mediasoup 3.27.0 → 3.28.0

package/worker/src/RTC/BWE/LossBasedController.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1194 @@
+#define MS_CLASS "RTC::BWE::LossBasedController"
+// #define MS_LOG_DEV_LEVEL 3
+
+#include "RTC/BWE/LossBasedController.hpp"
+#include "Logger.hpp"
+#include "RTC/BWE/BitrateUtils.hpp"
+#include "RTC/Consts.hpp"
+#include <cmath>
+#include <limits>
+
+namespace RTC
+{
+	namespace BWE
+	{
+		/* Static. */
+
+		// How long the first hold lasts, each following one lasting longer.
+		static constexpr int64_t InitHoldDurationUs{ 300 * 1000 };
+		// How long a hold may last no matter how many have piled up.
+		static constexpr int64_t MaxHoldDurationUs{ 60 * 1000 * 1000 };
+
+		/**
+		 * Loss to expect from a link described by the given pair of values while
+		 * sending at the given rate: its inherent loss, plus the share of the traffic
+		 * that doesn't fit while sending above its capacity.
+		 */
+		static double getLossProbability(double inherentLoss, int64_t lossLimitedBitrate, int64_t sendingRate)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			// NOTE: Clamped rather than asserted because a candidate refined by
+			// Newton's method can land outside before being brought back.
+			inherentLoss = std::clamp(inherentLoss, 0.0, 1.0);
+
+			double lossProbability{ inherentLoss };
+
+			if (sendingRate > 0 && lossLimitedBitrate > 0 && sendingRate > lossLimitedBitrate)
+			{
+				lossProbability += (1 - inherentLoss) *
+				                   static_cast<double>(sendingRate - lossLimitedBitrate) /
+				                   static_cast<double>(sendingRate);
+			}
+
+			// Leave room on both ends, since the likelihood takes the logarithm of
+			// this value and of its complement.
+			return std::clamp(lossProbability, 1.0e-6, 1.0 - 1.0e-6);
+		}
+
+		/**
+		 * Size in kilobytes, which is the unit the likelihood is computed in so that
+		 * its terms stay in a sane range.
+		 */
+		static double toKiloBytes(int64_t bytes)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return static_cast<double>(bytes) / 1000.0;
+		}
+
+		/* Instance methods. */
+
+		LossBasedController::LossBasedController() : LossBasedController(LossBasedControllerOptions{})
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+		}
+
+		LossBasedController::LossBasedController(LossBasedControllerOptions options)
+		  : options(std::move(options))
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			// NOTE: Every option below is set from C++ alone, never from the network
+			// nor from the API, so a value out of range can only be a programming
+			// error. Ranges that are not checked here are the ones an option may
+			// legitimately take to the extreme, such as a factor that is meant to be
+			// disabled by setting it to zero.
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactor > 1.0,
+			  "bitrate rampup upper bound factor must be greater than 1 [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactorInHold > 1.0,
+			  "bitrate rampup upper bound factor in hold must be greater than 1 [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactorInHold);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupHoldThreshold >= 0.0,
+			  "bitrate rampup hold threshold must not be negative [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.bitrateRampupHoldThreshold);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxFactor >= 0.0,
+			  "rampup acceleration max factor must not be negative [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxoutTimeUs > 0,
+			  "rampup acceleration maxout time must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxoutTimeUs);
+
+			for (const auto candidateFactor : this->options.candidateFactors)
+			{
+				MS_ASSERT(
+				  candidateFactor > 0.0, "candidate factors must be positive [value:%f]", candidateFactor);
+			}
+
+			// At least one candidate other than the current estimate must be
+			// reachable, or there is nothing for an update to choose from.
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.appendAcknowledgedRateCandidate ||
+			    this->options.appendDelayBasedEstimateCandidate ||
+			    std::ranges::any_of(
+			      this->options.candidateFactors,
+			      [](double candidateFactor) -> bool
+			      {
+				      return candidateFactor != 1.0;
+			      }),
+			  "no candidates can be generated, so give a candidate factor other than 1, or let the "
+			  "acknowledged bitrate or the delay based estimate be candidates");
+
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.higherBitrateBiasFactor >= 0.0,
+			  "higher bitrate bias factor must not be negative [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.higherBitrateBiasFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.inherentLossLowerBound >= 0.0 && this->options.inherentLossLowerBound < 1.0,
+			  "inherent loss lower bound must be in [0, 1) [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.inherentLossLowerBound);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.lossThresholdOfHighBitratePreference >= 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.lossThresholdOfHighBitratePreference < 1.0,
+			  "loss threshold of high bitrate preference must be in [0, 1) [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.lossThresholdOfHighBitratePreference);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.bitratePreferenceSmoothingFactor > 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.bitratePreferenceSmoothingFactor <= 1.0,
+			  "bitrate preference smoothing factor must be in (0, 1] [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.bitratePreferenceSmoothingFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundBitrateBalance > 0,
+			  "inherent loss upper bound bitrate balance must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundBitrateBalance);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundOffset >= this->options.inherentLossLowerBound &&
+			    this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundOffset < 1.0,
+			  "inherent loss upper bound offset must be in [inherentLossLowerBound, 1) [value:%f, "
+			  "inherentLossLowerBound:%f]",
+			  this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundOffset,
+			  this->options.inherentLossLowerBound);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.initialInherentLossEstimate >= 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.initialInherentLossEstimate < 1.0,
+			  "initial inherent loss estimate must be in [0, 1) [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.initialInherentLossEstimate);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.newtonIterations > 0,
+			  "number of Newton iterations must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.newtonIterations);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.newtonStepSize > 0.0,
+			  "Newton step size must be positive [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.newtonStepSize);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.observationDurationLowerBoundUs > 0,
+			  "observation duration lower bound must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.observationDurationLowerBoundUs);
+			// NOTE: The window is also what every observation is indexed modulo, so an
+			// empty one would divide by zero.
