) {
+  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type) || seen.has(type)) return false
+  seen.add(type)
+  const kind = Reflect.get(type, "kind")
+
+  if (kind == "OwnedResourceType" || kind == "OwnedReferenceType") return true
+  if (kind == "ListType") return containsOwnedType(Reflect.get(type, "elementType"), seen)
+  if (kind == "OptionalType") return containsOwnedType(Reflect.get(type, "valueType"), seen)
+  if (kind == "MapType" || kind == "OrderedMapType") {
+    return containsOwnedType(Reflect.get(type, "keyType"), seen) || containsOwnedType(Reflect.get(type, "valueType"), seen)
+  }
+  if (kind == "RecordType") {
+    const arguments_ = Reflect.get(type, "arguments")
+
+    return Array.isArray(arguments_) && arguments_.some((argument) => containsOwnedType(argument, seen))
+  }
+  return false
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks one scalar semantic type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} type - Semantic type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName} [name] - Optional required scalar.
+ * @returns {type is import("./types.js").TypeReference} Whether it is the requested scalar.
+ */
+function isScalarType(type, name) {
+  return type.kind == "TypeReference" && isScalarTypeName(type.name) && (name === undefined || type.name == name)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks the sole non-value return type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} type - Semantic type.
+ * @returns {type is import("./types.js").FunctionReturnTypeReference} Whether it is void.
+ */
+function isVoidType(type) {
+  return type.kind == "TypeReference" && type.name == "void"
+}
+
+/**
+ * Requires a scalar type for the pre-collection operator contract.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SemanticValueType} type - Operand type.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} location - Operand location.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName} Scalar name.
+ */
+function scalarNameForOperation(type, location, fail) {
+  if (!isScalarType(type)) {
+    return fail("INVALID_OPERAND_TYPE", `Scalar operation received ${typeDescription(type)}.`, location)
+  }
+
+  return type.name
+}
+
+/**
+ * Enforces that a total collection access is proven or uses a source operation that fails on absence.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").ListIndexExpression | import("./types.js").MapLookupExpression} expression - Access.
+ * @param {boolean} proven - Whether static literal propagation proves presence.
+ * @param {boolean} normalizeOperations - Whether this is frontend admission.
+ * @param {SemanticFail} fail - Diagnostic callback.
+ * @returns {void}
+ */
+function validateAccessTotality(expression, proven, normalizeOperations, fail) {
+  if (proven) {
+    if (normalizeOperations) expression.totality = "proven"
+    else if (expression.totality != "proven" && expression.totality != "fail-on-absence") {
+      fail("UNCHECKED_COLLECTION_ACCESS", "Collection access lacks a totality guarantee.", expression.location)
+    }
+
+    return
+  }
+  if (expression.totality != "fail-on-absence") {
+    fail("UNCHECKED_COLLECTION_ACCESS", "Collection access is not statically proven and does not fail on absence.", expression.location)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Resolves a binding without producing a diagnostic.
+ * @param {string} name - Binding name.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible scope.
+ * @returns {Binding | undefined} Binding when visible.
+ */
+function findBinding(name, scope) {
+  for (let current = /** @type {Scope | undefined} */ (scope); current; current = current.parent) {
+    const binding = current.bindings.get(name)
+
+    if (binding) return binding
+  }
+
+  return undefined
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns the existing bindings whose known values must be merged across a conditional.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible scope.
+ * @returns {Binding[]} Nearest-to-farthest bindings.
+ */
+function bindingsVisibleFrom(scope) {
+  const bindings = []
+
+  for (let current = /** @type {Scope | undefined} */ (scope); current; current = current.parent) {
+    bindings.push(...current.bindings.values())
+  }
+
+  return bindings
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds visible mutable bindings that a loop body may assign on any nested path.
+ * The set is computed after validating the list expression because collection evaluation precedes body effects.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Block} block - Candidate loop body.
+ * @param {Scope} outerScope - Scope visible before entering the loop.
+ * @param {Set<Binding>} [assigned] - Accumulated binding identities.
+ * @returns {Set<Binding>} Exactly the visible mutable bindings targeted by nested assignments.
