@veritone-ce/design-system 2.9.0-next.2 → 2.9.0-next.3

package/dist/cjs/bundled_modules/vega-parser/build/vega-parser.js

@@ -0,0 +1,3805 @@
+'use strict';
+
+var vegaUtil = require('../../vega-util/build/vega-util.js');
+var vegaFunctions = require('../../vega-functions/build/vega-functions.js');
+var vegaEventSelector = require('../../vega-event-selector/build/vega-event-selector.js');
+var vegaScale = require('../../vega-scale/build/vega-scale.js');
+var vegaDataflow = require('../../vega-dataflow/build/vega-dataflow.js');
+
+function parseAutosize (spec) {
+  return vegaUtil.isObject(spec) ? spec : {
+    type: spec || 'pad'
+  };
+}
+
+const number = _ => +_ || 0;
+const paddingObject = _ => ({
+  top: _,
+  bottom: _,
+  left: _,
+  right: _
+});
+function parsePadding (spec) {
+  return !vegaUtil.isObject(spec) ? paddingObject(number(spec)) : spec.signal ? spec : {
+    top: number(spec.top),
+    bottom: number(spec.bottom),
+    left: number(spec.left),
+    right: number(spec.right)
+  };
+}
+
+const encoder = _ => vegaUtil.isObject(_) && !vegaUtil.isArray(_) ? vegaUtil.extend({}, _) : {
+  value: _
+};
+function addEncode(object, name, value, set) {
+  if (value != null) {
+    const isEncoder = vegaUtil.isObject(value) && !vegaUtil.isArray(value) || vegaUtil.isArray(value) && value.length && vegaUtil.isObject(value[0]);
+
+    // Always assign signal to update, even if the signal is from the enter block
+    if (isEncoder) {
+      object.update[name] = value;
+    } else {
+      object[set || 'enter'][name] = {
+        value: value
+      };
+    }
+    return 1;
+  } else {
+    return 0;
+  }
+}
+function addEncoders(object, enter, update) {
+  for (const name in enter) {
+    addEncode(object, name, enter[name]);
+  }
+  for (const name in update) {
+    addEncode(object, name, update[name], 'update');
+  }
+}
+function extendEncode(encode, extra, skip) {
+  for (const name in extra) {
+    if (skip && vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(skip, name)) continue;
+    encode[name] = vegaUtil.extend(encode[name] || {}, extra[name]);
+  }
+  return encode;
+}
+function has(key, encode) {
+  return encode && (encode.enter && encode.enter[key] || encode.update && encode.update[key]);
+}
+
+const MarkRole = 'mark';
+const FrameRole = 'frame';
+const ScopeRole = 'scope';
+const AxisRole = 'axis';
+const AxisDomainRole = 'axis-domain';
+const AxisGridRole = 'axis-grid';
+const AxisLabelRole = 'axis-label';
+const AxisTickRole = 'axis-tick';
+const AxisTitleRole = 'axis-title';
+const LegendRole = 'legend';
+const LegendBandRole = 'legend-band';
+const LegendEntryRole = 'legend-entry';
+const LegendGradientRole = 'legend-gradient';
+const LegendLabelRole = 'legend-label';
+const LegendSymbolRole = 'legend-symbol';
+const LegendTitleRole = 'legend-title';
+const TitleRole = 'title';
+const TitleTextRole = 'title-text';
+const TitleSubtitleRole = 'title-subtitle';
+
+function applyDefaults (encode, type, role, style, config) {
+  const defaults = {},
+    enter = {};
+  let update, key, skip, props;
+
+  // if text mark, apply global lineBreak settings (#2370)
+  key = 'lineBreak';
+  if (type === 'text' && config[key] != null && !has(key, encode)) {
+    applyDefault(defaults, key, config[key]);
+  }
+
+  // ignore legend and axis roles
+  if (role == 'legend' || String(role).startsWith('axis')) {
+    role = null;
+  }
+
+  // resolve mark config
+  props = role === FrameRole ? config.group : role === MarkRole ? vegaUtil.extend({}, config.mark, config[type]) : null;
+  for (key in props) {
+    // do not apply defaults if relevant fields are defined
+    skip = has(key, encode) || (key === 'fill' || key === 'stroke') && (has('fill', encode) || has('stroke', encode));
+    if (!skip) applyDefault(defaults, key, props[key]);
+  }
+
+  // resolve styles, apply with increasing precedence
+  vegaUtil.array(style).forEach(name => {
+    const props = config.style && config.style[name];
+    for (const key in props) {
+      if (!has(key, encode)) {
+        applyDefault(defaults, key, props[key]);
+      }
+    }
+  });
+  encode = vegaUtil.extend({}, encode); // defensive copy
+  for (key in defaults) {
+    props = defaults[key];
+    if (props.signal) {
+      (update = update || {})[key] = props;
+    } else {
+      enter[key] = props;
+    }
+  }
+  encode.enter = vegaUtil.extend(enter, encode.enter);
+  if (update) encode.update = vegaUtil.extend(update, encode.update);
+  return encode;
+}
+function applyDefault(defaults, key, value) {
+  defaults[key] = value && value.signal ? {
+    signal: value.signal
+  } : {
+    value: value
+  };
+}
+
+const scaleRef = scale => vegaUtil.isString(scale) ? vegaUtil.stringValue(scale) : scale.signal ? `(${scale.signal})` : field(scale);
+function entry$1(enc) {
+  if (enc.gradient != null) {
+    return gradient(enc);
+  }
+  let value = enc.signal ? `(${enc.signal})` : enc.color ? color(enc.color) : enc.field != null ? field(enc.field) : enc.value !== undefined ? vegaUtil.stringValue(enc.value) : undefined;
+  if (enc.scale != null) {
+    value = scale(enc, value);
+  }
+  if (value === undefined) {
+    value = null;
+  }
+  if (enc.exponent != null) {
+    value = `pow(${value},${property(enc.exponent)})`;
+  }
+  if (enc.mult != null) {
+    value += `*${property(enc.mult)}`;
+  }
+  if (enc.offset != null) {
+    value += `+${property(enc.offset)}`;
+  }
+  if (enc.round) {
+    value = `round(${value})`;
+  }
+  return value;
+}
+const _color = (type, x, y, z) => `(${type}(${[x, y, z].map(entry$1).join(',')})+'')`;
+function color(enc) {
+  return enc.c ? _color('hcl', enc.h, enc.c, enc.l) : enc.h || enc.s ? _color('hsl', enc.h, enc.s, enc.l) : enc.l || enc.a ? _color('lab', enc.l, enc.a, enc.b) : enc.r || enc.g || enc.b ? _color('rgb', enc.r, enc.g, enc.b) : null;
+}
+function gradient(enc) {
+  // map undefined to null; expression lang does not allow undefined
+  const args = [enc.start, enc.stop, enc.count].map(_ => _ == null ? null : vegaUtil.stringValue(_));
+
+  // trim null inputs from the end
+  while (args.length && vegaUtil.peek(args) == null) args.pop();
+  args.unshift(scaleRef(enc.gradient));
+  return `gradient(${args.join(',')})`;
+}
+function property(property) {
+  return vegaUtil.isObject(property) ? '(' + entry$1(property) + ')' : property;
+}
+function field(ref) {
+  return resolveField(vegaUtil.isObject(ref) ? ref : {
+    datum: ref
+  });
+}
+function resolveField(ref) {
+  let object, level, field;
+  if (ref.signal) {
+    object = 'datum';
+    field = ref.signal;
+  } else if (ref.group || ref.parent) {
+    level = Math.max(1, ref.level || 1);
+    object = 'item';
+    while (level-- > 0) {
+      object += '.mark.group';
+    }
+    if (ref.parent) {
+      field = ref.parent;
+      object += '.datum';
+    } else {
+      field = ref.group;
+    }
+  } else if (ref.datum) {
+    object = 'datum';
+    field = ref.datum;
+  } else {
+    vegaUtil.error('Invalid field reference: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(ref));
+  }
+  if (!ref.signal) {
+    field = vegaUtil.isString(field) ? vegaUtil.splitAccessPath(field).map(vegaUtil.stringValue).join('][') : resolveField(field);
+  }
+  return object + '[' + field + ']';
+}
+function scale(enc, value) {
+  const scale = scaleRef(enc.scale);
+  if (enc.range != null) {
+    // pull value from scale range
+    value = `lerp(_range(${scale}), ${+enc.range})`;
+  } else {
+    // run value through scale and/or pull scale bandwidth
+    if (value !== undefined) value = `_scale(${scale}, ${value})`;
+    if (enc.band) {
+      value = (value ? value + '+' : '') + `_bandwidth(${scale})` + (+enc.band === 1 ? '' : '*' + property(enc.band));
+      if (enc.extra) {
+        // include logic to handle extraneous elements
+        value = `(datum.extra ? _scale(${scale}, datum.extra.value) : ${value})`;
+      }
+    }
+    if (value == null) value = '0';
+  }
+  return value;
+}
+
+function rule (enc) {
+  let code = '';
+  enc.forEach(rule => {
+    const value = entry$1(rule);
+    code += rule.test ? `(${rule.test})?${value}:` : value;
+  });
+
+  // if no else clause, terminate with null (#1366)
+  if (vegaUtil.peek(code) === ':') {
+    code += 'null';
+  }
+  return code;
+}
+
+function parseEncode (encode, type, role, style, scope, params) {
+  const enc = {};
+  params = params || {};
+  params.encoders = {
+    $encode: enc
+  };
+  encode = applyDefaults(encode, type, role, style, scope.config);
+  for (const key in encode) {
+    enc[key] = parseBlock(encode[key], type, params, scope);
+  }
+  return params;
+}
+function parseBlock(block, marktype, params, scope) {
+  const channels = {},
+    fields = {};
+  for (const name in block) {
+    if (block[name] != null) {
+      // skip any null entries
+      channels[name] = parse$1(expr(block[name]), scope, params, fields);
+    }
+  }
+  return {
+    $expr: {
+      marktype,
+      channels
+    },
+    $fields: Object.keys(fields),
+    $output: Object.keys(block)
+  };
+}
+function expr(enc) {
+  return vegaUtil.isArray(enc) ? rule(enc) : entry$1(enc);
+}
+function parse$1(code, scope, params, fields) {
+  const expr = vegaFunctions.parseExpression(code, scope);
+  expr.$fields.forEach(name => fields[name] = 1);
+  vegaUtil.extend(params, expr.$params);
+  return expr.$expr;
+}
+
+const OUTER = 'outer',
+  OUTER_INVALID = ['value', 'update', 'init', 'react', 'bind'];
+function outerError(prefix, name) {
+  vegaUtil.error(prefix + ' for "outer" push: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+}
+function parseSignal (signal, scope) {
+  const name = signal.name;
+  if (signal.push === OUTER) {
+    // signal must already be defined, raise error if not
+    if (!scope.signals[name]) outerError('No prior signal definition', name);
+    // signal push must not use properties reserved for standard definition
+    OUTER_INVALID.forEach(prop => {
+      if (signal[prop] !== undefined) outerError('Invalid property ', prop);
+    });
+  } else {
+    // define a new signal in the current scope
+    const op = scope.addSignal(name, signal.value);
+    if (signal.react === false) op.react = false;
+    if (signal.bind) scope.addBinding(name, signal.bind);
+  }
+}
+
+function Entry(type, value, params, parent) {
+  this.id = -1;
+  this.type = type;
+  this.value = value;
+  this.params = params;
+  if (parent) this.parent = parent;
+}
+function entry(type, value, params, parent) {
+  return new Entry(type, value, params, parent);
+}
+function operator(value, params) {
+  return entry('operator', value, params);
+}
+
+// -----
+
+function ref(op) {
+  const ref = {
+    $ref: op.id
+  };
+  // if operator not yet registered, cache ref to resolve later
+  if (op.id < 0) (op.refs = op.refs || []).push(ref);
+  return ref;
+}
+function fieldRef$1(field, name) {
+  return name ? {
+    $field: field,
+    $name: name
+  } : {
+    $field: field
+  };
+}
+const keyFieldRef = fieldRef$1('key');
+function compareRef(fields, orders) {
+  return {
+    $compare: fields,
+    $order: orders
+  };
+}
+function keyRef(fields, flat) {
+  const ref = {
+    $key: fields
+  };
+  if (flat) ref.$flat = true;
+  return ref;
+}
+
+// -----
+
+const Ascending = 'ascending';
+const Descending = 'descending';
+function sortKey(sort) {
+  return !vegaUtil.isObject(sort) ? '' : (sort.order === Descending ? '-' : '+') + aggrField(sort.op, sort.field);
+}
+function aggrField(op, field) {
+  return (op && op.signal ? '$' + op.signal : op || '') + (op && field ? '_' : '') + (field && field.signal ? '$' + field.signal : field || '');
+}
+
+// -----
+
+const Scope$1 = 'scope';
+const View = 'view';
+function isSignal(_) {
+  return _ && _.signal;
+}
+function isExpr$1(_) {
+  return _ && _.expr;
+}
+function hasSignal(_) {
+  if (isSignal(_)) return true;
+  if (vegaUtil.isObject(_)) for (const key in _) {
+    if (hasSignal(_[key])) return true;
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+function value(specValue, defaultValue) {
+  return specValue != null ? specValue : defaultValue;
+}
+function deref(v) {
+  return v && v.signal || v;
+}
+
+const Timer = 'timer';
+function parseStream(stream, scope) {
+  const method = stream.merge ? mergeStream : stream.stream ? nestedStream : stream.type ? eventStream : vegaUtil.error('Invalid stream specification: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(stream));
+  return method(stream, scope);
+}
+function eventSource(source) {
+  return source === Scope$1 ? View : source || View;
+}
+function mergeStream(stream, scope) {
+  const list = stream.merge.map(s => parseStream(s, scope)),
+    entry = streamParameters({
+      merge: list
+    }, stream, scope);
+  return scope.addStream(entry).id;
+}
+function nestedStream(stream, scope) {
+  const id = parseStream(stream.stream, scope),
+    entry = streamParameters({
+      stream: id
+    }, stream, scope);
+  return scope.addStream(entry).id;
+}
+function eventStream(stream, scope) {
+  let id;
+  if (stream.type === Timer) {
+    id = scope.event(Timer, stream.throttle);
+    stream = {
+      between: stream.between,
+      filter: stream.filter
+    };
+  } else {
+    id = scope.event(eventSource(stream.source), stream.type);
+  }
+  const entry = streamParameters({
+    stream: id
+  }, stream, scope);
+  return Object.keys(entry).length === 1 ? id : scope.addStream(entry).id;
+}
+function streamParameters(entry, stream, scope) {
+  let param = stream.between;
+  if (param) {
+    if (param.length !== 2) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Stream "between" parameter must have 2 entries: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(stream));
+    }
+    entry.between = [parseStream(param[0], scope), parseStream(param[1], scope)];
+  }
+  param = stream.filter ? [].concat(stream.filter) : [];
+  if (stream.marktype || stream.markname || stream.markrole) {
+    // add filter for mark type, name and/or role
+    param.push(filterMark(stream.marktype, stream.markname, stream.markrole));
+  }
+  if (stream.source === Scope$1) {
+    // add filter to limit events from sub-scope only
+    param.push('inScope(event.item)');
+  }
+  if (param.length) {
+    entry.filter = vegaFunctions.parseExpression('(' + param.join(')&&(') + ')', scope).$expr;
+  }
+  if ((param = stream.throttle) != null) {
+    entry.throttle = +param;
+  }
+  if ((param = stream.debounce) != null) {
+    entry.debounce = +param;
+  }
+  if (stream.consume) {
+    entry.consume = true;
+  }
+  return entry;
+}
+function filterMark(type, name, role) {
+  const item = 'event.item';