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.observationWindowSize >= 2,
+			  "observation window size must be at least 2 [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.observationWindowSize);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.sendingRateSmoothingFactor >= 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.sendingRateSmoothingFactor < 1.0,
+			  "sending rate smoothing factor must be in [0, 1) [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.sendingRateSmoothingFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeightFactor > 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeightFactor <= 1.0,
+			  "immediate upper bound temporal weight factor must be in (0, 1] [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeightFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundBitrateBalance > 0,
+			  "immediate upper bound bitrate balance must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundBitrateBalance);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundLossOffset >= 0.0 &&
+			    this->options.immediateUpperBoundLossOffset < 1.0,
+			  "immediate upper bound loss offset must be in [0, 1) [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.immediateUpperBoundLossOffset);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.temporalWeightFactor > 0.0 && this->options.temporalWeightFactor <= 1.0,
+			  "temporal weight factor must be in (0, 1] [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.temporalWeightFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.bitrateBackoffLowerBoundFactor <= 1.0,
+			  "bitrate backoff lower bound factor must not be greater than 1 [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.bitrateBackoffLowerBoundFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.maxIncreaseFactor > 0.0,
+			  "max increase factor must be positive [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.maxIncreaseFactor);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.delayedIncreaseWindowUs > 0,
+			  "delayed increase window must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.delayedIncreaseWindowUs);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.minNumObservations > 0,
+			  "min number of observations must be positive [value:%" PRIi64 "]",
+			  this->options.minNumObservations);
+			MS_ASSERT(
+			  this->options.lowerBoundByAckedRateFactor >= 0.0,
+			  "lower bound by acknowledged rate factor must not be negative [value:%f]",
+			  this->options.lowerBoundByAckedRateFactor);
+
+			this->currentBestEstimate.inherentLoss = this->options.initialInherentLossEstimate;
+
+			this->observations.resize(this->options.observationWindowSize);
+			this->temporalWeights.resize(this->options.observationWindowSize);
+			this->immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeights.resize(this->options.observationWindowSize);
+
+			CalculateTemporalWeights();
+
+			this->lastHoldInfo.durationUs = InitHoldDurationUs;
+		}
+
+		bool LossBasedController::IsReady() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate > 0 &&
+			       this->numObservations >= this->options.minNumObservations;
+		}
+
+		bool LossBasedController::IsReadyToUseInStartPhase() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return IsReady() && this->options.useInStartPhase;
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::Reset()
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			// Everything the constructor leaves behind, since what was observed
+			// describes a link that is not the one being used anymore. The temporal
+			// weights are left alone because they only depend on the options.
+			this->observations.assign(this->options.observationWindowSize, Observation{});
+			this->partialObservation = {};
+
+			this->currentBestEstimate              = {};
+			this->currentBestEstimate.inherentLoss = this->options.initialInherentLossEstimate;
+
+			this->lastHoldInfo            = {};
+			this->lastHoldInfo.durationUs = InitHoldDurationUs;
+
+			this->result          = {};
+			this->numObservations = 0;
+			this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.reset();
+			this->averageReportedLossRatio = 0.0;
+			this->acknowledgedBitrate      = Types::BitrateInfinite;
+			this->delayBasedEstimate       = Types::BitrateInfinite;
+			this->minBitrate               = 0;
+			this->maxBitrate               = Types::BitrateInfinite;
+			this->immediateUpperBoundBitrate.reset();
+			this->immediateLowerBoundBitrate.reset();
+			this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow = Types::BitrateInfinite;
+			this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs.reset();
+			this->lastBitrateReducedAtUs.reset();
+		}
+
+		LossBasedController::Result LossBasedController::GetResult() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (!IsReady())
+			{
+				return { .bitrate = this->delayBasedEstimate, .state = State::DELAY_BASED_ESTIMATE };
+			}
+
+			return this->result;
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::SetAcknowledgedBitrate(int64_t acknowledgedBitrate)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			this->acknowledgedBitrate = acknowledgedBitrate;
+
+			CalculateImmediateLowerBoundBitrate();
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::SetBitrateLimits(int64_t minBitrate, int64_t maxBitrate)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			this->minBitrate = minBitrate;
+			this->maxBitrate = maxBitrate;
+
+			CalculateImmediateLowerBoundBitrate();
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::SetBitrateEstimate(int64_t bitrate)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate = bitrate;
+			this->result = { .bitrate = bitrate, .state = State::DELAY_BASED_ESTIMATE };
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::UpdateBitrateEstimate(
+		  const std::vector<Types::PacketResult>& packetResults, int64_t delayBasedEstimate, bool inAlr)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			this->delayBasedEstimate = delayBasedEstimate;
+
+			if (!PushBackObservation(packetResults) || !this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.has_value())
+			{
+				return;
+			}
+
+			const int64_t lastSendTimeUs = this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.value();
+
+			// Nothing has been estimated yet, so the delay based path is the only
+			// thing that can say where to start from.
