opencode-skills-collection 4.0.43 → 4.0.45

package/bundled-skills/reverse-engineering/references/languages-compiled.md

@@ -0,0 +1,587 @@
+# CTF Reverse - Compiled Language Reversing (Go, Rust)
+
+## Table of Contents
+- [Go Binary Reversing](#go-binary-reversing)
+  - [Recognition](#recognition)
+  - [Symbol Recovery](#symbol-recovery)
+  - [Go Memory Layout](#go-memory-layout)
+  - [Goroutine and Concurrency Analysis](#goroutine-and-concurrency-analysis)
+  - [Common Go Patterns in Decompilation](#common-go-patterns-in-decompilation)
+  - [Go Binary Reversing Workflow](#go-binary-reversing-workflow)
+  - [Go Binary UUID Patching for C2 Client Enumeration (BSidesSF 2026)](#go-binary-uuid-patching-for-c2-client-enumeration-bsidessf-2026)
+- [Rust Binary Reversing](#rust-binary-reversing)
+  - [Rust Recognition](#rust-recognition)
+  - [Symbol Demangling](#symbol-demangling)
+  - [Common Rust Patterns in Decompilation](#common-rust-patterns-in-decompilation)
+  - [Rust-Specific Analysis Tools](#rust-specific-analysis-tools)
+- [Swift Binary Reversing](#swift-binary-reversing)
+- [Kotlin / JVM Binary Reversing](#kotlin--jvm-binary-reversing)
+  - [JVM Bytecode (Android/Server)](#jvm-bytecode-androidserver)
+  - [Kotlin/Native](#kotlinnative)
+- [D Language Binary Reversing (CSAW CTF 2016)](#d-language-binary-reversing-csaw-ctf-2016)
+- [Haskell Binary Reversing via STG Closures and hsdecomp (hxp CTF 2017, Codegate 2018)](#haskell-binary-reversing-via-stg-closures-and-hsdecomp-hxp-ctf-2017-codegate-2018)
+- [Haskell Binary RE via GHC CMM Intermediate Language (N1CTF 2018)](#haskell-binary-re-via-ghc-cmm-intermediate-language-n1ctf-2018)
+- [.NET / C# Binary Reversing](#net--c-binary-reversing)
+- [C++ Binary Reversing (Quick Reference)](#c-binary-reversing-quick-reference)
+  - [vtable Reconstruction](#vtable-reconstruction)
+  - [RTTI (Run-Time Type Information)](#rtti-run-time-type-information)
+  - [Standard Library Patterns](#standard-library-patterns)
+
+---
+
+## Go Binary Reversing
+
+Go binaries are increasingly common in CTF challenges due to Go's popularity for CLI tools, network services, and malware.
+
+### Recognition
+
+```bash
+# Detect Go binary
+file binary | grep -i "go"
+strings binary | grep "go.buildid"
+strings binary | grep "runtime.gopanic"
+
+# Go version embedded in binary
+strings binary | grep "^go1\."
+```
+
+**Key indicators:**
+- Very large static binary (even "hello world" is ~2MB)
+- Embedded `go.buildid` string
+- `runtime.*` symbols (even in stripped binaries, some remain)
+- `main.main` as entry point (not `main`)
+- Strings like `GOROOT`, `GOPATH`, `/usr/local/go/src/`
+
+### Symbol Recovery
+
+Go embeds rich type and function information even in stripped binaries:
+
+```bash
+# GoReSym - recovers function names, types, interfaces from Go binaries
+# https://github.com/mandiant/GoReSym
+./GoReSym -d binary > symbols.json
+
+# Parse output
+python3 -c "
+import json
+with open('symbols.json') as f:
+    data = json.load(f)
+for fn in data.get('UserFunctions', []):
+    print(f\"{fn['Start']:#x}  {fn['FullName']}\")
+"
+```
+
+**Ghidra with golang-loader:**
+```bash
+# Install: Ghidra → Window → Script Manager → search "golang"
+# Or use: https://github.com/getCUJO/ThreatFox/tree/main/ghidra-golang
+# Recovers function names, string references, interface tables
+```
+
+**redress (Go binary analysis):**
+```bash
+# https://github.com/goretk/redress
+redress -src binary         # Reconstruct source tree
+redress -pkg binary         # List packages
+redress -type binary        # List types and methods
+redress -interface binary   # List interfaces
+```
+
+### Go Memory Layout
+
+Understanding Go's data structures in decompilation:
+
+```c
+# String: {pointer, length} (16 bytes on 64-bit)
+# NOT null-terminated! Length field is critical.