+ */
+function outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(block, outerScope, assigned = new Set()) {
+  for (const statement of block.statements) {
+    if (statement.kind == "AssignmentStatement") {
+      const binding = findBinding(statement.target.name, outerScope)
+
+      if (binding?.mutable) assigned.add(binding)
+    } else if (statement.kind == "IfStatement") {
+      outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.consequent, outerScope, assigned)
+      if (statement.alternate) outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.alternate, outerScope, assigned)
+    } else if (statement.kind == "ForEachStatement" || statement.kind == "ForEachMapStatement" || statement.kind == "WhileStatement") {
+      outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, outerScope, assigned)
+    } else if (statement.kind == "TryStatement") {
+      outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.body, outerScope, assigned)
+      outerMutableBindingsAssignedBy(statement.catchBody, outerScope, assigned)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return assigned
+}
+
+/**
+ * Propagates only immutable values whose exact collection contents remain known.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} expression - Expression.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").Expression | undefined} Known value.
+ */
+function knownValueForExpression(expression, scope) {
+  if (["IntegerLiteral", "BooleanLiteral", "StringLiteral", "ListLiteral", "MapLiteral", "OrderedMapLiteral"].includes(expression.kind)) return expression
+  if (expression.kind == "IdentifierExpression") return findBinding(expression.name, scope)?.knownValue
+  if (expression.kind == "ListIndexExpression") return provenListElement(expression.collection, expression.index, scope)
+  if (expression.kind == "MapLookupExpression") return provenMapValue(expression.collection, expression.key, scope)
+
+  return undefined
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds the statically selected list element.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} collection - List receiver.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} index - Index expression.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").Expression | undefined} Proven element.
+ */
+function provenListElement(collection, index, scope) {
+  const knownCollection = knownValueForExpression(collection, scope)
+  const knownIndex = knownValueForExpression(index, scope)
+
+  if (knownCollection?.kind != "ListLiteral" || knownIndex?.kind != "IntegerLiteral" ||
+    knownIndex.value < 0 || knownIndex.value >= knownCollection.elements.length) return undefined
+
+  return knownCollection.elements[knownIndex.value]
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds the statically selected map value.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} collection - Map receiver.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").Expression} key - Key expression.
+ * @param {Scope} scope - Visible scope.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").Expression | undefined} Proven value.
+ */
+function provenMapValue(collection, key, scope) {
+  const knownCollection = knownValueForExpression(collection, scope)
+  const knownKey = knownValueForExpression(key, scope)
+
+  if (knownCollection?.kind != "MapLiteral" && knownCollection?.kind != "OrderedMapLiteral" ||
+    knownKey?.kind != "StringLiteral") return undefined
+
+  return knownCollection.entries.find((entry) => entry.key.value == knownKey.value)?.value
+}
+
+/**
+ * Identifies numeric strings independently from any target's key coercions.
+ * @param {string} value - Literal key.
+ * @returns {boolean} Whether it is numeric.
+ */
+function isNumericString(value) {
+  return /^[+-]?(?:\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\.\d+)(?:e[+-]?\d+)?$/iu.test(value.trim())
+}
+
+/**
+ * Selects an exact semantic token location when parser provenance is available.
+ * @param {{location: import("./types.js").SourceLocation, sourceProvenance?: import("./types.js").SemanticNodeSourceProvenance}} node - Located semantic node.
+ * @param {string} role - Token role.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} Exact or owning location.
+ */
+function roleLocation(node, role) {
+  return node.sourceProvenance?.ranges[role] ?? parserRangeFor(node, role) ?? node.location
+}
+
+/**
+ * Selects the exact type token or the owning declaration location.
+ * @param {unknown} type - Candidate type reference.
+ * @param {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} ownerLocation - Owning declaration location.
+ * @param {string} [role] - Recursive type role.
+ * @returns {import("./types.js").SourceLocation} Exact type location when known.
+ */
+function typeLocation(type, ownerLocation, role = "type") {
+  if (!type || typeof type != "object" || Array.isArray(type)) return ownerLocation
+  const candidate = /** @type {import("./types.js").SemanticFunctionReturnType} */ (type)
+
+  return candidate.sourceProvenance?.ranges[role] ?? parserRangeFor(candidate, role) ??
+    candidate.sourceProvenance?.ranges.type ?? parserRangeFor(candidate, "type") ?? ownerLocation
 }
 
 /** @type {Readonly<Record<import("./types.js").SemanticUnaryOperation, {operand: import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName, result: import("./types.js").SemanticTypeName}>>} */