+			if (this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate == 0)
+			{
+				if (delayBasedEstimate == Types::BitrateInfinite)
+				{
+					MS_WARN_TAG(bwe, "no delay based estimate to start the loss based one from");
+
+					return;
+				}
+
+				this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate = delayBasedEstimate;
+				this->result = { .bitrate = delayBasedEstimate, .state = State::DELAY_BASED_ESTIMATE };
+			}
+
+			// Take the candidate whose pair of values makes the observed losses most
+			// likely, preferring the higher bitrate when two are equally likely.
+			ChannelParameters bestCandidate = this->currentBestEstimate;
+			double maxObjective{ std::numeric_limits<double>::lowest() };
+
+			for (ChannelParameters candidate : GetCandidates(inAlr))
+			{
+				ApplyNewtonsMethod(candidate);
+
+				const double candidateObjective = GetObjective(candidate);
+
+				if (
+				  candidateObjective > maxObjective ||
+				  (candidateObjective == maxObjective &&
+					 candidate.lossLimitedBitrate > bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate))
+				{
+					maxObjective  = candidateObjective;
+					bestCandidate = candidate;
+				}
+			}
+
+			if (bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate < this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate)
+			{
+				this->lastBitrateReducedAtUs = lastSendTimeUs;
+			}
+
+			// Don't increase the estimate while the loss observed is worse than the
+			// one the chosen candidate says the link has by itself, since then the
+			// excess is ours to fix.
+			if (
+			  this->averageReportedLossRatio > bestCandidate.inherentLoss &&
+			  this->options.notIncreaseIfInherentLossLessThanAverageLoss &&
+			  this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate < bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate)
+			{
+				bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate = this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate;
+			}
+
+			if (IsInLossLimitedState())
+			{
+				// Right after a decrease the estimate may not grow past what that
+				// decrease allowed, so that it doesn't jump straight back to the bitrate
+				// that caused the loss.
+				if (
+				  this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs.has_value() &&
+				  this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs.value() + this->options.delayedIncreaseWindowUs >
+				    lastSendTimeUs &&
+				  bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate > this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow)
+				{
+					bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate = this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow;
+				}
+
+				const bool increasingWhenLossLimited = IsEstimateIncreasingWhenLossLimited(
+				  this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate);
+
+				// While loss limited, growing beyond what the link is known to be
+				// delivering is a guess, so it's bounded by the acknowledged bitrate.
+				if (increasingWhenLossLimited && this->acknowledgedBitrate != Types::BitrateInfinite)
+				{
+					double rampupFactor{ this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactor };
+
+					if (
+					  this->lastHoldInfo.bitrate != Types::BitrateInfinite &&
+					  this->acknowledgedBitrate <
+					    BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+					      this->lastHoldInfo.bitrate, this->options.bitrateRampupHoldThreshold))
+					{
+						rampupFactor = this->options.bitrateRampupUpperBoundFactorInHold;
+					}
+
+					bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate = std::max(
+					  this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate,
+					  std::min(
+					    bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate,
+					    BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(this->acknowledgedBitrate, rampupFactor)));
+
+					// Growing by a single bit is what lets the state stop being
+					// decreasing. Without it, a bound that leaves the estimate untouched
+					// keeps it decreasing for good.
+					if (
+					  this->result.state == State::DECREASING &&
+					  bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate == this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate)
+					{
+						bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate =
+						  BitrateUtils::AddBitrates(this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, 1);
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			const int64_t boundedBitrate = std::max(
+			  GetImmediateLowerBoundBitrate(),
+			  std::min(
+			    { bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate,
+					  GetImmediateUpperBoundBitrate(),
+					  this->delayBasedEstimate }));
+
+			// A bitrate that had to be brought down to its bounds is not an estimate
+			// of the link anymore, so the pair of values is not kept as such.
+			if (this->options.boundBestCandidate && boundedBitrate < bestCandidate.lossLimitedBitrate)
+			{
+				this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate = boundedBitrate;
+				this->currentBestEstimate.inherentLoss       = 0;
+			}
+			else
+			{
+				this->currentBestEstimate = bestCandidate;
+
+				// A link is never worth describing as delivering less than what it is
+				// known to be delivering, unless that bound has been turned off.
