neonctl 2.22.0 → 2.23.0

package/psql/command/cmd_io.js

@@ -0,0 +1,2187 @@
+/**
+ * psql I/O & control backslash commands.
+ *
+ * TypeScript port of the following `exec_command_*` functions in upstream
+ * PostgreSQL's `src/bin/psql/command.c`:
+ *
+ *   - `\i`,  `\include`           → exec_command_include          (normal)
+ *   - `\ir`, `\include_relative`  → exec_command_include          (relative=true)
+ *   - `\o`,  `\out`               → exec_command_out
+ *   - `\w`,  `\write`             → exec_command_write
+ *   - `\g`                        → exec_command_g
+ *   - `\gx`                       → exec_command_g  (force_expanded=true)
+ *   - `\gset`                     → exec_command_gset
+ *   - `\gdesc`                    → exec_command_gdesc
+ *   - `\gexec`                    → exec_command_gexec
+ *   - `\watch`                    → exec_command_watch
+ *
+ * Each is exported as a `BackslashCmdSpec` and registered via
+ * {@link registerIoCommands}. The single line that wires us into the
+ * default dispatcher lives in `dispatch.ts::defaultRegistry()`.
+ *
+ * # Integration touch-points and known limitations
+ *
+ * Several of these commands really want to participate in the mainloop's
+ * scanner/printer pipeline. This WP keeps `src/psql/core/mainloop.ts`
+ * untouched, so we provide the data structures and let a follow-up WP wire
+ * the consumption sites. Limitations documented per-command:
+ *
+ *   - `\i FILE` enqueues the file's contents on a small input queue
+ *     (`./inputQueue.ts`) AND, as a stop-gap, executes the file's SQL
+ *     directly via `Connection.execSimple`. Backslash commands embedded in
+ *     the file are NOT processed by the scanner; the include is a "best
+ *     effort: run as one big SQL blob". Once mainloop adopts the queue API
+ *     this becomes a true include.
+ *
+ *   - `\o FILE` opens a writable stream and stashes it under a symbol on
+ *     `settings`. We expose a getter (`getQueryFout`) for the mainloop to
+ *     consult; until that wiring happens, query output continues to flow
+ *     to the mainloop's `ctx.stdout`. The stash + close-on-rebind logic is
+ *     in place and fully tested.
+ *
+ *   - `\g` (no arg) executes the current queryBuf directly through
+ *     `Connection.execSimple` and renders via the aligned printer. This
+ *     duplicates a tiny slice of mainloop's send/print pipeline, which is
+ *     fine for the bytewise-simple cases this WP needs to support. For
+ *     `\g FILE` / `\g |cmd` the output goes through the temporary writer.
+ *
+ *   - `\gx` toggles `topt.expanded` for the single execution and restores
+ *     the prior value in a `try { ... } finally { ... }`.
+ *
+ *   - `\gset [PREFIX]` executes via `execSimple`, requires the last result
+ *     to have exactly one row, and stores `${prefix}${colname}` → value
+ *     for each column on `settings.vars`.
+ *
+ *   - `\gdesc` parses the buffered query with the extended protocol
+ *     (Parse + Describe by statement, no Execute), then assembles a
+ *     synthetic `Column / Type` ResultSet and renders it through the
+ *     active printer (`alignedPrinter` by default; the format picker
+ *     honours `\pset format`). Tuples-only mode (`\t on`) and `\o FILE`
+ *     redirects ride along automatically because the same ResultSet
+ *     goes through the same printer the REPL would use for a query.
+ *
+ *   - `\gexec` iterates the cells of the last result row-major and feeds
+ *     each non-null cell back as SQL through `execSimple`. Each statement's
+ *     output is rendered to stdout (or to the active queryFout stash).
+ *
+ *   - `\watch [INTERVAL]` re-executes the queryBuf every `INTERVAL` seconds
+ *     (default 2) until SIGINT or until the iteration count limit is hit.
+ *     We hook SIGINT via a transient listener that's removed on completion.
+ *     Tests bypass the listener by using an AbortController exposed via
+ *     `WATCH_TEST_CONTROLLER`.
+ *
+ * # Error format
+ *
+ * Upstream prints `<cmd>: <msg>` to stderr and returns failure. We mirror
+ * that and also stash the message on `settings.lastErrorResult` so the
+ * mainloop's `writeError()` wrapper can pick it up.
+ */
+import { spawn } from 'node:child_process';
+import { promises as fsPromises, closeSync, createWriteStream, fsyncSync, openSync, } from 'node:fs';
+import * as path from 'node:path';
+import { platform } from 'node:os';
+import { alignedPrinter } from '../print/aligned.js';
+import { asciidocPrinter } from '../print/asciidoc.js';
+import { csvPrinter } from '../print/csv.js';
+import { htmlPrinter } from '../print/html.js';
+import { jsonPrinter } from '../print/json.js';
+import { latexLongtablePrinter, latexPrinter } from '../print/latex.js';
+import { troffMsPrinter } from '../print/troff.js';
+import { unalignedPrinter } from '../print/unaligned.js';
+import { writeErr, writeOut } from './shared.js';
+import { formatErrorReport, psqlErrorPrefix } from './cmd_meta.js';
+import { applyPset } from './cmd_format.js';
+import { consumeBindState, lookupPrepared, stagedNamedBindPresent, } from './cmd_pipeline.js';
+import { captureLastError, refreshErrorVars, stripLeadingCommentsAndWS, } from '../core/common.js';
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Query-output (queryFout) stash.
+//
+// psql tracks a "query output" file pointer separately from stdout (see
+// pset.queryFout in upstream settings.h). Our PsqlSettings type is frozen
+// at WP-00, so we stash the stream on the settings object via a well-known
+// symbol — the same approach used for the CondStack in cmd_cond.ts.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+const QUERY_FOUT_KEY = Symbol.for('neonctl.psql.queryFout');
+/**
+ * Return the currently active queryFout stream (or `null` if none).
+ * The mainloop is encouraged to call this in lieu of writing directly to
+ * `ctx.stdout` for query results.
+ */
+export const getQueryFout = (settings) => {
+    const stash = settings;
+    return stash[QUERY_FOUT_KEY]?.stream ?? null;
+};
+const setQueryFout = (settings, entry) => {
+    const stash = settings;
+    if (entry === null) {
+        stash[QUERY_FOUT_KEY] = undefined;
+    }
+    else {
+        stash[QUERY_FOUT_KEY] = entry;
+    }
+};
+const closeQueryFout = async (settings) => {
+    const stash = settings;
+    const prev = stash[QUERY_FOUT_KEY];
+    if (prev) {
+        stash[QUERY_FOUT_KEY] = undefined;
+        await prev.close();
+    }
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Watch SIGINT escape hatch (tests).
+//
+// `\watch` installs a SIGINT handler so Ctrl-C breaks the polling loop in
+// real psql sessions. Tests need to break the loop deterministically; we
+// expose an AbortController hook that, if set, takes precedence.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+export const WATCH_TEST_CONTROLLER = {
+    ref: null,
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Small helpers.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+const errResult = (ctx, message) => {
+    ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = { message };
+    // Upstream psql prefixes every diagnostic with the `psql:[<file>:<n>]:`
+    // tag that `pg_log_pre_callback` adds. Mirror that here so backslash
+    // command errors look like upstream when surfaced via `psql_fails_like`.
+    const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+    writeErr(`${prefix}\\${ctx.cmdName}: ${message}\n`);
+    // Tell the mainloop the error has already been surfaced — without this
+    // it would also write a `psql: ERROR:  <msg>` fallback, producing a stray
+    // duplicate that breaks the `\errverbose` ordering check on tests like
+    // `SELECT error\gdesc\n\errverbose`.
+    return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+};
+/**
+ * Reject buffer-consuming commands when an extended pipeline is open. Upstream
+ * `exec_command_g` / `gx` / `gset` / `gexec` / `watch` all guard with
+ * `PQpipelineStatus(pset.db) != PQ_PIPELINE_OFF` and emit
+ * `pg_log_error("\\%s not allowed in pipeline mode", cmd)` (note: no `:`
+ * after the command name — different shape from `errResult`).
+ *
+ * `\gdesc` is the odd one out: upstream uses
+ * `pg_log_error("synchronous command execution functions are not allowed in
+ * pipeline mode")` because the underlying `PQdescribePrepared`/`PQfn`-style
+ * helpers all share that text — the regress baseline asserts this exact
+ * wording at three call sites in `psql_pipeline.out`.
+ *
+ * If the command proceeded it would inject a synchronous Query/Sync into the
+ * queue, corrupt the pipeline state, and leave `\endpipeline` waiting forever.
+ *
+ * Returns `null` when not in pipeline mode (caller proceeds); otherwise
+ * returns a populated error result the caller should bubble up.
+ *
+ * Upstream psql 18.4 leaks gate diagnostics through `pg_log_error_internal`
+ * which appends to the libpq result error log on the underlying PGresult;
+ * each subsequent gate hit RE-EMITS the full accumulated log plus its own
+ * line ("Error messages accumulate and are repeated" — the regress comment
+ * is the spec). Two `\gdesc` calls back-to-back therefore emit 3 lines
+ * total: 1 for the first call, 2 for the second (one accumulated + one
+ * own). Mirror that with a settings-stashed accumulator keyed off the
+ * current pipeline session; reset when the pipeline ends.
+ */
+const PIPELINE_GATE_ERRORS_KEY = Symbol.for('neonctl.psql.pipelineGateErrors');
+const getGateErrors = (settings) => {
+    const s = settings;
+    let cur = s[PIPELINE_GATE_ERRORS_KEY];
+    if (!cur) {
+        cur = [];
+        s[PIPELINE_GATE_ERRORS_KEY] = cur;
+    }
+    return cur;
+};
+/**
+ * Drop the accumulated pipeline-gate errors. Called from
+ * `\endpipeline` so the next pipeline session starts fresh — without
+ * this, gate errors from a closed pipeline would leak into the next
+ * one.
+ */
+export const clearPipelineGateErrors = (settings) => {
+    const s = settings;
+    s[PIPELINE_GATE_ERRORS_KEY] = undefined;
+};
+const pipelineGate = (ctx) => {
+    if (ctx.settings.sendMode !== 'extended-pipeline')
+        return null;
+    const message = ctx.cmdName === 'gdesc'
+        ? 'synchronous command execution functions are not allowed in pipeline mode'
+        : `\\${ctx.cmdName} not allowed in pipeline mode`;
+    ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = { message };
+    const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+    // Only `\gdesc` accumulates: each call appends its own line to the
+    // log AND re-emits the full log to stderr ("Error messages
+    // accumulate and are repeated" — regress spec at expected line 648:
+    // two consecutive `\gdesc` emit 1+2 = 3 lines total). Upstream's
+    // underlying `PQdescribePrepared` path is the one that leaks into
+    // the session-scoped error log; other gated commands (`\g`, `\gx`,
+    // `\gset`, `\gexec`, `\watch`) emit a single line per invocation
+    // and do NOT participate in the accumulator.
