neonctl 2.22.0 → 2.23.0

package/psql/index.js

@@ -0,0 +1,2005 @@
+import { PgConnection } from './wire/connection.js';
+import { applyEnvOverrides, defaultSettings } from './core/settings.js';
+import { createVarStore } from './core/variables.js';
+import { syncConnectionVars } from './core/syncVars.js';
+import { defaultRegistry } from './command/dispatch.js';
+import { createCondStack } from './command/cmd_cond.js';
+import { runMainLoop, EXIT_BADCONN, EXIT_FAILURE, EXIT_SUCCESS, EXIT_USER, } from './core/mainloop.js';
+import { applyStartupArgs, parseStartupArgs } from './core/startup.js';
+import { executeInputString, loadPsqlrc } from './io/psqlrc.js';
+import { loadPgPass } from './io/pgpass.js';
+import { loadPgServices } from './io/pgservice.js';
+import { promises as fs, existsSync } from 'node:fs';
+import * as os from 'node:os';
+import * as path from 'node:path';
+/**
+ * Embedded TypeScript psql entrypoint.
+ *
+ * Argv shape mirrors the legacy native-psql call site:
+ *   argv[0] = connection URI (postgresql://user:pw@host:port/db?sslmode=...)
+ *             OR an empty string `''` when the caller provides the
+ *             connection target via libpq flags (-h/-p/-U/-d) and/or PG*
+ *             env. The downstream layered resolver picks those up just like
+ *             upstream psql does.
+ *   argv[1..] = forwarded psql args (parsed by `parseStartupArgs`).
+ */
+export const runPsql = async (argv, stdio = {}) => {
+    const stdin = stdio.stdin ?? process.stdin;
+    const stdout = stdio.stdout ?? process.stdout;
+    const stderr = stdio.stderr ?? process.stderr;
+    const connectionUri = argv[0] ?? '';
+    // Parse argv[0] in one of three shapes:
+    //   - URI scheme (`postgres://…` / `postgresql://…`): the URI-partial
+    //     parser handles authority, query, and `?service=…`.
+    //   - libpq conninfo string (`key=value …`, no scheme): `parseConninfo`
+    //     extracts each known key (including `service`).
+    //   - Bare database name (e.g. `mydb`): no parsing; the rest of the
+    //     resolver picks up host/port/user/etc. from env/pgpass/service/
+    //     defaults.
+    //
+    // `looksLikeConnectionString` (libpq parity: `recognized_connection_
+    // string()`) decides between the first two and the third.
+    //
+    // When `connectionUri` is empty (the standalone-psql shim case), we
+    // skip parsing entirely and rely on libpq flags + env to populate the
+    // ConnectOptions layers.
+    let uriPartial = {};
+    let uriService;
+    if (connectionUri !== '' && looksLikeConnectionString(connectionUri)) {
+        try {
+            if (connectionUri.startsWith('postgres://') ||
+                connectionUri.startsWith('postgresql://')) {
+                uriPartial = parseConnectionUriPartial(connectionUri);
+                uriService = parseConnectionUriService(connectionUri);
+            }
+            else {
+                // Bare `key=value …` conninfo string. `parseConninfo` parks the
+                // service name on a private `_service` staging slot (it's not
+                // part of ConnectOptions); pull it out so the layered resolver
+                // can look it up.
+                const parsed = parseConninfo(connectionUri);
+                if (typeof parsed._service === 'string' && parsed._service.length > 0) {
+                    uriService = parsed._service;
+                }
+                delete parsed._service;
+                uriPartial = parsed;
+            }
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            stderr.write(`psql: error: ${err.message}\n`);
+            return EXIT_BADCONN;
+        }
+    }
+    // Parse psql args (argv[1..]). argv[0] is the connection URI consumed above.
+    const parsed = parseStartupArgs(argv.slice(1));
+    if ('kind' in parsed) {
+        if (parsed.kind === 'help' || parsed.kind === 'version') {
+            stdout.write(parsed.message);
+            if (!parsed.message.endsWith('\n'))
+                stdout.write('\n');
+            return EXIT_SUCCESS;
+        }
+        stderr.write(`psql: error: ${parsed.message}\n`);
+        return EXIT_FAILURE;
+    }
+    const vars = createVarStore();
+    const settings = defaultSettings(vars);
+    applyEnvOverrides(settings, process.env);
+    // Track interactive-ness from the actual stdin we'll read.
+    settings.notty = !stdin.isTTY;
+    // Resolve external configuration sources (pgpass, pg_service.conf) before
+    // running the layered merge. `loadPgPass` always degrades silently to
+    // an empty result. `loadPgServices` only errors when the user named a
+    // missing file via `$PGSERVICEFILE` (libpq parity for `006_service.pl`);
+    // bubble that out as a connection error.
+    const pgpassEntries = await loadPgPass(undefined, {
+        env: process.env,
+        stderr,
+    });
+    let services;
+    try {
+        services = await loadPgServices();
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        stderr.write(`psql: error: ${err.message}\n`);
+        return EXIT_BADCONN;
+    }
+    let resolved;
+    try {
+        resolved = applyStartupArgs(parsed, settings, undefined, {
+            env: process.env,
+            uriPartial,
+            serviceName: uriService,
+            pgpassEntries,
+            services,
+        });
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        // `resolveLayeredConnect` throws on unknown service name (libpq
+        // parity). Surface as a connection-setup error and bail.
+        stderr.write(`psql: error: ${err.message}\n`);
+        return EXIT_BADCONN;
+    }
+    const { connect: connectOpts, preActions } = resolved;
+    let connection;
+    try {
+        connection = await PgConnection.connect(connectOpts);
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        const e = err;
+        stderr.write(`psql: error: connection to server failed: ${e.message ?? String(err)}\n`);
+        return EXIT_BADCONN;
+    }
+    settings.db = connection;
+    // Mirror upstream psql's SyncVariables(): populate the connection-driven
+    // psql vars (DBNAME/USER/HOST/PORT/ENCODING/SERVER_VERSION_*) so scripts
+    // can interpolate `:DBNAME`, `:USER`, etc. from the first prompt onward.
+    syncConnectionVars(settings.vars, connection);
+    const registry = defaultRegistry();
+    const cond = createCondStack();
+    const ctx = {
+        settings,
+        registry,
+        cond,
+        stdin,
+        stdout,
+        stderr,
+    };
+    try {
+        // Startup banner — mirrors upstream psql's
+        //   psql (<client>, server <server>)
+        //   SSL connection (protocol: …, cipher: …)
+        //   Type "help" for help.
+        // Suppressed in quiet mode and when stdin isn't a TTY (scripted use).
+        if (!settings.quiet && !settings.notty && preActions.length === 0) {
+            writeStartupBanner(connection, stdout);
+        }
+        // Run .psqlrc unless -X was specified.
+        await loadPsqlrc(ctx, { skip: parsed.noPsqlrc, env: process.env });
+        // If the user supplied -c / -f actions, execute them sequentially and
+        // exit (mirrors upstream psql behaviour). Otherwise, fall through to
+        // the REPL.
+        if (preActions.length > 0) {
+            return await runPreActions(ctx, preActions, parsed.singleTransaction);
+        }
+        return await runMainLoop(ctx);
+    }
+    finally {
+        try {
+            await connection.close();
+        }
+        catch {
+            // ignore close errors
+        }
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Execute the ordered list of `-c` / `-f` actions and return the upstream
+ * psql exit code.
+ *
+ * Upstream `process_psqlrc_and_targets()` (in `startup.c`) plus the
+ * dispatcher in `MainLoop()` cooperate to give each switch one of three
+ * outcomes:
+ *
+ *   - `-c "SQL or \backslash"`:
+ *       * a client-side failure (e.g. bad `\copy`) marks the SWITCH itself
+ *         as failed → the overall exit code is non-zero, even when
+ *         ON_ERROR_STOP is off and the transaction commits.
+ *       * a server-side failure follows the same rule.
+ *
+ *   - `-f file`:
+ *       * `process_file()` returns a success status by default, so a
+ *         failing statement inside the file does NOT bubble up to the
+ *         outer exit code (without ON_ERROR_STOP). Only an I/O failure
+ *         opening the file flips the switch status.
+ *
+ *   - `--single-transaction`:
+ *       * before the FIRST action, issue `BEGIN`. After the LAST action,
+ *         issue `COMMIT` (success) or `ROLLBACK` (when ON_ERROR_STOP fired
+ *         and we stopped early).
+ *       * Without ON_ERROR_STOP, the transaction commits even when some
+ *         individual statements failed — the failing statements only
+ *         influence the exit code (see the `-c` / `-f` distinction above).
+ */
+const runPreActions = async (ctx, preActions, singleTransaction) => {
+    const { settings, stderr } = ctx;
+    let status = EXIT_SUCCESS;
+    let beganTransaction = false;
+    let earlyStopOnError = false;
+    let connectionLost = false;
+    // --single-transaction: wrap the entire batch in BEGIN ... COMMIT/ROLLBACK.
+    // We do this with `db.execSimple` directly so the wrapper does not itself
+    // count as a "failed switch" for exit-code purposes.
+    if (singleTransaction && settings.db) {
+        try {
+            await settings.db.execSimple('BEGIN');
+            beganTransaction = true;
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            stderr.write(`psql: error: could not begin transaction: ${msg}\n`);
+            return EXIT_FAILURE;
+        }
+    }
+    for (const action of preActions) {
+        if (connectionLost)
+            break;
+        if (action.kind === 'command') {
+            let outcome;
+            try {
+                outcome = await executeInputString(action.sql, ctx, { print: true });
+            }
+            catch (err) {
+                // Defensive: executeInputString shouldn't throw, but if a downstream
+                // command bubbles an exception we still want to surface it as a
+                // failed switch rather than crashing.