+				if (this->options.lowerBoundByAckedRateFactor > 0.0)
+				{
+					this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate =
+					  std::max(this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, GetImmediateLowerBoundBitrate());
+				}
+			}
+
+			// While holding, the estimate may not grow above the bitrate being held,
+			// which is the whole point of holding.
+			if (
+			  this->result.state == State::DECREASING && this->lastHoldInfo.atUs > lastSendTimeUs &&
+			  boundedBitrate < this->delayBasedEstimate)
+			{
+				// A link is never worth holding below what it is known to be
+				// delivering, unless that bound has been turned off.
+				if (this->options.lowerBoundByAckedRateFactor > 0.0)
+				{
+					this->lastHoldInfo.bitrate =
+					  std::max(GetImmediateLowerBoundBitrate(), this->lastHoldInfo.bitrate);
+				}
+
+				this->result.bitrate = std::min(this->lastHoldInfo.bitrate, boundedBitrate);
+
+				return;
+			}
+
+			if (
+			  IsEstimateIncreasingWhenLossLimited(this->result.bitrate, boundedBitrate) &&
+			  boundedBitrate < this->delayBasedEstimate && boundedBitrate < this->maxBitrate)
+			{
+				this->result.state = State::INCREASING;
+			}
+			else if (boundedBitrate < this->delayBasedEstimate && boundedBitrate < this->maxBitrate)
+			{
+				// A factor of zero means that no hold is ever entered, since each hold
+				// would last no time at all.
+				if (this->result.state != State::DECREASING && this->options.holdDurationFactor > 0.0)
+				{
+					MS_DEBUG_DEV(
+					  "switching to hold [bitrate:%" PRIi64 ", durationMs:%" PRIi64 ", averageLoss:%f]",
+					  boundedBitrate,
+					  this->lastHoldInfo.durationUs / 1000,
+					  this->averageReportedLossRatio);
+
+					this->lastHoldInfo = { .atUs       = lastSendTimeUs + this->lastHoldInfo.durationUs,
+					                       .durationUs = std::min<int64_t>(
+						                       MaxHoldDurationUs,
+						                       std::llround(
+						                         static_cast<double>(this->lastHoldInfo.durationUs) *
+						                         this->options.holdDurationFactor)),
+					                       .bitrate = boundedBitrate };
+				}
+
+				this->result.state = State::DECREASING;
+			}
+			else
+			{
+				// The delay based path is what limits us, so any hold that was in place
+				// would only keep the estimate low for no reason.
+				this->lastHoldInfo = { .atUs       = 0,
+				                       .durationUs = InitHoldDurationUs,
+				                       .bitrate    = Types::BitrateInfinite };
+
+				this->result.state = State::DELAY_BASED_ESTIMATE;
+			}
+
+			this->result.bitrate = boundedBitrate;
+
+			// Open a new window in which the estimate is not allowed to grow freely,
+			// so that a link that keeps losing packets is approached gradually.
+			if (
+			  IsInLossLimitedState() &&
+			  (!this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs.has_value() ||
+				 this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs.value() + this->options.delayedIncreaseWindowUs <
+				   lastSendTimeUs))
+			{
+				this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow = std::max<int64_t>(
+				  Consts::BweMinBitrate,
+				  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+				    this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, this->options.maxIncreaseFactor));
+
+				this->recoveringAfterLossAtUs = lastSendTimeUs;
+			}
+		}
+
+		bool LossBasedController::PushBackObservation(const std::vector<Types::PacketResult>& packetResults)
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (packetResults.empty())
+			{
+				return false;
+			}
+
+			int64_t firstSendTimeUs{ Types::TimeUsInfinite };
+			int64_t lastSendTimeUs{ 0 };
+			bool anySendTime{ false };
+
+			for (const auto& packetResult : packetResults)
+			{
+				const auto sendTimeUs = packetResult.sentPacket.sendTimeUs;
+
+				// A packet with no send time belongs to no span of send times, and its
+				// bytes cannot be counted either: the duration of the observation comes
+				// from the instants of the other packets, so adding its size would
+				// inflate the sending rate attributed to them.
+				if (sendTimeUs == Types::TimeUsInfinite)
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				if (packetResult.IsReceived())
+				{
+					this->partialObservation.lostPackets.erase(packetResult.sentPacket.sequenceNumber);
+				}
+				else
+				{
+					this->partialObservation.lostPackets.emplace(
+					  packetResult.sentPacket.sequenceNumber,
+					  static_cast<int64_t>(packetResult.sentPacket.size));
+				}
+
+				this->partialObservation.numPackets += 1;
+				this->partialObservation.sizeBytes += static_cast<int64_t>(packetResult.sentPacket.size);
+
+				firstSendTimeUs = std::min(firstSendTimeUs, sendTimeUs);
+				lastSendTimeUs  = std::max(lastSendTimeUs, sendTimeUs);
+				anySendTime     = true;
+			}
+
+			if (!anySendTime)
+			{
+				return false;
+			}
+
+			// This is the first feedback ever received.