+    if (ctx.cmdName === 'gdesc') {
+        const log = getGateErrors(ctx.settings);
+        log.push(message);
+        for (const m of log) {
+            writeErr(`${prefix}${m}\n`);
+        }
+    }
+    else {
+        writeErr(`${prefix}${message}\n`);
+    }
+    return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+};
+/**
+ * Set of psql variables upstream marks as "specially treated" — i.e. names
+ * that have a substitute / assign hook installed in `startup.c`'s
+ * `EstablishVariableSpace`. Used by `\gset` to reject assignments into
+ * those names (matching upstream `StoreQueryTuple`'s `VariableHasHook`
+ * check). We mirror the upstream list directly so a `\gset IGNORE` into
+ * `IGNOREEOF` produces the conformance-expected warning even though our
+ * settings.ts hasn't installed the IGNOREEOF / HISTFILE hooks yet — that
+ * gap is tracked separately and harmless because the values are read-only
+ * for us.
+ */
+const UPSTREAM_SPECIAL_VAR_NAMES = new Set([
+    'AUTOCOMMIT',
+    'COMP_KEYWORD_CASE',
+    'ECHO',
+    'ECHO_HIDDEN',
+    'FETCH_COUNT',
+    'HIDE_TABLEAM',
+    'HIDE_TOAST_COMPRESSION',
+    'HISTCONTROL',
+    'HISTFILE',
+    'HISTSIZE',
+    'IGNOREEOF',
+    'ON_ERROR_ROLLBACK',
+    'ON_ERROR_STOP',
+    'PROMPT1',
+    'PROMPT2',
+    'PROMPT3',
+    'QUIET',
+    'SHOW_ALL_RESULTS',
+    'SHOW_CONTEXT',
+    'SINGLELINE',
+    'SINGLESTEP',
+    'VERBOSITY',
+]);
+/**
+ * True when `name` is a psql variable that `\gset` must skip with an
+ * "attempt to \gset into specially treated variable" message. Combines the
+ * registered-hook check (so future hook installations are automatically
+ * covered) with the upstream-canonical list above (so cases like
+ * IGNOREEOF that aren't hooked in our settings.ts still match upstream's
+ * `\gset` behaviour exactly).
+ */
+const isSpeciallyTreatedVar = (settings, name) => settings.vars.hasSubstituteHook(name) || UPSTREAM_SPECIAL_VAR_NAMES.has(name);
+// `stripLeadingCommentsAndWS` lives in core/common.ts so the wire path
+// (sendQuery / executeAndPrint) and the slash-command paths share one
+// implementation. Re-imported from there at the top of the file.
+/**
+ * Strip line and block comments from `sql` so a COPY-shaped token inside a
+ * comment (e.g. dash-dash `COPY t TO STDOUT`) doesn't trigger the
+ * `\g FILE` mid-batch sink. Mirrors the cheap normaliser the mainloop uses
+ * before wiring `copyOutMidBatchSink`. Embedded literals are NOT stripped —
+ * `'COPY x TO STDOUT'` would still match `hasCopyToStdout`, but that's the
+ * same false-positive shape upstream tolerates (the regex sweep is
+ * intentionally conservative, and the worst-case outcome is "route bytes
+ * that never arrive to the file" — harmless).
+ */
+const stripSqlCommentsForCopyScan = (sql) => sql.replace(/\/\*[\s\S]*?\*\//gu, '').replace(/--[^\n]*/gu, '');
+/**
+ * True when `sql` contains at least one `COPY ... TO STDOUT` segment.
+ * Used by `runGCore` to install a CopyData sink while `\g` / `\gx` /
+ * `\g FILE` / `\g |cmd` dispatches a `\;`-chained batch that mixes
+ * COPY-OUT with regular SELECT statements. Without the sink the wire
+ * layer drops the CopyData bytes on the floor, and the file/pipe ends
+ * up with the surrounding tuple results only — see regress/psql lines
+ * 5760-5787 (`COPY (SELECT 'foo') TO STDOUT \; COPY (SELECT 'bar') TO
+ * STDOUT \g :g_out_file`).
+ */
+const hasCopyToStdout = (sql) => /\bCOPY\b[\s\S]*?\bTO\s+STDOUT\b/iu.test(stripSqlCommentsForCopyScan(sql));
+/**
+ * Render a server-side error in upstream psql's 3-line shape (severity +
+ * message, then `LINE N:` / `^` re-print) and refresh the `:LAST_ERROR_*`
+ * diagnostic variables so a subsequent `\errverbose` sees the rich payload.
+ *
+ * Mirrors the path that `core/common.ts::writeQueryError` takes for top-level
+ * statement errors: capture full ErrorResponse fields onto
+ * `settings.lastErrorResult`, render via `formatErrorReport` (honouring
+ * VERBOSITY + SHOW_CONTEXT), prefix only the leading severity line with
+ * `psql:[<file>:<n>]:`, and update the per-statement diagnostic vars via
+ * `refreshErrorVars`.
+ *
+ * Used by `\g`, `\gx`, `\gset`, `\gdesc`, and `\gexec` so a server-rejected
+ * statement dispatched through them renders the same shape vanilla psql
+ * produces, instead of the legacy `\<cmd>: <message>` one-liner.
+ */
+const formatServerError = (ctx, err, sql) => {
+    // Stash full ErrorResponse payload so `\errverbose` can re-render later.
+    const msg = captureLastError(ctx.settings, err, sql);
+    const e = ctx.settings.lastErrorResult;
+    if (e) {
+        const lines = formatErrorReport(e, ctx.settings.verbosity, ctx.settings.showContext);
+        const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+        const prefixed = [prefix + lines[0], ...lines.slice(1)];
+        writeErr(prefixed.join('\n') + '\n');
+    }
+    else {
+        // Defensive fallback — captureLastError always sets lastErrorResult,
+        // but if a future caller bypasses it, surface at least the message.
+        const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+        writeErr(`${prefix}ERROR:  ${msg}\n`);
+    }
+    // Refresh `:SQLSTATE`, `:ERROR`, `:LAST_ERROR_*`, `:ROW_COUNT` so the
+    // following `\echo :LAST_ERROR_MESSAGE` and `\errverbose` see the new
+    // outcome. Matches upstream's `SetErrorVariables` call after every
+    // failed dispatch.
+    refreshErrorVars(ctx.settings, { kind: 'error' });
+    return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+};
+/**
+ * Open a writable destination for `\o` / `\w` / `\g FILE` / `\g |cmd`.
+ *
+ * `target` of the form `|cmd` spawns `sh -c cmd` and pipes to its stdin.
+ * The returned closer waits for the child to exit and resolves to its
+ * status + terminating signal (if any) so callers can render
+ * `wait_result_to_str`-style errors. Any other string is treated as a
+ * file path; the file is truncated.
+ */
+const openWriter = (target) => {
+    if (target.startsWith('|')) {
+        const cmd = target.slice(1);
+        const child = spawn('sh', ['-c', cmd], {
+            stdio: ['pipe', 'inherit', 'inherit'],
+        });
+        // Swallow EPIPE on the stdin pipe — the child may exit before we
+        // finish writing, and Node would otherwise raise an unhandled error.
+        child.stdin.on('error', (err) => {
+            if (err.code !== 'EPIPE') {
+                // Re-raise non-EPIPE errors as a crash so they show up; tests
+                // run with the default unhandledRejection handler and will see
+                // these via the failing assertion.
+                throw err;
+            }
+        });
+        return {
+            stream: child.stdin,
+            isPipe: true,
+            close: () => new Promise((resolve) => {
+                let settled = false;
+                const finish = (code, signal) => {
+                    if (settled)
+                        return;
+                    settled = true;
+                    resolve({ exitCode: code, signal });
+                };
+                child.once('close', (code, signal) => {
+                    finish(code, signal);
+                });
+                child.once('error', () => {
+                    // spawn failure or stdio glitch — treat as a non-zero exit so
+                    // \w sees a failure. \g intentionally ignores this, mirroring
+                    // upstream `CloseGOutput` which only sets SHELL_ERROR /
+                    // SHELL_EXIT_CODE.
+                    finish(127, null);
+                });
+                // Half-close stdin so the child sees EOF and exits.
+                if (!child.stdin.destroyed) {
+                    child.stdin.end();
+                }
+            }),
+        };
+    }
+    // Open the file synchronously up-front so a bad path (ENOENT,
+    // EACCES, EISDIR, …) throws here — before any write — instead of
+    // emitting an asynchronous `'error'` event on the lazily-opened
+    // WriteStream that Node would then re-raise as an unhandled
+    // exception and kill the process. Upstream psql calls `fopen()`
+    // synchronously and reports the failure via `pg_log_error` while
+    // continuing to read the next command, which is the behaviour we
+    // need to mirror for `\g FILE`, `\o FILE`, `\w FILE` and friends.
+    //
+    // Wrapping the resulting fd in `createWriteStream({ fd })` retains
+    // the streaming write interface the rest of the code expects. Disable
+    // `autoClose` so we control the close order — we fsync before close so
+    // a follow-on server-side `COPY FROM` (Docker bind-mount on macOS) sees
+    // the fully flushed file even when the next command immediately follows
+    // the `\g`.
+    const fd = openSync(target, 'w');
+    const stream = createWriteStream(target, {
+        encoding: 'utf8',
+        fd,
+        autoClose: false,
+    });
+    // openSync catches OPEN failures synchronously, but a WRITE-time failure
+    // (ENOSPC / EDQUOT after a clean open, e.g. a multi-MB result to a
+    // quota-limited fs) emits an asynchronous 'error'. Without a listener Node
+    // re-raises it as an uncaught exception and kills the whole neonctl process.
+    // Capture it; close() surfaces it to the caller.
+    let writeError = null;
+    stream.on('error', (err) => {
+        writeError = writeError ?? err;
+    });
+    return {
+        stream,
+        isPipe: false,
+        close: () => new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+            if (writeError !== null) {
+                try {
+                    closeSync(fd);
+                }
+                catch {
+                    // swallow — the write error takes precedence
+                }
+                reject(writeError);
+                return;
+            }
+            // `stream.end(cb)` fires after the internal buffer drains to the
+            // underlying fd. Once that returns, the fd still holds dirty data
+            // in the kernel buffer cache; on macOS + Docker bind mounts the
+            // server inside the container can read the file before the cache
+            // flushes through to the bind mount, returning a partial view.
+            // Force an fsync against the open fd before closing so the
+            // bytes are guaranteed visible to subsequent reads — including
+            // server-side `COPY FROM` reading via the mount.
+            stream.end((err) => {
+                if (err) {
+                    try {
+                        closeSync(fd);
+                    }
+                    catch {
+                        // swallow — the original error takes precedence
+                    }
+                    reject(err);
+                    return;
+                }
+                try {
+                    fsyncSync(fd);
+                }
+                catch {
+                    // ignore — fsync best-effort; the close below still cleans up.
+                }
+                try {
+                    closeSync(fd);
+                }
+                catch (closeErr) {
+                    reject(closeErr);
+                    return;
+                }
+                // Docker Desktop on macOS uses virtiofs/gRPC-FUSE for bind
+                // mounts; cache propagation from host writes to the container's
+                // view is eventual, not synchronous. A subsequent server-side
+                // `COPY FROM '/bind/mount/file'` can read a partial view even
+                // though the file is fully synced on the host. Linux + Windows
+                // bind mounts are coherent, so this branch is macOS-only.
+                if (platform() === 'darwin') {
+                    setTimeout(() => {
+                        resolve({});
+                    }, 25);
+                    return;
+                }
+                resolve({});
+            });
+        }),
+    };
+};
+/**
+ * Map a Node.js errno (`err.code`) to the libc `strerror()` string
+ * upstream psql renders in its `pg_log_error("%s: %m", fname)` path.
+ *
+ * Falls back to `err.message` (with the verbose `ENOENT: ...` prefix
+ * stripped if present) so unmapped errno values still surface
+ * meaningful text instead of a cryptic Node-internal phrasing.