+                const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+                stderr.write(`psql: ERROR:  ${msg}\n`);
+                status = EXIT_FAILURE;
+                if (settings.onErrorStop) {
+                    earlyStopOnError = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (outcome.connectionLost) {
+                connectionLost = true;
+                status = EXIT_BADCONN;
+                break;
+            }
+            // For `-c`: any failure flips the exit code to EXIT_FAILURE (1) — real
+            // psql exits 1 for a `-c` error regardless of ON_ERROR_STOP, NOT the
+            // EXIT_USER (3) used for ON_ERROR_STOP aborts in script/stdin mode
+            // (verified on psql 18.4). The `\copy` errors are on stderr.
+            if (outcome.hadError || outcome.stoppedOnError) {
+                status = EXIT_FAILURE;
+            }
+            if (outcome.stoppedOnError) {
+                earlyStopOnError = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        else {
+            // -f file: I/O failure (missing file, permission denied) is a hard
+            // EXIT_FAILURE on the switch. Per-statement failures inside the file
+            // are SWALLOWED for exit-code purposes (mirrors `process_file()` in
+            // upstream, which only escalates to a stop when ON_ERROR_STOP fires).
+            let contents;
+            try {
+                contents = await fs.readFile(action.path, 'utf8');
+            }
+            catch (err) {
+                const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+                stderr.write(`psql: error: ${msg}\n`);
+                status = EXIT_FAILURE;
+                if (settings.onErrorStop) {
+                    earlyStopOnError = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            let outcome;
+            try {
+                outcome = await executeInputString(contents, ctx, { print: true });
+            }
+            catch (err) {
+                const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+                stderr.write(`psql: ERROR:  ${msg}\n`);
+                status = EXIT_USER;
+                if (settings.onErrorStop) {
+                    earlyStopOnError = true;
+                    break;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (outcome.connectionLost) {
+                connectionLost = true;
+                status = EXIT_BADCONN;
+                break;
+            }
+            if (outcome.stoppedOnError) {
+                status = EXIT_USER;
+                earlyStopOnError = true;
+                break;
+            }
+            // Per-statement errors inside the file do NOT propagate to the outer
+            // exit code (matches upstream `process_file` returning success).
+        }
+    }
+    // Wrap up the single-transaction envelope. If we stopped early on error
+    // and ON_ERROR_STOP fired, roll back. Otherwise commit — upstream commits
+    // even when individual statements failed without ON_ERROR_STOP.
+    if (beganTransaction && settings.db && !connectionLost) {
+        const closing = earlyStopOnError ? 'ROLLBACK' : 'COMMIT';
+        try {
+            await settings.db.execSimple(closing);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // If COMMIT fails the data is gone; surface it but don't override an
+            // existing error status. If we tried to COMMIT cleanly and that
+            // failed, escalate to EXIT_FAILURE so the caller knows the batch
+            // didn't go through.
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            stderr.write(`psql: error: ${closing} failed: ${msg}\n`);
+            if (status === EXIT_SUCCESS)
+                status = EXIT_FAILURE;
+        }
+    }
+    return status;
+};
+const writeStartupBanner = (connection, out) => {
+    const serverVersion = connection.parameterStatus('server_version') ?? 'unknown';
+    // Client identifier. Matches upstream's `psql (18.4, server X.Y)` shape
+    // but signals that this is the embedded TS implementation so users can tell
+    // when they're on the fallback path.
+    out.write(`psql-ts (neonctl, server ${serverVersion})\n`);
+    const tls = connection.getTlsInfo();
+    if (tls) {
+        const parts = [
+            `protocol: ${tls.protocol}`,
+            `cipher: ${tls.cipher}`,
+            `compression: ${tls.compression}`,
+        ];
+        if (tls.alpn)
+            parts.push(`ALPN: ${tls.alpn}`);
+        out.write(`SSL connection (${parts.join(', ')})\n`);
+    }
+    out.write('Type "help" for help.\n\n');
+};
+// Recognized libpq connection parameter keywords (subset matching
+// https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/libpq-connect.html#LIBPQ-PARAMKEYWORDS).
+// We don't necessarily honor every value (e.g. hostaddr, krbsrvname), but we
+// recognize them as valid keys so callers don't get a spurious "unknown key"
+// rejection for a libpq-spec key they expect to work.
+const KNOWN_QUERY_KEYS = new Set([
+    'host',
+    'hostaddr',
+    'port',
+    'dbname',
+    'user',
+    'password',
+    'passfile',
+    'channel_binding',
+    'require_auth',
+    'connect_timeout',
+    'client_encoding',
+    'options',
+    'application_name',
+    'fallback_application_name',
+    'keepalives',
+    'keepalives_idle',
+    'keepalives_interval',
+    'keepalives_count',
+    'sslmode',
+    'sslnegotiation',
+    'sslcompression',
+    'sslcert',
+    'sslkey',
+    'sslcertmode',
+    'sslrootcert',
+    'sslcrl',
+    'sslcrldir',
+    'sslkeylogfile',
+    'sslsni',
+    'requirepeer',
+    'ssl_min_protocol_version',
+    'ssl_max_protocol_version',
+    'krbsrvname',
+    'gsslib',
+    'gssencmode',
+    'service',
+    'target_session_attrs',
+    'load_balance_hosts',
+    'replication',
+]);
+/**
+ * Tokenize a postgres connection URI into raw components.
+ *
+ * Hand-rolled rather than using `new URL()` because libpq accepts shapes
+ * the WHATWG URL parser rejects, e.g. `postgresql://user@` (userinfo with
+ * no host), `postgres://:12345/` (port-only), `postgres://uri-user@/db`
+ * (userinfo with empty host). The upstream conformance suite in
+ * `src/interfaces/libpq/t/001_uri.pl` exercises these forms.
+ */
+const tokenizeConnectionUri = (uri) => {
+    // Strip scheme. Only postgres:// and postgresql:// are accepted; libpq
+    // rejects everything else with a "missing schema" error.
+    let rest;
+    if (uri.startsWith('postgresql://')) {
+        rest = uri.slice('postgresql://'.length);
+    }
+    else if (uri.startsWith('postgres://')) {
+        rest = uri.slice('postgres://'.length);
+    }
+    else {
+        throw new Error(`unsupported scheme in URI: ${uri}`);
+    }
+    // Split off query string.
+    let query = '';
+    const qIdx = rest.indexOf('?');
+    if (qIdx >= 0) {
+        query = rest.slice(qIdx + 1);
+        rest = rest.slice(0, qIdx);
+    }
+    // Split off path (database).
+    let database;
+    const pIdx = rest.indexOf('/');
+    if (pIdx >= 0) {
+        const pathRaw = rest.slice(pIdx + 1);
+        database = pathRaw === '' ? undefined : decodePercent(pathRaw);
+        rest = rest.slice(0, pIdx);
+    }
+    // What's left is the authority: [userinfo@][host[:port]]
+    let userinfo;
+    const atIdx = rest.lastIndexOf('@');
+    if (atIdx >= 0) {
+        userinfo = rest.slice(0, atIdx);
+        rest = rest.slice(atIdx + 1);
+    }
+    let user;
+    let password;
+    if (userinfo !== undefined) {
+        const colon = userinfo.indexOf(':');
+        if (colon >= 0) {
+            user = decodePercent(userinfo.slice(0, colon));
+            password = decodePercent(userinfo.slice(colon + 1));
+        }
+        else {
+            user = decodePercent(userinfo);
+        }
+    }
+    // hostport: either [ipv6]:port, [ipv6], host:port, or host. With multi-host
+    // (libpq 10+), the authority may be a comma-separated list:
+    //   `h1:5432,h2,[::1]:5433`
+    // We split on commas at the top level (i.e. not inside `[...]` IPv6
+    // brackets) and parse each segment using the single-host grammar.
+    const tuples = splitAuthorityTuples(rest, uri);
+    let host;
+    let port;
+    const hosts = [];
+    for (const tuple of tuples) {
+        const parsed = parseAuthorityTuple(tuple, uri);
+        if (parsed.host !== undefined) {
+            hosts.push({ host: parsed.host, port: parsed.port });
+        }
+    }
+    if (hosts.length > 0) {
+        host = hosts[0].host;
+        port = hosts[0].port;
+    }
+    const queryMap = parseQuery(query);
+    return {
+        user,
+        password,
+        host,
+        port,
+        ...(hosts.length > 1 ? { hosts } : {}),
+        database,
+        query: queryMap,
+    };
+};
+/**
+ * Split a multi-host authority string into one tuple per top-level comma.
+ * IPv6 bracket regions are atomic — commas inside `[…]` don't split.