+			if (!this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.has_value())
+			{
+				this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs = firstSendTimeUs;
+			}
+
+			const int64_t observationDurationUs =
+			  lastSendTimeUs - this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.value();
+
+			// Too short a span to tell anything.
+			if (observationDurationUs <= 0 || observationDurationUs < this->options.observationDurationLowerBoundUs)
+			{
+				return false;
+			}
+
+			this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs = lastSendTimeUs;
+
+			int64_t lostSizeBytes{ 0 };
+
+			for (const auto& kv : this->partialObservation.lostPackets)
+			{
+				lostSizeBytes += kv.second;
+			}
+
+			Observation observation;
+
+			observation.numPackets = this->partialObservation.numPackets;
+			observation.numLostPackets = static_cast<int64_t>(this->partialObservation.lostPackets.size());
+			observation.numReceivedPackets = observation.numPackets - observation.numLostPackets;
+			observation.sizeBytes          = this->partialObservation.sizeBytes;
+			observation.lostSizeBytes      = lostSizeBytes;
+			observation.sendingRate =
+			  GetSendingRate((this->partialObservation.sizeBytes * 8 * 1000000) / observationDurationUs);
+			observation.id = this->numObservations++;
+
+			this->observations[observation.id % this->options.observationWindowSize] = observation;
+
+			this->partialObservation = PartialObservation();
+
+			UpdateAverageReportedLossRatio();
+			CalculateImmediateUpperBoundBitrate();
+
+			return true;
+		}
+
+		std::vector<LossBasedController::ChannelParameters> LossBasedController::GetCandidates(bool inAlr) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			std::vector<int64_t> bitrates;
+
+			// The factors plus the acknowledged bitrate, the delay based estimate and
+			// the bound that the observed loss puts on the estimate.
+			bitrates.reserve(this->options.candidateFactors.size() + 3);
+
+			for (const double candidateFactor : this->options.candidateFactors)
+			{
+				bitrates.push_back(
+				  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+				    this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, candidateFactor));
+			}
+
+			// While not sending enough to fill the link, what it delivers says nothing
+			// about what it could deliver, so it's no candidate.
+			if (
+			  this->acknowledgedBitrate != Types::BitrateInfinite &&
+			  this->options.appendAcknowledgedRateCandidate &&
+			  !(this->options.notUseAckedRateInAlr && inAlr))
+			{
+				bitrates.push_back(
+				  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+				    this->acknowledgedBitrate, this->options.bitrateBackoffLowerBoundFactor));
+			}
+
+			if (
+			  this->delayBasedEstimate != Types::BitrateInfinite &&
+			  this->options.appendDelayBasedEstimateCandidate &&
+			  this->delayBasedEstimate > this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate)
+			{
+				bitrates.push_back(this->delayBasedEstimate);
+			}
+
+			// Coming all the way down to that bound in one step rather than gradually
+			// only makes sense while not filling the link, since then the loss is not
+			// ours to fix by sending less.
+			if (
+			  inAlr && this->options.appendUpperBoundCandidateInAlr &&
+			  this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate > GetImmediateUpperBoundBitrate())
+			{
+				bitrates.push_back(GetImmediateUpperBoundBitrate());
+			}
+
+			const int64_t candidateBitrateUpperBound = GetCandidateBitrateUpperBound();
+
+			std::vector<ChannelParameters> candidates;
+
+			candidates.reserve(bitrates.size());
+
+			for (const int64_t bitrate : bitrates)
+			{
+				ChannelParameters candidate = this->currentBestEstimate;
+
+				candidate.lossLimitedBitrate = std::min(
+				  bitrate,
+				  std::max(this->currentBestEstimate.lossLimitedBitrate, candidateBitrateUpperBound));
+				candidate.inherentLoss = GetFeasibleInherentLoss(candidate);
+
+				candidates.push_back(candidate);
+			}
+
+			return candidates;
+		}
+
+		int64_t LossBasedController::GetCandidateBitrateUpperBound() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			int64_t candidateBitrateUpperBound{ this->maxBitrate };
+
+			if (IsInLossLimitedState() && this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow != Types::BitrateInfinite)
+			{
+				candidateBitrateUpperBound = this->bitrateLimitInCurrentWindow;
+			}
+
+			if (this->acknowledgedBitrate == Types::BitrateInfinite)
+			{
+				return candidateBitrateUpperBound;
+			}
+
+			// The longer it's been since the estimate was last reduced, the more it is
+			// allowed to grow beyond its usual bound.
+			if (this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxFactor > 0.0)
+			{
+				// Never having been reduced counts as the longest time possible, which
+				// is what gives the fullest acceleration.