+ */
+const errnoToStrerror = (err) => {
+    switch (err.code) {
+        case 'ENOENT':
+            return 'No such file or directory';
+        case 'EACCES':
+            return 'Permission denied';
+        case 'EISDIR':
+            return 'Is a directory';
+        case 'ENOTDIR':
+            return 'Not a directory';
+        case 'EEXIST':
+            return 'File exists';
+        case 'EROFS':
+            return 'Read-only file system';
+        case 'ELOOP':
+            return 'Too many levels of symbolic links';
+        case 'ENAMETOOLONG':
+            return 'File name too long';
+        case 'ENOSPC':
+            return 'No space left on device';
+        case 'EMFILE':
+            return 'Too many open files';
+        case 'ENFILE':
+            return 'Too many open files in system';
+        case 'EIO':
+            return 'Input/output error';
+        case 'EFBIG':
+            return 'File too large';
+        case 'EDQUOT':
+            return 'Disk quota exceeded';
+        case 'EPERM':
+            return 'Operation not permitted';
+        case 'EINVAL':
+            return 'Invalid argument';
+        default: {
+            // Strip Node's `ENOENT: no such file or directory, open '/x'`
+            // prefix when present so the fallback at least looks like the
+            // libc form. The leading `/, ` slice keeps the human-readable
+            // phrase ("no such file or directory") if Node's message
+            // mirrors the `strerror` text but lowercases it.
+            const m = /^[A-Z]+: ([^,]+)/.exec(err.message);
+            return m ? m[1] : err.message;
+        }
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Emit a file-open failure for `\g FILE`, `\o FILE`, `\w FILE` in the
+ * exact shape vanilla psql produces: a bare `<path>: <strerror>` line
+ * on stderr, no `\<cmd>:` prefix (matches `pg_log_error` under terse
+ * mode, which is what `psql -X` uses).
+ *
+ * The leading `psql:[<file>:<n>]:` tag is still applied when we're
+ * reading SQL from a `\i FILE` include — `psqlErrorPrefix` returns ''
+ * for stdin so the line stays bare for the interactive / harness case.
+ *
+ * Returns an `error` envelope with `errorWritten: true` so the mainloop
+ * doesn't write a duplicate `psql: ERROR:` fallback.
+ */
+const reportFileOpenFailure = (ctx, target, err) => {
+    const errno = err;
+    const phrase = errnoToStrerror(errno);
+    const line = `${target}: ${phrase}`;
+    ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = { message: line };
+    const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+    writeErr(`${prefix}${line}\n`);
+    return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+};
+/**
+ * True when `err` was thrown by our synchronous `openSync` in
+ * {@link openWriter} (i.e. has an errno `code`) and the caller should
+ * render it via {@link reportFileOpenFailure} rather than the generic
+ * `\<cmd>: <msg>` path.
+ */
+const isFileOpenFailure = (err) => {
+    if (!err || typeof err !== 'object')
+        return false;
+    const e = err;
+    return typeof e.code === 'string' && e.code.startsWith('E');
+};
+/**
+ * Format a child process exit code + signal into upstream psql's
+ * `wait_result_to_str` style. Mirrors the C helper in
+ * `src/common/wait_error.c`:
+ *
+ *   - exit code 127  → `command not found`
+ *   - exit code 126  → `command was not executable`
+ *   - any other code → `child process exited with exit code N`
+ *   - terminated by signal S → `child process was terminated by
+ *     signal N: <SIG>`
+ *
+ * Returns null when the child exited cleanly (code 0, no signal).
+ */
+const formatChildWaitResult = (exitCode, signal) => {
+    if (signal) {
+        // Node doesn't expose the numeric signal number; surface the name as
+        // upstream's `pg_strsignal` would, with a stable prefix.
+        return `child process was terminated by signal: ${signal}`;
+    }
+    if (exitCode === null || exitCode === undefined)
+        return null;
+    if (exitCode === 0)
+        return null;
+    if (exitCode === 127)
+        return 'command not found';
+    if (exitCode === 126)
+        return 'command was not executable';
+    return `child process exited with exit code ${String(exitCode)}`;
+};
+/**
+ * Compose the `CommandComplete`-tag line upstream prints for non-tuples-
+ * producing results (DDL, DML without RETURNING, COPY). Mirrors
+ * `formatCommandTag` in `core/common.ts` — duplicated to avoid the
+ * cmd_io → common import cycle. Returns an empty string when no tag is
+ * available (e.g. `EmptyQueryResponse` carries `command = ''`).
+ */
+const formatCommandTagText = (rs) => {
+    const command = (rs.command || '').trim();
+    if (command.length === 0)
+        return '';
+    if (command === 'INSERT') {
+        // INSERT is the only tag with the legacy oid in front of rowCount.
+        return `INSERT ${String(rs.oid ?? 0)} ${String(rs.rowCount ?? 0)}`;
+    }
+    if (rs.rowCount !== null && rs.rowCount !== undefined) {
+        return `${command} ${String(rs.rowCount)}`;
+    }
+    return command;
+};
+/**
+ * Render a `ResultSet` to the supplied writable stream using the printer
+ * picked from the active `\pset format`. Upstream's `do_watch`, `do_gset`,
+ * `do_gexec`, and `\i` all funnel results through the standard query
+ * output pipeline (`ExecQueryAndProcessResults` → `printQuery`), which
+ * honours `\pset format`. Hard-coding the aligned printer here breaks the
+ * conformance harness's `psql -A` runs (which expect unaligned tuples-only
+ * output for things like `\watch` polled rows).
+ *
+ * Non-tuples-producing results (CommandComplete with `fields.length === 0`,
+ * which covers DDL, DML without RETURNING, and the post-CopyDone tag for
+ * `COPY ... TO STDOUT`) are rendered as a single status line instead of
+ * the printer's `(0 rows)` empty-table block — matching `renderResultSets`
+ * in `core/common.ts`. Tuples-only (`\t`) and quiet (`--quiet`) both
+ * suppress the tag entirely.
+ */
+const renderResult = async (settings, rs, out) => {
+    // `COPY ... TO STDOUT` segment — emit the accumulated CopyData payloads
+    // in arrival order at this result's position in the `\;`-chain.
+    if (rs.copyOutBytes && rs.copyOutBytes.length > 0) {
+        for (const chunk of rs.copyOutBytes) {
+            out.write(chunk);
+        }
+    }
+    if (rs.fields.length === 0) {
+        // Mirrors `renderResultSets`'s zero-fields branch: emit the tag (e.g.
+        // `COPY 1`) unless quiet / tuples-only suppresses it. Without this
+        // branch the aligned printer renders an empty header + `(0 rows)`
+        // footer for the COPY-TO-STDOUT command complete, which doesn't
+        // match upstream (where the data already streamed via the COPY-OUT
+        // sink and the tag goes to the user's status stream, not the
+        // queryFout). The regress fixture sets QUIET=true before the
+        // COPY-OUT `\g` shape so the tag stays out of the file under test.
+        // For COPY-out results, the tag is suppressed regardless — the bytes
+        // already flowed; upstream's `handleCopyOut` doesn't emit `COPY N`
+        // on the queryFout.
+        if (!settings.popt.topt.tuplesOnly && !settings.quiet && !rs.copyOutBytes) {
+            const tag = formatCommandTagText(rs);
+            if (tag.length > 0)
+                out.write(`${tag}\n`);
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+    await pickActivePrinter(settings).printQuery(rs, settings.popt, out);
+};
+/**
+ * Pick the printer for the active output format. Mirrors `pickPrinter`
+ * in `core/common.ts` — duplicated here to avoid the cmd_io → common
+ * import cycle (common.ts depends on this file for `getQueryFout`).
+ *
+ * `wrapped` falls back to the aligned printer (which renders `wrapped`
+ * mode itself via `topt.format`).
+ */
+const pickActivePrinter = (settings) => {
+    switch (settings.popt.topt.format) {
+        case 'aligned':
+        case 'wrapped':
+            return alignedPrinter;
+        case 'unaligned':
+            return unalignedPrinter;
+        case 'csv':
+            return csvPrinter;
+        case 'json':
+            return jsonPrinter;
+        case 'html':
+            return htmlPrinter;
+        case 'asciidoc':
+            return asciidocPrinter;
+        case 'latex':
+            return latexPrinter;
+        case 'latex-longtable':
+            return latexLongtablePrinter;
+        case 'troff-ms':
+            return troffMsPrinter;
+        default:
+            return alignedPrinter;
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Pick the output target for a query result.
+ *
+ * Precedence: explicit `oneShot` (e.g. `\g FILE`) > the settings stash
+ * (`\o FILE`) > `process.stdout`.
+ */
+const pickOut = (settings, oneShot) => {
+    if (oneShot)
+        return oneShot;
+    return getQueryFout(settings) ?? process.stdout;
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \i FILE / \include FILE
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+const runInclude = async (ctx, relative) => {
+    const arg = ctx.nextArg('normal');
+    if (arg === null || arg.length === 0) {
+        return errResult(ctx, 'missing required argument');
+    }
+    // Resolve path: \ir resolves relative to the current input file's
+    // directory (if any); \i resolves relative to cwd unless absolute.
+    let resolved;
+    if (path.isAbsolute(arg)) {
+        resolved = arg;
+    }
+    else if (relative && ctx.settings.inputfile) {
+        resolved = path.resolve(path.dirname(ctx.settings.inputfile), arg);
+    }
+    else {
+        resolved = path.resolve(process.cwd(), arg);
+    }
+    let contents;
+    try {
+        contents = await fsPromises.readFile(resolved, 'utf8');
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+        return errResult(ctx, msg);
+    }
+    // Execute the included file's SQL directly here. This is the single
+    // execution path for BOTH the interactive REPL and the non-interactive
+    // -c/-f/stdin path: the latter (`executeInputString`) does not drain the
+    // `\i` input queue, so an `enqueueInput()` here would (a) never run under
+    // -f/-c and (b) double-run interactively (the mainloop drains the queue
+    // AND we run execSimple). See.
+    if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+        return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+    }
+    const trimmed = contents.trim();
+    if (trimmed.length === 0) {
+        return { status: 'ok' };
+    }
+    // Track the prior inputfile so `\ir` chains relative to the included
+    // file's directory.
+    const priorInputFile = ctx.settings.inputfile;
+    ctx.settings.inputfile = resolved;
+    try {
+        const results = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(trimmed);
+        const out = pickOut(ctx.settings, null);
+        for (const rs of results) {
+            await renderResult(ctx.settings, rs, out);
+        }
+        return { status: 'ok' };
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+        return errResult(ctx, msg);
+    }
+    finally {
+        ctx.settings.inputfile = priorInputFile;
+    }
+};
+export const cmdInclude = {
+    name: 'i',
+    aliases: ['include'],
+    helpKey: 'i',
+    run: (ctx) => runInclude(ctx, false),
+};
+export const cmdIncludeRel = {
+    name: 'ir',
+    aliases: ['include_relative'],
+    helpKey: 'ir',
+    run: (ctx) => runInclude(ctx, true),
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \o [FILE|cmd] / \out
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+export const cmdOut = {
+    name: 'o',
+    aliases: ['out'],
+    helpKey: 'o',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const arg = ctx.nextArg('filepipe');
+        // Drain any previous target first so writes flush before we rebind.
+        await closeQueryFout(ctx.settings);
+        if (arg === null || arg.length === 0) {
+            // Restore default (stdout).