+  return item + (type && type !== '*' ? '&&' + item + '.mark.marktype===\'' + type + '\'' : '') + (role ? '&&' + item + '.mark.role===\'' + role + '\'' : '') + (name ? '&&' + item + '.mark.name===\'' + name + '\'' : '');
+}
+
+// bypass expression parser for internal operator references
+const OP_VALUE_EXPR = {
+  code: '_.$value',
+  ast: {
+    type: 'Identifier',
+    value: 'value'
+  }
+};
+function parseUpdate (spec, scope, target) {
+  const encode = spec.encode,
+    entry = {
+      target: target
+    };
+  let events = spec.events,
+    update = spec.update,
+    sources = [];
+  if (!events) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Signal update missing events specification.');
+  }
+
+  // interpret as an event selector string
+  if (vegaUtil.isString(events)) {
+    events = vegaEventSelector.parseSelector(events, scope.isSubscope() ? Scope$1 : View);
+  }
+
+  // separate event streams from signal updates
+  events = vegaUtil.array(events).filter(s => s.signal || s.scale ? (sources.push(s), 0) : 1);
+
+  // merge internal operator listeners
+  if (sources.length > 1) {
+    sources = [mergeSources(sources)];
+  }
+
+  // merge event streams, include as source
+  if (events.length) {
+    sources.push(events.length > 1 ? {
+      merge: events
+    } : events[0]);
+  }
+  if (encode != null) {
+    if (update) vegaUtil.error('Signal encode and update are mutually exclusive.');
+    update = 'encode(item(),' + vegaUtil.stringValue(encode) + ')';
+  }
+
+  // resolve update value
+  entry.update = vegaUtil.isString(update) ? vegaFunctions.parseExpression(update, scope) : update.expr != null ? vegaFunctions.parseExpression(update.expr, scope) : update.value != null ? update.value : update.signal != null ? {
+    $expr: OP_VALUE_EXPR,
+    $params: {
+      $value: scope.signalRef(update.signal)
+    }
+  } : vegaUtil.error('Invalid signal update specification.');
+  if (spec.force) {
+    entry.options = {
+      force: true
+    };
+  }
+  sources.forEach(source => scope.addUpdate(vegaUtil.extend(streamSource(source, scope), entry)));
+}
+function streamSource(stream, scope) {
+  return {
+    source: stream.signal ? scope.signalRef(stream.signal) : stream.scale ? scope.scaleRef(stream.scale) : parseStream(stream, scope)
+  };
+}
+function mergeSources(sources) {
+  return {
+    signal: '[' + sources.map(s => s.scale ? 'scale("' + s.scale + '")' : s.signal) + ']'
+  };
+}
+
+function parseSignalUpdates (signal, scope) {
+  const op = scope.getSignal(signal.name);
+  let expr = signal.update;
+  if (signal.init) {
+    if (expr) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Signals can not include both init and update expressions.');
+    } else {
+      expr = signal.init;
+      op.initonly = true;
+    }
+  }
+  if (expr) {
+    expr = vegaFunctions.parseExpression(expr, scope);
+    op.update = expr.$expr;
+    op.params = expr.$params;
+  }
+  if (signal.on) {
+    signal.on.forEach(_ => parseUpdate(_, scope, op.id));
+  }
+}
+
+const transform = name => (params, value, parent) => entry(name, value, params || undefined, parent);
+const Aggregate = transform('aggregate');
+const AxisTicks = transform('axisticks');
+const Bound = transform('bound');
+const Collect = transform('collect');
+const Compare = transform('compare');
+const DataJoin = transform('datajoin');
+const Encode = transform('encode');
+const Expression = transform('expression');
+const Facet = transform('facet');
+const Field = transform('field');
+const Key = transform('key');
+const LegendEntries = transform('legendentries');
+const Load = transform('load');
+const Mark = transform('mark');
+const MultiExtent = transform('multiextent');
+const MultiValues = transform('multivalues');
+const Overlap = transform('overlap');
+const Params = transform('params');
+const PreFacet = transform('prefacet');
+const Projection = transform('projection');
+const Proxy = transform('proxy');
+const Relay = transform('relay');
+const Render = transform('render');
+const Scale = transform('scale');
+const Sieve = transform('sieve');
+const SortItems = transform('sortitems');
+const ViewLayout = transform('viewlayout');
+const Values = transform('values');
+
+let FIELD_REF_ID = 0;
+const MULTIDOMAIN_SORT_OPS = {
+  min: 'min',
+  max: 'max',
+  count: 'sum'
+};
+function initScale(spec, scope) {
+  const type = spec.type || 'linear';
+  if (!vegaScale.isValidScaleType(type)) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Unrecognized scale type: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(type));
+  }
+  scope.addScale(spec.name, {
+    type,
+    domain: undefined
+  });
+}
+function parseScale(spec, scope) {
+  const params = scope.getScale(spec.name).params;
+  let key;
+  params.domain = parseScaleDomain(spec.domain, spec, scope);
+  if (spec.range != null) {
+    params.range = parseScaleRange(spec, scope, params);
+  }
+  if (spec.interpolate != null) {
+    parseScaleInterpolate(spec.interpolate, params);
+  }
+  if (spec.nice != null) {
+    params.nice = parseScaleNice(spec.nice, scope);
+  }
+  if (spec.bins != null) {
+    params.bins = parseScaleBins(spec.bins, scope);
+  }
+  for (key in spec) {
+    if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(params, key) || key === 'name') continue;
+    params[key] = parseLiteral(spec[key], scope);
+  }
+}
+function parseLiteral(v, scope) {
+  return !vegaUtil.isObject(v) ? v : v.signal ? scope.signalRef(v.signal) : vegaUtil.error('Unsupported object: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(v));
+}
+function parseArray(v, scope) {
+  return v.signal ? scope.signalRef(v.signal) : v.map(v => parseLiteral(v, scope));
+}
+function dataLookupError(name) {
+  vegaUtil.error('Can not find data set: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+}
+
+// -- SCALE DOMAIN ----
+
+function parseScaleDomain(domain, spec, scope) {
+  if (!domain) {
+    if (spec.domainMin != null || spec.domainMax != null) {
+      vegaUtil.error('No scale domain defined for domainMin/domainMax to override.');
+    }
+    return; // default domain
+  }
+  return domain.signal ? scope.signalRef(domain.signal) : (vegaUtil.isArray(domain) ? explicitDomain : domain.fields ? multipleDomain : singularDomain)(domain, spec, scope);
+}
+function explicitDomain(domain, spec, scope) {
+  return domain.map(v => parseLiteral(v, scope));
+}
+function singularDomain(domain, spec, scope) {
+  const data = scope.getData(domain.data);
+  if (!data) dataLookupError(domain.data);
+  return vegaScale.isDiscrete(spec.type) ? data.valuesRef(scope, domain.field, parseSort(domain.sort, false)) : vegaScale.isQuantile(spec.type) ? data.domainRef(scope, domain.field) : data.extentRef(scope, domain.field);
+}
+function multipleDomain(domain, spec, scope) {
+  const data = domain.data,
+    fields = domain.fields.reduce((dom, d) => {
+      d = vegaUtil.isString(d) ? {
+        data: data,
+        field: d
+      } : vegaUtil.isArray(d) || d.signal ? fieldRef(d, scope) : d;
+      dom.push(d);
+      return dom;
+    }, []);
+  return (vegaScale.isDiscrete(spec.type) ? ordinalMultipleDomain : vegaScale.isQuantile(spec.type) ? quantileMultipleDomain : numericMultipleDomain)(domain, scope, fields);
+}
+function fieldRef(data, scope) {
+  const name = '_:vega:_' + FIELD_REF_ID++,
+    coll = Collect({});
+  if (vegaUtil.isArray(data)) {
+    coll.value = {
+      $ingest: data
+    };
+  } else if (data.signal) {
+    const code = 'setdata(' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name) + ',' + data.signal + ')';
+    coll.params.input = scope.signalRef(code);
+  }
+  scope.addDataPipeline(name, [coll, Sieve({})]);
+  return {
+    data: name,
+    field: 'data'
+  };
+}
+function ordinalMultipleDomain(domain, scope, fields) {
+  const sort = parseSort(domain.sort, true);
+  let a, v;
+
+  // get value counts for each domain field
+  const counts = fields.map(f => {
+    const data = scope.getData(f.data);
+    if (!data) dataLookupError(f.data);
+    return data.countsRef(scope, f.field, sort);
+  });
+
+  // aggregate the results from each domain field
+  const p = {
+    groupby: keyFieldRef,
+    pulse: counts
+  };
+  if (sort) {
+    a = sort.op || 'count';
+    v = sort.field ? aggrField(a, sort.field) : 'count';
+    p.ops = [MULTIDOMAIN_SORT_OPS[a]];
+    p.fields = [scope.fieldRef(v)];
+    p.as = [v];
+  }
+  a = scope.add(Aggregate(p));
+
+  // collect aggregate output
+  const c = scope.add(Collect({
+    pulse: ref(a)
+  }));
+
+  // extract values for combined domain
+  v = scope.add(Values({
+    field: keyFieldRef,
+    sort: scope.sortRef(sort),
+    pulse: ref(c)
+  }));
+  return ref(v);
+}
+function parseSort(sort, multidomain) {
+  if (sort) {
+    if (!sort.field && !sort.op) {
+      if (vegaUtil.isObject(sort)) sort.field = 'key';else sort = {
+        field: 'key'
+      };
+    } else if (!sort.field && sort.op !== 'count') {
+      vegaUtil.error('No field provided for sort aggregate op: ' + sort.op);
+    } else if (multidomain && sort.field) {
+      if (sort.op && !MULTIDOMAIN_SORT_OPS[sort.op]) {
+        vegaUtil.error('Multiple domain scales can not be sorted using ' + sort.op);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return sort;
+}
+function quantileMultipleDomain(domain, scope, fields) {
+  // get value arrays for each domain field
+  const values = fields.map(f => {
+    const data = scope.getData(f.data);
+    if (!data) dataLookupError(f.data);
+    return data.domainRef(scope, f.field);
+  });
+
+  // combine value arrays
+  return ref(scope.add(MultiValues({
+    values: values
+  })));
+}
+function numericMultipleDomain(domain, scope, fields) {
+  // get extents for each domain field
+  const extents = fields.map(f => {
+    const data = scope.getData(f.data);
+    if (!data) dataLookupError(f.data);
+    return data.extentRef(scope, f.field);
+  });
+
+  // combine extents
+  return ref(scope.add(MultiExtent({
+    extents: extents
+  })));
+}
+
+// -- SCALE BINS -----
+
+function parseScaleBins(v, scope) {
+  return v.signal || vegaUtil.isArray(v) ? parseArray(v, scope) : scope.objectProperty(v);
+}
+
+// -- SCALE NICE -----
+
+function parseScaleNice(nice, scope) {
+  return nice.signal ? scope.signalRef(nice.signal) : vegaUtil.isObject(nice) ? {
+    interval: parseLiteral(nice.interval),
+    step: parseLiteral(nice.step)
+  } : parseLiteral(nice);
+}
+
+// -- SCALE INTERPOLATION -----
+
+function parseScaleInterpolate(interpolate, params) {
+  params.interpolate = parseLiteral(interpolate.type || interpolate);
+  if (interpolate.gamma != null) {
+    params.interpolateGamma = parseLiteral(interpolate.gamma);
+  }
+}
+
+// -- SCALE RANGE -----
+
+function parseScaleRange(spec, scope, params) {
+  const config = scope.config.range;
+  let range = spec.range;
+  if (range.signal) {
+    return scope.signalRef(range.signal);
+  } else if (vegaUtil.isString(range)) {
+    if (config && vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(config, range)) {
+      spec = vegaUtil.extend({}, spec, {
+        range: config[range]
+      });
+      return parseScaleRange(spec, scope, params);
+    } else if (range === 'width') {
+      range = [0, {
+        signal: 'width'
+      }];
+    } else if (range === 'height') {
+      range = vegaScale.isDiscrete(spec.type) ? [0, {
+        signal: 'height'
+      }] : [{
+        signal: 'height'
+      }, 0];
+    } else {
+      vegaUtil.error('Unrecognized scale range value: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(range));
+    }
+  } else if (range.scheme) {
+    params.scheme = vegaUtil.isArray(range.scheme) ? parseArray(range.scheme, scope) : parseLiteral(range.scheme, scope);
+    if (range.extent) params.schemeExtent = parseArray(range.extent, scope);
+    if (range.count) params.schemeCount = parseLiteral(range.count, scope);
+    return;
+  } else if (range.step) {
+    params.rangeStep = parseLiteral(range.step, scope);
+    return;
+  } else if (vegaScale.isDiscrete(spec.type) && !vegaUtil.isArray(range)) {
+    return parseScaleDomain(range, spec, scope);
+  } else if (!vegaUtil.isArray(range)) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Unsupported range type: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(range));
+  }
+  return range.map(v => (vegaUtil.isArray(v) ? parseArray : parseLiteral)(v, scope));
+}
+
+function parseProjection (proj, scope) {
+  const config = scope.config.projection || {},
+    params = {};
+  for (const name in proj) {
+    if (name === 'name') continue;
+    params[name] = parseParameter$1(proj[name], name, scope);
+  }
+
+  // apply projection defaults from config
+  for (const name in config) {
+    if (params[name] == null) {
+      params[name] = parseParameter$1(config[name], name, scope);
+    }
+  }
+  scope.addProjection(proj.name, params);
+}
+function parseParameter$1(_, name, scope) {
+  return vegaUtil.isArray(_) ? _.map(_ => parseParameter$1(_, name, scope)) : !vegaUtil.isObject(_) ? _ : _.signal ? scope.signalRef(_.signal) : name === 'fit' ? _ : vegaUtil.error('Unsupported parameter object: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(_));
+}
+
+const Top = 'top';
+const Left = 'left';
+const Right = 'right';
+const Bottom = 'bottom';
+const Center = 'center';
+const Vertical = 'vertical';
+const Start = 'start';
+const Middle = 'middle';
+const End = 'end';
+const Index = 'index';
+const Label = 'label';
+const Offset = 'offset';
+const Perc = 'perc';
+const Perc2 = 'perc2';
+const Value = 'value';
+const GuideLabelStyle = 'guide-label';
+const GuideTitleStyle = 'guide-title';
+const GroupTitleStyle = 'group-title';
+const GroupSubtitleStyle = 'group-subtitle';
+
+/** All values of LegendType */
+const Symbols = 'symbol';
+const Gradient = 'gradient';
+const Discrete = 'discrete';
+const Size = 'size';
+const Shape = 'shape';
+const Fill = 'fill';
+const Stroke = 'stroke';
+const StrokeWidth = 'strokeWidth';
+const StrokeDash = 'strokeDash';
+const Opacity = 'opacity';
+
+// Encoding channels supported by legends
+// In priority order of 'canonical' scale
+const LegendScales = [Size, Shape, Fill, Stroke, StrokeWidth, StrokeDash, Opacity];
+const Skip = {
+  name: 1,
+  style: 1,
+  interactive: 1
+};
+const zero = {
+  value: 0
+};
+const one = {
+  value: 1
+};
+
+const GroupMark = 'group';
+const RectMark = 'rect';
+const RuleMark = 'rule';
+const SymbolMark = 'symbol';
+const TextMark = 'text';
+
+function guideGroup (mark) {
+  mark.type = GroupMark;
+  mark.interactive = mark.interactive || false;
+  return mark;
+}
+