+				const int64_t sinceBitrateReducedUs =
+				  this->lastBitrateReducedAtUs.has_value() &&
+				      this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.has_value()
+				    ? std::min(
+				        this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxoutTimeUs,
+				        std::max<int64_t>(
+				          this->lastSendTimeOfLatestObservationUs.value() -
+				            this->lastBitrateReducedAtUs.value(),
+				          0))
+				    : this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxoutTimeUs;
+				const double rampupAcceleration =
+				  this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxFactor * static_cast<double>(sinceBitrateReducedUs) /
+				  static_cast<double>(this->options.rampupAccelerationMaxoutTimeUs);
+
+				candidateBitrateUpperBound = BitrateUtils::AddBitrates(
+				  candidateBitrateUpperBound,
+				  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(this->acknowledgedBitrate, rampupAcceleration));
+			}
+
+			return candidateBitrateUpperBound;
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::GetObjective(const ChannelParameters& channelParameters) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			double objective{ 0.0 };
+
+			const double highBitrateBias = GetHighBitrateBias(channelParameters.lossLimitedBitrate);
+
+			for (const auto& observation : this->observations)
+			{
+				if (!observation.IsInitialized())
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				const double lossProbability = getLossProbability(
+				  channelParameters.inherentLoss,
+				  channelParameters.lossLimitedBitrate,
+				  observation.sendingRate);
+
+				const double temporalWeight =
+				  this->temporalWeights[(this->numObservations - 1) - observation.id];
+
+				if (this->options.useByteLossRate)
+				{
+					objective +=
+					  temporalWeight * ((toKiloBytes(observation.lostSizeBytes) * std::log(lossProbability)) +
+						                  (toKiloBytes(observation.sizeBytes - observation.lostSizeBytes) *
+						                   std::log(1.0 - lossProbability)));
+					objective += temporalWeight * highBitrateBias * toKiloBytes(observation.sizeBytes);
+				}
+				else
+				{
+					objective +=
+					  temporalWeight *
+					  ((static_cast<double>(observation.numLostPackets) * std::log(lossProbability)) +
+						 (static_cast<double>(observation.numReceivedPackets) * std::log(1.0 - lossProbability)));
+					objective += temporalWeight * highBitrateBias * static_cast<double>(observation.numPackets);
+				}
+			}
+
+			return objective;
+		}
+
+		LossBasedController::Derivatives LossBasedController::GetDerivatives(
+		  const ChannelParameters& channelParameters) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			Derivatives derivatives;
+
+			for (const auto& observation : this->observations)
+			{
+				if (!observation.IsInitialized())
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				const double lossProbability = getLossProbability(
+				  channelParameters.inherentLoss,
+				  channelParameters.lossLimitedBitrate,
+				  observation.sendingRate);
+
+				const double temporalWeight =
+				  this->temporalWeights[(this->numObservations - 1) - observation.id];
+
+				if (this->options.useByteLossRate)
+				{
+					derivatives.first +=
+					  temporalWeight * ((toKiloBytes(observation.lostSizeBytes) / lossProbability) -
+						                  (toKiloBytes(observation.sizeBytes - observation.lostSizeBytes) /
+						                   (1.0 - lossProbability)));
+					derivatives.second -=
+					  temporalWeight * ((toKiloBytes(observation.lostSizeBytes) / std::pow(lossProbability, 2)) +
+						                  (toKiloBytes(observation.sizeBytes - observation.lostSizeBytes) /
+						                   std::pow(1.0 - lossProbability, 2)));
+				}
+				else
+				{
+					derivatives.first +=
+					  temporalWeight *
+					  ((static_cast<double>(observation.numLostPackets) / lossProbability) -
+						 (static_cast<double>(observation.numReceivedPackets) / (1.0 - lossProbability)));
+					derivatives.second -=
+					  temporalWeight *
+					  ((static_cast<double>(observation.numLostPackets) / std::pow(lossProbability, 2)) +
+						 (static_cast<double>(observation.numReceivedPackets) /
+						  std::pow(1.0 - lossProbability, 2)));
+				}
+			}
+
+			// NOTE: The second derivative is negative by construction, so a value of
+			// zero can only come from rounding and would make the step below divide by
+			// zero.
+			if (derivatives.second >= 0.0)
+			{
+				derivatives.second = -1.0e-6;
+			}
+
+			return derivatives;
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::ApplyNewtonsMethod(ChannelParameters& channelParameters) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (this->numObservations <= 0)
+			{
+				return;
+			}
+
+			for (int64_t i{ 0 }; i < this->options.newtonIterations; ++i)
+			{
+				const Derivatives derivatives = GetDerivatives(channelParameters);
+
+				channelParameters.inherentLoss -=
+				  this->options.newtonStepSize * derivatives.first / derivatives.second;
+				channelParameters.inherentLoss = GetFeasibleInherentLoss(channelParameters);
+			}
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::GetFeasibleInherentLoss(const ChannelParameters& channelParameters) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return std::min(
+			  std::max(channelParameters.inherentLoss, this->options.inherentLossLowerBound),
+			  GetInherentLossUpperBound(channelParameters.lossLimitedBitrate));
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::GetInherentLossUpperBound(int64_t bitrate) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (bitrate == 0)
+			{
+				return 1.0;
+			}
+
+			// The lower the bitrate, the more loss a link is allowed to be said to
+			// have by itself, since at a low enough bitrate the traffic cannot be the
+			// cause.