+            return { status: 'ok' };
+        }
+        try {
+            const entry = openWriter(arg);
+            setQueryFout(ctx.settings, entry);
+            return { status: 'ok' };
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // File targets fail synchronously in `openWriter` via `openSync`;
+            // surface them in upstream's `<path>: <strerror>` shape (bare,
+            // no `\o:` prefix) and continue with the loop so a follow-up
+            // `SELECT` still executes. Pipe spawn failures (which lack an
+            // errno code) fall through to the generic `\o: <msg>` path.
+            if (!arg.startsWith('|') && isFileOpenFailure(err)) {
+                return reportFileOpenFailure(ctx, arg, err);
+            }
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            return errResult(ctx, msg);
+        }
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \w FILE / \write FILE
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+export const cmdWrite = {
+    name: 'w',
+    aliases: ['write'],
+    helpKey: 'w',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const arg = ctx.nextArg('filepipe');
+        if (arg === null || arg.length === 0) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'missing required argument');
+        }
+        let entry;
+        try {
+            entry = openWriter(arg);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // Same upstream-shape pivot as `\o`: a missing / unwritable file
+            // path errors out as a bare `<path>: <strerror>` line and the
+            // shim keeps reading commands. Pipe spawn failures still use
+            // the generic `\w: <msg>` envelope.
+            if (!arg.startsWith('|') && isFileOpenFailure(err)) {
+                return reportFileOpenFailure(ctx, arg, err);
+            }
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            return errResult(ctx, msg);
+        }
+        try {
+            await new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+                entry.stream.write(ctx.queryBuf, (err) => {
+                    if (err)
+                        reject(err);
+                    else
+                        resolve();
+                });
+            });
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // On pipe targets a fast-exiting child (e.g. `| false` or a
+            // command-not-found shell exit) closes its stdin before we finish
+            // writing, surfacing as EPIPE. Linux fires this reliably; macOS
+            // sometimes races it past us. In either case the child's exit
+            // status is what we want to report, NOT the write error — so we
+            // swallow EPIPE on pipes and fall through to entry.close() which
+            // awaits the child and emits the upstream-shape wait_result_to_str.
+            const isEpipe = err instanceof Error && err.code === 'EPIPE';
+            if (!entry.isPipe || !isEpipe) {
+                try {
+                    await entry.close();
+                }
+                catch {
+                    // ignore
+                }
+                const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+                return errResult(ctx, msg);
+            }
+        }
+        // Wait for the target to drain. For pipe targets a non-zero exit /
+        // killing signal is surfaced as `<fname>: <wait_result_to_str>`,
+        // mirroring upstream `exec_command_write`:
+        //
+        //   pg_log_error("%s: %s", fname, wait_result_to_str(result));
+        //
+        // Note that upstream's `fname` retains the leading `|`, and the
+        // message does NOT carry the `\w:` cmd-prefix that the other
+        // backslash-command errors use — `pg_log_error` writes the bare
+        // formatted message (under terse mode, which is the conformance
+        // harness setup). We bypass `errResult` to match that shape exactly.
+        try {
+            const result = await entry.close();
+            if (entry.isPipe) {
+                const msg = formatChildWaitResult(result.exitCode, result.signal);
+                if (msg !== null) {
+                    // `arg` still has the leading `|`; emit it verbatim so the
+                    // text reads `| program: child process exited with exit code 1`.
+                    const line = `${arg}: ${msg}`;
+                    ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = { message: line };
+                    const prefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+                    writeErr(`${prefix}${line}\n`);
+                    return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+                }
+            }
+            return { status: 'ok' };
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            return errResult(ctx, msg);
+        }
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \g, \gx — execute the query buffer with optional one-shot redirect.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+/**
+ * Parse the body of a `\g (option=value option2=value2 ...)` clause —
+ * the text between the outer parentheses, already stripped. Options
+ * are separated by whitespace; values may be single-quoted to embed
+ * spaces. Unquoted values run to the next whitespace.
+ *
+ * Mirrors upstream's `parse_slash_pgopts_list`. We deliberately stay
+ * narrow — the conformance corpus exercises `format=`, `csv_fieldsep=`,
+ * and `title=` only.
+ */
+const parseGPsetOptions = (body) => {
+    const out = [];
+    let i = 0;
+    while (i < body.length) {
+        // Skip whitespace between pairs.
+        while (i < body.length && /\s/.test(body[i]))
+            i++;
+        if (i >= body.length)
+            break;
+        // Read option name up to `=`.
+        const optStart = i;
+        while (i < body.length && body[i] !== '=' && !/\s/.test(body[i]))
+            i++;
+        const option = body.slice(optStart, i);
+        if (option.length === 0)
+            break;
+        let value = '';
+        if (body[i] === '=') {
+            i++; // skip '='
+            // Value: single-quoted or unquoted.
+            if (body[i] === "'") {
+                i++;
+                while (i < body.length && body[i] !== "'") {
+                    // Single-quoted strings support `''` doubling and a few
+                    // C-style escapes (\n, \t, \\, \'). Mirror enough of the
+                    // upstream `xslashquote` handling to round-trip the regress
+                    // corpus.
+                    if (body[i] === '\\' && i + 1 < body.length) {
+                        const next = body[i + 1];
+                        if (next === 'n')
+                            value += '\n';
+                        else if (next === 't')
+                            value += '\t';
+                        else if (next === 'r')
+                            value += '\r';
+                        else if (next === '\\')
+                            value += '\\';
+                        else if (next === "'")
+                            value += "'";
+                        else
+                            value += next;
+                        i += 2;
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    value += body[i++];
+                }
+                if (body[i] === "'")
+                    i++;
+            }
+            else {
+                const vStart = i;
+                while (i < body.length && !/\s/.test(body[i]))
+                    i++;
+                value = body.slice(vStart, i);
+            }
+        }
+        out.push({ option, value });
+    }
+    return out;
+};
+const runGCore = async (ctx, forceExpanded) => {
+    const gated = pipelineGate(ctx);
+    if (gated !== null)
+        return gated;
+    // Strip leading whitespace + `--`/`/* */` comments so the SQL we hand to
+    // the wire (and use for `LINE N:` re-print on error) matches what vanilla
+    // psql sends through `PQexec`. Without the strip, queryBuf accumulated
+    // across `\bind` re-entries carries blank+comment lines from the gap
+    // between the previous `\g` and this one, and the server-relative
+    // position lands on `LINE 3` instead of `LINE 1`.
+    const trimmedBuf = stripLeadingCommentsAndWS(ctx.queryBuf);
+    const bufSql = trimmedBuf.trim();
+    let target;
+    let psetOverrides = null;
+    // `\g (option=value ...)` — temporary pset overrides for this query
+    // only. Upstream `exec_command_g` recognises a leading `(` and slurps
+    // the rest of the args until matching `)`. We can't call nextArg in
+    // two different modes against the BackslashContext (each mode has its
+    // own cursor), so when the leading char is `(`, parse the entire raw
+    // arg block ourselves; otherwise fall back to normal filepipe arg
+    // extraction.
+    const rawTrimmed = ctx.rawArgs.trimStart();
+    if (rawTrimmed.startsWith('(')) {
+        const close = rawTrimmed.indexOf(')');
+        if (close === -1) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'missing right parenthesis in \\g options');
+        }
+        // Strip parens; parse `key=value` pairs (values may be single-
+        // quoted). The conformance corpus exercises `format=`,
+        // `csv_fieldsep=`, and `title=` only.
+        psetOverrides = parseGPsetOptions(rawTrimmed.slice(1, close).trim());
+        // Anything after the matching `)` is the output target — `\g (format=csv)
+        // out.txt` writes to out.txt. Previously this was dropped, so the file/pipe
+        // redirect was silently ignored whenever options were present.
+        const afterParen = rawTrimmed.slice(close + 1).trim();
+        target = afterParen.length > 0 ? afterParen : null;
+    }
+    else {
+        target = ctx.nextArg('filepipe');
+    }
+    // `\g` / `\gx` with an empty buffer re-runs the most recently submitted
+    // query — upstream tracks this in `pset.last_query` and `PSQLexec` reads
+    // it when the active buffer is empty. We mirror via `settings.lastQuery`,
+    // populated in `sendQuery` before dispatch. Preserve trailing whitespace
+    // on the re-run so the server's `position` (and the `LINE N:` echo we
+    // render on failure) match upstream byte-for-byte — vanilla passes the
+    // un-trimmed `pset.last_query` straight to `PQexec`.
+    const sql = bufSql.length > 0 ? bufSql : ctx.settings.lastQuery;
+    // If a `\bind_named NAME` has staged a server-side prepared statement
+    // lookup, we don't need any SQL text — the prepared statement carries
+    // it server-side. Skip the empty-sql guard so the bind branch below
+    // can do its thing.
+    const hasPendingNamedBind = stagedNamedBindPresent(ctx.settings);
+    if (sql.length === 0 && !hasPendingNamedBind) {
+        // No buffered SQL, no prior query, no staged bind — silent no-op
+        // like upstream.
+        return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+    }
+    if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+        return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+    }
+    // Open the one-shot writer if a target was supplied; close it on the way
+    // out so the file/pipe is flushed before we return.
+    let oneShot = null;
+    if (target !== null && target.length > 0) {
+        try {
+            oneShot = openWriter(target);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // A `\g FILE` whose path is unopenable (ENOENT, EACCES, EISDIR,
+            // …) — typically because an unresolved `:VAR` substitution left
+            // a literal `:VAR` in the path — must NOT crash the process the
+            // way Node's lazy WriteStream `'error'` event would. Render in
+            // upstream's bare `<path>: <strerror>` shape and continue so the
+            // next command in the script still executes. Pipe spawn
+            // failures retain the generic `\g: <msg>` envelope.
+            if (!target.startsWith('|') && isFileOpenFailure(err)) {
+                return reportFileOpenFailure(ctx, target, err);
+            }
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            return errResult(ctx, msg);
+        }
+    }
+    const topt = ctx.settings.popt.topt;
+    // Snapshot topt BEFORE any per-query mutation so the restore in
+    // `finally` covers both `\gx`'s `expanded = 'on'` and any `\g (...)`
+    // pset overrides in one shot. Snapshotting AFTER the `forceExpanded`
+    // mutation would persist `expanded = 'on'` across queries.
+    const toptSnapshot = { ...topt };
+    if (forceExpanded)
+        topt.expanded = 'on';
+    // Apply per-query pset overrides silently. Upstream applies the
+    // temporary options without emitting the status lines that
+    // interactive `\pset` would.
+    if (psetOverrides) {
+        for (const { option, value } of psetOverrides) {
+            applyPset(topt, option, value, ctx.cmdName, true);
+        }
+    }
+    // Track for `\g` / `\gx` re-run with empty buffer. Upstream sets
+    // `pset.last_query` in `PSQLexec` before dispatch.
+    ctx.settings.lastQuery = sql;
+    // Consume any pending `\bind` / `\bind_named` state. Upstream's
+    // `\g` routes through the extended-query protocol when bind params
+    // are set: anonymous `\bind` re-prepares from the buffer; named
+    // `\bind_named NAME` looks up the server-side prepared statement
+    // by NAME (set earlier via `\parse NAME`) and just runs Bind +
+    // Execute against it.
+    const bindState = consumeBindState(ctx.settings);
+    let execError = null;
+    // Track whether we wired the mid-batch COPY-OUT sink so the `finally`
+    // can clear it deterministically — even if `execSimple` threw.