+function lookup(spec, config) {
+  const _ = (name, dflt) => value(spec[name], value(config[name], dflt));
+  _.isVertical = s => Vertical === value(spec.direction, config.direction || (s ? config.symbolDirection : config.gradientDirection));
+  _.gradientLength = () => value(spec.gradientLength, config.gradientLength || config.gradientWidth);
+  _.gradientThickness = () => value(spec.gradientThickness, config.gradientThickness || config.gradientHeight);
+  _.entryColumns = () => value(spec.columns, value(config.columns, +_.isVertical(true)));
+  return _;
+}
+function getEncoding(name, encode) {
+  const v = encode && (encode.update && encode.update[name] || encode.enter && encode.enter[name]);
+  return v && v.signal ? v : v ? v.value : null;
+}
+function getStyle(name, scope, style) {
+  const s = scope.config.style[style];
+  return s && s[name];
+}
+function anchorExpr(s, e, m) {
+  return `item.anchor === '${Start}' ? ${s} : item.anchor === '${End}' ? ${e} : ${m}`;
+}
+const alignExpr$1 = anchorExpr(vegaUtil.stringValue(Left), vegaUtil.stringValue(Right), vegaUtil.stringValue(Center));
+function tickBand(_) {
+  const v = _('tickBand');
+  let offset = _('tickOffset'),
+    band,
+    extra;
+  if (!v) {
+    // if no tick band entry, fall back on other properties
+    band = _('bandPosition');
+    extra = _('tickExtra');
+  } else if (v.signal) {
+    // if signal, augment code to interpret values
+    band = {
+      signal: `(${v.signal}) === 'extent' ? 1 : 0.5`
+    };
+    extra = {
+      signal: `(${v.signal}) === 'extent'`
+    };
+    if (!vegaUtil.isObject(offset)) {
+      offset = {
+        signal: `(${v.signal}) === 'extent' ? 0 : ${offset}`
+      };
+    }
+  } else if (v === 'extent') {
+    // if constant, simply set values
+    band = 1;
+    extra = true;
+    offset = 0;
+  } else {
+    band = 0.5;
+    extra = false;
+  }
+  return {
+    extra,
+    band,
+    offset
+  };
+}
+function extendOffset(value, offset) {
+  return !offset ? value : !value ? offset : !vegaUtil.isObject(value) ? {
+    value,
+    offset
+  } : Object.assign({}, value, {
+    offset: extendOffset(value.offset, offset)
+  });
+}
+
+function guideMark (mark, extras) {
+  if (extras) {
+    mark.name = extras.name;
+    mark.style = extras.style || mark.style;
+    mark.interactive = !!extras.interactive;
+    mark.encode = extendEncode(mark.encode, extras, Skip);
+  } else {
+    mark.interactive = false;
+  }
+  return mark;
+}
+
+function legendGradient (spec, scale, config, userEncode) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    vertical = _.isVertical(),
+    thickness = _.gradientThickness(),
+    length = _.gradientLength();
+  let enter, start, stop, width, height;
+  if (vertical) {
+    start = [0, 1];
+    stop = [0, 0];
+    width = thickness;
+    height = length;
+  } else {
+    start = [0, 0];
+    stop = [1, 0];
+    width = length;
+    height = thickness;
+  }
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero,
+      x: zero,
+      y: zero,
+      width: encoder(width),
+      height: encoder(height)
+    },
+    update: vegaUtil.extend({}, enter, {
+      opacity: one,
+      fill: {
+        gradient: scale,
+        start: start,
+        stop: stop
+      }
+    }),
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    stroke: _('gradientStrokeColor'),
+    strokeWidth: _('gradientStrokeWidth')
+  }, {
+    // update
+    opacity: _('gradientOpacity')
+  });
+  return guideMark({
+    type: RectMark,
+    role: LegendGradientRole,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+function legendGradientDiscrete (spec, scale, config, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    vertical = _.isVertical(),
+    thickness = _.gradientThickness(),
+    length = _.gradientLength();
+  let u,
+    v,
+    uu,
+    vv,
+    adjust = '';
+  vertical ? (u = 'y', uu = 'y2', v = 'x', vv = 'width', adjust = '1-') : (u = 'x', uu = 'x2', v = 'y', vv = 'height');
+  const enter = {
+    opacity: zero,
+    fill: {
+      scale: scale,
+      field: Value
+    }
+  };
+  enter[u] = {
+    signal: adjust + 'datum.' + Perc,
+    mult: length
+  };
+  enter[v] = zero;
+  enter[uu] = {
+    signal: adjust + 'datum.' + Perc2,
+    mult: length
+  };
+  enter[vv] = encoder(thickness);
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter,
+    update: vegaUtil.extend({}, enter, {
+      opacity: one
+    }),
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    stroke: _('gradientStrokeColor'),
+    strokeWidth: _('gradientStrokeWidth')
+  }, {
+    // update
+    opacity: _('gradientOpacity')
+  });
+  return guideMark({
+    type: RectMark,
+    role: LegendBandRole,
+    key: Value,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+const alignExpr = `datum.${Perc}<=0?"${Left}":datum.${Perc}>=1?"${Right}":"${Center}"`,
+  baselineExpr = `datum.${Perc}<=0?"${Bottom}":datum.${Perc}>=1?"${Top}":"${Middle}"`;
+function legendGradientLabels (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    vertical = _.isVertical(),
+    thickness = encoder(_.gradientThickness()),
+    length = _.gradientLength();
+  let overlap = _('labelOverlap'),
+    enter,
+    update,
+    u,
+    v,
+    adjust = '';
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one,
+      text: {
+        field: Label
+      }
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    fill: _('labelColor'),
+    fillOpacity: _('labelOpacity'),
+    font: _('labelFont'),
+    fontSize: _('labelFontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('labelFontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('labelFontWeight'),
+    limit: value(spec.labelLimit, config.gradientLabelLimit)
+  });
+  if (vertical) {
+    enter.align = {
+      value: 'left'
+    };
+    enter.baseline = update.baseline = {
+      signal: baselineExpr
+    };
+    u = 'y';
+    v = 'x';
+    adjust = '1-';
+  } else {
+    enter.align = update.align = {
+      signal: alignExpr
+    };
+    enter.baseline = {
+      value: 'top'
+    };
+    u = 'x';
+    v = 'y';
+  }
+  enter[u] = update[u] = {
+    signal: adjust + 'datum.' + Perc,
+    mult: length
+  };
+  enter[v] = update[v] = thickness;
+  thickness.offset = value(spec.labelOffset, config.gradientLabelOffset) || 0;
+  overlap = overlap ? {
+    separation: _('labelSeparation'),
+    method: overlap,
+    order: 'datum.' + Index
+  } : undefined;
+
+  // type, role, style, key, dataRef, encode, extras
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: LegendLabelRole,
+    style: GuideLabelStyle,
+    key: Value,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode,
+    overlap
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+// userEncode is top-level, includes entries, symbols, labels
+function legendSymbolGroups (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef, columns) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    entries = userEncode.entries,
+    interactive = !!(entries && entries.interactive),
+    name = entries ? entries.name : undefined,
+    height = _('clipHeight'),
+    symbolOffset = _('symbolOffset'),
+    valueRef = {
+      data: 'value'
+    },
+    xSignal = `(${columns}) ? datum.${Offset} : datum.${Size}`,
+    yEncode = height ? encoder(height) : {
+      field: Size
+    },
+    index = `datum.${Index}`,
+    ncols = `max(1, ${columns})`;
+  let encode, enter, update, nrows, sort;
+  yEncode.mult = 0.5;
+
+  // -- LEGEND SYMBOLS --
+  encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero,
+      x: {
+        signal: xSignal,
+        mult: 0.5,
+        offset: symbolOffset
+      },
+      y: yEncode
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one,
+      x: enter.x,
+      y: enter.y
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  let baseFill = null,
+    baseStroke = null;
+  if (!spec.fill) {
+    baseFill = config.symbolBaseFillColor;
+    baseStroke = config.symbolBaseStrokeColor;
+  }
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    fill: _('symbolFillColor', baseFill),
+    shape: _('symbolType'),
+    size: _('symbolSize'),
+    stroke: _('symbolStrokeColor', baseStroke),
+    strokeDash: _('symbolDash'),
+    strokeDashOffset: _('symbolDashOffset'),
+    strokeWidth: _('symbolStrokeWidth')
+  }, {
+    // update
+    opacity: _('symbolOpacity')
+  });
+  LegendScales.forEach(scale => {
+    if (spec[scale]) {
+      update[scale] = enter[scale] = {
+        scale: spec[scale],
+        field: Value
+      };
+    }
+  });
+  const symbols = guideMark({
+    type: SymbolMark,
+    role: LegendSymbolRole,
+    key: Value,
+    from: valueRef,
+    clip: height ? true : undefined,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode.symbols);
+
+  // -- LEGEND LABELS --
+  const labelOffset = encoder(symbolOffset);
+  labelOffset.offset = _('labelOffset');
+  encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero,
+      x: {
+        signal: xSignal,
+        offset: labelOffset
+      },
+      y: yEncode
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one,
+      text: {
+        field: Label
+      },
+      x: enter.x,
+      y: enter.y
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    align: _('labelAlign'),
+    baseline: _('labelBaseline'),
+    fill: _('labelColor'),
+    fillOpacity: _('labelOpacity'),
+    font: _('labelFont'),
+    fontSize: _('labelFontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('labelFontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('labelFontWeight'),
+    limit: _('labelLimit')
+  });
+  const labels = guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: LegendLabelRole,
+    style: GuideLabelStyle,
+    key: Value,
+    from: valueRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode.labels);
+
+  // -- LEGEND ENTRY GROUPS --
+  encode = {
+    enter: {
+      noBound: {
+        value: !height
+      },
+      // ignore width/height in bounds calc
+      width: zero,
+      height: height ? encoder(height) : zero,
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one,
+      row: {
+        signal: null
+      },
+      column: {
+        signal: null
+      }
+    }
+  };
+
+  // annotate and sort groups to ensure correct ordering
+  if (_.isVertical(true)) {
+    nrows = `ceil(item.mark.items.length / ${ncols})`;
+    update.row.signal = `${index}%${nrows}`;
+    update.column.signal = `floor(${index} / ${nrows})`;
+    sort = {
+      field: ['row', index]
+    };
+  } else {
+    update.row.signal = `floor(${index} / ${ncols})`;
+    update.column.signal = `${index} % ${ncols}`;
+    sort = {
+      field: index
+    };
+  }
+  // handle zero column case (implies infinite columns)
+  update.column.signal = `(${columns})?${update.column.signal}:${index}`;
+
+  // facet legend entries into sub-groups
+  dataRef = {
+    facet: {
+      data: dataRef,
+      name: 'value',
+      groupby: Index
+    }
+  };
+  return guideGroup({
+    role: ScopeRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode: extendEncode(encode, entries, Skip),
+    marks: [symbols, labels],
+    name,
+    interactive,
+    sort
+  });
+}
+function legendSymbolLayout(spec, config) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config);
+
+  // layout parameters for legend entries
+  return {
+    align: _('gridAlign'),
+    columns: _.entryColumns(),
+    center: {
+      row: true,
+      column: false
+    },
+    padding: {
+      row: _('rowPadding'),
+      column: _('columnPadding')
+    }
+  };
+}
+
+// expression logic for align, anchor, angle, and baseline calculation
+const isL = 'item.orient === "left"',
+  isR = 'item.orient === "right"',
+  isLR = `(${isL} || ${isR})`,
+  isVG = `datum.vgrad && ${isLR}`,
+  baseline = anchorExpr('"top"', '"bottom"', '"middle"'),
+  alignFlip = anchorExpr('"right"', '"left"', '"center"'),
+  exprAlign = `datum.vgrad && ${isR} ? (${alignFlip}) : (${isLR} && !(datum.vgrad && ${isL})) ? "left" : ${alignExpr$1}`,
+  exprAnchor = `item._anchor || (${isLR} ? "middle" : "start")`,
+  exprAngle = `${isVG} ? (${isL} ? -90 : 90) : 0`,
+  exprBaseline = `${isLR} ? (datum.vgrad ? (${isR} ? "bottom" : "top") : ${baseline}) : "top"`;
+function legendTitle (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config);
+  const encode = {
+    enter: {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: {
+      opacity: one,
+      x: {
+        field: {
+          group: 'padding'
+        }
+      },
+      y: {
+        field: {
+          group: 'padding'
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    orient: _('titleOrient'),
+    _anchor: _('titleAnchor'),
+    anchor: {
+      signal: exprAnchor
+    },
+    angle: {
+      signal: exprAngle
+    },
+    align: {
+      signal: exprAlign
+    },
+    baseline: {
+      signal: exprBaseline
+    },
+    text: spec.title,
+    fill: _('titleColor'),
+    fillOpacity: _('titleOpacity'),
+    font: _('titleFont'),
+    fontSize: _('titleFontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('titleFontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('titleFontWeight'),
+    limit: _('titleLimit'),
+    lineHeight: _('titleLineHeight')
+  }, {
+    // require update
+    align: _('titleAlign'),
+    baseline: _('titleBaseline')
+  });
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: LegendTitleRole,
+    style: GuideTitleStyle,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+function clip (clip, scope) {
+  let expr;
+  if (vegaUtil.isObject(clip)) {
+    if (clip.signal) {
+      expr = clip.signal;
+    } else if (clip.path) {
+      expr = 'pathShape(' + param(clip.path) + ')';
+    } else if (clip.sphere) {
+      expr = 'geoShape(' + param(clip.sphere) + ', {type: "Sphere"})';
+    }
+  }
+  return expr ? scope.signalRef(expr) : !!clip;
+}
+function param(value) {
+  return vegaUtil.isObject(value) && value.signal ? value.signal : vegaUtil.stringValue(value);
+}
+
+function getRole (spec) {
+  const role = spec.role || '';
+  return role.startsWith('axis') || role.startsWith('legend') || role.startsWith('title') ? role : spec.type === GroupMark ? ScopeRole : role || MarkRole;
+}
+
+function definition (spec) {
+  return {
+    marktype: spec.type,
+    name: spec.name || undefined,
+    role: spec.role || getRole(spec),
+    zindex: +spec.zindex || undefined,
+    aria: spec.aria,
+    description: spec.description
+  };
+}
+
+function interactive (spec, scope) {
+  return spec && spec.signal ? scope.signalRef(spec.signal) : spec === false ? false : true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a data transform specification.