+ *
+ * Examples:
+ *   `h1:5432,h2,h3:5434`         -> ['h1:5432','h2','h3:5434']
+ *   `[::1]:5432,[2001:db8::1]`   -> ['[::1]:5432','[2001:db8::1]']
+ *   `h1`                          -> ['h1']
+ *   ``                            -> ['']    (single empty tuple — caller may
+ *                                              treat as no-host)
+ */
+const splitAuthorityTuples = (rest, uri) => {
+    if (rest === '')
+        return [''];
+    const tuples = [];
+    let start = 0;
+    let i = 0;
+    while (i < rest.length) {
+        const ch = rest[i];
+        if (ch === '[') {
+            const closeIdx = rest.indexOf(']', i);
+            if (closeIdx < 0) {
+                throw new Error(`missing matching "]" in IPv6 host address: ${uri}`);
+            }
+            i = closeIdx + 1;
+            continue;
+        }
+        if (ch === ',') {
+            tuples.push(rest.slice(start, i));
+            i += 1;
+            start = i;
+            continue;
+        }
+        i += 1;
+    }
+    tuples.push(rest.slice(start));
+    return tuples;
+};
+const parseAuthorityTuple = (tuple, uri) => {
+    if (tuple === '')
+        return {};
+    if (tuple.startsWith('[')) {
+        const closeIdx = tuple.indexOf(']');
+        if (closeIdx < 0) {
+            throw new Error(`missing matching "]" in IPv6 host address: ${uri}`);
+        }
+        const host = tuple.slice(1, closeIdx);
+        if (host === '') {
+            throw new Error(`IPv6 host address may not be empty: ${uri}`);
+        }
+        const after = tuple.slice(closeIdx + 1);
+        if (after === '')
+            return { host };
+        if (after.startsWith(':')) {
+            return { host, port: after.slice(1) };
+        }
+        throw new Error(`unexpected characters after IPv6 host address in URI: ${uri}`);
+    }
+    const colon = tuple.indexOf(':');
+    if (colon >= 0) {
+        return {
+            host: decodePercent(tuple.slice(0, colon)),
+            port: tuple.slice(colon + 1),
+        };
+    }
+    return { host: decodePercent(tuple) };
+};
+const parseQuery = (raw) => {
+    const out = new Map();
+    if (raw === '')
+        return out;
+    for (const segment of raw.split('&')) {
+        if (segment === '')
+            continue;
+        const eq = segment.indexOf('=');
+        if (eq < 0) {
+            // libpq: every query parameter must be `key=value`. Bare keys (no `=`)
+            // are rejected. Matches the upstream 001_uri.pl `?zzz` and
+            // `?value1&value2` cases.
+            throw new Error(`missing "=" after "${segment.trim()}" in connection info string`);
+        }
+        const keyRaw = segment.slice(0, eq);
+        const valueRaw = segment.slice(eq + 1);
+        // libpq rejects an extra `=` in either key or value; matches the
+        // `?key=key=value` upstream case.
+        if (valueRaw.includes('=')) {
+            throw new Error(`extra "=" in query parameter "${decodePercent(keyRaw).trim()}"`);
+        }
+        const key = decodePercent(keyRaw).trim();
+        const value = decodePercent(valueRaw).trim();
+        if (key === '')
+            continue;
+        if (!KNOWN_QUERY_KEYS.has(key)) {
+            throw new Error(`invalid URI query parameter: "${key}"`);
+        }
+        out.set(key, value);
+    }
+    return out;
+};
+/**
+ * Percent-decode a URI component. libpq strictly validates percent-encoding:
+ *   - `%XX` must be two hex digits
+ *   - bare `%` or `%X` is invalid
+ *   - `%00` is forbidden (NUL bytes can't appear in connection params)
+ *
+ * `decodeURIComponent` throws URIError on malformed escapes — we surface that
+ * as a clear Error. It accepts `%00` (returns `\0`); we explicitly reject.
+ */
+const decodePercent = (s) => {
+    let decoded;
+    try {
+        decoded = decodeURIComponent(s);
+    }
+    catch {
+        throw new Error(`invalid percent-encoded token in URI: ${s}`);
+    }
+    if (decoded.includes('\x00')) {
+        throw new Error(`forbidden NUL byte (%00) in URI: ${s}`);
+    }
+    return decoded;
+};
+export const parseConnectionUri = (uri) => {
+    const raw = tokenizeConnectionUri(uri);
+    // libpq-style: query string can override authority components.
+    const queryUser = raw.query.get('user');
+    const queryPassword = raw.query.get('password');
+    const queryPort = raw.query.get('port');
+    const queryDbname = raw.query.get('dbname');
+    const queryHost = raw.query.get('host');
+    // Multi-host: either from the authority (`h1,h2,h3:5434`) or from
+    // `?host=h1,h2,h3&port=5432,5433,5434`. Query-string overrides authority
+    // (matching libpq: query params take precedence over URI structural
+    // components). Both `host=` and `port=` lists must be the same length OR
+    // a single value (broadcast).
+    const hostsTuples = computeHostsTuples({
+        rawHost: raw.host,
+        rawPort: raw.port,
+        rawAuthorityHosts: raw.hosts,
+        queryHost,
+        queryPort,
+    });
+    // Single-host fallbacks (preserve current behaviour for the `host` / `port`
+    // surface — the wire layer prefers `hosts` when set).
+    const host = hostsTuples.length > 0 && hostsTuples[0].host !== ''
+        ? hostsTuples[0].host
+        : 'localhost';
+    const port = hostsTuples.length > 0 ? hostsTuples[0].port : 5432;
+    const user = queryUser !== undefined && queryUser !== ''
+        ? queryUser
+        : raw.user !== undefined && raw.user !== ''
+            ? raw.user
+            : (process.env.USER ?? '');
+    const password = queryPassword ?? raw.password;
+    const database = queryDbname ?? raw.database ?? user;
+    let ssl = normalizeSslMode(raw.query.get('sslmode') ?? null);
+    const channelBinding = normalizeChannelBinding(raw.query.get('channel_binding') ?? null);
+    // GSSAPI is unsupported (no native Kerberos dep); validate+reject require.
+    validateGssEncMode(raw.query.get('gssencmode') ?? null);
+    const options = raw.query.get('options');
+    // Match upstream psql: default `application_name` to `'psql'` so users see
+    // the expected value in `pg_stat_activity`. The neonctl-specific identifier
+    // is still discoverable via the User-Agent the protocol layer sends.
+    const applicationName = raw.query.get('application_name') ?? 'psql';
+    const replication = normalizeReplication(raw.query.get('replication') ?? null);
+    const targetSessionAttrs = normalizeTargetSessionAttrs(raw.query.get('target_session_attrs') ?? null);
+    const loadBalanceHosts = normalizeLoadBalanceHosts(raw.query.get('load_balance_hosts') ?? null);
+    // libpq PEM file paths. Empty string is treated as "not set" so a URI
+    // like `?sslcert=` doesn't surface as an attempt to load `""` from disk.
+    const sslcert = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcert'));
+    const sslkey = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslkey'));
+    const sslcertmode = normalizeSslCertMode(raw.query.get('sslcertmode') ?? null);
+    const sslnegotiation = normalizeSslNegotiation(raw.query.get('sslnegotiation') ?? null);
+    const sslrootcert = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslrootcert'));
+    const sslcrl = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcrl'));
+    const sslcrldir = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcrldir'));
+    const sslkeylogfile = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslkeylogfile'));
+    // libpq sslsni / keepalives toggles (0/1) + keepalives_idle (seconds) +
+    // requirepeer (OS user, validated but not enforceable in Node).
+    const sslsni = parseLibpqBool(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslsni')));
+    const keepalives = parseLibpqBool(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('keepalives')));
+    const keepalivesIdle = parseKeepalivesIdle(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('keepalives_idle')));
+    const requirepeer = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('requirepeer'));
+    // libpq: `sslrootcert=system` raises the effective sslmode to verify-full.
+    // verify-full is the strongest mode, so this only ever raises it.
+    if (sslrootcert === 'system' && ssl !== 'verify-full') {
+        ssl = 'verify-full';
+    }
+    // libpq `hostaddr`: a fixed IP that bypasses DNS while `host` still drives
+    // TLS SNI / cert verification. Empty string is "not set".
+    const hostaddr = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('hostaddr'));
+    const sslMinProtocolVersion = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('ssl_min_protocol_version')), 'ssl_min_protocol_version');
+    const sslMaxProtocolVersion = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('ssl_max_protocol_version')), 'ssl_max_protocol_version');
+    assertTlsProtocolRange(sslMinProtocolVersion, sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    assertTlsMaxProtocolSupported(sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    // libpq rejects `sslnegotiation=direct` paired with a weak sslmode. The URI
+    // surface always resolves a concrete `ssl` (defaulting to 'prefer'), so the
+    // check is authoritative here.
+    assertSslNegotiationModeCompatible(ssl, sslnegotiation);
+    return {
+        host,
+        port,
+        user,
+        password,
+        database,
+        ssl,
+        channelBinding,
+        applicationName,
+        options,
+        ...(sslnegotiation !== undefined ? { sslnegotiation } : {}),
+        ...(hostaddr !== undefined ? { hostaddr } : {}),
+        ...(replication !== undefined ? { replication } : {}),
+        ...(hostsTuples.length > 1
+            ? { hosts: hostsTuples.map((t) => ({ host: t.host, port: t.port })) }
+            : {}),
+        ...(targetSessionAttrs !== undefined ? { targetSessionAttrs } : {}),
+        ...(loadBalanceHosts !== undefined ? { loadBalanceHosts } : {}),
+        ...(sslcert !== undefined ? { sslcert } : {}),
+        ...(sslkey !== undefined ? { sslkey } : {}),
+        ...(sslcertmode !== undefined ? { sslcertmode } : {}),
+        ...(sslrootcert !== undefined ? { sslrootcert } : {}),
+        ...(sslcrl !== undefined ? { sslcrl } : {}),
+        ...(sslcrldir !== undefined ? { sslcrldir } : {}),
+        ...(sslkeylogfile !== undefined ? { sslkeylogfile } : {}),
+        ...(sslsni !== undefined ? { sslsni } : {}),
+        ...(keepalives !== undefined ? { keepalives } : {}),
+        ...(keepalivesIdle !== undefined ? { keepalivesIdle } : {}),
+        ...(requirepeer !== undefined ? { requirepeer } : {}),
+        ...(sslMinProtocolVersion !== undefined ? { sslMinProtocolVersion } : {}),
+        ...(sslMaxProtocolVersion !== undefined ? { sslMaxProtocolVersion } : {}),
+    };
+};
+/**
+ * Parse a libpq 0/1 boolean connection parameter (`sslsni`, `keepalives`).