+struct GoString {
+    char *ptr;    // pointer to UTF-8 data
+    int64 len;    // byte length
+};
+
+# Slice: {pointer, length, capacity} (24 bytes on 64-bit)
+struct GoSlice {
+    void *ptr;    // pointer to backing array
+    int64 len;    // current length
+    int64 cap;    // allocated capacity
+};
+
+# Interface: {type_descriptor, data_pointer} (16 bytes)
+struct GoInterface {
+    void *type;   // points to type metadata (itab for non-empty interface)
+    void *data;   // points to actual value
+};
+
+# Map: pointer to runtime.hmap struct
+# Channel: pointer to runtime.hchan struct
+```
+
+**In Ghidra/IDA:** When you see a function taking `(ptr, int64)` — it's likely a Go string. Three-field `(ptr, int64, int64)` is a slice.
+
+### Goroutine and Concurrency Analysis
+
+```bash
+# Identify goroutine spawns in disassembly
+strings binary | grep "runtime.newproc"
+# newproc1 is the internal goroutine creation function
+
+# In GDB with Go support:
+gdb ./binary
+(gdb) source /usr/local/go/src/runtime/runtime-gdb.py
+(gdb) info goroutines          # List all goroutines
+(gdb) goroutine 1 bt          # Backtrace for goroutine 1
+```
+
+**Channel operations in disassembly:**
+- `runtime.chansend1` → `ch <- value`
+- `runtime.chanrecv1` → `value = <-ch`
+- `runtime.selectgo` → `select { case ... }`
+- `runtime.closechan` → `close(ch)`
+
+### Common Go Patterns in Decompilation
+
+**Defer mechanism:**
+- `runtime.deferproc` → registers deferred function
+- `runtime.deferreturn` → executes deferred functions at function exit
+- Deferred calls execute in LIFO order — relevant for cleanup/crypto key wiping
+
+**Error handling (the `if err != nil` pattern):**
+```text
+# In disassembly, this appears as:
+# call some_function        → returns (result, error) as two values
+# test rax, rax             → check if error (second return value) is nil
+# jne error_handler
+```
+
+**String concatenation:**
+- `runtime.concatstrings` → `s1 + s2 + s3`
+- `fmt.Sprintf` → formatted string building
+- Look for format strings in `.rodata`: `"%s%d"`, `"%x"`
+
+**Common stdlib patterns in CTF:**
+```go
+// Crypto operations → look for these in strings/imports:
+// "crypto/aes", "crypto/cipher", "crypto/sha256", "encoding/hex", "encoding/base64"
+
+// Network operations:
+// "net/http", "net.Dial", "bufio.NewReader"
+
+// File operations:
+// "os.Open", "io.ReadAll", "os.ReadFile"
+```
+
+### Go Binary Reversing Workflow
+
+```bash
+1. file binary                          # Confirm Go, get arch
+2. GoReSym -d binary > syms.json       # Recover symbols
+3. strings binary | grep -i flag        # Quick win check
+4. Load in Ghidra with golang-loader    # Apply recovered symbols
+5. Find main.main                       # Entry point
+6. Identify string comparisons          # GoString {ptr, len} pairs
+7. Trace crypto operations              # crypto/* package usage
+8. Check for embedded resources         # embed.FS in Go 1.16+
+```
+
+**Go embed.FS (Go 1.16+):** Binaries can embed files at compile time:
+```bash
+# Look for embedded file data
+strings binary | grep "embed"
+# Embedded files appear as raw data in the binary
+# Search for known file signatures (PK for zip, PNG header, etc.)
+```
+
+**Key insight:** Go's runtime embeds extensive metadata even in stripped binaries. Use GoReSym before any manual analysis — it often recovers 90%+ of function names, making decompilation dramatically easier. Go strings are `{ptr, len}` tuples, not null-terminated — Ghidra's default string analysis will miss them without the golang-loader plugin.
+
+**Detection:** Large static binary (2MB+ for simple programs), `go.buildid`, `runtime.gopanic`, source paths like `/home/user/go/src/`.