+ */
+function parseTransform (spec, scope) {
+  const def = vegaDataflow.definition(spec.type);
+  if (!def) vegaUtil.error('Unrecognized transform type: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(spec.type));
+  const t = entry(def.type.toLowerCase(), null, parseParameters(def, spec, scope));
+  if (spec.signal) scope.addSignal(spec.signal, scope.proxy(t));
+  t.metadata = def.metadata || {};
+  return t;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse all parameters of a data transform.
+ */
+function parseParameters(def, spec, scope) {
+  const params = {},
+    n = def.params.length;
+  for (let i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+    const pdef = def.params[i];
+    params[pdef.name] = parseParameter(pdef, spec, scope);
+  }
+  return params;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a data transform parameter.
+ */
+function parseParameter(def, spec, scope) {
+  const type = def.type,
+    value = spec[def.name];
+  if (type === 'index') {
+    return parseIndexParameter(def, spec, scope);
+  } else if (value === undefined) {
+    if (def.required) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Missing required ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(spec.type) + ' parameter: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(def.name));
+    }
+    return;
+  } else if (type === 'param') {
+    return parseSubParameters(def, spec, scope);
+  } else if (type === 'projection') {
+    return scope.projectionRef(spec[def.name]);
+  }
+  return def.array && !isSignal(value) ? value.map(v => parameterValue(def, v, scope)) : parameterValue(def, value, scope);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a single parameter value.
+ */
+function parameterValue(def, value, scope) {
+  const type = def.type;
+  if (isSignal(value)) {
+    return isExpr(type) ? vegaUtil.error('Expression references can not be signals.') : isField(type) ? scope.fieldRef(value) : isCompare(type) ? scope.compareRef(value) : scope.signalRef(value.signal);
+  } else {
+    const expr = def.expr || isField(type);
+    return expr && outerExpr(value) ? scope.exprRef(value.expr, value.as) : expr && outerField(value) ? fieldRef$1(value.field, value.as) : isExpr(type) ? vegaFunctions.parseExpression(value, scope) : isData(type) ? ref(scope.getData(value).values) : isField(type) ? fieldRef$1(value) : isCompare(type) ? scope.compareRef(value) : value;
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse parameter for accessing an index of another data set.
+ */
+function parseIndexParameter(def, spec, scope) {
+  if (!vegaUtil.isString(spec.from)) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Lookup "from" parameter must be a string literal.');
+  }
+  return scope.getData(spec.from).lookupRef(scope, spec.key);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a parameter that contains one or more sub-parameter objects.
+ */
+function parseSubParameters(def, spec, scope) {
+  const value = spec[def.name];
+  if (def.array) {
+    if (!vegaUtil.isArray(value)) {
+      // signals not allowed!
+      vegaUtil.error('Expected an array of sub-parameters. Instead: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(value));
+    }
+    return value.map(v => parseSubParameter(def, v, scope));
+  } else {
+    return parseSubParameter(def, value, scope);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a sub-parameter object.
+ */
+function parseSubParameter(def, value, scope) {
+  const n = def.params.length;
+  let pdef;
+
+  // loop over defs to find matching key
+  for (let i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+    pdef = def.params[i];
+    for (const k in pdef.key) {
+      if (pdef.key[k] !== value[k]) {
+        pdef = null;
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+    if (pdef) break;
+  }
+  // raise error if matching key not found
+  if (!pdef) vegaUtil.error('Unsupported parameter: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(value));
+
+  // parse params, create Params transform, return ref
+  const params = vegaUtil.extend(parseParameters(pdef, value, scope), pdef.key);
+  return ref(scope.add(Params(params)));
+}
+
+// -- Utilities -----
+
+const outerExpr = _ => _ && _.expr;
+const outerField = _ => _ && _.field;
+const isData = _ => _ === 'data';
+const isExpr = _ => _ === 'expr';
+const isField = _ => _ === 'field';
+const isCompare = _ => _ === 'compare';
+
+function parseData$1 (from, group, scope) {
+  let facet, key, op, dataRef, parent;
+
+  // if no source data, generate singleton datum
+  if (!from) {
+    dataRef = ref(scope.add(Collect(null, [{}])));
+  }
+
+  // if faceted, process facet specification
+  else if (facet = from.facet) {
+    if (!group) vegaUtil.error('Only group marks can be faceted.');
+
+    // use pre-faceted source data, if available
+    if (facet.field != null) {
+      dataRef = parent = getDataRef(facet, scope);
+    } else {
+      // generate facet aggregates if no direct data specification
+      if (!from.data) {
+        op = parseTransform(vegaUtil.extend({
+          type: 'aggregate',
+          groupby: vegaUtil.array(facet.groupby)
+        }, facet.aggregate), scope);
+        op.params.key = scope.keyRef(facet.groupby);
+        op.params.pulse = getDataRef(facet, scope);
+        dataRef = parent = ref(scope.add(op));
+      } else {
+        parent = ref(scope.getData(from.data).aggregate);
+      }
+      key = scope.keyRef(facet.groupby, true);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // if not yet defined, get source data reference
+  if (!dataRef) {
+    dataRef = getDataRef(from, scope);
+  }
+  return {
+    key: key,
+    pulse: dataRef,
+    parent: parent
+  };
+}
+function getDataRef(from, scope) {
+  return from.$ref ? from : from.data && from.data.$ref ? from.data : ref(scope.getData(from.data).output);
+}
+
+function DataScope(scope, input, output, values, aggr) {
+  this.scope = scope; // parent scope object
+  this.input = input; // first operator in pipeline (tuple input)
+  this.output = output; // last operator in pipeline (tuple output)
+  this.values = values; // operator for accessing tuples (but not tuple flow)
+
+  // last aggregate in transform pipeline
+  this.aggregate = aggr;
+
+  // lookup table of field indices
+  this.index = {};
+}
+DataScope.fromEntries = function (scope, entries) {
+  const n = entries.length,
+    values = entries[n - 1],
+    output = entries[n - 2];
+  let input = entries[0],
+    aggr = null,
+    i = 1;
+  if (input && input.type === 'load') {
+    input = entries[1];
+  }
+
+  // add operator entries to this scope, wire up pulse chain
+  scope.add(entries[0]);
+  for (; i < n; ++i) {
+    entries[i].params.pulse = ref(entries[i - 1]);
+    scope.add(entries[i]);
+    if (entries[i].type === 'aggregate') aggr = entries[i];
+  }
+  return new DataScope(scope, input, output, values, aggr);
+};
+function fieldKey(field) {
+  return vegaUtil.isString(field) ? field : null;
+}
+function addSortField(scope, p, sort) {
+  const as = aggrField(sort.op, sort.field);
+  let s;
+  if (p.ops) {
+    for (let i = 0, n = p.as.length; i < n; ++i) {
+      if (p.as[i] === as) return;
+    }
+  } else {
+    p.ops = ['count'];
+    p.fields = [null];
+    p.as = ['count'];
+  }
+  if (sort.op) {
+    p.ops.push((s = sort.op.signal) ? scope.signalRef(s) : sort.op);
+    p.fields.push(scope.fieldRef(sort.field));
+    p.as.push(as);
+  }
+}
+function cache(scope, ds, name, optype, field, counts, index) {
+  const cache = ds[name] || (ds[name] = {}),
+    sort = sortKey(counts);
+  let k = fieldKey(field),
+    v,
+    op;
+  if (k != null) {
+    scope = ds.scope;
+    k = k + (sort ? '|' + sort : '');
+    v = cache[k];
+  }
+  if (!v) {
+    const params = counts ? {
+      field: keyFieldRef,
+      pulse: ds.countsRef(scope, field, counts)
+    } : {
+      field: scope.fieldRef(field),
+      pulse: ref(ds.output)
+    };
+    if (sort) params.sort = scope.sortRef(counts);
+    op = scope.add(entry(optype, undefined, params));
+    if (index) ds.index[field] = op;
+    v = ref(op);
+    if (k != null) cache[k] = v;
+  }
+  return v;
+}
+DataScope.prototype = {
+  countsRef(scope, field, sort) {
+    const ds = this,
+      cache = ds.counts || (ds.counts = {}),
+      k = fieldKey(field);
+    let v, a, p;
+    if (k != null) {
+      scope = ds.scope;
+      v = cache[k];
+    }
+    if (!v) {
+      p = {
+        groupby: scope.fieldRef(field, 'key'),
+        pulse: ref(ds.output)
+      };
+      if (sort && sort.field) addSortField(scope, p, sort);
+      a = scope.add(Aggregate(p));
+      v = scope.add(Collect({
+        pulse: ref(a)
+      }));
+      v = {
+        agg: a,
+        ref: ref(v)
+      };
+      if (k != null) cache[k] = v;
+    } else if (sort && sort.field) {
+      addSortField(scope, v.agg.params, sort);
+    }
+    return v.ref;
+  },
+  tuplesRef() {
+    return ref(this.values);
+  },
+  extentRef(scope, field) {
+    return cache(scope, this, 'extent', 'extent', field, false);
+  },
+  domainRef(scope, field) {
+    return cache(scope, this, 'domain', 'values', field, false);
+  },
+  valuesRef(scope, field, sort) {
+    return cache(scope, this, 'vals', 'values', field, sort || true);
+  },
+  lookupRef(scope, field) {
+    return cache(scope, this, 'lookup', 'tupleindex', field, false);
+  },
+  indataRef(scope, field) {
+    return cache(scope, this, 'indata', 'tupleindex', field, true, true);
+  }
+};
+
+function parseFacet (spec, scope, group) {
+  const facet = spec.from.facet,
+    name = facet.name,
+    data = getDataRef(facet, scope);
+  let op;
+  if (!facet.name) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Facet must have a name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(facet));
+  }
+  if (!facet.data) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Facet must reference a data set: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(facet));
+  }
+  if (facet.field) {
+    op = scope.add(PreFacet({
+      field: scope.fieldRef(facet.field),
+      pulse: data
+    }));
+  } else if (facet.groupby) {
+    op = scope.add(Facet({
+      key: scope.keyRef(facet.groupby),
+      group: ref(scope.proxy(group.parent)),
+      pulse: data
+    }));
+  } else {
+    vegaUtil.error('Facet must specify groupby or field: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(facet));
+  }
+
+  // initialize facet subscope
+  const subscope = scope.fork(),
+    source = subscope.add(Collect()),
+    values = subscope.add(Sieve({
+      pulse: ref(source)
+    }));
+  subscope.addData(name, new DataScope(subscope, source, source, values));
+  subscope.addSignal('parent', null);
+
+  // parse faceted subflow
+  op.params.subflow = {
+    $subflow: subscope.parse(spec).toRuntime()
+  };
+}
+
+function parseSubflow (spec, scope, input) {
+  const op = scope.add(PreFacet({
+      pulse: input.pulse
+    })),
+    subscope = scope.fork();
+  subscope.add(Sieve());
+  subscope.addSignal('parent', null);
+
+  // parse group mark subflow
+  op.params.subflow = {
+    $subflow: subscope.parse(spec).toRuntime()
+  };
+}
+
+function parseTrigger (spec, scope, name) {
+  const remove = spec.remove,
+    insert = spec.insert,
+    toggle = spec.toggle,
+    modify = spec.modify,
+    values = spec.values,
+    op = scope.add(operator());
+  const update = 'if(' + spec.trigger + ',modify("' + name + '",' + [insert, remove, toggle, modify, values].map(_ => _ == null ? 'null' : _).join(',') + '),0)';
+  const expr = vegaFunctions.parseExpression(update, scope);
+  op.update = expr.$expr;
+  op.params = expr.$params;
+}
+
+function parseMark (spec, scope) {
+  const role = getRole(spec),
+    group = spec.type === GroupMark,
+    facet = spec.from && spec.from.facet,
+    overlap = spec.overlap;
+  let layout = spec.layout || role === ScopeRole || role === FrameRole,
+    ops,
+    op,
+    store,
+    enc,
+    name,
+    layoutRef,
+    boundRef;
+  const nested = role === MarkRole || layout || facet;
+
+  // resolve input data
+  const input = parseData$1(spec.from, group, scope);
+
+  // data join to map tuples to visual items
+  op = scope.add(DataJoin({
+    key: input.key || (spec.key ? fieldRef$1(spec.key) : undefined),
+    pulse: input.pulse,
+    clean: !group
+  }));
+  const joinRef = ref(op);
+
+  // collect visual items
+  op = store = scope.add(Collect({
+    pulse: joinRef
+  }));
+
+  // connect visual items to scenegraph
+  op = scope.add(Mark({
+    markdef: definition(spec),
+    interactive: interactive(spec.interactive, scope),
+    clip: clip(spec.clip, scope),
+    context: {
+      $context: true
+    },
+    groups: scope.lookup(),
+    parent: scope.signals.parent ? scope.signalRef('parent') : null,
+    index: scope.markpath(),
+    pulse: ref(op)
+  }));
+  const markRef = ref(op);
+
+  // add visual encoders
+  op = enc = scope.add(Encode(parseEncode(spec.encode, spec.type, role, spec.style, scope, {
+    mod: false,
+    pulse: markRef
+  })));
+
+  // monitor parent marks to propagate changes