+ * libpq's `parse_bool_with_len` accepts `1`/`0`, `true`/`false`, `yes`/`no`,
+ * `on`/`off` (case-insensitive). Returns `undefined` for unset / empty /
+ * unrecognised so the caller falls back to libpq's default (enabled).
+ */
+const parseLibpqBool = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === undefined || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    switch (raw.toLowerCase()) {
+        case '1':
+        case 'true':
+        case 'yes':
+        case 'on':
+            return true;
+        case '0':
+        case 'false':
+        case 'no':
+        case 'off':
+            return false;
+        default:
+            return undefined;
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Parse `keepalives_idle` (seconds, non-negative integer). Returns the value
+ * in seconds, or `undefined` if unset / malformed (the wire layer converts to
+ * milliseconds for `socket.setKeepAlive`'s `initialDelay`).
+ */
+const parseKeepalivesIdle = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === undefined || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const n = Number.parseInt(raw, 10);
+    return Number.isFinite(n) && n >= 0 ? n : undefined;
+};
+const nonEmpty = (v) => v === undefined || v === '' ? undefined : v;
+/**
+ * Resolve the final {host, port}[] list for a URI:
+ *
+ *  1. Start from the authority. `?host=`/`?port=` query overrides take
+ *     precedence (libpq semantics).
+ *  2. If `host=h1,h2,…` is supplied, parse the comma-list. Ports come from
+ *     `port=p1,p2,…`; must match the host count or be a single value
+ *     (broadcast to all hosts).
+ *  3. If only the authority had multi-host tuples (`postgresql://h1,h2/db`),
+ *     use those.
+ *  4. Otherwise fall back to single-host.
+ *
+ * Validates every port is in 1..65535 and surfaces a clear error otherwise.
+ */
+const computeHostsTuples = (input) => {
+    const { rawHost, rawPort, rawAuthorityHosts, queryHost, queryPort } = input;
+    // Case A: ?host=… overrides the authority host(s). Port resolution still
+    // prefers `?port=` (if supplied), but falls back to the authority port so
+    // e.g. `postgres://:12345?host=/path/to/socket` keeps `port=12345`.
+    if (queryHost !== undefined && queryHost !== '') {
+        const hosts = queryHost.split(',').map((h) => h.trim());
+        const portList = queryPort !== undefined && queryPort !== ''
+            ? queryPort.split(',').map((p) => p.trim())
+            : null;
+        if (portList !== null &&
+            portList.length !== 1 &&
+            portList.length !== hosts.length) {
+            throw new Error(`could not match ${String(portList.length)} port numbers to ${String(hosts.length)} hosts`);
+        }
+        return hosts.map((h, idx) => {
+            let portStr;
+            if (portList !== null) {
+                portStr = portList.length === 1 ? portList[0] : portList[idx];
+            }
+            else {
+                // Fall back to the authority port. Multi-host without an explicit
+                // ?port= list shares the authority port across all hosts.
+                portStr = rawPort;
+            }
+            return { host: h, port: parsePort(portStr) };
+        });
+    }
+    // Case B: authority carried a comma-list (`postgresql://h1,h2:5433/db`).
+    // Query-string `?port=` can still broadcast or pair with this list.
+    if (rawAuthorityHosts !== undefined && rawAuthorityHosts.length > 0) {
+        const portList = queryPort !== undefined && queryPort !== ''
+            ? queryPort.split(',').map((p) => p.trim())
+            : null;
+        if (portList !== null &&
+            portList.length !== 1 &&
+            portList.length !== rawAuthorityHosts.length) {
+            throw new Error(`could not match ${String(portList.length)} port numbers to ${String(rawAuthorityHosts.length)} hosts`);
+        }
+        return rawAuthorityHosts.map((t, idx) => ({
+            host: t.host,
+            port: parsePort(portList !== null
+                ? portList.length === 1
+                    ? portList[0]
+                    : portList[idx]
+                : t.port),
+        }));
+    }
+    // Case C: single-host. Honour `?port=` (single value) if provided.
+    const portStr = queryPort ?? rawPort;
+    const host = rawHost !== undefined && rawHost !== '' ? rawHost : '';
+    return [{ host, port: parsePort(portStr) }];
+};
+const parsePort = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === undefined || raw === '')
+        return 5432;
+    // `Number.parseInt` silently tolerates trailing junk (`parseInt("12345 12")`
+    // === 12345), which would let an internal-whitespace value like the upstream
+    // `port = 12345 12` URI case sneak through as port 12345. libpq rejects that
+    // shape with `invalid integer value "<v>" for connection option "port"`,
+    // pointing at the whole bogus value (the whitespace included) rather than a
+    // generic out-of-range message. Detect any digits-then-garbage value here so
+    // that exact wording fires; genuinely non-numeric (`abc`) and out-of-range
+    // (`99999`) values keep the shorter `invalid port:` diagnostic.
+    if (/^\d/.test(raw) && !/^\d+$/.test(raw)) {
+        throw new Error(`invalid integer value "${raw}" for connection option "port"`);
+    }
+    const p = Number.parseInt(raw, 10);
+    if (!Number.isFinite(p) || p <= 0 || p > 65535) {
+        throw new Error(`invalid port: ${raw}`);
+    }
+    return p;
+};
+/**
+ * Parse a libpq-style conninfo string into a `Partial<ConnectOptions>`.
+ *
+ * The grammar is roughly `key = value` pairs separated by whitespace, where
+ * values may be quoted with single quotes (libpq's `\'` is honored as an
+ * embedded single-quote, but we don't model the full backslash-escape
+ * universe — there's no test corpus that exercises it). Unknown keys are
+ * rejected so a typo like `replicate=database` produces a clear error
+ * rather than silently dropping the parameter.
+ *
+ * Recognised keys mirror the URI-side `KNOWN_QUERY_KEYS` allowlist plus
+ * the authority-style keys (`host`, `port`, `user`, `dbname`, `password`).
+ * `replication` is normalised through `normalizeReplication` for libpq
+ * value-set compatibility.
+ *
+ * Out of scope: percent-decoding (conninfo strings are NOT percent-encoded),
+ * `service` resolution from `pg_service.conf`, `passfile` resolution.
+ */
+export const parseConninfo = (input) => {
+    const out = {};
+    let i = 0;
+    const n = input.length;
+    while (i < n) {
+        // Skip whitespace between pairs.
+        while (i < n && /\s/.test(input[i]))
+            i += 1;
+        if (i >= n)
+            break;
+        // Parse key: chars up to `=` or whitespace.
+        const keyStart = i;
+        while (i < n && input[i] !== '=' && !/\s/.test(input[i]))
+            i += 1;
+        const key = input.slice(keyStart, i).toLowerCase();
+        if (key === '')
+            break;
+        // Skip whitespace before `=`.
+        while (i < n && /\s/.test(input[i]))
+            i += 1;
+        if (i >= n || input[i] !== '=') {
+            throw new Error(`missing "=" after "${key}" in conninfo string`);
+        }
+        i += 1; // consume `=`
+        // Skip whitespace after `=`.
+        while (i < n && /\s/.test(input[i]))
+            i += 1;
+        // Parse value: either single-quoted (with `\'` and `\\` escapes) or
+        // bare up to next whitespace.
+        let value;
+        if (i < n && input[i] === "'") {
+            i += 1; // consume opening quote
+            const parts = [];
+            while (i < n && input[i] !== "'") {
+                if (input[i] === '\\' && i + 1 < n) {
+                    parts.push(input[i + 1]);
+                    i += 2;
+                }
+                else {
+                    parts.push(input[i]);
+                    i += 1;
+                }
+            }
+            if (i >= n) {
+                throw new Error(`unterminated single quote in conninfo string for key "${key}"`);
+            }
+            i += 1; // consume closing quote
+            value = parts.join('');
+        }
+        else {
+            const valStart = i;
+            while (i < n && !/\s/.test(input[i]))
+                i += 1;
+            value = input.slice(valStart, i);
+        }
+        applyConninfoPair(out, key, value);
+    }
+    // Materialise multi-host list. The scalar `host`/`port` already hold the
+    // first entry (so single-host callers see no surface change); we only
+    // surface `hosts` when the comma-list had ≥2 entries.
+    const hostList = out._hostList;
+    const portList = out._portList;
+    if (hostList !== undefined && hostList.length > 0) {
+        if (portList !== undefined &&
+            portList.length !== 1 &&
+            portList.length !== hostList.length) {
+            throw new Error(`could not match ${String(portList.length)} port numbers to ${String(hostList.length)} hosts`);
+        }
+        if (hostList.length > 1) {
+            out.hosts = hostList.map((h, idx) => ({
+                host: h,
+                port: portList === undefined
+                    ? (out.port ?? 5432)
+                    : portList.length === 1
+                        ? parsePort(portList[0])
+                        : parsePort(portList[idx]),
+            }));
+        }
+    }
+    // Drop the private staging fields before returning to the caller.
+    // `_service` is left in place — the layered connect resolver in
+    // `core/startup.ts` doesn't see this struct; only `runPsql` extracts
+    // and forwards the service name. The caller deletes the slot after
+    // reading it.