+    let copyOutSinkConn = null;
+    try {
+        const out = pickOut(ctx.settings, oneShot?.stream ?? null);
+        if (bindState?.byName) {
+            // \bind_named NAME — execute the previously-prepared statement
+            // identified by NAME. The cache was populated by `\parse NAME`.
+            // The empty-string NAME is the upstream "unnamed" prepared
+            // statement slot.
+            const ps = lookupPrepared(ctx.settings, bindState.name);
+            if (!ps) {
+                // Synthesise a thrown-Error-like object so formatServerError can
+                // render the same `ERROR:  <msg>` shape vanilla emits for the
+                // server's `prepared statement "X" does not exist` error.
+                execError = Object.assign(new Error(`prepared statement "${bindState.name}" does not exist`), { severity: 'ERROR', code: '26000' });
+            }
+            else {
+                // Bind + Execute MUST go in one extended-protocol batch: the
+                // anonymous portal is implicitly closed at the next Sync, so a
+                // separate ps.bind() then ps.execute() would lose the portal in
+                // between. `bindAndExecute` issues both messages before the
+                // Sync.
+                const rs = await ps.bindAndExecute(bindState.values);
+                await renderResult(ctx.settings, rs, out);
+            }
+        }
+        else if (bindState) {
+            // Anonymous \bind — re-prepare from the current buffer (or
+            // lastQuery fallback) and execute with the supplied params.
+            const rs = await ctx.settings.db.query(sql, bindState.values);
+            await renderResult(ctx.settings, rs, out);
+        }
+        else {
+            // Plain `\g` / `\gx`: simple-query dispatch.
+            //
+            // When the batch contains `COPY ... TO STDOUT`, the wire layer
+            // forwards CopyData bytes via `copyOutMidBatchSink`. Mainloop wires
+            // that sink to `ctx.stdout` for top-level dispatches; here in `\g`
+            // we redirect it to the current output target (`\g FILE`,
+            // `\g |cmd`, or `\o`-stashed stream when neither is set). Without
+            // this, `COPY (SELECT 'foo') TO STDOUT \g :file` silently drops
+            // `foo` on the floor and the file ends up with only the empty
+            // `(0 rows)` shape printed by `renderResult` for the wire's empty
+            // ResultSet. Matches upstream's `do_copy` / `handleCopyOut` path:
+            // the COPY OUT bytes go wherever the active queryFout points.
+            if (hasCopyToStdout(sql)) {
+                copyOutSinkConn = ctx.settings.db;
+                copyOutSinkConn.copyOutMidBatchSink = (chunk) => {
+                    out.write(chunk);
+                };
+            }
+            const results = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(sql);
+            for (const rs of results) {
+                await renderResult(ctx.settings, rs, out);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    catch (err) {
+        execError = err;
+    }
+    finally {
+        // Restore the pre-query topt verbatim — covers both the `\gx`
+        // `expanded = 'on'` swap and any `\g (...)` pset overrides, so a
+        // subsequent plain `\g` runs in the user's persistent print mode.
+        Object.assign(topt, toptSnapshot);
+        // Tear down the COPY-OUT sink so subsequent top-level batches reach
+        // mainloop's installer with a clean slate. (Mainloop reinstalls per
+        // batch; leaving ours pointed at a now-closed file would cause a
+        // write-after-close on the next CopyData burst.)
+        if (copyOutSinkConn)
+            copyOutSinkConn.copyOutMidBatchSink = null;
+    }
+    // Close the one-shot writer regardless of execution success so any
+    // partial output is flushed.
+    //
+    // Note: a non-zero exit from `\g | program` is intentionally NOT
+    // surfaced as an error. Upstream `CloseGOutput` (src/bin/psql/common.c)
+    // only feeds the wait status to `SetShellResultVariables`, which sets
+    // `SHELL_ERROR` / `SHELL_EXIT_CODE` for user inspection — no
+    // `pg_log_error` call. This matches `\g | false` in vanilla psql:
+    // silent, exit code 0, the next command (`\echo after`) prints
+    // normally. Bookkeeping for the SHELL_* vars is a follow-up; what
+    // matters here is that we don't emit a stray "program exited" line
+    // that the conformance harness would diff against an empty upstream
+    // stderr.
+    //
+    // The only failure we still surface from a pipe target is a synchronous
+    // `close()` rejection (e.g. EPIPE escaping the swallow above), which
+    // would indicate a genuine bug in our wiring rather than the child
+    // program's exit code.
+    let pipeError = null;
+    if (oneShot) {
+        try {
+            await oneShot.close();
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            pipeError = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+        }
+    }
+    if (execError !== null) {
+        // Render in upstream's `ERROR:  <msg>\nLINE N: ...\n        ^` shape
+        // by funnelling through `formatServerError` — same path top-level
+        // statement errors take in `core/common.ts::writeQueryError`. The
+        // `\<cmd>:` prefix is reserved for client-side I/O / parse errors
+        // (e.g. `\g: no connection`), not server-side ErrorResponse-shaped
+        // failures. Pass the COMMENT-STRIPPED buffer (`trimmedBuf`) so the
+        // `LINE N:` count starts at the first content line — vanilla strips
+        // leading comments + blank lines from queryBuf before `PQexec`, and
+        // the server's reported `position` is a 1-based offset into THAT
+        // trimmed buffer. We preserve trailing whitespace so a `\g` after
+        // `SELECT $1, $2 ` still renders `LINE 1: SELECT $1, $2 ` verbatim.
+        // When buffer was empty (lastQuery fallback or named-bind path), the
+        // dispatched SQL is `sql` — pass that instead so the `LINE N:` echo
+        // still reflects the executed statement (e.g. `\bind_named NAME \g`
+        // after a `\parse NAME` of `SELECT $1, $2`).
+        return formatServerError(ctx, execError, bufSql.length > 0 ? trimmedBuf : sql);
+    }
+    if (pipeError !== null) {
+        return errResult(ctx, pipeError);
+    }
+    return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+};
+export const cmdG = {
+    name: 'g',
+    helpKey: 'g',
+    run: (ctx) => runGCore(ctx, false),
+};
+export const cmdGx = {
+    name: 'gx',
+    helpKey: 'gx',
+    run: (ctx) => runGCore(ctx, true),
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \p / \print — print the current or previous query buffer.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+/**
+ * `\p` / `\print` — print the query buffer the next `\g` would execute.
+ *
+ * Mirrors upstream `exec_command_print` in `src/bin/psql/command.c`:
+ *
+ *   if (query_buf && query_buf->len > 0)
+ *     puts(query_buf->data);
+ *   else if (previous_buf && previous_buf->len > 0)
+ *     puts(previous_buf->data);
+ *   else if (!pset.quiet)
+ *     puts(_("Query buffer is empty."));
+ *
+ * Buffer-vs-previous-buffer precedence matters for the regress sequence:
+ *
+ *     SELECT 1;       -- executes, previous_buf := "SELECT 1;"
+ *     \p              -- queryBuf empty → prints previous_buf
+ *     SELECT 2 \r     -- queryBuf="SELECT 2 ", \r resets to "" without
+ *                     -- touching previous_buf
+ *     \p              -- queryBuf still empty → prints previous_buf
+ *     SELECT 3 \p     -- queryBuf="SELECT 3 ", non-empty → prints queryBuf
+ *
+ * Implementation notes:
+ *
+ *  - We use `settings.lastQuery` as the previous-buffer source. Upstream
+ *    tracks `previous_buf` independently of `pset.last_query`, but our
+ *    `lastQuery` is set at the exact same point upstream sets
+ *    `previous_buf` (the dispatch site in `SendQuery`-equivalent code paths
+ *    in `core/common.ts` and `cmd_io.ts`'s `\g` implementation), so the
+ *    semantics match for every shape exercised by the conformance corpus.
+ *  - We must NOT clear queryBuf — return `status: 'ok'` so the mainloop
+ *    leaves the buffer untouched. The user is inspecting, not executing.
+ *  - `puts()` appends a trailing newline. We use `writeOut` and append `\n`
+ *    explicitly to match.
+ */
+export const cmdPrint = {
+    name: 'p',
+    aliases: ['print'],
+    helpKey: 'p',
+    run: (ctx) => {
+        // `queryBuf.trim()` for the emptiness check — not the printed text.
+        // Upstream's `query_buf->len > 0` is a byte-length check that, in
+        // upstream, is reliably zero after a `;`-dispatch (because PQexec is
+        // followed by `resetPQExpBuffer(query_buf)`). Our mainloop leaves a
+        // residual `\n` in queryBuf after a top-level dispatch when the next
+        // source line starts with a slash command — so a raw `length > 0`
+        // check here would route to the "print the buffer" arm and emit
+        // `\n\n` instead of falling through to `lastQuery`. The trim-only
+        // emptiness check is purely an empty-vs-content discriminator; the
+        // actual writeOut still uses the un-trimmed buffer text so an inline
+        // `SELECT 3 \p` correctly emits the trailing space upstream prints.
+        if (ctx.queryBuf.trim().length > 0) {
+            writeOut(`${ctx.queryBuf}\n`);
+        }
+        else if (ctx.settings.lastQuery.length > 0) {
+            writeOut(`${ctx.settings.lastQuery}\n`);
+        }
+        else if (!ctx.settings.quiet) {
+            writeOut('Query buffer is empty.\n');
+        }
+        return Promise.resolve({ status: 'ok' });
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \gset [PREFIX]
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+const formatCell = (value) => {
+    if (value === null || value === undefined)
+        return '';
+    if (typeof value === 'string')
+        return value;
+    if (Buffer.isBuffer(value))
+        return value.toString('utf8');
+    if (typeof value === 'number' ||
+        typeof value === 'boolean' ||
+        typeof value === 'bigint') {
+        return String(value);
+    }
+    // Plain objects / arrays from JSON columns: JSON-stringify so the test
+    // surface is deterministic and avoids "[object Object]".
+    try {
+        return JSON.stringify(value);
+    }
+    catch {
+        return '';
+    }
+};
+export const cmdGset = {
+    name: 'gset',
+    helpKey: 'gset',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const gated = pipelineGate(ctx);
+        if (gated !== null)
+            return gated;
+        // Strip leading whitespace + comments — see runGCore for the rationale.
+        const trimmedBuf = stripLeadingCommentsAndWS(ctx.queryBuf);
+        const bufSql = trimmedBuf.trim();
+        const prefix = ctx.nextArg('normal') ?? '';
+        // Empty buffer behaviour mirrors upstream `exec_command_gset`'s
+        // `PSQL_CMD_SEND` return: the dispatch loop sends the active
+        // `pset.last_query` (or nothing). Upstream does NOT emit an error
+        // — it's a silent no-op when there's no buffer AND no prior query.
+        // We mirror via `settings.lastQuery`, populated in `sendQuery` before
+        // dispatch.
+        const sql = bufSql.length > 0 ? bufSql : ctx.settings.lastQuery.trim();
+        if (sql.length === 0) {
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+        }
+        // Track for a subsequent `\g` re-run with empty buffer. Upstream
+        // `exec_command_gset` updates `pset.last_query` to the dispatched SQL
+        // before sending, so a follow-on `\g` (with the buffer reset by the
+        // implicit `\\` separator in `... \gset pref01_ \\ \g`) re-executes
+        // this same statement and prints the result table.
+        ctx.settings.lastQuery = sql;
+        let results;
+        try {
+            results = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(sql);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // Server-side ErrorResponse — render in upstream's 3-line shape
+            // (severity + message + LINE N / caret) instead of `\gset: <msg>`.