+
+### Go Binary UUID Patching for C2 Client Enumeration (BSidesSF 2026)
+
+**Pattern (see-two):** A Go-compiled C2 client has a UUID embedded via `-ldflags -X`. The C2 server uses mTLS for authentication. To enumerate other clients and their files, patch the UUID to register as a new client, then use the C2 API to list all clients and download their exfiltrated files.
+
+**Approach:**
+1. Extract embedded UUID from Go build metadata: `go version -m client_binary`
+2. Binary-patch the UUID (simple byte replacement — Go strings have fixed-length backing arrays)
+3. Register with the C2 server using the patched binary (mTLS certs are embedded or in distfiles)
+4. Enumerate clients via API: `GET /api/clients` or iterate known endpoints
+5. List and download files from each client's GCS bucket or file store
+6. Grep downloaded files for the flag
+
+```bash
+# Extract Go build info
+go version -m ./client_binary | grep ldflags
+# Output shows: -X main.clientUUID=<uuid>
+
+# Patch UUID in binary (replace old UUID bytes with new UUID)
+python3 -c "
+import sys
+data = open('client_binary', 'rb').read()
+old_uuid = b'original-uuid-value-here'
+new_uuid = b'attacker-uuid-value-here'
+patched = data.replace(old_uuid, new_uuid)
+open('client_patched', 'wb').write(patched)
+"
+chmod +x client_patched
+./client_patched --register
+```
+
+**Key insight:** Go binaries embed string values from `-ldflags -X` directly in the binary data section. Since Go strings are `{ptr, len}` pairs pointing to backing byte arrays, replacing the UUID bytes (same length) produces a valid patched binary. The mTLS certificates authenticate the client to the server but don't bind to a specific UUID.
+
+**References:** BSidesSF 2026 "see-two"
+
+---
+
+## Rust Binary Reversing
+
+Rust binaries are common in modern CTFs, especially for crypto, systems, and security tooling challenges.
+
+### Rust Recognition
+
+```bash
+# Detect Rust binary
+strings binary | grep -c "rust"
+strings binary | grep "rustc"             # Compiler version
+strings binary | grep "/rustc/"           # Source paths
+strings binary | grep "core::panicking"   # Panic infrastructure
+```
+
+**Key indicators:**
+- `core::panicking::panic` in strings
+- Mangled symbols starting with `_ZN` (Itanium ABI) — e.g., `_ZN4main4main17h...`
+- `.rustc` section in ELF
+- References to `/rustc/<commit_hash>/library/`
+- Large binary size (Rust statically links by default)
+
+### Symbol Demangling
+
+```bash
+# Rust uses Itanium ABI mangling (same as C++)
+# rustfilt demangles Rust-specific symbols
+cargo install rustfilt
+nm binary | rustfilt | grep "main"
+
+# Or use c++filt (works for most Rust symbols)
+nm binary | c++filt | grep "main"
+
+# In Ghidra: Window → Script Manager → search "Demangler"
+# Enable "DemangleAllScript" for automatic demangling
+```
+
+### Common Rust Patterns in Decompilation
+
+**Option/Result enum:**
+```text
+# Option<T> in memory: {discriminant (0=None, 1=Some), value}
+# Result<T, E>: {discriminant (0=Ok, 1=Err), union{ok_val, err_val}}
+
+# In disassembly:
+# cmp byte [rbp-0x10], 0    → check if None/Err
+# je handle_none_case
+```
+
+**Vec<T> (same as Go slice):**
+```c
+struct RustVec {
+    void *ptr;      // heap pointer
+    uint64 cap;     // capacity
+    uint64 len;     // length
+};
+```
+
+**String / &str:**
+```text
+# String (owned): {ptr, capacity, length} — 24 bytes, heap-allocated
+# &str (borrowed): {ptr, length} — 16 bytes, can point anywhere
+
+# In decompilation, look for:
+# alloc::string::String::from    → String creation
+# core::str::from_utf8           → byte slice to str
+```
+
+**Iterator chains:**
+```text
+# .iter().map().filter().collect() compiles to loop fusion
+# In disassembly: tight loop with inlined closures
+# Look for: core::iter::adapters::map, filter, etc.