+    delete out._hostList;
+    delete out._portList;
+    assertTlsProtocolRange(out.sslMinProtocolVersion, out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    assertTlsMaxProtocolSupported(out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    return out;
+};
+const applyConninfoPair = (out, key, value) => {
+    switch (key) {
+        case 'host': {
+            // Multi-host: `host=h1,h2,h3`. Store the list aside; the post-pass
+            // (finalizeConninfo) materialises it into `hosts` + matches up against
+            // any `port=p1,p2,p3` list.
+            if (value.includes(',')) {
+                out._hostList = value.split(',').map((h) => h.trim());
+                out.host = out._hostList[0];
+            }
+            else {
+                out.host = value;
+                out._hostList = undefined;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'port': {
+            if (value.includes(',')) {
+                out._portList = value.split(',').map((p) => p.trim());
+                // First port still goes into the scalar slot for back-compat.
+                out.port = parsePort(out._portList[0]);
+            }
+            else {
+                out.port = parsePort(value);
+                out._portList = undefined;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'user':
+            out.user = value;
+            return;
+        case 'password':
+            out.password = value;
+            return;
+        case 'dbname':
+            out.database = value;
+            return;
+        case 'application_name':
+            out.applicationName = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslmode':
+            out.ssl = normalizeSslMode(value);
+            return;
+        case 'channel_binding': {
+            const cb = normalizeChannelBinding(value);
+            if (cb !== undefined)
+                out.channelBinding = cb;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'require_auth': {
+            const ra = normalizeRequireAuth(value);
+            if (ra !== undefined)
+                out.requireAuth = ra;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'connect_timeout': {
+            const t = Number.parseInt(value, 10);
+            if (Number.isFinite(t) && t >= 0) {
+                out.connectTimeoutMs = t * 1000;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'client_encoding':
+            out.clientEncoding = value;
+            return;
+        case 'options':
+            out.options = value;
+            return;
+        case 'replication': {
+            const rep = normalizeReplication(value);
+            if (rep !== undefined)
+                out.replication = rep;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'target_session_attrs': {
+            const tsa = normalizeTargetSessionAttrs(value);
+            if (tsa !== undefined)
+                out.targetSessionAttrs = tsa;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'load_balance_hosts': {
+            const lbh = normalizeLoadBalanceHosts(value);
+            if (lbh !== undefined)
+                out.loadBalanceHosts = lbh;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'gssencmode':
+            // Unsupported (no GSSAPI); accept disable/prefer, reject require.
+            validateGssEncMode(value);
+            return;
+        case 'sslcert':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslcert = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslkey':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslkey = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcertmode': {
+            const cm = normalizeSslCertMode(value);
+            if (cm !== undefined)
+                out.sslcertmode = cm;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'sslnegotiation': {
+            const sn = normalizeSslNegotiation(value);
+            if (sn !== undefined)
+                out.sslnegotiation = sn;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'sslrootcert':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslrootcert = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcrl':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslcrl = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcrldir':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslcrldir = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslkeylogfile':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.sslkeylogfile = value;
+            return;
+        case 'hostaddr':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.hostaddr = value;
+            return;
+        case 'ssl_min_protocol_version': {
+            const v = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(value === '' ? undefined : value, 'ssl_min_protocol_version');
+            if (v !== undefined)
+                out.sslMinProtocolVersion = v;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'ssl_max_protocol_version': {
+            const v = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(value === '' ? undefined : value, 'ssl_max_protocol_version');
+            if (v !== undefined)
+                out.sslMaxProtocolVersion = v;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'sslsni': {
+            const b = parseLibpqBool(value);
+            if (b !== undefined)
+                out.sslsni = b;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'keepalives': {
+            const b = parseLibpqBool(value);
+            if (b !== undefined)
+                out.keepalives = b;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'keepalives_idle': {
+            const n = parseKeepalivesIdle(value);
+            if (n !== undefined)
+                out.keepalivesIdle = n;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'requirepeer':
+            if (value !== '')
+                out.requirepeer = value;
+            return;
+        // Recognised libpq keys that we don't model — accept silently so we
+        // don't reject legitimate connection strings. keepalives_interval /
+        // keepalives_count have no Node net API equivalent (setKeepAlive only
+        // exposes enable + initial delay) — recognised but cannot be applied.
+        case 'passfile':
+        case 'sslcompression':
+        case 'krbsrvname':
+        case 'gsslib':
+        case 'fallback_application_name':
+        case 'keepalives_interval':
+        case 'keepalives_count':
+            return;
+        case 'service': {
+            // Service name is NOT a ConnectOptions field — it's resolved by
+            // the layered connect resolver in `core/startup.ts`. Stash it on
+            // a private staging slot so the caller (`runPsql`) can extract it
+            // alongside the URI-side `?service=…` parser.
+            out._service = value;
+            return;
+        }
+        default:
+            throw new Error(`invalid conninfo key: "${key}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Heuristic: does the `-d` value look like a connection URI or a conninfo
+ * string (vs. a bare database name)? Mirrors libpq's
+ * `recognized_connection_string()` test.
+ */
+export const looksLikeConnectionString = (s) => {
+    if (s.startsWith('postgresql://') || s.startsWith('postgres://'))
+        return true;
+    // A bare key=value pair (or several) — conninfo. We require the `=` to
+    // appear before any whitespace so values like "weird name" (a bareword
+    // database name with a space) don't get misclassified.
+    const eq = s.indexOf('=');
+    if (eq < 0)
+        return false;
+    const head = s.slice(0, eq);
+    return !/\s/.test(head);
+};
+const normalizeSslMode = (raw) => {
+    // Only null/unset defaults to 'prefer'. An explicit but unrecognized value
+    // (e.g. a `verify-ful` typo) MUST be rejected — silently falling back to
+    // 'prefer' would proceed with no cert-chain / hostname verification, a TLS
+    // downgrade. Mirrors libpq's `invalid sslmode value: "..."` and every
+    // sibling validator (normalizeChannelBinding, normalizeSslCertMode, …).
+    if (raw === null)
+        return 'prefer';
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    switch (value) {
+        case 'disable':
+        case 'allow':
+        case 'prefer':
+        case 'require':
+        case 'verify-ca':
+        case 'verify-full':
+            return value;
+        default:
+            throw new Error(`invalid sslmode value: "${raw}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * libpq's accepted TLS protocol-version names, in ascending order. The
+ * index doubles as the comparison key for the `min > max` check. Matching
+ * is case-insensitive on input (libpq lowercases before comparing) but we
+ * keep the canonical mixed-case spelling Node's `tls` module expects for
+ * `minVersion` / `maxVersion`.
+ */
+const TLS_PROTOCOL_VERSIONS = ['TLSv1', 'TLSv1.1', 'TLSv1.2', 'TLSv1.3'];
+/**
+ * Validate and canonicalise a `ssl_{min,max}_protocol_version` value. Returns
+ * the canonical spelling (`TLSv1.2` etc.) or `undefined` for empty / unset.
+ * Throws libpq's `invalid <key> value: "<raw>"` wording on a malformed value.
+ */
+const normalizeTlsProtocolVersion = (raw, key) => {
+    if (raw === undefined || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const match = TLS_PROTOCOL_VERSIONS.find((v) => v.toLowerCase() === raw.toLowerCase());
+    if (match === undefined) {
+        throw new Error(`invalid ${key} value: "${raw}"`);
+    }
+    return match;
+};
+/**
+ * Reject a `ssl_max_protocol_version` ceiling below TLSv1.2. TLS 1.0/1.1 are
+ * disabled in Node's bundled OpenSSL, so capping the ceiling there leaves no
+ * negotiable protocol and the handshake otherwise fails with an opaque
+ * `ERR_SSL_NO_PROTOCOLS_AVAILABLE` — surface an actionable message at parse
+ * time instead. Only the MAX is gated: a low *min*
+ * (`ssl_min_protocol_version=TLSv1.1`) is harmless because Node still
+ * negotiates the highest mutually-supported version (1.2/1.3), exactly as
+ * libpq does on a modern OpenSSL. Called AFTER {@link assertTlsProtocolRange}
+ * so an inverted range (min > max) reports the range error first, matching
+ * libpq's ordering.
+ */
+const assertTlsMaxProtocolSupported = (max) => {
+    if (max === 'TLSv1' || max === 'TLSv1.1') {
+        throw new Error(`ssl_max_protocol_version "${max}" is not supported by this ` +
+            `runtime's TLS library — TLS 1.0/1.1 are disabled in Node's OpenSSL; ` +
+            `the minimum negotiable version is TLSv1.2`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Reject a `ssl_min_protocol_version` that is higher than
+ * `ssl_max_protocol_version`, matching libpq's
+ * `ssl_min_protocol_version must be <= ssl_max_protocol_version` diagnostic.
+ * Both arguments must already be canonicalised by
+ * {@link normalizeTlsProtocolVersion}.
+ */
+const assertTlsProtocolRange = (min, max) => {
+    if (min === undefined || max === undefined)
+        return;
+    if (TLS_PROTOCOL_VERSIONS.indexOf(min) > TLS_PROTOCOL_VERSIONS.indexOf(max)) {
+        throw new Error(`ssl_min_protocol_version must be <= ssl_max_protocol_version`);
+    }
+};
+const normalizeChannelBinding = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    switch (value) {
+        case 'disable':
+        case 'prefer':
+        case 'require':
+            return value;
+        default:
+            // Mirror libpq's `invalid channel_binding value: "<raw>"`
+            // diagnostic (upstream test `002_scram.pl`). Empty / unset
+            // returns `undefined` above so the wire-layer default applies.
+            throw new Error(`invalid channel_binding value: "${raw}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Validate libpq's `gssencmode` (GSSAPI transport encryption).