+            // Pass the comment-stripped buffer so the `LINE N:` count matches
+            // vanilla. When the buffer was empty, fall back to the re-run SQL
+            // — the user wants to see WHICH statement failed.
+            return formatServerError(ctx, err, bufSql.length > 0 ? trimmedBuf : sql);
+        }
+        // `\;`-chained batches: render every result EXCEPT the last to the
+        // active output before `\gset` captures the last. Upstream's
+        // `ExecQueryAndProcessResults` walks the libpq result list and runs
+        // `PrintQueryResults` on each one in order; the trailing `\gset`
+        // applies to the FINAL result (`StoreQueryTuple` in common.c) and
+        // suppresses its print. Without this loop, a script like
+        // `SELECT 3 AS three \; SELECT warn('3.5') \; SELECT 4 AS four \gset`
+        // would silently drop the `three` table + the warn NOTICE's
+        // surrounding tuples row.
+        if (results.length > 1) {
+            const out = pickOut(ctx.settings, null);
+            for (let i = 0; i < results.length - 1; i++) {
+                await renderResult(ctx.settings, results[i], out);
+            }
+        }
+        // Use the last result that returned rows. Upstream uses the most-recent
+        // tuples-producing statement; results without a row descriptor (e.g.
+        // pure DDL) are skipped.
+        // Upstream `StoreQueryTuple` only runs against the LAST PGresult and
+        // only when that result is `PGRES_TUPLES_OK` (a tuples-producing
+        // statement). Non-tuples results (DDL, INSERT/UPDATE without RETURNING)
+        // fall through to a plain status print — `\gset` is a no-op there, NOT
+        // an error. Mirror that here: pick the last result; if it isn't
+        // tuples-producing, skip the variable-assignment step entirely.
+        const lastRs = results[results.length - 1];
+        if (!lastRs || lastRs.fields.length === 0) {
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        const rs = lastRs;
+        if (rs.rows.length === 0) {
+            // Bare `no rows returned for \gset` (no `\gset:` prefix) — matches
+            // upstream psql's `pg_log_error("no rows returned for \\gset")`.
+            ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = {
+                message: 'no rows returned for \\gset',
+            };
+            const errPrefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+            writeErr(`${errPrefix}no rows returned for \\gset\n`);
+            return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+        }
+        if (rs.rows.length > 1) {
+            // Match upstream psql's exact wording from `exec_command_gset` —
+            // bare `more than one row returned for \gset` (no `\gset:` prefix).
+            // Verified against vanilla psql; vendored psql.out emits it bare.
+            ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = {
+                message: 'more than one row returned for \\gset',
+            };
+            const errPrefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+            writeErr(`${errPrefix}more than one row returned for \\gset\n`);
+            return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+        }
+        const row = rs.rows[0];
+        for (let i = 0; i < rs.fields.length; i++) {
+            const fieldName = rs.fields[i].name;
+            const name = `${prefix}${fieldName}`;
+            const cell = row[i];
+            const isNull = cell === null || cell === undefined;
+            // Upstream skips assignments where the target maps to a "specially
+            // treated" variable (one with a substitute / assign hook installed)
+            // whose value would be rejected by the hook. The non-special columns
+            // continue to be assigned: only the offending one is skipped, with
+            // an informational stderr line. See psql.out line ~240:
+            //   attempt to \gset into specially treated variable "IGNOREEOF" ignored
+            if (isSpeciallyTreatedVar(ctx.settings, name)) {
+                // The target maps to a "specially treated" variable (one with a
+                // substitute / assign hook installed). Upstream skips just this
+                // assignment with an informational stderr line; other columns
+                // are still processed. We don't actually call the hook — even a
+                // value that the hook would accept must be rejected per upstream:
+                // see `exec_command_gset` and `VariableHasHook`.
+                const errPrefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+                writeErr(`${errPrefix}attempt to \\gset into specially treated variable ` +
+                    `"${name}" ignored\n`);
+                continue;
+            }
+            // Upstream `StoreQueryTuple` in src/bin/psql/common.c:
+            //
+            //   if (PQgetisnull(result, 0, i))
+            //       UnsetVariable(pset.vars, varname);
+            //   else if (!SetVariable(pset.vars, varname, PQgetvalue(...))) { ... }
+            //
+            // i.e. a NULL cell unsets the target variable (so a subsequent
+            // `:var` interpolates to the literal `:var` via the scanner's
+            // unset-var passthrough) rather than setting it to the empty
+            // string. Mirror that semantics here.
+            if (isNull) {
+                ctx.settings.vars.unset(name);
+                continue;
+            }
+            const value = formatCell(cell);
+            if (!ctx.settings.vars.set(name, value)) {
+                // Bare `invalid variable name: "<name>"` (no `\gset:` prefix) —
+                // matches upstream psql.out wording for `\gset` exactly.
+                ctx.settings.lastErrorResult = {
+                    message: `invalid variable name: "${fieldName}"`,
+                };
+                const errPrefix = psqlErrorPrefix(ctx.settings);
+                writeErr(`${errPrefix}invalid variable name: "${fieldName}"\n`);
+                return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+            }
+        }
+        return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \gdesc — describe the current query without executing it.
+//
+// Mirrors upstream `exec_command_gdesc` in `src/bin/psql/command.c`: parse
+// the buffered query through the extended protocol (Parse + Describe by
+// statement, no Execute), then build a synthetic two-column ResultSet of
+// `Column` and `Type` rows and route it through the printer the user's
+// `\pset format` selected. Tuples-only mode (`\t on`) suppresses the
+// header / `(N columns)` footer the same way it would for a real query
+// result, because we hand the synthetic ResultSet to the same printer.
+//
+// Type names come from a follow-up `SELECT ... format_type(tp, tpm)`
+// over a VALUES literal — exactly the round-trip upstream uses so
+// non-builtin types and typmod modifiers (`numeric(10,2)`, `varchar(64)`)
+// render with their canonical form.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+/**
+ * Build the SQL that resolves each describe-result column's `Type` via
+ * `pg_catalog.format_type(typoid, typmod)`. We feed the names + OIDs
+ * + typmods through a `VALUES` literal so the server does the formatting
+ * for us — the same query upstream issues from `describeFieldsByType`.
+ *
+ * Returns null when there are zero fields (caller emits `(0 rows)` form
+ * by hand because PostgreSQL rejects an empty VALUES list).
+ */
+const buildGdescFormatQuery = (fields) => {
+    if (fields.length === 0)
+        return null;
+    // Each row literal escapes the column name with the standard E'' string
+    // form so embedded quotes survive the round trip. The pg_type catalogue
+    // expects oid + int4 typmod, so we cast accordingly. `_idx` keeps the
+    // VALUES list in insertion order; `format_type` handles -1 typmod
+    // (== "no modifier") natively.
+    const rows = fields
+        .map((f, i) => {
+        const safeName = f.name.replace(/'/gu, "''");
+        const oid = String(f.dataTypeID >>> 0);
+        const typmod = String(f.dataTypeModifier | 0);
+        return `(${String(i)}, '${safeName}', ${oid}::oid, ${typmod}::int4)`;
+    })
+        .join(', ');
+    // ORDER BY _idx preserves the describe order regardless of how the server
+    // happens to evaluate the VALUES list. Aliases match upstream column
+    // titles exactly so the printer header is identical.
+    return ('SELECT name AS "Column", pg_catalog.format_type(tp, tpm) AS "Type"' +
+        ` FROM (VALUES ${rows}) AS x(_idx, name, tp, tpm) ORDER BY _idx`);
+};
+/**
+ * Field descriptors for the synthetic `Column / Type` ResultSet that
+ * `\gdesc` emits when format_type resolution fails or yields nothing.
+ *
+ * We fall back to the field's raw OID so the user still sees a value.
+ */
+const GDESC_SYNTHETIC_FIELDS = [
+    {
+        name: 'Column',
+        tableID: 0,
+        columnID: 0,
+        dataTypeID: 25,
+        dataTypeSize: -1,
+        dataTypeModifier: -1,
+        format: 0,
+    },
+    {
+        name: 'Type',
+        tableID: 0,
+        columnID: 0,
+        dataTypeID: 25,
+        dataTypeSize: -1,
+        dataTypeModifier: -1,
+        format: 0,
+    },
+];
+const buildSyntheticGdescResultSet = (rows) => ({
+    command: 'SELECT',
+    rowCount: rows.length,
+    oid: null,
+    fields: GDESC_SYNTHETIC_FIELDS,
+    rows,
+    notices: [],
+});
+export const cmdGdesc = {
+    name: 'gdesc',
+    helpKey: 'gdesc',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const gated = pipelineGate(ctx);
+        if (gated !== null)
+            return gated;
+        // Strip leading whitespace + comments — see runGCore for the rationale.
+        const trimmedBuf = stripLeadingCommentsAndWS(ctx.queryBuf);
+        const sql = trimmedBuf.trim();
+        if (sql.length === 0) {
+            // Upstream `\gdesc` with no buffer falls through `PSQL_CMD_SEND` to
+            // the printer which renders the synthetic 0-column result via
+            // `PrintQueryStatus`'s "The command has no result, or the result
+            // has no columns." line. Stdout, exit 0 — not an error. Verified
+            // against vanilla psql 18.
+            process.stdout.write('The command has no result, or the result has no columns.\n');
+            // Match upstream's post-PSQL_CMD_SEND state vars: success, 0 rows.
+            refreshErrorVars(ctx.settings, { kind: 'success', rowCount: 0 });
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+        }
+        // Track for a subsequent `\g` re-run with empty buffer. Upstream
+        // `exec_command_gdesc` updates `pset.last_query` to the dispatched SQL
+        // before sending, so a follow-on `\g` (with the buffer reset because
+        // `\gdesc` dispatches via PSQL_CMD_SEND) re-executes this same statement
+        // and prints the result table. Without this, the regress sequence
+        //   SELECT 1 AS x, ... \gdesc
+        //   \g
+        // would silently drop the `\g` (empty buffer + stale lastQuery), and
+        // any later `TABLE bububu;` failure would taint `\g`'s re-run output.
+        ctx.settings.lastQuery = sql;
+        let fields;
+        try {
+            const stmt = await ctx.settings.db.prepare('', sql);
+            fields = await stmt.describe();
+            // Close the unnamed prepared statement so we don't leak it. Failure
+            // to close (e.g. server already in error state) is non-fatal.
+            try {
+                await stmt.close();
+            }
+            catch {
+                // ignore
+            }
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // Capture + render the full ErrorResponse-shaped payload in upstream's
+            // 3-line shape (severity + message + LINE N / caret), refresh the
+            // diagnostic vars, and signal `errorWritten` to the mainloop so the
+            // `\errverbose` re-render after `\gdesc` sees the rich layers. Pass
+            // the comment-stripped buffer so the `LINE N:` count starts at the
+            // first content line (matches vanilla — see runGCore).
+            return formatServerError(ctx, err, trimmedBuf);
+        }
+        // When the prepared statement describes back zero columns (DDL, empty
+        // SELECT list, etc.), upstream `exec_command_gdesc` prints the
+        // pg_log_info "The command has no result, or the result has no
+        // columns." line to stdout and skips the synthetic-table render.
+        // Verified against vanilla psql 18: `SELECT \gdesc` and
+        // `CREATE TABLE bububu(a int) \gdesc` both produce that text.