+  op.params.parent = scope.encode();
+
+  // add post-encoding transforms, if defined
+  if (spec.transform) {
+    spec.transform.forEach(_ => {
+      const tx = parseTransform(_, scope),
+        md = tx.metadata;
+      if (md.generates || md.changes) {
+        vegaUtil.error('Mark transforms should not generate new data.');
+      }
+      if (!md.nomod) enc.params.mod = true; // update encode mod handling
+      tx.params.pulse = ref(op);
+      scope.add(op = tx);
+    });
+  }
+
+  // if item sort specified, perform post-encoding
+  if (spec.sort) {
+    op = scope.add(SortItems({
+      sort: scope.compareRef(spec.sort),
+      pulse: ref(op)
+    }));
+  }
+  const encodeRef = ref(op);
+
+  // add view layout operator if needed
+  if (facet || layout) {
+    layout = scope.add(ViewLayout({
+      layout: scope.objectProperty(spec.layout),
+      legends: scope.legends,
+      mark: markRef,
+      pulse: encodeRef
+    }));
+    layoutRef = ref(layout);
+  }
+
+  // compute bounding boxes
+  const bound = scope.add(Bound({
+    mark: markRef,
+    pulse: layoutRef || encodeRef
+  }));
+  boundRef = ref(bound);
+
+  // if group mark, recurse to parse nested content
+  if (group) {
+    // juggle layout & bounds to ensure they run *after* any faceting transforms
+    if (nested) {
+      ops = scope.operators;
+      ops.pop();
+      if (layout) ops.pop();
+    }
+    scope.pushState(encodeRef, layoutRef || boundRef, joinRef);
+    facet ? parseFacet(spec, scope, input) // explicit facet
+    : nested ? parseSubflow(spec, scope, input) // standard mark group
+    : scope.parse(spec); // guide group, we can avoid nested scopes
+    scope.popState();
+    if (nested) {
+      if (layout) ops.push(layout);
+      ops.push(bound);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // if requested, add overlap removal transform
+  if (overlap) {
+    boundRef = parseOverlap(overlap, boundRef, scope);
+  }
+
+  // render / sieve items
+  const render = scope.add(Render({
+      pulse: boundRef
+    })),
+    sieve = scope.add(Sieve({
+      pulse: ref(render)
+    }, undefined, scope.parent()));
+
+  // if mark is named, make accessible as reactive geometry
+  // add trigger updates if defined
+  if (spec.name != null) {
+    name = spec.name;
+    scope.addData(name, new DataScope(scope, store, render, sieve));
+    if (spec.on) spec.on.forEach(on => {
+      if (on.insert || on.remove || on.toggle) {
+        vegaUtil.error('Marks only support modify triggers.');
+      }
+      parseTrigger(on, scope, name);
+    });
+  }
+}
+function parseOverlap(overlap, source, scope) {
+  const method = overlap.method,
+    bound = overlap.bound,
+    sep = overlap.separation;
+  const params = {
+    separation: isSignal(sep) ? scope.signalRef(sep.signal) : sep,
+    method: isSignal(method) ? scope.signalRef(method.signal) : method,
+    pulse: source
+  };
+  if (overlap.order) {
+    params.sort = scope.compareRef({
+      field: overlap.order
+    });
+  }
+  if (bound) {
+    const tol = bound.tolerance;
+    params.boundTolerance = isSignal(tol) ? scope.signalRef(tol.signal) : +tol;
+    params.boundScale = scope.scaleRef(bound.scale);
+    params.boundOrient = bound.orient;
+  }
+  return ref(scope.add(Overlap(params)));
+}
+
+function parseLegend (spec, scope) {
+  const config = scope.config.legend,
+    encode = spec.encode || {},
+    _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    legendEncode = encode.legend || {},
+    name = legendEncode.name || undefined,
+    interactive = legendEncode.interactive,
+    style = legendEncode.style,
+    scales = {};
+  let scale = 0,
+    entryLayout,
+    params,
+    children;
+
+  // resolve scales and 'canonical' scale name
+  LegendScales.forEach(s => spec[s] ? (scales[s] = spec[s], scale = scale || spec[s]) : 0);
+  if (!scale) vegaUtil.error('Missing valid scale for legend.');
+
+  // resolve legend type (symbol, gradient, or discrete gradient)
+  const type = legendType(spec, scope.scaleType(scale));
+
+  // single-element data source for legend group
+  const datum = {
+    title: spec.title != null,
+    scales: scales,
+    type: type,
+    vgrad: type !== 'symbol' && _.isVertical()
+  };
+  const dataRef = ref(scope.add(Collect(null, [datum])));
+
+  // encoding properties for legend entry sub-group
+  const entryEncode = {
+    enter: {
+      x: {
+        value: 0
+      },
+      y: {
+        value: 0
+      }
+    }
+  };
+
+  // data source for legend values
+  const entryRef = ref(scope.add(LegendEntries(params = {
+    type: type,
+    scale: scope.scaleRef(scale),
+    count: scope.objectProperty(_('tickCount')),
+    limit: scope.property(_('symbolLimit')),
+    values: scope.objectProperty(spec.values),
+    minstep: scope.property(spec.tickMinStep),
+    formatType: scope.property(spec.formatType),
+    formatSpecifier: scope.property(spec.format)
+  })));
+
+  // continuous gradient legend
+  if (type === Gradient) {
+    children = [legendGradient(spec, scale, config, encode.gradient), legendGradientLabels(spec, config, encode.labels, entryRef)];
+    // adjust default tick count based on the gradient length
+    params.count = params.count || scope.signalRef(`max(2,2*floor((${deref(_.gradientLength())})/100))`);
+  }
+
+  // discrete gradient legend
+  else if (type === Discrete) {
+    children = [legendGradientDiscrete(spec, scale, config, encode.gradient, entryRef), legendGradientLabels(spec, config, encode.labels, entryRef)];
+  }
+
+  // symbol legend
+  else {
+    // determine legend symbol group layout
+    entryLayout = legendSymbolLayout(spec, config);
+    children = [legendSymbolGroups(spec, config, encode, entryRef, deref(entryLayout.columns))];
+    // pass symbol size information to legend entry generator
+    params.size = sizeExpression(spec, scope, children[0].marks);
+  }
+
+  // generate legend marks
+  children = [guideGroup({
+    role: LegendEntryRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode: entryEncode,
+    marks: children,
+    layout: entryLayout,
+    interactive
+  })];
+
+  // include legend title if defined
+  if (datum.title) {
+    children.push(legendTitle(spec, config, encode.title, dataRef));
+  }
+
+  // parse legend specification
+  return parseMark(guideGroup({
+    role: LegendRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode: extendEncode(buildLegendEncode(_, spec, config), legendEncode, Skip),
+    marks: children,
+    aria: _('aria'),
+    description: _('description'),
+    zindex: _('zindex'),
+    name,
+    interactive,
+    style
+  }), scope);
+}
+function legendType(spec, scaleType) {
+  let type = spec.type || Symbols;
+  if (!spec.type && scaleCount(spec) === 1 && (spec.fill || spec.stroke)) {
+    type = vegaScale.isContinuous(scaleType) ? Gradient : vegaScale.isDiscretizing(scaleType) ? Discrete : Symbols;
+  }
+  return type !== Gradient ? type : vegaScale.isDiscretizing(scaleType) ? Discrete : Gradient;
+}
+function scaleCount(spec) {
+  return LegendScales.reduce((count, type) => count + (spec[type] ? 1 : 0), 0);
+}
+function buildLegendEncode(_, spec, config) {
+  const encode = {
+    enter: {},
+    update: {}
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    orient: _('orient'),
+    offset: _('offset'),
+    padding: _('padding'),
+    titlePadding: _('titlePadding'),
+    cornerRadius: _('cornerRadius'),
+    fill: _('fillColor'),
+    stroke: _('strokeColor'),
+    strokeWidth: config.strokeWidth,
+    strokeDash: config.strokeDash,
+    x: _('legendX'),
+    y: _('legendY'),
+    // accessibility support
+    format: spec.format,
+    formatType: spec.formatType
+  });
+  return encode;
+}
+function sizeExpression(spec, scope, marks) {
+  const size = deref(getChannel('size', spec, marks)),
+    strokeWidth = deref(getChannel('strokeWidth', spec, marks)),
+    fontSize = deref(getFontSize(marks[1].encode, scope, GuideLabelStyle));
+  return vegaFunctions.parseExpression(`max(ceil(sqrt(${size})+${strokeWidth}),${fontSize})`, scope);
+}
+function getChannel(name, spec, marks) {
+  return spec[name] ? `scale("${spec[name]}",datum)` : getEncoding(name, marks[0].encode);
+}
+function getFontSize(encode, scope, style) {
+  return getEncoding('fontSize', encode) || getStyle('fontSize', scope, style);
+}
+
+const angleExpr = `item.orient==="${Left}"?-90:item.orient==="${Right}"?90:0`;
+function parseTitle (spec, scope) {
+  spec = vegaUtil.isString(spec) ? {
+    text: spec
+  } : spec;
+  const _ = lookup(spec, scope.config.title),
+    encode = spec.encode || {},
+    userEncode = encode.group || {},
+    name = userEncode.name || undefined,
+    interactive = userEncode.interactive,
+    style = userEncode.style,
+    children = [];
+
+  // single-element data source for group title
+  const datum = {},
+    dataRef = ref(scope.add(Collect(null, [datum])));
+
+  // include title text
+  children.push(buildTitle(spec, _, titleEncode(spec), dataRef));
+
+  // include subtitle text
+  if (spec.subtitle) {
+    children.push(buildSubTitle(spec, _, encode.subtitle, dataRef));
+  }
+
+  // parse title specification
+  return parseMark(guideGroup({
+    role: TitleRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode: groupEncode(_, userEncode),
+    marks: children,
+    aria: _('aria'),
+    description: _('description'),
+    zindex: _('zindex'),
+    name,
+    interactive,
+    style
+  }), scope);
+}
+
+// provide backwards-compatibility for title custom encode;
+// the top-level encode block has been *deprecated*.
+function titleEncode(spec) {
+  const encode = spec.encode;
+  return encode && encode.title || vegaUtil.extend({
+    name: spec.name,
+    interactive: spec.interactive,
+    style: spec.style
+  }, encode);
+}
+function groupEncode(_, userEncode) {
+  const encode = {
+    enter: {},
+    update: {}
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    orient: _('orient'),
+    anchor: _('anchor'),
+    align: {
+      signal: alignExpr$1
+    },
+    angle: {
+      signal: angleExpr
+    },
+    limit: _('limit'),
+    frame: _('frame'),
+    offset: _('offset') || 0,
+    padding: _('subtitlePadding')
+  });
+  return extendEncode(encode, userEncode, Skip);
+}
+function buildTitle(spec, _, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const zero = {
+      value: 0
+    },
+    text = spec.text,
+    encode = {
+      enter: {
+        opacity: zero
+      },
+      update: {
+        opacity: {
+          value: 1
+        }
+      },
+      exit: {
+        opacity: zero
+      }
+    };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    text: text,
+    align: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.align'
+    },
+    angle: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.angle'
+    },
+    limit: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.limit'
+    },
+    baseline: 'top',
+    dx: _('dx'),
+    dy: _('dy'),
+    fill: _('color'),
+    font: _('font'),
+    fontSize: _('fontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('fontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('fontWeight'),
+    lineHeight: _('lineHeight')
+  }, {
+    // update
+    align: _('align'),
+    angle: _('angle'),
+    baseline: _('baseline')
+  });
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: TitleTextRole,
+    style: GroupTitleStyle,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+function buildSubTitle(spec, _, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const zero = {
+      value: 0
+    },
+    text = spec.subtitle,
+    encode = {
+      enter: {
+        opacity: zero
+      },
+      update: {
+        opacity: {
+          value: 1
+        }
+      },
+      exit: {
+        opacity: zero
+      }
+    };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    text: text,
+    align: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.align'
+    },
+    angle: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.angle'
+    },
+    limit: {
+      signal: 'item.mark.group.limit'
+    },
+    baseline: 'top',
+    dx: _('dx'),
+    dy: _('dy'),
+    fill: _('subtitleColor'),
+    font: _('subtitleFont'),
+    fontSize: _('subtitleFontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('subtitleFontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('subtitleFontWeight'),
+    lineHeight: _('subtitleLineHeight')
+  }, {
+    // update
+    align: _('align'),
+    angle: _('angle'),
+    baseline: _('baseline')
+  });
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: TitleSubtitleRole,
+    style: GroupSubtitleStyle,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+function parseData(data, scope) {
+  const transforms = [];
+  if (data.transform) {
+    data.transform.forEach(tx => {
+      transforms.push(parseTransform(tx, scope));
+    });
+  }
+  if (data.on) {
+    data.on.forEach(on => {
+      parseTrigger(on, scope, data.name);
+    });
+  }
+  scope.addDataPipeline(data.name, analyze(data, scope, transforms));
+}
+
+/**
+ * Analyze a data pipeline, add needed operators.