+ *
+ * This client has NO GSSAPI support: GSS-API `gss_wrap`/`gss_unwrap` would
+ * require a native Kerberos addon (e.g. the `kerberos` npm), which the
+ * embedded psql deliberately avoids (pure-TS, zero native bindings — the
+ * same reason the line editor is hand-rolled). `node-postgres` doesn't
+ * support it either. So:
+ *   - `disable` / `prefer` — accepted and ignored: neither needs GSS
+ *     (`prefer` means "try GSS, else fall back", and falling back to the
+ *     non-GSS path is exactly what we always do).
+ *   - `require` — rejected with a clear diagnostic; we cannot satisfy it.
+ *   - anything else — `invalid gssencmode value`.
+ * We recognise the parameter (rather than rejecting it as an unknown key)
+ * so the many tools that always append `gssencmode=...` to a URI keep
+ * working against Neon.
+ */
+const validateGssEncMode = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    if (value === 'disable' || value === 'prefer')
+        return;
+    if (value === 'require') {
+        throw new Error('gssencmode=require is not supported: this client has no GSSAPI support');
+    }
+    throw new Error(`invalid gssencmode value: "${raw}"`);
+};
+/**
+ * Parse libpq's `sslcertmode` value (`disable` / `allow` / `require`).
+ * Empty / unset returns `undefined` so the wire-layer default (`allow`)
+ * applies. A malformed value throws libpq's
+ * `invalid sslcertmode value: "<raw>"` diagnostic.
+ */
+const normalizeSslCertMode = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    switch (value) {
+        case 'disable':
+        case 'allow':
+        case 'require':
+            return value;
+        default:
+            throw new Error(`invalid sslcertmode value: "${raw}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Parse libpq's `sslnegotiation` value (`postgres` / `direct`). Empty / unset
+ * returns `undefined` so the wire-layer default (`postgres`, the classic
+ * SSLRequest flow) applies. A malformed value throws libpq's
+ * `invalid sslnegotiation value: "<raw>"` diagnostic.
+ */
+const normalizeSslNegotiation = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    switch (value) {
+        case 'postgres':
+        case 'direct':
+            return value;
+        default:
+            throw new Error(`invalid sslnegotiation value: "${raw}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * libpq constraint: `sslnegotiation=direct` may only be used with an encrypted
+ * sslmode (`require` / `verify-ca` / `verify-full`). Direct SSL starts the TLS
+ * handshake immediately with no plaintext fallback, so a "weak" mode that could
+ * end up unencrypted (`disable` / `allow` / `prefer`) is rejected with libpq's
+ * exact `pqConnectOptions2` wording. No-op unless `sslnegotiation` is `direct`.
+ */
+const assertSslNegotiationModeCompatible = (ssl, sslnegotiation) => {
+    if (sslnegotiation !== 'direct')
+        return;
+    if (ssl === 'require' || ssl === 'verify-ca' || ssl === 'verify-full') {
+        return;
+    }
+    throw new Error(`weak sslmode "${ssl}" may not be used with sslnegotiation=direct`);
+};
+const VALID_REQUIRE_AUTH_METHODS = new Set([
+    'password',
+    'md5',
+    'gss',
+    'sspi',
+    'scram-sha-256',
+    'creds',
+    'none',
+]);
+/**
+ * Parse libpq's `require_auth` value: a comma-separated list of method
+ * names where each entry may be prefixed with `!` to negate. Mixing
+ * positive and negative entries is forbidden (libpq matches this).
+ *
+ * Returns `undefined` for empty input so the wire-layer default applies.
+ * Throws on invalid syntax with libpq-parity wording, surfaced via the
+ * outer `psql: error: ...` channel.
+ */
+const normalizeRequireAuth = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const tokens = raw
+        .split(',')
+        .map((s) => s.trim())
+        .filter((s) => s.length > 0);
+    if (tokens.length === 0)
+        return undefined;
+    const methods = new Set();
+    let polarity = null;
+    for (const token of tokens) {
+        const isNeg = token.startsWith('!');
+        const name = (isNeg ? token.slice(1) : token).toLowerCase();
+        if (!VALID_REQUIRE_AUTH_METHODS.has(name)) {
+            throw new Error(`invalid require_auth method: "${token}"`);
+        }
+        if (polarity === null) {
+            polarity = isNeg;
+        }
+        else if (polarity !== isNeg) {
+            // libpq wording: "negative require_auth method ... cannot be mixed
+            // with non-negative methods". We use a slightly shorter form here.
+            throw new Error('require_auth methods cannot mix positive and negative entries');
+        }
+        methods.add(name);
+    }
+    return { methods, negated: polarity ?? false };
+};
+/**
+ * Accept the libpq-spec set for `target_session_attrs`. Aliases `read-write`/
+ * `primary` and `read-only`/`standby` are kept distinct because the wire
+ * layer treats the canonical four values identically — we only normalise
+ * unknown / empty inputs to `undefined` so the wire-layer default ('any')
+ * applies. Throws on unrecognised values, matching libpq behaviour.
+ */
+const normalizeTargetSessionAttrs = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    switch (value) {
+        case 'any':
+        case 'read-write':
+        case 'read-only':
+        case 'primary':
+        case 'standby':
+        case 'prefer-standby':
+            return value;
+        default:
+            throw new Error(`invalid value for "target_session_attrs": "${raw}"`);
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Accept the libpq-spec set for `load_balance_hosts`:
+ *   - `disable` (default) — preserve list order
+ *   - `random`            — shuffle before iteration
+ *
+ * Unknown values throw; empty / unset returns `undefined` so the wire layer
+ * default ('disable') applies.
+ */
+const normalizeLoadBalanceHosts = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    if (value === 'disable' || value === 'random')
+        return value;
+    throw new Error(`invalid value for "load_balance_hosts": "${raw}"`);
+};
+/**
+ * libpq accepts a wide set of "truthy" values for `replication`:
+ *   - `true` / `on` / `yes` / `1`     → physical replication (mapped to `true`)
+ *   - `false` / `off` / `no` / `0`    → not a walsender (no replication mode)
+ *   - `database`                       → logical replication on that DB
+ *
+ * Returns `undefined` when no value was supplied or when it explicitly
+ * disables replication; throws for unrecognised input (matching libpq's
+ * `"invalid <…> value"` semantics so users see a clear error rather than
+ * silently sending an unexpected startup-message parameter).
+ */
+const normalizeReplication = (raw) => {
+    if (raw === null || raw === '')
+        return undefined;
+    const value = raw.toLowerCase();
+    if (value === 'database')
+        return 'database';
+    if (value === 'true' || value === 'on' || value === 'yes' || value === '1') {
+        return 'true';
+    }
+    if (value === 'false' || value === 'off' || value === 'no' || value === '0') {
+        return undefined;
+    }
+    throw new Error(`invalid value for "replication": "${raw}"`);
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Layered connection-parameter resolution.
+//
+// Vanilla psql consults several sources in priority order when filling in
+// connection parameters. Order (highest → lowest):
+//
+//   1. Explicit URI / conninfo (what the user passed on the command line)
+//   2. Argv flags (`-h`, `-p`, etc.)
+//   3. PG* env vars
+//   4. ~/.pgpass (password only; matched against host/port/db/user)
+//   5. pg_service.conf (when PGSERVICE / ?service= is set)
+//   6. libpq compiled-in defaults (localhost / 5432 / USER / database=user)
+//
+// The historical `parseConnectionUri` bakes (1) and (6) into a single
+// `ConnectOptions`, which makes layering impossible. `parseConnectionUriPartial`
+// gives the same parser surface but returns ONLY the fields the URI
+// explicitly set — leaving env / pgpass / service / defaults to fill the
+// gaps via `mergeConnectOptions`.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+/**
+ * Service name extracted from a connection URI's `?service=` query
+ * parameter, if any. Surfaced alongside `parseConnectionUriPartial` so the
+ * caller can route the lookup into `applyStartupArgs` without re-parsing
+ * the URI.
+ */
+export const parseConnectionUriService = (uri) => {
+    const raw = tokenizeConnectionUri(uri);
+    const value = raw.query.get('service');
+    return value === undefined || value === '' ? undefined : value;
+};
+/**
+ * Parse a URI into a `Partial<ConnectOptions>` containing only the fields
+ * the URI explicitly supplied. Returned shape:
+ *
+ *   - missing fields are absent (no `undefined` placeholders)
+ *   - `host`/`port` are populated only when the URI authority or `?host=`
+ *     specified them
+ *   - `user`/`password`/`database`/`ssl`/`channelBinding`/... follow the
+ *     same rule — present iff explicitly set
+ *
+ * This is the building block for the layered merge in `applyStartupArgs`.
+ * The full-defaults variant `parseConnectionUri` remains the right choice
+ * for callers that want a complete `ConnectOptions` (e.g. the existing
+ * `-d URI` path); it's kept untouched for back-compat.
+ */
+export const parseConnectionUriPartial = (uri) => {
+    const raw = tokenizeConnectionUri(uri);
+    const queryUser = raw.query.get('user');
+    const queryPassword = raw.query.get('password');
+    const queryPort = raw.query.get('port');
+    const queryDbname = raw.query.get('dbname');
+    const queryHost = raw.query.get('host');
+    // Multi-host: same resolution as the full parser, but we treat its absence
+    // as "URI didn't say anything about hosts" rather than synthesising a
+    // localhost default.