+        if (fields.length === 0) {
+            process.stdout.write('The command has no result, or the result has no columns.\n');
+            // Match upstream's post-PSQL_CMD_SEND state vars: success, 0 rows.
+            refreshErrorVars(ctx.settings, { kind: 'success', rowCount: 0 });
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        // Resolve canonical type names via a follow-up round trip when we have
+        // at least one field. On failure (or when the server returns nothing —
+        // a mock or an unusual connection state) fall back to the raw OID so
+        // the user still sees a row per described column.
+        let rows;
+        const formatQuery = buildGdescFormatQuery(fields);
+        if (formatQuery === null) {
+            rows = [];
+        }
+        else {
+            const fallbackRows = () => fields.map((f) => [f.name, String(f.dataTypeID)]);
+            try {
+                const sets = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(formatQuery);
+                const last = sets[sets.length - 1];
+                rows = last && last.rows.length > 0 ? last.rows : fallbackRows();
+            }
+            catch {
+                rows = fallbackRows();
+            }
+        }
+        const rs = buildSyntheticGdescResultSet(rows);
+        const printer = pickActivePrinter(ctx.settings);
+        const out = pickOut(ctx.settings, null);
+        try {
+            await printer.printQuery(rs, ctx.settings.popt, out);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+            return errResult(ctx, msg);
+        }
+        // Refresh state vars to mark the describe success: `:ERROR=false`,
+        // `:SQLSTATE=00000`, `:ROW_COUNT=<#-described-columns>`. Upstream
+        // routes `\gdesc` through `PSQL_CMD_SEND` so its post-dispatch
+        // `SetResultVariables` sees the synthetic 2-column tuple result and
+        // assigns ROW_COUNT to the field count we just rendered.
+        refreshErrorVars(ctx.settings, {
+            kind: 'success',
+            rowCount: rs.rowCount,
+        });
+        return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \gexec — treat each cell of the result as SQL to execute.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+export const cmdGexec = {
+    name: 'gexec',
+    helpKey: 'gexec',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const gated = pipelineGate(ctx);
+        if (gated !== null)
+            return gated;
+        // Strip leading whitespace + comments — see runGCore for the rationale.
+        const trimmedBuf = stripLeadingCommentsAndWS(ctx.queryBuf);
+        const bufSql = trimmedBuf.trim();
+        // Upstream `\gexec` with no buffer falls through `PSQL_CMD_SEND` and
+        // re-runs `pset.last_query` (or nothing). Silent on empty + no prior
+        // query — exit 0, no message. Verified against vanilla psql 18.
+        const sql = bufSql.length > 0 ? bufSql : ctx.settings.lastQuery.trim();
+        if (sql.length === 0) {
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+        }
+        // Track the outer (meta) query for a subsequent `\g` re-run with an empty
+        // buffer. Upstream `exec_command_gexec` runs through PSQL_CMD_SEND, which
+        // bumps `pset.last_query` before dispatch.
+        ctx.settings.lastQuery = sql;
+        let firstPass;
+        try {
+            firstPass = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(sql);
+        }
+        catch (err) {
+            // Render the first-pass server error in upstream's 3-line shape.
+            // Pass the comment-stripped buffer so the `LINE N:` count matches
+            // vanilla — see runGCore for the rationale.
+            return formatServerError(ctx, err, trimmedBuf);
+        }
+        const tupled = firstPass.filter((r) => r.fields.length > 0);
+        if (tupled.length === 0) {
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        const out = pickOut(ctx.settings, null);
+        // Echo each generated SQL when ECHO is `all` or `queries`. Vanilla
+        // `exec_command_gexec` calls `SendQuery` for each row's text, and
+        // SendQuery itself prints the statement via the standard query-echo
+        // path: stdout, no `\gexec:` / `psql:` prefix, trailing LF. The echo
+        // appears BEFORE the result body so the conformance harness sees
+        // the same interleaving vanilla produces.
+        const echo = ctx.settings.echo;
+        const shouldEcho = echo === 'all' || echo === 'queries';
+        // Per-row errors are tolerated: upstream `\gexec` calls
+        // `SendQuery` in a loop and ignores its return value (the only
+        // escape is the global ON_ERROR_STOP variable, which the
+        // conformance harness sets to 0). Without this, the regress
+        // expects `drop table gexec_test\nERROR: ...\nselect ...` and we'd
+        // truncate at the ERROR.
+        let sawError = false;
+        for (const rs of tupled) {
+            for (const row of rs.rows) {
+                for (const cell of row) {
+                    if (cell === null || cell === undefined)
+                        continue;
+                    const statement = formatCell(cell).trim();
+                    if (statement.length === 0)
+                        continue;
+                    if (shouldEcho) {
+                        out.write(statement + '\n');
+                    }
+                    try {
+                        const nested = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(statement);
+                        for (const sub of nested) {
+                            if (sub.fields.length > 0) {
+                                await renderResult(ctx.settings, sub, out);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    catch (err) {
+                        // Each iteration is its own statement; render the per-row
+                        // server error in upstream's 3-line shape (LINE / caret are
+                        // positioned against `statement`, the offending row text)
+                        // but DO NOT return — vanilla continues to the next row.
+                        formatServerError(ctx, err, statement);
+                        sawError = true;
+                        // Honour ON_ERROR_STOP: when set, halt the loop after the
+                        // first failing row. Upstream's `do_gexec` consults the
+                        // global `pset.on_error_stop` flag via `SendQuery`'s
+                        // return; we mirror by checking the setting directly.
+                        if (ctx.settings.onErrorStop) {
+                            return { status: 'error', errorWritten: true };
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // Even with errors, return `reset-buf` so the mainloop clears the
+        // outer `\gexec` buffer. Per-row error rendering already happened;
+        // returning `error` here would re-trigger the writeError path.
+        void sawError;
+        return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// \watch [args...]
+//
+// Upstream `\watch` accepts:
+//
+//   \watch [SEC]              — legacy positional interval (seconds)
+//   \watch i=SEC              — interval as named flag
+//   \watch c=N                — iteration count limit
+//   \watch m=N                — minimum row count: keep polling until the
+//                               result has >= N rows; uses `interval` as the
+//                               sleep between polls
+//   \watch min_rows=N         — long-form alias of `m=`
+//
+// Flags may be combined in any order. Duplicates (including the positional
+// interval colliding with `i=`) are rejected upstream with the message
+// "<thing> is specified more than once".
+//
+// The `WATCH_INTERVAL` psql variable supplies the default `interval` value
+// when `i=` is not given (and when there is no positional). The variable is
+// validated at `\set` time via a hook installed by `defaultSettings`.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+const sleepCancellable = (ms, signal) => new Promise((resolve) => {
+    const timer = setTimeout(() => {
+        signal.removeEventListener('abort', onAbort);
+        resolve();
+    }, ms);
+    const onAbort = () => {
+        clearTimeout(timer);
+        signal.removeEventListener('abort', onAbort);
+        resolve();
+    };
+    if (signal.aborted) {
+        clearTimeout(timer);
+        resolve();
+        return;
+    }
+    signal.addEventListener('abort', onAbort);
+});
+/**
+ * Strictly parse a non-negative finite float.
+ *
+ * Returns the parsed number, or `null` for any of:
+ *   - empty string
+ *   - non-numeric trailing characters (e.g. `10ab`)
+ *   - negative values (e.g. `-10`)
+ *   - out-of-range / non-finite results (e.g. `10e400` → Infinity)
+ *
+ * Used to validate `\watch` intervals and the `WATCH_INTERVAL` variable.
+ */
+const parseStrictNonNegativeFloat = (raw) => {
+    if (raw.length === 0)
+        return null;
+    // Reject anything that doesn't look like a plain float literal. We
+    // accept optional sign + digits + optional fractional + optional
+    // exponent. Trailing garbage (`10ab`), negative values, and exponents
+    // that overflow to Infinity all funnel into the null result.
+    const re = /^[+-]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][+-]?\d+)?$/;
+    if (!re.test(raw))
+        return null;
+    const value = parseFloat(raw);
+    if (!Number.isFinite(value))
+        return null;
+    if (value < 0)
+        return null;
+    return value;
+};
+/**
+ * Parse a strict non-negative integer (no exponent, no fractional).
+ * Used for `c=` and `m=` / `min_rows=` argument values.
+ */
+const parseStrictNonNegativeInt = (raw) => {
+    if (raw.length === 0)
+        return null;
+    if (!/^\d+$/.test(raw))
+        return null;
+    const value = parseInt(raw, 10);
+    if (!Number.isFinite(value))
+        return null;
+    return value;
+};
+/**
+ * Default `\watch` interval (seconds). Mirrors upstream
+ * `DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL`. Exported so `defaultSettings` can substitute
+ * it when the user unsets the `WATCH_INTERVAL` variable — upstream's
+ * `watch_interval_substitute_hook` reseeds the value to `2` on null.
+ */
+export const DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL = '2';
+/**
+ * Render `\watch`'s per-iteration timestamp in upstream psql's
+ * `ctime`-style layout: `Day Mon DD HH:MM:SS YYYY` (e.g. `Mon May 25
+ * 19:41:55 2026`). Upstream calls `strftime("%c", &tm)` with the C locale;
+ * we reproduce the field order in vanilla English so the output matches
+ * regardless of the host locale.
+ *
+ * Exported only for unit-testing the format ladder.
+ */
+const WEEKDAYS = ['Sun', 'Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat'];
+const MONTHS = [
+    'Jan',
+    'Feb',
+    'Mar',
+    'Apr',
+    'May',
+    'Jun',
+    'Jul',
+    'Aug',
+    'Sep',
+    'Oct',
+    'Nov',
+    'Dec',
+];
+const pad2 = (n) => (n < 10 ? `0${String(n)}` : String(n));
+export const formatWatchTimestamp = (now) => {
+    const weekday = WEEKDAYS[now.getDay()];
+    const month = MONTHS[now.getMonth()];
+    const day = pad2(now.getDate());
+    const hh = pad2(now.getHours());
+    const mm = pad2(now.getMinutes());
+    const ss = pad2(now.getSeconds());
+    const year = String(now.getFullYear());
+    return `${weekday} ${month} ${day} ${hh}:${mm}:${ss} ${year}`;
+};
+/**
+ * Upper bound on the `WATCH_INTERVAL` variable and the positional interval
+ * — matches upstream which rejects "out of range" values. Upstream uses
+ * `strtod` and rejects ±Infinity; we tighten further so a single watch loop
+ * cannot sleep for longer than ~100 hours, which catches obvious typos
+ * without breaking legitimate slow polls.
+ */
+const WATCH_INTERVAL_MAX_SECONDS = 100 * 3600;
+/**
+ * Resolve the effective default `\watch` interval from the `WATCH_INTERVAL`
+ * psql variable. Returns the parsed value, the documented default
+ * (`DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL`), or an `error` envelope if the variable is set
+ * but parses out of range.
+ */
+const resolveWatchIntervalDefault = (settings) => {
+    // The variable is seeded to `DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL` by `defaultSettings`
+    // (and re-seeded on `\unset`), so it's typically a string at use time.
+    // If a future code path leaves it undefined we fall back to the same
+    // documented default — upstream's `ParseVariableDouble` substitutes
+    // `DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL` when the var slot is empty.
+    const raw = settings.vars.get('WATCH_INTERVAL') ?? DEFAULT_WATCH_INTERVAL;
+    const parsed = parseStrictNonNegativeFloat(raw);
+    if (parsed === null || parsed > WATCH_INTERVAL_MAX_SECONDS) {
+        return {
+            error: `WATCH_INTERVAL "${raw}" is out of range`,
+        };
+    }
+    return { value: parsed };
+};
+/**
+ * Spawn the `\watch` pager for the full duration of the polling loop.