+```
+
+**Panic unwinding:**
+```bash
+# Panic strings reveal source locations and error messages
+strings binary | grep "panicked at"
+strings binary | grep "called .unwrap().. on"
+# These often contain file paths, line numbers, and variable names
+```
+
+### Rust-Specific Analysis Tools
+
+```bash
+# cargo-bloat: analyze binary size by function
+cargo install cargo-bloat
+cargo bloat --release -n 50
+
+# Ghidra Rust helper scripts
+# https://github.com/AmateursCTF/ghidra-rust (community scripts for Rust RE)
+```
+
+**Key insight:** Rust panic messages are goldmines — they contain source file paths, line numbers, and descriptive error strings even in release builds. Always `strings binary | grep "panicked"` first. Rust's monomorphization means generic functions get duplicated per type — expect many similar-looking functions.
+
+**Detection:** `core::panicking`, `.rustc` section, `/rustc/` paths, `_ZN` mangled symbols with Rust-style module paths.
+
+---
+
+## Swift Binary Reversing
+
+See [platforms.md](platforms.md#swift-binary-reversing) for full Swift reversing guide including demangling, runtime structures, and Ghidra integration. Key quick reference:
+
+```bash
+# Detect Swift binary
+strings binary | grep "swift"
+otool -l binary | grep "swift"
+
+# Demangle Swift symbols
+swift demangle 's14MyApp0A8ClassC10checkInput6resultSbSS_tF'
+# → MyApp.MyAppClass.checkInput(result: String) -> Bool
+
+# Key runtime functions: swift_allocObject, swift_release, swift_once
+# String: small (≤15 bytes inline) or large (heap pointer + length)
+# Protocol witness tables = dynamic dispatch (like vtables)
+```
+
+**Detection:** `__swift5_*` sections in Mach-O, `swift_` runtime symbols, `s` prefix in mangled names.
+
+---
+
+## Kotlin / JVM Binary Reversing
+
+Kotlin compiles to JVM bytecode or native (via Kotlin/Native). Common in Android and server-side CTF.
+
+### JVM Bytecode (Android/Server)
+
+```bash
+# Detect Kotlin
+strings classes.dex | grep "kotlin"
+# Look for: kotlin.Metadata annotation, kotlin/jvm/internal/*
+
+# Decompile
+jadx classes.dex                     # Best for Kotlin bytecode
+cfr classes.jar --kotlin             # CFR with Kotlin mode
+fernflower classes.jar output/       # IntelliJ's decompiler
+
+# Kotlin-specific patterns in decompiled output:
+# - Companion objects: ClassName$Companion
+# - Data classes: copy(), component1(), component2(), toString()
+# - Coroutines: ContinuationImpl, invokeSuspend, state machine
+# - Null checks: Intrinsics.checkNotNull() everywhere
+# - When expression: compiled as tableswitch/lookupswitch
+# - Sealed classes: instanceof checks in chain
+```
+
+**Kotlin coroutines in disassembly:**
+```text
+# Coroutines compile to state machines:
+# invokeSuspend(result) {
+#     switch (this.label) {
+#         case 0: this.label = 1; return suspendFunction();
+#         case 1: processResult(result); return Unit;
+#     }
+# }
+# Each suspend point becomes a state in the switch.
+# Follow the state machine to understand async flow.
+```
+
+### Kotlin/Native
+
+```bash
+# Kotlin/Native produces platform binaries (no JVM)
+# Recognize by: konan, kotlin.native strings
+strings binary | grep "konan"
+
+# Much harder to reverse — no reflection metadata
+# Uses LLVM backend, looks similar to C/C++ in disassembly
+# Key functions: InitRuntime, DeinitRuntime, CreateStablePointer
+# Memory management: automatic reference counting (not GC)
+```
+
+**Detection:** `kotlin.Metadata` annotations (JVM), `konan` strings (Native), `kotlin/` package paths.
+
+---
+
+## D Language Binary Reversing (CSAW CTF 2016)
+
+D language binaries have unique symbol mangling different from C++. Template instantiation at compile-time produces many function variants.
+
+```bash
+# Recognition: D binaries use different mangling than C++
+# Symbols contain "_D" prefix and numeric length-prefixed names
+# Example: _D4mainQaFNaNbNfZv
+
+# Symbol demangling:
+# GDB: set language d
+# Radare2: export names show demangled D symbols
+# Online: dlang.org/phobos/core_demangle.html
+
+# Common D binary patterns:
+# - Templates instantiated at compile-time: enc!("111"), enc!("222"), ...