+ */
+function analyze(data, scope, ops) {
+  const output = [];
+  let source = null,
+    modify = false,
+    generate = false,
+    upstream,
+    i,
+    n,
+    t,
+    m;
+  if (data.values) {
+    // hard-wired input data set
+    if (isSignal(data.values) || hasSignal(data.format)) {
+      // if either values is signal or format has signal, use dynamic loader
+      output.push(load(scope, data));
+      output.push(source = collect());
+    } else {
+      // otherwise, ingest upon dataflow init
+      output.push(source = collect({
+        $ingest: data.values,
+        $format: data.format
+      }));
+    }
+  } else if (data.url) {
+    // load data from external source
+    if (hasSignal(data.url) || hasSignal(data.format)) {
+      // if either url or format has signal, use dynamic loader
+      output.push(load(scope, data));
+      output.push(source = collect());
+    } else {
+      // otherwise, request load upon dataflow init
+      output.push(source = collect({
+        $request: data.url,
+        $format: data.format
+      }));
+    }
+  } else if (data.source) {
+    // derives from one or more other data sets
+    source = upstream = vegaUtil.array(data.source).map(d => ref(scope.getData(d).output));
+    output.push(null); // populate later
+  }
+
+  // scan data transforms, add collectors as needed
+  for (i = 0, n = ops.length; i < n; ++i) {
+    t = ops[i];
+    m = t.metadata;
+    if (!source && !m.source) {
+      output.push(source = collect());
+    }
+    output.push(t);
+    if (m.generates) generate = true;
+    if (m.modifies && !generate) modify = true;
+    if (m.source) source = t;else if (m.changes) source = null;
+  }
+  if (upstream) {
+    n = upstream.length - 1;
+    output[0] = Relay({
+      derive: modify,
+      pulse: n ? upstream : upstream[0]
+    });
+    if (modify || n) {
+      // collect derived and multi-pulse tuples
+      output.splice(1, 0, collect());
+    }
+  }
+  if (!source) output.push(collect());
+  output.push(Sieve({}));
+  return output;
+}
+function collect(values) {
+  const s = Collect({}, values);
+  s.metadata = {
+    source: true
+  };
+  return s;
+}
+function load(scope, data) {
+  return Load({
+    url: data.url ? scope.property(data.url) : undefined,
+    async: data.async ? scope.property(data.async) : undefined,
+    values: data.values ? scope.property(data.values) : undefined,
+    format: scope.objectProperty(data.format)
+  });
+}
+
+const isX = orient => orient === Bottom || orient === Top;
+
+// get sign coefficient based on axis orient
+const getSign = (orient, a, b) => isSignal(orient) ? ifLeftTopExpr(orient.signal, a, b) : orient === Left || orient === Top ? a : b;
+
+// condition on axis x-direction
+const ifX = (orient, a, b) => isSignal(orient) ? ifXEnc(orient.signal, a, b) : isX(orient) ? a : b;
+
+// condition on axis y-direction
+const ifY = (orient, a, b) => isSignal(orient) ? ifYEnc(orient.signal, a, b) : isX(orient) ? b : a;
+const ifTop = (orient, a, b) => isSignal(orient) ? ifTopExpr(orient.signal, a, b) : orient === Top ? {
+  value: a
+} : {
+  value: b
+};
+const ifRight = (orient, a, b) => isSignal(orient) ? ifRightExpr(orient.signal, a, b) : orient === Right ? {
+  value: a
+} : {
+  value: b
+};
+const ifXEnc = ($orient, a, b) => ifEnc(`${$orient} === '${Top}' || ${$orient} === '${Bottom}'`, a, b);
+const ifYEnc = ($orient, a, b) => ifEnc(`${$orient} !== '${Top}' && ${$orient} !== '${Bottom}'`, a, b);
+const ifLeftTopExpr = ($orient, a, b) => ifExpr(`${$orient} === '${Left}' || ${$orient} === '${Top}'`, a, b);
+const ifTopExpr = ($orient, a, b) => ifExpr(`${$orient} === '${Top}'`, a, b);
+const ifRightExpr = ($orient, a, b) => ifExpr(`${$orient} === '${Right}'`, a, b);
+const ifEnc = (test, a, b) => {
+  // ensure inputs are encoder objects (or null)
+  a = a != null ? encoder(a) : a;
+  b = b != null ? encoder(b) : b;
+  if (isSimple(a) && isSimple(b)) {
+    // if possible generate simple signal expression
+    a = a ? a.signal || vegaUtil.stringValue(a.value) : null;
+    b = b ? b.signal || vegaUtil.stringValue(b.value) : null;
+    return {
+      signal: `${test} ? (${a}) : (${b})`
+    };
+  } else {
+    // otherwise generate rule set
+    return [vegaUtil.extend({
+      test
+    }, a)].concat(b || []);
+  }
+};
+const isSimple = enc => enc == null || Object.keys(enc).length === 1;
+const ifExpr = (test, a, b) => ({
+  signal: `${test} ? (${toExpr(a)}) : (${toExpr(b)})`
+});
+const ifOrient = ($orient, t, b, l, r) => ({
+  signal: (l != null ? `${$orient} === '${Left}' ? (${toExpr(l)}) : ` : '') + (b != null ? `${$orient} === '${Bottom}' ? (${toExpr(b)}) : ` : '') + (r != null ? `${$orient} === '${Right}' ? (${toExpr(r)}) : ` : '') + (t != null ? `${$orient} === '${Top}' ? (${toExpr(t)}) : ` : '') + '(null)'
+});
+const toExpr = v => isSignal(v) ? v.signal : v == null ? null : vegaUtil.stringValue(v);
+const mult = (sign, value) => value === 0 ? 0 : isSignal(sign) ? {
+  signal: `(${sign.signal}) * ${value}`
+} : {
+  value: sign * value
+};
+const patch = (value, base) => {
+  const s = value.signal;
+  return s && s.endsWith('(null)') ? {
+    signal: s.slice(0, -6) + base.signal
+  } : value;
+};
+
+function fallback(prop, config, axisConfig, style) {
+  let styleProp;
+  if (config && vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(config, prop)) {
+    return config[prop];
+  } else if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(axisConfig, prop)) {
+    return axisConfig[prop];
+  } else if (prop.startsWith('title')) {
+    switch (prop) {
+      case 'titleColor':
+        styleProp = 'fill';
+        break;
+      case 'titleFont':
+      case 'titleFontSize':
+      case 'titleFontWeight':
+        styleProp = prop[5].toLowerCase() + prop.slice(6);
+    }
+    return style[GuideTitleStyle][styleProp];
+  } else if (prop.startsWith('label')) {
+    switch (prop) {
+      case 'labelColor':
+        styleProp = 'fill';
+        break;
+      case 'labelFont':
+      case 'labelFontSize':
+        styleProp = prop[5].toLowerCase() + prop.slice(6);
+    }
+    return style[GuideLabelStyle][styleProp];
+  }
+  return null;
+}
+function keys(objects) {
+  const map = {};
+  for (const obj of objects) {
+    if (!obj) continue;
+    for (const key in obj) map[key] = 1;
+  }
+  return Object.keys(map);
+}
+function axisConfig (spec, scope) {
+  var config = scope.config,
+    style = config.style,
+    axis = config.axis,
+    band = scope.scaleType(spec.scale) === 'band' && config.axisBand,
+    orient = spec.orient,
+    xy,
+    or,
+    key;
+  if (isSignal(orient)) {
+    const xyKeys = keys([config.axisX, config.axisY]),
+      orientKeys = keys([config.axisTop, config.axisBottom, config.axisLeft, config.axisRight]);
+    xy = {};
+    for (key of xyKeys) {
+      xy[key] = ifX(orient, fallback(key, config.axisX, axis, style), fallback(key, config.axisY, axis, style));
+    }
+    or = {};
+    for (key of orientKeys) {
+      or[key] = ifOrient(orient.signal, fallback(key, config.axisTop, axis, style), fallback(key, config.axisBottom, axis, style), fallback(key, config.axisLeft, axis, style), fallback(key, config.axisRight, axis, style));
+    }
+  } else {
+    xy = orient === Top || orient === Bottom ? config.axisX : config.axisY;
+    or = config['axis' + orient[0].toUpperCase() + orient.slice(1)];
+  }
+  const result = xy || or || band ? vegaUtil.extend({}, axis, xy, or, band) : axis;
+  return result;
+}
+
+function axisDomain (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    orient = spec.orient;
+  let enter, update;
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    stroke: _('domainColor'),
+    strokeCap: _('domainCap'),
+    strokeDash: _('domainDash'),
+    strokeDashOffset: _('domainDashOffset'),
+    strokeWidth: _('domainWidth'),
+    strokeOpacity: _('domainOpacity')
+  });
+  const pos0 = position(spec, 0);
+  const pos1 = position(spec, 1);
+  enter.x = update.x = ifX(orient, pos0, zero);
+  enter.x2 = update.x2 = ifX(orient, pos1);
+  enter.y = update.y = ifY(orient, pos0, zero);
+  enter.y2 = update.y2 = ifY(orient, pos1);
+  return guideMark({
+    type: RuleMark,
+    role: AxisDomainRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+function position(spec, pos) {
+  return {
+    scale: spec.scale,
+    range: pos
+  };
+}
+
+function axisGrid (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef, band) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    orient = spec.orient,
+    vscale = spec.gridScale,
+    sign = getSign(orient, 1, -1),
+    offset = offsetValue(spec.offset, sign);
+  let enter, exit, update;
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one
+    },
+    exit: exit = {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    stroke: _('gridColor'),
+    strokeCap: _('gridCap'),
+    strokeDash: _('gridDash'),
+    strokeDashOffset: _('gridDashOffset'),
+    strokeOpacity: _('gridOpacity'),
+    strokeWidth: _('gridWidth')
+  });
+  const tickPos = {
+    scale: spec.scale,
+    field: Value,
+    band: band.band,
+    extra: band.extra,
+    offset: band.offset,
+    round: _('tickRound')
+  };
+  const sz = ifX(orient, {
+    signal: 'height'
+  }, {
+    signal: 'width'
+  });
+  const gridStart = vscale ? {
+    scale: vscale,
+    range: 0,
+    mult: sign,
+    offset: offset
+  } : {
+    value: 0,
+    offset: offset
+  };
+  const gridEnd = vscale ? {
+    scale: vscale,
+    range: 1,
+    mult: sign,
+    offset: offset
+  } : vegaUtil.extend(sz, {
+    mult: sign,
+    offset: offset
+  });
+  enter.x = update.x = ifX(orient, tickPos, gridStart);
+  enter.y = update.y = ifY(orient, tickPos, gridStart);
+  enter.x2 = update.x2 = ifY(orient, gridEnd);
+  enter.y2 = update.y2 = ifX(orient, gridEnd);
+  exit.x = ifX(orient, tickPos);
+  exit.y = ifY(orient, tickPos);
+  return guideMark({
+    type: RuleMark,
+    role: AxisGridRole,
+    key: Value,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+function offsetValue(offset, sign) {
+  if (sign === 1) ; else if (!vegaUtil.isObject(offset)) {
+    offset = isSignal(sign) ? {
+      signal: `(${sign.signal}) * (${offset || 0})`
+    } : sign * (offset || 0);
+  } else {
+    let entry = offset = vegaUtil.extend({}, offset);
+    while (entry.mult != null) {
+      if (!vegaUtil.isObject(entry.mult)) {
+        entry.mult = isSignal(sign) // no offset if sign === 1
+        ? {
+          signal: `(${entry.mult}) * (${sign.signal})`
+        } : entry.mult * sign;
+        return offset;
+      } else {
+        entry = entry.mult = vegaUtil.extend({}, entry.mult);
+      }
+    }
+    entry.mult = sign;
+  }
+  return offset;
+}
+
+function axisTicks (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef, size, band) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    orient = spec.orient,
+    sign = getSign(orient, -1, 1);
+  let enter, exit, update;
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero
+    },
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one
+    },
+    exit: exit = {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    stroke: _('tickColor'),
+    strokeCap: _('tickCap'),
+    strokeDash: _('tickDash'),
+    strokeDashOffset: _('tickDashOffset'),
+    strokeOpacity: _('tickOpacity'),
+    strokeWidth: _('tickWidth')
+  });
+  const tickSize = encoder(size);
+  tickSize.mult = sign;
+  const tickPos = {
+    scale: spec.scale,
+    field: Value,
+    band: band.band,
+    extra: band.extra,
+    offset: band.offset,
+    round: _('tickRound')
+  };
+  update.y = enter.y = ifX(orient, zero, tickPos);
+  update.y2 = enter.y2 = ifX(orient, tickSize);
+  exit.x = ifX(orient, tickPos);
+  update.x = enter.x = ifY(orient, zero, tickPos);
+  update.x2 = enter.x2 = ifY(orient, tickSize);
+  exit.y = ifY(orient, tickPos);
+  return guideMark({
+    type: RuleMark,
+    role: AxisTickRole,
+    key: Value,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+function flushExpr(scale, threshold, a, b, c) {
+  return {
+    signal: 'flush(range("' + scale + '"), ' + 'scale("' + scale + '", datum.value), ' + threshold + ',' + a + ',' + b + ',' + c + ')'