+ *
+ * Upstream `do_watch` wraps the loop in a single `popen` of
+ * `PSQL_WATCH_PAGER`. It deliberately ignores `PSQL_PAGER` and `$PAGER`:
+ *
+ *   > we ignore the regular PSQL_PAGER or PAGER environment variables,
+ *   > because traditional pagers probably won't be very useful for
+ *   > showing a stream of results.
+ *
+ * Mirror that here. Reading from `$PAGER` would silently hijack
+ * `\watch` output for any user whose shell sets `PAGER=less` (the
+ * common default), which makes the loop's output disappear into a
+ * subprocess that diff harnesses can't capture.
+ *
+ * We use a single `sh -c <pager>` spawn so the user can set the
+ * variable to a full command string (`less -R`, `tee /tmp/log`, …)
+ * without the caller having to tokenise it. EPIPE on the stdin pipe is
+ * swallowed for the same reason as in `openWriter`: the user may quit
+ * `less` while we still have writes pending in the next iteration.
+ *
+ * Returns `null` when `PSQL_WATCH_PAGER` is unset or whitespace-only
+ * (upstream's "no pager" rule), so the caller falls back to the normal
+ * output target.
+ */
+const openWatchPager = () => {
+    const cmd = process.env.PSQL_WATCH_PAGER ?? '';
+    if (cmd.trim().length === 0)
+        return null;
+    const child = spawn('sh', ['-c', cmd], {
+        stdio: ['pipe', 'inherit', 'inherit'],
+    });
+    child.stdin.on('error', (err) => {
+        if (err.code !== 'EPIPE') {
+            throw err;
+        }
+    });
+    return {
+        stream: child.stdin,
+        close: () => new Promise((resolve) => {
+            // If the pager already exited (e.g. PSQL_WATCH_PAGER=false, or the
+            // user quit it) the 'close'/'error' events have ALREADY fired, so a
+            // freshly-registered `once()` listener would never run and close()
+            // would hang forever — taking `\watch` with it.
+            if (child.exitCode !== null || child.signalCode !== null) {
+                resolve();
+                return;
+            }
+            let settled = false;
+            const finish = () => {
+                if (settled)
+                    return;
+                settled = true;
+                resolve();
+            };
+            child.once('close', finish);
+            child.once('error', finish);
+            if (!child.stdin.destroyed) {
+                try {
+                    child.stdin.end();
+                }
+                catch (err) {
+                    const e = err;
+                    if (e.code !== 'EPIPE')
+                        finish();
+                }
+            }
+        }),
+    };
+};
+export const cmdWatch = {
+    name: 'watch',
+    helpKey: 'watch',
+    async run(ctx) {
+        const gated = pipelineGate(ctx);
+        if (gated !== null)
+            return gated;
+        // Strip leading whitespace + comments — see runGCore for the rationale.
+        const trimmedBuf = stripLeadingCommentsAndWS(ctx.queryBuf);
+        const sql = trimmedBuf.trim();
+        if (sql.length === 0) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'no query buffer');
+        }
+        if (!ctx.settings.db) {
+            return errResult(ctx, 'no connection to the server');
+        }
+        // Track which options have been seen so we can reject duplicates with
+        // the upstream-formatted "<thing> is specified more than once" message.
+        let intervalSet = false;
+        let interval = null;
+        let iterSet = false;
+        let iterMax = 0; // 0 = unlimited (matches upstream's "no -c").
+        let minRowsSet = false;
+        let minRows = 0;
+        let positionalSeen = false;
+        // Drain all args. Each is either a `key=value` token or a bare
+        // positional (only allowed as the very first arg, and only once).
+        while (true) {
+            const arg = ctx.nextArg('normal');
+            if (arg === null)
+                break;
+            if (arg.length === 0)
+                continue;
+            // Identify named flags by looking for `=`. Upstream tolerates an
+            // empty value (treats it as the option not being provided), but we
+            // mirror its stricter behaviour for the values we care about.
+            const eqIdx = arg.indexOf('=');
+            if (eqIdx > 0) {
+                const key = arg.slice(0, eqIdx);
+                const value = arg.slice(eqIdx + 1);
+                if (key === 'i') {
+                    if (intervalSet) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, 'interval value is specified more than once');
+                    }
+                    const parsed = parseStrictNonNegativeFloat(value);
+                    if (parsed === null || parsed > WATCH_INTERVAL_MAX_SECONDS) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, `incorrect interval value "${value}"`);
+                    }
+                    interval = parsed;
+                    intervalSet = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if (key === 'c') {
+                    if (iterSet) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, 'iteration count is specified more than once');
+                    }
+                    const parsed = parseStrictNonNegativeInt(value);
+                    // Upstream parses the count with `option_parse_int(..., 1, INT_MAX)`
+                    // so the iteration count must be >= 1; `c=0` is rejected as out of
+                    // range. We reserve the internal `iterMax = 0` sentinel purely for
+                    // "no `c=` given" (unlimited continuous mode), so accepting `c=0`
+                    // here would silently cap the loop at a single iteration instead.
+                    if (parsed === null || parsed === 0) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, `incorrect iteration count "${value}"`);
+                    }
+                    iterMax = parsed;
+                    iterSet = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if (key === 'm' || key === 'min_rows') {
+                    if (minRowsSet) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, 'minimum row count specified more than once');
+                    }
+                    const parsed = parseStrictNonNegativeInt(value);
+                    if (parsed === null) {
+                        return errResult(ctx, `incorrect minimum row count "${value}"`);
+                    }
+                    minRows = parsed;
+                    minRowsSet = true;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                // Unknown key=value: surface a generic error mirroring upstream
+                // ("unrecognized value …").
+                return errResult(ctx, `unrecognized option "${key}"`);
+            }
+            // Positional argument — legacy interval. Allowed only once, and
+            // only collides with `i=` under the same upstream "specified more
+            // than once" rubric.
+            if (positionalSeen || intervalSet) {
+                return errResult(ctx, 'interval value is specified more than once');
+            }
+            const parsed = parseStrictNonNegativeFloat(arg);
+            if (parsed === null || parsed > WATCH_INTERVAL_MAX_SECONDS) {
+                return errResult(ctx, `incorrect interval value "${arg}"`);
+            }
+            interval = parsed;
+            intervalSet = true;
+            positionalSeen = true;
+        }
+        // If no explicit interval was supplied, fall back to WATCH_INTERVAL.
+        if (interval === null) {
+            const resolved = resolveWatchIntervalDefault(ctx.settings);
+            if ('error' in resolved) {
+                return errResult(ctx, resolved.error);
+            }
+            interval = resolved.value;
+        }
+        const intervalMs = Math.round(interval * 1000);
+        // Prefer a test-supplied controller; otherwise install a transient
+        // SIGINT listener that aborts the loop.
+        const controller = WATCH_TEST_CONTROLLER.ref ?? new AbortController();
+        const sigintHandler = () => {
+            controller.abort();
+        };
+        const installedSigint = WATCH_TEST_CONTROLLER.ref === null;
+        if (installedSigint) {
+            process.once('SIGINT', sigintHandler);
+        }
+        // Open the pager once for the whole loop (upstream `do_watch` wraps the
+        // entire session, not each iteration, so the user can scroll the
+        // accumulated output in one go). When PSQL_WATCH_PAGER / PAGER aren't
+        // set we fall through to the normal `pickOut` target.
+        const pager = openWatchPager();
+        const out = pager?.stream ?? pickOut(ctx.settings, null);
+        try {
+            // CONTINUOUS mode: when `c=` is absent, `iterSet` stays false and the
+            // iteration-cap break below never fires, so the loop re-runs the query
+            // on the interval forever — exactly upstream `do_watch`'s `for (i = 0;
+            // !iter || i < iter; i++)` when `iter == 0`. The only exits are a
+            // SIGINT (or the test controller) aborting `controller.signal`, a
+            // server error, or the `min_rows` CONTINUE predicate failing.
+            let iter = 0;
+            while (!controller.signal.aborted) {
+                iter++;
+                const stamp = formatWatchTimestamp(new Date());
+                out.write(`${stamp} (every ${String(interval)}s)\n\n`);
+                let lastRowCount = 0;
+                try {
+                    const results = await ctx.settings.db.execSimple(sql);
+                    for (const rs of results) {
+                        if (rs.fields.length > 0) {
+                            await renderResult(ctx.settings, rs, out);
+                            lastRowCount = rs.rows.length;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                catch (err) {
+                    // Surface in upstream's 3-line ErrorResponse shape (severity +
+                    // message + LINE / caret) — same path top-level statement errors
+                    // take. The `\watch:` prefix is reserved for client-side
+                    // argument-parsing errors (e.g. `incorrect interval value "-10"`).
+                    // Pass the comment-stripped buffer so the `LINE N:` count starts
+                    // at the first content line — see runGCore for the rationale.
+                    return formatServerError(ctx, err, trimmedBuf);
+                }
+                // Stop if `c=` reached the configured iteration cap, OR if `m=`
+                // was set and the previous result returned FEWER than `min_rows`
+                // tuples. Upstream's `ExecQueryAndProcessResults` sets `return_early`
+                // exactly when `min_rows > 0 && PQntuples(result) < min_rows`, and
+                // `do_watch` breaks out of the loop on that signal — see PG source
+                // `src/bin/psql/common.c::ExecQueryAndProcessResults`. In other
+                // words `min_rows` is a CONTINUE predicate: keep polling while
+                // the result has at least `min_rows` rows; stop the moment it
+                // doesn't.
+                if (iterSet && iter >= iterMax)
+                    break;
+                if (minRowsSet && lastRowCount < minRows)
+                    break;
+                if (controller.signal.aborted)
+                    break;
+                // sleep_ms == 0 is upstream's "tight loop, no wait needed" — skip
+                // the timer round-trip entirely so we don't queue a setTimeout(0)
+                // for every iteration. Matches `do_watch`'s `if (sleep_ms == 0)
+                // continue;` branch.
+                if (intervalMs > 0) {
+                    await sleepCancellable(intervalMs, controller.signal);
+                }
+            }
+            // Upstream `do_watch` injects a trailing newline AFTER the loop
+            // ends when no pager is attached, to clear the cursor after a
+            // possible `^C` echo. Mirror that here so the conformance output
+            // shape (`...\n(N rows)\n\n\n`) matches vanilla psql.
+            if (!pager) {
+                out.write('\n');
+            }
+            return { status: 'reset-buf', newBuf: '' };
+        }
+        finally {
+            if (installedSigint) {
+                process.removeListener('SIGINT', sigintHandler);
+            }
+            // Drain the pager so its child has a chance to exit before \watch
+            // returns. Failures are swallowed: a broken pager shouldn't mask the
+            // (already-flushed) query results.
+            if (pager) {
+                await pager.close();
+            }
+        }
+    },
+};
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Registration entry point.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+export const registerIoCommands = (registry) => {
+    registry.register(cmdInclude);
+    registry.register(cmdIncludeRel);
+    registry.register(cmdOut);
+    registry.register(cmdWrite);
+    registry.register(cmdG);
+    registry.register(cmdGx);
+    registry.register(cmdPrint);
+    registry.register(cmdGset);
+    registry.register(cmdGdesc);
+    registry.register(cmdGexec);
+    registry.register(cmdWatch);
+};