+    const hostsTuples = computeHostsTuples({
+        rawHost: raw.host,
+        rawPort: raw.port,
+        rawAuthorityHosts: raw.hosts,
+        queryHost,
+        queryPort,
+    });
+    // Did the URI actually mention a port anywhere? `parsePort()` defaults
+    // empty input to 5432, so `hostsTuples[i].port` is ALWAYS a number even
+    // for a URI like `postgres:///?service=foo` (no port specified). We
+    // need to distinguish "URI explicitly said 5432" from "URI said nothing
+    // about a port" so the service-file's port wins when we layer this
+    // partial above the service layer. Mirrors libpq's behaviour for
+    // `006_service.pl`'s `postgres:///?service=…` cases.
+    const portInUri = (raw.port !== undefined && raw.port !== '') ||
+        (queryPort !== undefined && queryPort !== '') ||
+        (raw.hosts?.some((t) => t.port !== undefined && t.port !== '') ?? false);
+    const out = {};
+    if (hostsTuples.length > 0) {
+        // First tuple drives the single-host surface; the full multi-host list
+        // is included only when the URI specified more than one. An empty-host
+        // tuple (e.g. `postgres://:12345/`) means "explicit port, no host" —
+        // we record the port but leave host to the next layer.
+        if (hostsTuples[0].host !== '')
+            out.host = hostsTuples[0].host;
+        if (portInUri && hostsTuples[0].port !== 0)
+            out.port = hostsTuples[0].port;
+        if (hostsTuples.length > 1) {
+            out.hosts = hostsTuples.map((t) => ({ host: t.host, port: t.port }));
+        }
+    }
+    const userExplicit = queryUser !== undefined && queryUser !== ''
+        ? queryUser
+        : raw.user !== undefined && raw.user !== ''
+            ? raw.user
+            : undefined;
+    if (userExplicit !== undefined)
+        out.user = userExplicit;
+    const password = queryPassword ?? raw.password;
+    if (password !== undefined)
+        out.password = password;
+    const database = queryDbname ?? raw.database;
+    if (database !== undefined)
+        out.database = database;
+    const sslRaw = raw.query.get('sslmode');
+    if (sslRaw !== undefined && sslRaw !== '') {
+        out.ssl = normalizeSslMode(sslRaw);
+    }
+    const cb = normalizeChannelBinding(raw.query.get('channel_binding') ?? null);
+    if (cb !== undefined)
+        out.channelBinding = cb;
+    const ra = normalizeRequireAuth(raw.query.get('require_auth') ?? null);
+    if (ra !== undefined)
+        out.requireAuth = ra;
+    const options = raw.query.get('options');
+    if (options !== undefined && options !== '')
+        out.options = options;
+    const appName = raw.query.get('application_name');
+    if (appName !== undefined && appName !== '')
+        out.applicationName = appName;
+    const replication = normalizeReplication(raw.query.get('replication') ?? null);
+    if (replication !== undefined)
+        out.replication = replication;
+    const targetSessionAttrs = normalizeTargetSessionAttrs(raw.query.get('target_session_attrs') ?? null);
+    if (targetSessionAttrs !== undefined) {
+        out.targetSessionAttrs = targetSessionAttrs;
+    }
+    const loadBalanceHosts = normalizeLoadBalanceHosts(raw.query.get('load_balance_hosts') ?? null);
+    if (loadBalanceHosts !== undefined)
+        out.loadBalanceHosts = loadBalanceHosts;
+    const sslcert = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcert'));
+    if (sslcert !== undefined)
+        out.sslcert = sslcert;
+    const sslkey = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslkey'));
+    if (sslkey !== undefined)
+        out.sslkey = sslkey;
+    const sslcertmode = normalizeSslCertMode(raw.query.get('sslcertmode') ?? null);
+    if (sslcertmode !== undefined)
+        out.sslcertmode = sslcertmode;
+    const sslnegotiation = normalizeSslNegotiation(raw.query.get('sslnegotiation') ?? null);
+    if (sslnegotiation !== undefined)
+        out.sslnegotiation = sslnegotiation;
+    const sslrootcert = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslrootcert'));
+    if (sslrootcert !== undefined)
+        out.sslrootcert = sslrootcert;
+    const sslcrl = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcrl'));
+    if (sslcrl !== undefined)
+        out.sslcrl = sslcrl;
+    const sslcrldir = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslcrldir'));
+    if (sslcrldir !== undefined)
+        out.sslcrldir = sslcrldir;
+    const sslkeylogfile = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslkeylogfile'));
+    if (sslkeylogfile !== undefined)
+        out.sslkeylogfile = sslkeylogfile;
+    const sslsni = parseLibpqBool(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('sslsni')));
+    if (sslsni !== undefined)
+        out.sslsni = sslsni;
+    const keepalives = parseLibpqBool(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('keepalives')));
+    if (keepalives !== undefined)
+        out.keepalives = keepalives;
+    const keepalivesIdle = parseKeepalivesIdle(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('keepalives_idle')));
+    if (keepalivesIdle !== undefined)
+        out.keepalivesIdle = keepalivesIdle;
+    const requirepeer = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('requirepeer'));
+    if (requirepeer !== undefined)
+        out.requirepeer = requirepeer;
+    const hostaddr = nonEmpty(raw.query.get('hostaddr'));
+    if (hostaddr !== undefined)
+        out.hostaddr = hostaddr;
+    const sslMin = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('ssl_min_protocol_version')), 'ssl_min_protocol_version');
+    if (sslMin !== undefined)
+        out.sslMinProtocolVersion = sslMin;
+    const sslMax = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(nonEmpty(raw.query.get('ssl_max_protocol_version')), 'ssl_max_protocol_version');
+    if (sslMax !== undefined)
+        out.sslMaxProtocolVersion = sslMax;
+    assertTlsProtocolRange(out.sslMinProtocolVersion, out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    assertTlsMaxProtocolSupported(out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    const connectTimeoutSec = raw.query.get('connect_timeout');
+    if (connectTimeoutSec !== undefined && connectTimeoutSec !== '') {
+        const t = Number.parseInt(connectTimeoutSec, 10);
+        if (Number.isFinite(t) && t >= 0)
+            out.connectTimeoutMs = t * 1000;
+    }
+    const clientEncoding = raw.query.get('client_encoding');
+    if (clientEncoding !== undefined && clientEncoding !== '') {
+        out.clientEncoding = clientEncoding;
+    }
+    return out;
+};
+// Field map for PG* env vars. Order in the table is documentation; resolution
+// only depends on whether the var is set.
+const PG_ENV_FIELD_MAP = {
+    PGHOST: 'host',
+    PGHOSTADDR: 'hostaddr',
+    PGPORT: 'port',
+    PGUSER: 'user',
+    PGDATABASE: 'database',
+    PGPASSWORD: 'password',
+    PGAPPNAME: 'applicationName',
+    PGOPTIONS: 'options',
+    PGCLIENTENCODING: 'clientEncoding',
+    PGSSLMODE: 'ssl',
+    PGSSLROOTCERT: 'sslrootcert',
+    PGSSLCERT: 'sslcert',
+    PGSSLKEY: 'sslkey',
+    PGSSLCERTMODE: 'sslcertmode',
+    PGSSLNEGOTIATION: 'sslnegotiation',
+    PGSSLCRL: 'sslcrl',
+    PGSSLCRLDIR: 'sslcrldir',
+    PGSSLKEYLOGFILE: 'sslkeylogfile',
+    PGCHANNELBINDING: 'channelBinding',
+};
+/**
+ * Resolve the PG* env vars into a `Partial<ConnectOptions>`. Only set keys
+ * end up in the result; unset / empty env vars are skipped so the caller
+ * can layer this between URI overrides and pgpass / service / libpq
+ * defaults without clobbering anything.
+ *
+ * Validation: any malformed value (e.g. `PGPORT=abc`) is silently dropped.
+ * libpq behaves the same — the connection then fails later with a clearer
+ * "could not parse" message, but the env-var lookup itself does not throw.
+ *
+ * Notes:
+ *   - `PGHOSTADDR` maps to {@link ConnectOptions.hostaddr}: the wire layer
+ *     dials this fixed IP while `PGHOST` still drives TLS SNI / cert
+ *     verification.
+ *   - `PGCONNECT_TIMEOUT` is in seconds; we convert to milliseconds.
+ *   - `PGCHANNELBINDING` accepts disable/prefer/require.
+ *   - `PGSERVICE` is consumed by the caller (it drives the
+ *     pg_service.conf lookup) and is NOT a direct ConnectOptions field.
+ *   - `PGSERVICEFILE`, `PGSYSCONFDIR`, `PGPASSFILE` are likewise consumed
+ *     by the loaders, not surfaced here.
+ */
+export const envConnectionDefaults = (env) => {
+    const out = {};
+    const get = (k) => {
+        const v = env[k];
+        return v !== undefined && v !== '' ? v : undefined;
+    };
+    for (const [envName, field] of Object.entries(PG_ENV_FIELD_MAP)) {
+        const value = get(envName);
+        if (value === undefined)
+            continue;
+        applyEnvValue(out, field, value);
+    }
+    const timeoutRaw = get('PGCONNECT_TIMEOUT');
+    if (timeoutRaw !== undefined) {
+        const t = Number.parseInt(timeoutRaw, 10);
+        if (Number.isFinite(t) && t >= 0)
+            out.connectTimeoutMs = t * 1000;
+    }
+    // GSSAPI is unsupported; PGGSSENCMODE=require is rejected, disable/prefer
+    // accepted-and-ignored. Same contract as the URI/conninfo `gssencmode`.