+  };
+}
+function axisLabels (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef, size, band) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    orient = spec.orient,
+    scale = spec.scale,
+    sign = getSign(orient, -1, 1),
+    flush = deref(_('labelFlush')),
+    flushOffset = deref(_('labelFlushOffset')),
+    labelAlign = _('labelAlign'),
+    labelBaseline = _('labelBaseline');
+  let flushOn = flush === 0 || !!flush,
+    update;
+  const tickSize = encoder(size);
+  tickSize.mult = sign;
+  tickSize.offset = encoder(_('labelPadding') || 0);
+  tickSize.offset.mult = sign;
+  const tickPos = {
+    scale: scale,
+    field: Value,
+    band: 0.5,
+    offset: extendOffset(band.offset, _('labelOffset'))
+  };
+  const align = ifX(orient, flushOn ? flushExpr(scale, flush, '"left"', '"right"', '"center"') : {
+    value: 'center'
+  }, ifRight(orient, 'left', 'right'));
+  const baseline = ifX(orient, ifTop(orient, 'bottom', 'top'), flushOn ? flushExpr(scale, flush, '"top"', '"bottom"', '"middle"') : {
+    value: 'middle'
+  });
+  const offsetExpr = flushExpr(scale, flush, `-(${flushOffset})`, flushOffset, 0);
+  flushOn = flushOn && flushOffset;
+  const enter = {
+    opacity: zero,
+    x: ifX(orient, tickPos, tickSize),
+    y: ifY(orient, tickPos, tickSize)
+  };
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter,
+    update: update = {
+      opacity: one,
+      text: {
+        field: Label
+      },
+      x: enter.x,
+      y: enter.y,
+      align,
+      baseline
+    },
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero,
+      x: enter.x,
+      y: enter.y
+    }
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    dx: !labelAlign && flushOn ? ifX(orient, offsetExpr) : null,
+    dy: !labelBaseline && flushOn ? ifY(orient, offsetExpr) : null
+  });
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    angle: _('labelAngle'),
+    fill: _('labelColor'),
+    fillOpacity: _('labelOpacity'),
+    font: _('labelFont'),
+    fontSize: _('labelFontSize'),
+    fontWeight: _('labelFontWeight'),
+    fontStyle: _('labelFontStyle'),
+    limit: _('labelLimit'),
+    lineHeight: _('labelLineHeight')
+  }, {
+    align: labelAlign,
+    baseline: labelBaseline
+  });
+  const bound = _('labelBound');
+  let overlap = _('labelOverlap');
+
+  // if overlap method or bound defined, request label overlap removal
+  overlap = overlap || bound ? {
+    separation: _('labelSeparation'),
+    method: overlap,
+    order: 'datum.index',
+    bound: bound ? {
+      scale,
+      orient,
+      tolerance: bound
+    } : null
+  } : undefined;
+  if (update.align !== align) {
+    update.align = patch(update.align, align);
+  }
+  if (update.baseline !== baseline) {
+    update.baseline = patch(update.baseline, baseline);
+  }
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: AxisLabelRole,
+    style: GuideLabelStyle,
+    key: Value,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode,
+    overlap
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+
+function axisTitle (spec, config, userEncode, dataRef) {
+  const _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    orient = spec.orient,
+    sign = getSign(orient, -1, 1);
+  let enter, update;
+  const encode = {
+    enter: enter = {
+      opacity: zero,
+      anchor: encoder(_('titleAnchor', null)),
+      align: {
+        signal: alignExpr$1
+      }
+    },
+    update: update = vegaUtil.extend({}, enter, {
+      opacity: one,
+      text: encoder(spec.title)
+    }),
+    exit: {
+      opacity: zero
+    }
+  };
+  const titlePos = {
+    signal: `lerp(range("${spec.scale}"), ${anchorExpr(0, 1, 0.5)})`
+  };
+  update.x = ifX(orient, titlePos);
+  update.y = ifY(orient, titlePos);
+  enter.angle = ifX(orient, zero, mult(sign, 90));
+  enter.baseline = ifX(orient, ifTop(orient, Bottom, Top), {
+    value: Bottom
+  });
+  update.angle = enter.angle;
+  update.baseline = enter.baseline;
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    fill: _('titleColor'),
+    fillOpacity: _('titleOpacity'),
+    font: _('titleFont'),
+    fontSize: _('titleFontSize'),
+    fontStyle: _('titleFontStyle'),
+    fontWeight: _('titleFontWeight'),
+    limit: _('titleLimit'),
+    lineHeight: _('titleLineHeight')
+  }, {
+    // require update
+    align: _('titleAlign'),
+    angle: _('titleAngle'),
+    baseline: _('titleBaseline')
+  });
+  autoLayout(_, orient, encode, userEncode);
+  encode.update.align = patch(encode.update.align, enter.align);
+  encode.update.angle = patch(encode.update.angle, enter.angle);
+  encode.update.baseline = patch(encode.update.baseline, enter.baseline);
+  return guideMark({
+    type: TextMark,
+    role: AxisTitleRole,
+    style: GuideTitleStyle,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode
+  }, userEncode);
+}
+function autoLayout(_, orient, encode, userEncode) {
+  const auto = (value, dim) => value != null ? (encode.update[dim] = patch(encoder(value), encode.update[dim]), false) : !has(dim, userEncode) ? true : false;
+  const autoY = auto(_('titleX'), 'x'),
+    autoX = auto(_('titleY'), 'y');
+  encode.enter.auto = autoX === autoY ? encoder(autoX) : ifX(orient, encoder(autoX), encoder(autoY));
+}
+
+function parseAxis (spec, scope) {
+  const config = axisConfig(spec, scope),
+    encode = spec.encode || {},
+    axisEncode = encode.axis || {},
+    name = axisEncode.name || undefined,
+    interactive = axisEncode.interactive,
+    style = axisEncode.style,
+    _ = lookup(spec, config),
+    band = tickBand(_);
+
+  // single-element data source for axis group
+  const datum = {
+    scale: spec.scale,
+    ticks: !!_('ticks'),
+    labels: !!_('labels'),
+    grid: !!_('grid'),
+    domain: !!_('domain'),
+    title: spec.title != null
+  };
+  const dataRef = ref(scope.add(Collect({}, [datum])));
+
+  // data source for axis ticks
+  const ticksRef = ref(scope.add(AxisTicks({
+    scale: scope.scaleRef(spec.scale),
+    extra: scope.property(band.extra),
+    count: scope.objectProperty(spec.tickCount),
+    values: scope.objectProperty(spec.values),
+    minstep: scope.property(spec.tickMinStep),
+    formatType: scope.property(spec.formatType),
+    formatSpecifier: scope.property(spec.format)
+  })));
+
+  // generate axis marks
+  const children = [];
+  let size;
+
+  // include axis gridlines if requested
+  if (datum.grid) {
+    children.push(axisGrid(spec, config, encode.grid, ticksRef, band));
+  }
+
+  // include axis ticks if requested
+  if (datum.ticks) {
+    size = _('tickSize');
+    children.push(axisTicks(spec, config, encode.ticks, ticksRef, size, band));
+  }
+
+  // include axis labels if requested
+  if (datum.labels) {
+    size = datum.ticks ? size : 0;
+    children.push(axisLabels(spec, config, encode.labels, ticksRef, size, band));
+  }
+
+  // include axis domain path if requested
+  if (datum.domain) {
+    children.push(axisDomain(spec, config, encode.domain, dataRef));
+  }
+
+  // include axis title if defined
+  if (datum.title) {
+    children.push(axisTitle(spec, config, encode.title, dataRef));
+  }
+
+  // parse axis specification
+  return parseMark(guideGroup({
+    role: AxisRole,
+    from: dataRef,
+    encode: extendEncode(buildAxisEncode(_, spec), axisEncode, Skip),
+    marks: children,
+    aria: _('aria'),
+    description: _('description'),
+    zindex: _('zindex'),
+    name,
+    interactive,
+    style
+  }), scope);
+}
+function buildAxisEncode(_, spec) {
+  const encode = {
+    enter: {},
+    update: {}
+  };
+  addEncoders(encode, {
+    orient: _('orient'),
+    offset: _('offset') || 0,
+    position: value(spec.position, 0),
+    titlePadding: _('titlePadding'),
+    minExtent: _('minExtent'),
+    maxExtent: _('maxExtent'),
+    range: {
+      signal: `abs(span(range("${spec.scale}")))`
+    },
+    translate: _('translate'),
+    // accessibility support
+    format: spec.format,
+    formatType: spec.formatType
+  });
+  return encode;
+}
+
+function parseScope (spec, scope, preprocessed) {
+  const signals = vegaUtil.array(spec.signals),
+    scales = vegaUtil.array(spec.scales);
+
+  // parse signal definitions, if not already preprocessed
+  if (!preprocessed) signals.forEach(_ => parseSignal(_, scope));
+
+  // parse cartographic projection definitions
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.projections).forEach(_ => parseProjection(_, scope));
+
+  // initialize scale references
+  scales.forEach(_ => initScale(_, scope));
+
+  // parse data sources
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.data).forEach(_ => parseData(_, scope));
+
+  // parse scale definitions
+  scales.forEach(_ => parseScale(_, scope));
+
+  // parse signal updates
+  (preprocessed || signals).forEach(_ => parseSignalUpdates(_, scope));
+
+  // parse axis definitions
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.axes).forEach(_ => parseAxis(_, scope));
+
+  // parse mark definitions
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.marks).forEach(_ => parseMark(_, scope));
+
+  // parse legend definitions
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.legends).forEach(_ => parseLegend(_, scope));
+
+  // parse title, if defined
+  if (spec.title) parseTitle(spec.title, scope);
+
+  // parse collected lambda (anonymous) expressions
+  scope.parseLambdas();
+  return scope;
+}
+
+const rootEncode = spec => extendEncode({
+  enter: {
+    x: {
+      value: 0
+    },
+    y: {
+      value: 0
+    }
+  },
+  update: {
+    width: {
+      signal: 'width'
+    },
+    height: {
+      signal: 'height'
+    }
+  }
+}, spec);
+function parseView(spec, scope) {
+  const config = scope.config;
+
+  // add scenegraph root
+  const root = ref(scope.root = scope.add(operator()));
+
+  // parse top-level signal definitions
+  const signals = collectSignals(spec, config);
+  signals.forEach(_ => parseSignal(_, scope));
+
+  // assign description, event, legend, and locale configuration
+  scope.description = spec.description || config.description;
+  scope.eventConfig = config.events;
+  scope.legends = scope.objectProperty(config.legend && config.legend.layout);
+  scope.locale = config.locale;
+
+  // store root group item
+  const input = scope.add(Collect());
+
+  // encode root group item
+  const encode = scope.add(Encode(parseEncode(rootEncode(spec.encode), GroupMark, FrameRole, spec.style, scope, {
+    pulse: ref(input)
+  })));
+
+  // perform view layout
+  const parent = scope.add(ViewLayout({
+    layout: scope.objectProperty(spec.layout),
+    legends: scope.legends,
+    autosize: scope.signalRef('autosize'),
+    mark: root,
+    pulse: ref(encode)
+  }));
+  scope.operators.pop();
+
+  // parse remainder of specification
+  scope.pushState(ref(encode), ref(parent), null);
+  parseScope(spec, scope, signals);
+  scope.operators.push(parent);
+
+  // bound / render / sieve root item
+  let op = scope.add(Bound({
+    mark: root,
+    pulse: ref(parent)
+  }));
+  op = scope.add(Render({
+    pulse: ref(op)
+  }));
+  op = scope.add(Sieve({
+    pulse: ref(op)
+  }));
+
+  // track metadata for root item
+  scope.addData('root', new DataScope(scope, input, input, op));
+  return scope;
+}
+function signalObject(name, value) {
+  return value && value.signal ? {
+    name,
+    update: value.signal
+  } : {
+    name,
+    value
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Collect top-level signals, merging values as needed. Signals
+ * defined in the config signals arrays are added only if that
+ * signal is not explicitly defined in the specification.
+ * Built-in signals (autosize, background, padding, width, height)
+ * receive special treatment. They are initialized using the
+ * top-level spec property, or, if undefined in the spec, using
+ * the corresponding top-level config property. If this property
+ * is a signal reference object, the signal expression maps to the
+ * signal 'update' property. If the spec's top-level signal array
+ * contains an entry that matches a built-in signal, that entry
+ * will be merged with the built-in specification, potentially
+ * overwriting existing 'value' or 'update' properties.