+# - Garbage collector references (GC.malloc, GC.free)
+# - Phobos standard library functions (_D3std...)
+# - String processing: std.string, std.conv.to
+
+# Reversing a D cipher (XOR with cycling key):
+def reverse_d_cipher(encrypted, num_functions=500):
+    """D binaries may chain multiple transformation functions.
+    Each function XORs with key character, then XORs with key length.
+    Process in reverse order."""
+    result = encrypted[:]
+    for i in range(num_functions - 1, -1, -1):
+        key = str(i) * 3  # e.g., "499499499" for function enc!("499")
+        key_len = len(key)
+        for j in range(len(result)):
+            result[j] ^= key_len
+            result[j] ^= ord(key[j % key_len])
+    return bytes(result)
+```
+
+**Key insight:** D binaries are rare in CTFs but identifiable by `_D` symbol prefixes and Phobos library references. The compile-time template system means D functions may be duplicated hundreds of times with different parameters — look for patterns like `enc!("N")` where N varies.
+
+---
+
+### Haskell Binary Reversing via STG Closures and hsdecomp (hxp CTF 2017, Codegate 2018)
+
+GHC-compiled Haskell binaries use the STG (Spineless Tagless G-machine) execution model, making them notoriously difficult to reverse due to lazy evaluation, closures, and thunks. The STG machine turns everything into closure calls rather than direct function calls.
+
+**Recognition:**
+- Shared libraries: `libHSbase-*`, `libHSrts-*`
+- Entry symbol: `hs_main` (replaces standard `main`)
+- Mangled symbols use Z-encoding: `z` = prefix, `Z` = uppercase, `zd` = `.`, `zi` = `$`
+- GHC calling convention register mapping: `rbx` = R1, `r14` = R2
+
+**Closure structure:**
+Closures are structs where the first qword points to the info table/code. The info table precedes the code pointer and contains metadata (closure type, layout info, SRT).
+
+```bash
+# Identify Haskell binary
+ldd ./binary | grep libHS
+readelf -s ./binary | grep hs_main
+
+# Decompile with hsdecomp (github.com/gereeter/hsdecomp)
+# Recovers closure structure and pattern matching into pseudo-Haskell
+python2 hsdecomp ./binary
+
+# Compile reference for monkey-patching
+ghc -O0 reference.hs -o reference
+objcopy --dump-section .text=main_code reference
+```
+
+**Monkey-patching technique:**
+When decompilation fails or closures are opaque, compile a minimal Haskell program with the same GHC version, extract the compiled `Main_main_info` closure code, and patch it into the challenge binary. This forces evaluation of hidden closures and prints their results by replacing the main entry point with a known evaluator.
+
+```haskell
+-- reference.hs: minimal program that evaluates and prints the target closure
+module Main where
+main :: IO ()
+main = print targetClosure  -- replace with the closure you want to evaluate
+```
+
+**Key insight:** Haskell binaries are notoriously hard to reverse due to lazy evaluation, closures, and thunks. The STG machine turns everything into closure calls rather than direct function calls. `hsdecomp` recovers the closure structure and pattern matching. When decompilation fails, monkey-patching a known `Main_main_info` from a reference binary forces evaluation of hidden closures and prints results.
+
+**Detection:** `libHSbase-*` shared libraries, `hs_main` entry, Z-encoded symbols (e.g., `MainZCmain`), GHC version strings.
+
+**References:** hxp CTF 2017, Codegate 2018
+
+---
+
+### Haskell Binary RE via GHC CMM Intermediate Language (N1CTF 2018)
+
+GHC-compiled Haskell binaries are nearly impossible to decompile with IDA due to the STG execution model. When a `.cmm` (C-- intermediate) file is available or recoverable, read it to understand thunks, closures, and lazy evaluation semantics. For exponentially-growing recursive structures, compute segment sizes with memoization and use binary search instead of materializing the full string.
+
+**Pattern:** The binary builds a recursive string structure where `f(n) = s1 + f(n-1) + s2 + f(n-1) + s3`. Direct evaluation is `O(2^n)` in both time and space. Instead, compute the size of each recursion level with memoization, then binary-search for the target character index by walking the segment boundaries.