+    validateGssEncMode(get('PGGSSENCMODE') ?? null);
+    return out;
+};
+const applyEnvValue = (out, field, value) => {
+    switch (field) {
+        case 'host':
+            out.host = value;
+            return;
+        case 'port': {
+            const p = Number.parseInt(value, 10);
+            if (Number.isFinite(p) && p > 0 && p <= 65535)
+                out.port = p;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'user':
+            out.user = value;
+            return;
+        case 'database':
+            out.database = value;
+            return;
+        case 'password':
+            out.password = value;
+            return;
+        case 'applicationName':
+            out.applicationName = value;
+            return;
+        case 'options':
+            out.options = value;
+            return;
+        case 'clientEncoding':
+            out.clientEncoding = value;
+            return;
+        case 'ssl':
+            out.ssl = normalizeSslMode(value);
+            return;
+        case 'sslrootcert':
+            out.sslrootcert = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcert':
+            out.sslcert = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslkey':
+            out.sslkey = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcertmode': {
+            const cm = normalizeSslCertMode(value);
+            if (cm !== undefined)
+                out.sslcertmode = cm;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'sslnegotiation': {
+            const sn = normalizeSslNegotiation(value);
+            if (sn !== undefined)
+                out.sslnegotiation = sn;
+            return;
+        }
+        case 'sslcrl':
+            out.sslcrl = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslcrldir':
+            out.sslcrldir = value;
+            return;
+        case 'sslkeylogfile':
+            out.sslkeylogfile = value;
+            return;
+        case 'hostaddr':
+            out.hostaddr = value;
+            return;
+        case 'channelBinding': {
+            const cb = normalizeChannelBinding(value);
+            if (cb !== undefined)
+                out.channelBinding = cb;
+            return;
+        }
+        default:
+            // Unhandled field — silently drop. Tightening this would require
+            // narrowing the field-map type; not worth the complexity.
+            return;
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * libpq compiled-in defaults. The lowest-priority layer in the merge chain.
+ *
+ *   - host: 'localhost'
+ *   - port: 5432
+ *   - user: $USER ?? '' (the wire layer surfaces a clear error if the user
+ *     is still empty at connect time)
+ *   - database: deferred — libpq defaults dbname to the user; we wire that
+ *     in `mergeConnectOptions` after layering so a `PGUSER` env can flow
+ *     into `database` when the user didn't specify one.
+ *   - ssl: 'prefer'
+ *   - applicationName: 'psql' — matches upstream so `pg_stat_activity` shows
+ *     the value users expect.
+ *   - sslcert / sslkey: libpq auto-loads the default client cert/key at
+ *     `~/.postgresql/postgresql.crt` / `.key` when neither is configured AND
+ *     the file exists. We seed these as the lowest-priority defaults via
+ *     {@link defaultClientCertDefaults}; any explicit URI / env / conninfo
+ *     value overrides them. A non-existent default file is simply not set
+ *     (no error), matching libpq — only an explicit path that's missing
+ *     surfaces an error (at TLS-load time, in the wire layer).
+ */
+export const libpqConnectionDefaults = (env) => ({
+    host: 'localhost',
+    port: 5432,
+    user: env.USER ?? '',
+    database: '',
+    ssl: 'prefer',
+    applicationName: 'psql',
+    ...defaultClientCertDefaults(env),
+});
+/**
+ * libpq default client-certificate discovery. When the user has NOT set
+ * `sslcert` / `sslkey` (explicit paths and `PGSSLCERT` / `PGSSLKEY` are
+ * higher-priority layers), libpq falls back to `~/.postgresql/postgresql.crt`
+ * and `~/.postgresql/postgresql.key` — but only if those files actually
+ * exist. We mirror that here so a present default cert satisfies e.g.
+ * `sslcertmode=require`.
+ *
+ * The home directory is taken from `env.HOME` (falling back to
+ * `os.homedir()`), the same convention as the pgpass / pgservice loaders;
+ * passing a synthetic `HOME` keeps this hermetic in tests.
+ *
+ * Exported for unit testing.
+ */
+export const defaultClientCertDefaults = (env) => {
+    const home = env.HOME ?? os.homedir();
+    if (home === undefined || home === '')
+        return {};
+    const out = {};
+    const certPath = path.join(home, '.postgresql', 'postgresql.crt');
+    if (existsSync(certPath))
+        out.sslcert = certPath;
+    const keyPath = path.join(home, '.postgresql', 'postgresql.key');
+    if (existsSync(keyPath))
+        out.sslkey = keyPath;
+    return out;
+};
+/**
+ * Translate a `pg_service.conf` entry into a `Partial<ConnectOptions>`.
+ * Unknown keys are silently dropped — the service file format admits
+ * arbitrary keys but only the libpq-spec subset maps to ConnectOptions.
+ *
+ * Numeric / enum validation mirrors `parseConninfo` so an out-of-range
+ * port or bogus sslmode in the service file fails the same way (silently
+ * dropped here, since libpq itself only warns on invalid service values).
+ */
+export const serviceEntryToConnectOptions = (entry) => {
+    const out = {};
+    for (const [k, v] of Object.entries(entry)) {
+        const key = k.toLowerCase();
+        switch (key) {
+            case 'host':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.host = v;
+                break;
+            case 'port': {
+                const p = Number.parseInt(v, 10);
+                if (Number.isFinite(p) && p > 0 && p <= 65535)
+                    out.port = p;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'user':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.user = v;
+                break;
+            case 'dbname':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.database = v;
+                break;
+            case 'password':
+                out.password = v;
+                break;
+            case 'application_name':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.applicationName = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslmode':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.ssl = normalizeSslMode(v);
+                break;
+            case 'channel_binding': {
+                const cb = normalizeChannelBinding(v);
+                if (cb !== undefined)
+                    out.channelBinding = cb;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'require_auth': {
+                const ra = normalizeRequireAuth(v);
+                if (ra !== undefined)
+                    out.requireAuth = ra;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'options':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.options = v;
+                break;
+            case 'client_encoding':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.clientEncoding = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslcert':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslcert = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslkey':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslkey = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslcertmode': {
+                const cm = normalizeSslCertMode(v);
+                if (cm !== undefined)
+                    out.sslcertmode = cm;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'sslnegotiation': {
+                const sn = normalizeSslNegotiation(v);
+                if (sn !== undefined)
+                    out.sslnegotiation = sn;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'sslrootcert':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslrootcert = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslcrl':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslcrl = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslcrldir':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslcrldir = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslkeylogfile':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.sslkeylogfile = v;
+                break;
+            case 'sslsni': {
+                const b = parseLibpqBool(v);
+                if (b !== undefined)
+                    out.sslsni = b;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'keepalives': {
+                const b = parseLibpqBool(v);
+                if (b !== undefined)
+                    out.keepalives = b;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'keepalives_idle': {
+                const n = parseKeepalivesIdle(v);
+                if (n !== undefined)
+                    out.keepalivesIdle = n;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'requirepeer':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.requirepeer = v;
+                break;
+            case 'hostaddr':
+                if (v !== '')
+                    out.hostaddr = v;
+                break;
+            case 'ssl_min_protocol_version': {
+                const pv = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(v === '' ? undefined : v, 'ssl_min_protocol_version');
+                if (pv !== undefined)
+                    out.sslMinProtocolVersion = pv;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'ssl_max_protocol_version': {
+                const pv = normalizeTlsProtocolVersion(v === '' ? undefined : v, 'ssl_max_protocol_version');
+                if (pv !== undefined)
+                    out.sslMaxProtocolVersion = pv;
+                break;
+            }
+            case 'connect_timeout': {
+                const t = Number.parseInt(v, 10);
+                if (Number.isFinite(t) && t >= 0)
+                    out.connectTimeoutMs = t * 1000;
+                break;
+            }
+            // Recognised but not mapped — service files may contain `passfile`,
+            // `krbsrvname`, etc. We drop silently rather than complain.
+            default:
+                break;
+        }
+    }
+    assertTlsProtocolRange(out.sslMinProtocolVersion, out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    assertTlsMaxProtocolSupported(out.sslMaxProtocolVersion);
+    return out;
+};
+/**
+ * Merge layered partial ConnectOptions into a complete ConnectOptions.
+ *
+ * Layers are listed in PRIORITY order (highest first). For each output
+ * field, the first layer that supplies a value wins. The implementation
+ * walks the layers in reverse so the spread-into semantics match.
+ *
+ * `database` has a libpq-specific fallback: if every layer omits it, the
+ * default is the resolved `user` (so `psql -U alice` connects to a
+ * database named `alice`). We apply this AFTER all layers have run.
+ */
+export const mergeConnectOptions = (layers, defaults) => {
+    let out = { ...defaults };
+    // Apply layers from LOWEST → HIGHEST so higher-priority layers overwrite.
+    for (let i = layers.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        const layer = layers[i];
+        out = { ...out, ...layer };
+    }
+    // libpq: database defaults to the resolved user when no layer set it.
+    // The default `database: ''` from `libpqConnectionDefaults` is the
+    // sentinel for "nothing supplied".
+    if (out.database === '') {
+        out.database = out.user;
+    }
+    // libpq: `sslrootcert=system` raises the effective sslmode to verify-full
+    // (it makes no sense to trust the public CA store without verifying the
+    // chain AND the hostname). verify-full is the strongest mode, so this can
+    // only ever raise — never downgrade — an explicitly requested mode.
+    if (out.sslrootcert === 'system' && out.ssl !== 'verify-full') {
+        out.ssl = 'verify-full';
+    }
+    // libpq validates `sslnegotiation=direct` against the FINAL sslmode (after
+    // any `sslrootcert=system` raise and cross-layer merge), rejecting a weak
+    // mode that could end up plaintext. Authoritative check across all layers.
+    assertSslNegotiationModeCompatible(out.ssl, out.sslnegotiation);
+    return out;
+};