+			const double inherentLossUpperBound =
+			  this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundOffset +
+			  (static_cast<double>(this->options.inherentLossUpperBoundBitrateBalance) /
+				 static_cast<double>(bitrate));
+
+			return std::min(inherentLossUpperBound, 1.0);
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::AdjustBiasFactor(double lossRate, double biasFactor) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return biasFactor * (this->options.lossThresholdOfHighBitratePreference - lossRate) /
+			       (this->options.bitratePreferenceSmoothingFactor +
+			        std::abs(this->options.lossThresholdOfHighBitratePreference - lossRate));
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::GetHighBitrateBias(int64_t bitrate) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (bitrate <= 0)
+			{
+				return 0.0;
+			}
+
+			// NOTE: The bias is measured over a bitrate expressed with a resolution of
+			// 1 kbps, so that it doesn't move with a fraction of it.
+			const double bitrateKbps = std::round(static_cast<double>(bitrate) / 1000.0);
+
+			return (AdjustBiasFactor(this->averageReportedLossRatio, this->options.higherBitrateBiasFactor) *
+			        bitrateKbps) +
+			       (AdjustBiasFactor(
+			          this->averageReportedLossRatio, this->options.higherLogBitrateBiasFactor) *
+			        std::log(1.0 + bitrateKbps));
+		}
+
+		int64_t LossBasedController::GetSendingRate(int64_t instantSendingRate) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (this->numObservations <= 0)
+			{
+				return instantSendingRate;
+			}
+
+			const int64_t latestObservationIdx =
+			  (this->numObservations - 1) % this->options.observationWindowSize;
+			const int64_t previousSendingRate = this->observations[latestObservationIdx].sendingRate;
+
+			// Each share is rounded on its own before they are added, so that the
+			// smoothed rate doesn't depend on how the two of them happen to split.
+			return BitrateUtils::AddBitrates(
+			  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+			    previousSendingRate, this->options.sendingRateSmoothingFactor),
+			  BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+			    instantSendingRate, 1.0 - this->options.sendingRateSmoothingFactor));
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::UpdateAverageReportedLossRatio()
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			this->averageReportedLossRatio = this->options.useByteLossRate
+			                                   ? CalculateAverageReportedByteLossRatio()
+			                                   : CalculateAverageReportedPacketLossRatio();
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::CalculateAverageReportedPacketLossRatio() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (this->numObservations <= 0)
+			{
+				return 0.0;
+			}
+
+			double numPackets{ 0.0 };
+			double numLostPackets{ 0.0 };
+
+			for (const auto& observation : this->observations)
+			{
+				if (!observation.IsInitialized())
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				const double temporalWeight =
+				  this->immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeights[(this->numObservations - 1) - observation.id];
+
+				numPackets += temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.numPackets);
+				numLostPackets += temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.numLostPackets);
+			}
+
+			// NOTE: Nothing was sent at all, so there is no loss to tell. Without this
+			// the division would give a NaN, which makes every comparison it takes
+			// part in false and silently freezes the estimate for good.
+			if (numPackets == 0.0)
+			{
+				return 0.0;
+			}
+
+			return numLostPackets / numPackets;
+		}
+
+		double LossBasedController::CalculateAverageReportedByteLossRatio() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			if (this->numObservations <= 0)
+			{
+				return 0.0;
+			}
+
+			// NOTE: The weighted sizes are counted in whole bytes, since a fraction of
+			// a byte is not something that was sent.
+			int64_t totalBytes{ 0 };
+			int64_t lostBytes{ 0 };
+			double minLossRate{ 1.0 };
+			double maxLossRate{ 0.0 };
+			int64_t minLostBytes{ 0 };
+			int64_t maxLostBytes{ 0 };
+			int64_t minBytesReceived{ 0 };
+			int64_t maxBytesReceived{ 0 };
+			int64_t sendingRateOfMaxLossObservation{ 0 };
+
+			for (const auto& observation : this->observations)
+			{
+				if (!observation.IsInitialized())
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				const double temporalWeight =
+				  this->immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeights[(this->numObservations - 1) - observation.id];
+
+				totalBytes += std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.sizeBytes));
+				lostBytes += std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.lostSizeBytes));
+
+				const double lossRate = observation.sizeBytes != 0
+				                          ? static_cast<double>(observation.lostSizeBytes) /
+				                              static_cast<double>(observation.sizeBytes)
+				                          : 0.0;
+
+				// The highest and the lowest are left out only once there are enough
+				// observations for that to still leave something.