+
+```python
+# Haskell recursive string: f(n) = s1 + f(n-1) + s2 + f(n-1) + s3
+# Direct evaluation is O(2^n) -- use size memoization:
+from functools import lru_cache
+
+@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
+def fsize(n):
+    if n == 0: return len(s0)
+    return len(s1) + fsize(n-1) + len(s2) + fsize(n-1) + len(s3)
+
+def char_at(n, offset):
+    if n == 0: return s0[offset]
+    if offset < len(s1): return s1[offset]
+    offset -= len(s1)
+    if offset < fsize(n-1): return char_at(n-1, offset)
+    offset -= fsize(n-1)
+    if offset < len(s2): return s2[offset]
+    offset -= len(s2)
+    return char_at(n-1, offset)
+```
+
+**Key insight:** GHC's CMM (C minus minus) intermediate representation preserves enough structure to identify algorithms. For recursive string constructions that double in size each level, compute segment sizes with memoization and binary-search for target indices instead of materializing the exponentially-growing string.
+
+**Detection:** Haskell binary (see recognition above) with a `.cmm` file included in the challenge distribution. Look for recursive closure applications that produce string-like data with exponential growth.
+
+**References:** N1CTF 2018
+
+---
+
+## .NET / C# Binary Reversing
+
+.NET 托管程序（C# 编译的 exe/dll）有完整独立工作流，详见 [`../dotnet-reverse/SKILL.md`](../dotnet-reverse/SKILL.md)。
+
+**速查要点：**
+- 识别：PE 头 CLR runtime header 非零、`mscoree.dll` 导入、`mscorlib`/`System.Private.CoreLib` 字符串
+- 工具：**dnSpyEx**（反编译+调试+IL 编辑，Windows GUI）/ **ILSpy**（CLI）/ **de4dot**（脱混淆）/ **dnlib**（脚本化）
+- 脱混淆：ConfuserEx / SmartAssembly / Babel / .NET Reactor → `de4dot`，详见 [`../dotnet-reverse/references/obfuscators.md`](../dotnet-reverse/references/obfuscators.md)
+- **IL 优先**：关键判断与 patch 用 IL 编辑器而非 C# 反编译器（避免编译器生成代码重编译失真）
+- 红队 Sharp* 工具（Rubeus/SharpHound）分析 → [`../dotnet-reverse/references/sharp-tools.md`](../dotnet-reverse/references/sharp-tools.md)
+
+**边界：** IL2CPP / NativeAOT 编译产物是 native（无 CLR），不走 dnSpy → 走 `ida-reverse/` / `radare2/`（见 [seed-014](../field-journal/seed-014_unity-il2cpp-reverse.md)）。Codegate 2013 两阶段 XOR+AES-CBC 模式见 [tools.md](tools.md#net-analysis) `.NET Analysis` 段。
+
+---
+
+## C++ Binary Reversing (Quick Reference)
+
+While C++ RE is well-covered by general tools, these patterns are CTF-specific:
+
+### vtable Reconstruction
+
+```text
+# Virtual function tables (vtables):
+# First 8 bytes of object → pointer to vtable
+# vtable entries: [typeinfo_ptr, destructor, method1, method2, ...]
+# In Ghidra: Data → Create Pointer at vtable address
+
+# Identify polymorphic dispatch:
+# mov rax, [rdi]           # Load vtable from this pointer
+# call [rax + 0x18]        # Call 4th virtual method (0x18/8 = 3rd after typeinfo+dtor)
+```
+
+### RTTI (Run-Time Type Information)
+
+```bash
+# If not stripped, RTTI reveals class hierarchy
+strings binary | grep -E "^[0-9]+[A-Z]"   # Mangled type names
+c++filt _ZTI7MyClass                        # → typeinfo for MyClass
+
+# In Ghidra: search for vtable references, follow typeinfo pointer
+# typeinfo struct: {vtable_for_typeinfo, name_string, base_class_ptr}
+```
+
+### Standard Library Patterns
+
+```text
+std::string (libstdc++):
+  SSO (Small String Optimization): inline buffer for ≤15 chars
+  Layout: {char* ptr, size_t size, union{size_t cap, char buf[16]}}
+
+std::vector<T>:
+  {T* begin, T* end, T* capacity_end}
+
+std::map<K,V>:
+  Red-black tree: each node has {left, right, parent, color, key, value}
+
+std::unordered_map<K,V>:
+  Hash table: {bucket_array, size, load_factor_max, ...}
+```