+				if (this->numObservations <= 3)
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				if (lossRate > maxLossRate)
+				{
+					maxLossRate = lossRate;
+					maxLostBytes =
+					  std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.lostSizeBytes));
+					maxBytesReceived =
+					  std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.sizeBytes));
+					sendingRateOfMaxLossObservation = observation.sendingRate;
+				}
+
+				if (lossRate < minLossRate)
+				{
+					minLossRate = lossRate;
+					minLostBytes =
+					  std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.lostSizeBytes));
+					minBytesReceived =
+					  std::llround(temporalWeight * static_cast<double>(observation.sizeBytes));
+				}
+			}
+
+			// NOTE: Nothing was sent at all, so there is no loss to tell. Without this
+			// the division below would give a NaN, which makes every comparison it
+			// takes part in false and silently freezes the estimate for good.
+			if (totalBytes == 0)
+			{
+				return 0.0;
+			}
+
+			// A sudden jump of the sending rate explains the loss of that observation
+			// on its own, so it's not a spike to be filtered out.
+			if (BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(GetMedianSendingRate(), this->options.medianSendingRateFactor) <= sendingRateOfMaxLossObservation)
+			{
+				return static_cast<double>(lostBytes) / static_cast<double>(totalBytes);
+			}
+
+			// It could happen if the window was of two observations.
+			if (totalBytes == maxBytesReceived + minBytesReceived)
+			{
+				return static_cast<double>(lostBytes) / static_cast<double>(totalBytes);
+			}
+
+			return static_cast<double>(lostBytes - minLostBytes - maxLostBytes) /
+			       static_cast<double>(totalBytes - maxBytesReceived - minBytesReceived);
+		}
+
+		int64_t LossBasedController::GetMedianSendingRate() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			std::vector<int64_t> sendingRates;
+
+			sendingRates.reserve(this->observations.size());
+
+			for (const auto& observation : this->observations)
+			{
+				if (!observation.IsInitialized() || observation.sendingRate == 0)
+				{
+					continue;
+				}
+
+				sendingRates.push_back(observation.sendingRate);
+			}
+
+			if (sendingRates.empty())
+			{
+				return 0;
+			}
+
+			std::ranges::sort(sendingRates);
+
+			if (sendingRates.size() % 2 == 0)
+			{
+				return (sendingRates[(sendingRates.size() / 2) - 1] + sendingRates[sendingRates.size() / 2]) /
+				       2;
+			}
+
+			return sendingRates[sendingRates.size() / 2];
+		}
+
+		int64_t LossBasedController::GetImmediateUpperBoundBitrate() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return this->immediateUpperBoundBitrate.value_or(this->maxBitrate);
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::CalculateImmediateUpperBoundBitrate()
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			int64_t bitrate{ this->maxBitrate };
+
+			// Beyond a bit of loss, the more is observed the less the link is allowed
+			// to be told to carry, without waiting for the estimate to converge.
+			if (this->averageReportedLossRatio > this->options.immediateUpperBoundLossOffset)
+			{
+				const double boundBitrate =
+				  static_cast<double>(this->options.immediateUpperBoundBitrateBalance) /
+				  (this->averageReportedLossRatio - this->options.immediateUpperBoundLossOffset);
+
+				// NOTE: A loss barely above the offset gives a bound beyond what an
+				// int64_t can hold, and converting such a value is undefined behaviour.
+				// It bounds nothing anyway once it's over the maximum bitrate.
+				bitrate = boundBitrate >= static_cast<double>(this->maxBitrate) ? this->maxBitrate
+				                                                                : std::llround(boundBitrate);
+			}
+
+			this->immediateUpperBoundBitrate = bitrate;
+		}
+
+		int64_t LossBasedController::GetImmediateLowerBoundBitrate() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return this->immediateLowerBoundBitrate.value_or(0);
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::CalculateImmediateLowerBoundBitrate()
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			int64_t bitrate{ 0 };
+
+			// What the link is known to be delivering is never worth going below.
+			if (this->acknowledgedBitrate != Types::BitrateInfinite)
+			{
+				bitrate = BitrateUtils::ApplyBitrateFactor(
+				  this->acknowledgedBitrate, this->options.lowerBoundByAckedRateFactor);
+			}
+
+			this->immediateLowerBoundBitrate = std::max(bitrate, this->minBitrate);
+		}
+
+		void LossBasedController::CalculateTemporalWeights()
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			for (int64_t i{ 0 }; i < this->options.observationWindowSize; ++i)
+			{
+				this->temporalWeights[i] = std::pow(this->options.temporalWeightFactor, i);
+				this->immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeights[i] =
+				  std::pow(this->options.immediateUpperBoundTemporalWeightFactor, i);
+			}
+		}
+
+		bool LossBasedController::IsInLossLimitedState() const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return this->result.state != State::DELAY_BASED_ESTIMATE;
+		}
+
+		bool LossBasedController::IsEstimateIncreasingWhenLossLimited(
+		  int64_t oldEstimate, int64_t newEstimate) const
+		{
+			MS_TRACE();
+
+			return (oldEstimate < newEstimate ||
+			        (oldEstimate == newEstimate && this->result.state == State::INCREASING)) &&
+			       IsInLossLimitedState();
+		}
+	} // namespace BWE
+} // namespace RTC