+ */
+function collectSignals(spec, config) {
+  const _ = name => value(spec[name], config[name]),
+    signals = [signalObject('background', _('background')), signalObject('autosize', parseAutosize(_('autosize'))), signalObject('padding', parsePadding(_('padding'))), signalObject('width', _('width') || 0), signalObject('height', _('height') || 0)],
+    pre = signals.reduce((p, s) => (p[s.name] = s, p), {}),
+    map = {};
+
+  // add spec signal array
+  vegaUtil.array(spec.signals).forEach(s => {
+    if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(pre, s.name)) {
+      // merge if built-in signal
+      s = vegaUtil.extend(pre[s.name], s);
+    } else {
+      // otherwise add to signal list
+      signals.push(s);
+    }
+    map[s.name] = s;
+  });
+
+  // add config signal array
+  vegaUtil.array(config.signals).forEach(s => {
+    if (!vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(map, s.name) && !vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(pre, s.name)) {
+      // add to signal list if not already defined
+      signals.push(s);
+    }
+  });
+  return signals;
+}
+
+function Scope(config, options) {
+  this.config = config || {};
+  this.options = options || {};
+  this.bindings = [];
+  this.field = {};
+  this.signals = {};
+  this.lambdas = {};
+  this.scales = {};
+  this.events = {};
+  this.data = {};
+  this.streams = [];
+  this.updates = [];
+  this.operators = [];
+  this.eventConfig = null;
+  this.locale = null;
+  this._id = 0;
+  this._subid = 0;
+  this._nextsub = [0];
+  this._parent = [];
+  this._encode = [];
+  this._lookup = [];
+  this._markpath = [];
+}
+function Subscope(scope) {
+  this.config = scope.config;
+  this.options = scope.options;
+  this.legends = scope.legends;
+  this.field = Object.create(scope.field);
+  this.signals = Object.create(scope.signals);
+  this.lambdas = Object.create(scope.lambdas);
+  this.scales = Object.create(scope.scales);
+  this.events = Object.create(scope.events);
+  this.data = Object.create(scope.data);
+  this.streams = [];
+  this.updates = [];
+  this.operators = [];
+  this._id = 0;
+  this._subid = ++scope._nextsub[0];
+  this._nextsub = scope._nextsub;
+  this._parent = scope._parent.slice();
+  this._encode = scope._encode.slice();
+  this._lookup = scope._lookup.slice();
+  this._markpath = scope._markpath;
+}
+Scope.prototype = Subscope.prototype = {
+  parse(spec) {
+    return parseScope(spec, this);
+  },
+  fork() {
+    return new Subscope(this);
+  },
+  isSubscope() {
+    return this._subid > 0;
+  },
+  toRuntime() {
+    this.finish();
+    return {
+      description: this.description,
+      operators: this.operators,
+      streams: this.streams,
+      updates: this.updates,
+      bindings: this.bindings,
+      eventConfig: this.eventConfig,
+      locale: this.locale
+    };
+  },
+  id() {
+    return (this._subid ? this._subid + ':' : 0) + this._id++;
+  },
+  add(op) {
+    this.operators.push(op);
+    op.id = this.id();
+    // if pre-registration references exist, resolve them now
+    if (op.refs) {
+      op.refs.forEach(ref => {
+        ref.$ref = op.id;
+      });
+      op.refs = null;
+    }
+    return op;
+  },
+  proxy(op) {
+    const vref = op instanceof Entry ? ref(op) : op;
+    return this.add(Proxy({
+      value: vref
+    }));
+  },
+  addStream(stream) {
+    this.streams.push(stream);
+    stream.id = this.id();
+    return stream;
+  },
+  addUpdate(update) {
+    this.updates.push(update);
+    return update;
+  },
+  // Apply metadata
+  finish() {
+    let name, ds;
+
+    // annotate root
+    if (this.root) this.root.root = true;
+
+    // annotate signals
+    for (name in this.signals) {
+      this.signals[name].signal = name;
+    }
+
+    // annotate scales
+    for (name in this.scales) {
+      this.scales[name].scale = name;
+    }
+
+    // annotate data sets
+    function annotate(op, name, type) {
+      let data, list;
+      if (op) {
+        data = op.data || (op.data = {});
+        list = data[name] || (data[name] = []);
+        list.push(type);
+      }
+    }
+    for (name in this.data) {
+      ds = this.data[name];
+      annotate(ds.input, name, 'input');
+      annotate(ds.output, name, 'output');
+      annotate(ds.values, name, 'values');
+      for (const field in ds.index) {
+        annotate(ds.index[field], name, 'index:' + field);
+      }
+    }
+    return this;
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  pushState(encode, parent, lookup) {
+    this._encode.push(ref(this.add(Sieve({
+      pulse: encode
+    }))));
+    this._parent.push(parent);
+    this._lookup.push(lookup ? ref(this.proxy(lookup)) : null);
+    this._markpath.push(-1);
+  },
+  popState() {
+    this._encode.pop();
+    this._parent.pop();
+    this._lookup.pop();
+    this._markpath.pop();
+  },
+  parent() {
+    return vegaUtil.peek(this._parent);
+  },
+  encode() {
+    return vegaUtil.peek(this._encode);
+  },
+  lookup() {
+    return vegaUtil.peek(this._lookup);
+  },
+  markpath() {
+    const p = this._markpath;
+    return ++p[p.length - 1];
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  fieldRef(field, name) {
+    if (vegaUtil.isString(field)) return fieldRef$1(field, name);
+    if (!field.signal) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Unsupported field reference: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(field));
+    }
+    const s = field.signal;
+    let f = this.field[s];
+    if (!f) {
+      const params = {
+        name: this.signalRef(s)
+      };
+      if (name) params.as = name;
+      this.field[s] = f = ref(this.add(Field(params)));
+    }
+    return f;
+  },
+  compareRef(cmp) {
+    let signal = false;
+    const check = _ => isSignal(_) ? (signal = true, this.signalRef(_.signal)) : isExpr$1(_) ? (signal = true, this.exprRef(_.expr)) : _;
+    const fields = vegaUtil.array(cmp.field).map(check),
+      orders = vegaUtil.array(cmp.order).map(check);
+    return signal ? ref(this.add(Compare({
+      fields: fields,
+      orders: orders
+    }))) : compareRef(fields, orders);
+  },
+  keyRef(fields, flat) {
+    let signal = false;
+    const check = _ => isSignal(_) ? (signal = true, ref(sig[_.signal])) : _;
+    const sig = this.signals;
+    fields = vegaUtil.array(fields).map(check);
+    return signal ? ref(this.add(Key({
+      fields: fields,
+      flat: flat
+    }))) : keyRef(fields, flat);
+  },
+  sortRef(sort) {
+    if (!sort) return sort;
+
+    // including id ensures stable sorting
+    const a = aggrField(sort.op, sort.field),
+      o = sort.order || Ascending;
+    return o.signal ? ref(this.add(Compare({
+      fields: a,
+      orders: this.signalRef(o.signal)
+    }))) : compareRef(a, o);
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  event(source, type) {
+    const key = source + ':' + type;
+    if (!this.events[key]) {
+      const id = this.id();
+      this.streams.push({
+        id: id,
+        source: source,
+        type: type
+      });
+      this.events[key] = id;
+    }
+    return this.events[key];
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  hasOwnSignal(name) {
+    return vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(this.signals, name);
+  },
+  addSignal(name, value) {
+    if (this.hasOwnSignal(name)) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Duplicate signal name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    const op = value instanceof Entry ? value : this.add(operator(value));
+    return this.signals[name] = op;
+  },
+  getSignal(name) {
+    if (!this.signals[name]) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Unrecognized signal name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    return this.signals[name];
+  },
+  signalRef(s) {
+    if (this.signals[s]) {
+      return ref(this.signals[s]);
+    } else if (!vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(this.lambdas, s)) {
+      this.lambdas[s] = this.add(operator(null));
+    }
+    return ref(this.lambdas[s]);
+  },
+  parseLambdas() {
+    const code = Object.keys(this.lambdas);
+    for (let i = 0, n = code.length; i < n; ++i) {
+      const s = code[i],
+        e = vegaFunctions.parseExpression(s, this),
+        op = this.lambdas[s];
+      op.params = e.$params;
+      op.update = e.$expr;
+    }
+  },
+  property(spec) {
+    return spec && spec.signal ? this.signalRef(spec.signal) : spec;
+  },
+  objectProperty(spec) {
+    return !spec || !vegaUtil.isObject(spec) ? spec : this.signalRef(spec.signal || propertyLambda(spec));
+  },
+  exprRef(code, name) {
+    const params = {
+      expr: vegaFunctions.parseExpression(code, this)
+    };
+    if (name) params.expr.$name = name;
+    return ref(this.add(Expression(params)));
+  },
+  addBinding(name, bind) {
+    if (!this.bindings) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Nested signals do not support binding: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    this.bindings.push(vegaUtil.extend({
+      signal: name
+    }, bind));
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  addScaleProj(name, transform) {
+    if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(this.scales, name)) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Duplicate scale or projection name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    this.scales[name] = this.add(transform);
+  },
+  addScale(name, params) {
+    this.addScaleProj(name, Scale(params));
+  },
+  addProjection(name, params) {
+    this.addScaleProj(name, Projection(params));
+  },
+  getScale(name) {
+    if (!this.scales[name]) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Unrecognized scale name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    return this.scales[name];
+  },
+  scaleRef(name) {
+    return ref(this.getScale(name));
+  },
+  scaleType(name) {
+    return this.getScale(name).params.type;
+  },
+  projectionRef(name) {
+    return this.scaleRef(name);
+  },
+  projectionType(name) {
+    return this.scaleType(name);
+  },
+  // ----
+
+  addData(name, dataScope) {
+    if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(this.data, name)) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Duplicate data set name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    return this.data[name] = dataScope;
+  },
+  getData(name) {
+    if (!this.data[name]) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Undefined data set name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    return this.data[name];
+  },
+  addDataPipeline(name, entries) {
+    if (vegaUtil.hasOwnProperty(this.data, name)) {
+      vegaUtil.error('Duplicate data set name: ' + vegaUtil.stringValue(name));
+    }
+    return this.addData(name, DataScope.fromEntries(this, entries));
+  }
+};
+function propertyLambda(spec) {
+  return (vegaUtil.isArray(spec) ? arrayLambda : objectLambda)(spec);
+}
+function arrayLambda(array) {
+  const n = array.length;
+  let code = '[';
+  for (let i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
+    const value = array[i];
+    code += (i > 0 ? ',' : '') + (vegaUtil.isObject(value) ? value.signal || propertyLambda(value) : vegaUtil.stringValue(value));
+  }
+  return code + ']';
+}
+function objectLambda(obj) {
+  let code = '{',
+    i = 0,
+    key,
+    value;
+  for (key in obj) {
+    value = obj[key];
+    code += (++i > 1 ? ',' : '') + vegaUtil.stringValue(key) + ':' + (vegaUtil.isObject(value) ? value.signal || propertyLambda(value) : vegaUtil.stringValue(value));
+  }
+  return code + '}';
+}
+
+/**
+ * Standard configuration defaults for Vega specification parsing.
+ * Users can provide their own (sub-)set of these default values
+ * by passing in a config object to the top-level parse method.
+ */
+function defaults () {
+  const defaultFont = 'sans-serif',
+    defaultSymbolSize = 30,
+    defaultStrokeWidth = 2,
+    defaultColor = '#4c78a8',
+    black = '#000',
+    gray = '#888',
+    lightGray = '#ddd';
+  return {
+    // default visualization description
+    description: 'Vega visualization',
+    // default padding around visualization
+    padding: 0,
+    // default for automatic sizing; options: 'none', 'pad', 'fit'
+    // or provide an object (e.g., {'type': 'pad', 'resize': true})
+    autosize: 'pad',
+    // default view background color
+    // covers the entire view component
+    background: null,
+    // default event handling configuration
+    // preventDefault for view-sourced event types except 'wheel'
+    events: {
+      defaults: {
+        allow: ['wheel']
+      }
+    },
+    // defaults for top-level group marks
+    // accepts mark properties (fill, stroke, etc)
+    // covers the data rectangle within group width/height
+    group: null,
+    // defaults for basic mark types
+    // each subset accepts mark properties (fill, stroke, etc)
+    mark: null,
+    arc: {
+      fill: defaultColor
+    },
+    area: {
+      fill: defaultColor
+    },
+    image: null,
+    line: {
+      stroke: defaultColor,
+      strokeWidth: defaultStrokeWidth
+    },
+    path: {
+      stroke: defaultColor
+    },
+    rect: {
+      fill: defaultColor
+    },
+    rule: {
+      stroke: black
+    },
+    shape: {
+      stroke: defaultColor
+    },
+    symbol: {
+      fill: defaultColor,
+      size: 64
+    },
+    text: {
+      fill: black,
+      font: defaultFont,
+      fontSize: 11
+    },
+    trail: {
+      fill: defaultColor,
+      size: defaultStrokeWidth
+    },
+    // style definitions
+    style: {
+      // axis & legend labels
+      'guide-label': {
+        fill: black,
+        font: defaultFont,
+        fontSize: 10
+      },
+      // axis & legend titles
+      'guide-title': {
+        fill: black,
+        font: defaultFont,
+        fontSize: 11,
+        fontWeight: 'bold'
+      },
+      // headers, including chart title
+      'group-title': {
+        fill: black,
+        font: defaultFont,
+        fontSize: 13,
+        fontWeight: 'bold'
+      },
+      // chart subtitle
+      'group-subtitle': {
+        fill: black,
+        font: defaultFont,
+        fontSize: 12
+      },
+      // defaults for styled point marks in Vega-Lite
+      point: {
+        size: defaultSymbolSize,
+        strokeWidth: defaultStrokeWidth,
+        shape: 'circle'
+      },
+      circle: {
+        size: defaultSymbolSize,
+        strokeWidth: defaultStrokeWidth
+      },
+      square: {
+        size: defaultSymbolSize,
+        strokeWidth: defaultStrokeWidth,
+        shape: 'square'
+      },
+      // defaults for styled group marks in Vega-Lite
+      cell: {
+        fill: 'transparent',
+        stroke: lightGray
+      },
+      view: {
+        fill: 'transparent'
+      }
+    },
+    // defaults for title
+    title: {
+      orient: 'top',
+      anchor: 'middle',
+      offset: 4,
+      subtitlePadding: 3
+    },
+    // defaults for axes
+    axis: {
+      minExtent: 0,
+      maxExtent: 200,
+      bandPosition: 0.5,
+      domain: true,
+      domainWidth: 1,
+      domainColor: gray,
+      grid: false,
+      gridWidth: 1,
+      gridColor: lightGray,
+      labels: true,
+      labelAngle: 0,
+      labelLimit: 180,
+      labelOffset: 0,
+      labelPadding: 2,
+      ticks: true,
+      tickColor: gray,
+      tickOffset: 0,
+      tickRound: true,
+      tickSize: 5,
+      tickWidth: 1,
+      titlePadding: 4
+    },
+    // correction for centering bias
+    axisBand: {
+      tickOffset: -0.5
+    },
+    // defaults for cartographic projection
+    projection: {
+      type: 'mercator'
+    },
+    // defaults for legends
+    legend: {
+      orient: 'right',
+      padding: 0,
+      gridAlign: 'each',
+      columnPadding: 10,
+      rowPadding: 2,
+      symbolDirection: 'vertical',
+      gradientDirection: 'vertical',
+      gradientLength: 200,
+      gradientThickness: 16,
+      gradientStrokeColor: lightGray,
+      gradientStrokeWidth: 0,
+      gradientLabelOffset: 2,
+      labelAlign: 'left',
+      labelBaseline: 'middle',
+      labelLimit: 160,
+      labelOffset: 4,
+      labelOverlap: true,
+      symbolLimit: 30,
+      symbolType: 'circle',
+      symbolSize: 100,
+      symbolOffset: 0,
+      symbolStrokeWidth: 1.5,
+      symbolBaseFillColor: 'transparent',
+      symbolBaseStrokeColor: gray,
+      titleLimit: 180,
+      titleOrient: 'top',
+      titlePadding: 5,
+      layout: {
+        offset: 18,
+        direction: 'horizontal',
+        left: {
+          direction: 'vertical'
+        },
+        right: {
+          direction: 'vertical'
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    // defaults for scale ranges
+    range: {
+      category: {
+        scheme: 'tableau10'
+      },
+      ordinal: {
+        scheme: 'blues'
+      },
+      heatmap: {
+        scheme: 'yellowgreenblue'
+      },
+      ramp: {
+        scheme: 'blues'
+      },
+      diverging: {
+        scheme: 'blueorange',
+        extent: [1, 0]
+      },
+      symbol: ['circle', 'square', 'triangle-up', 'cross', 'diamond', 'triangle-right', 'triangle-down', 'triangle-left']
+    }
+  };
+}
+
+function parse (spec, config, options) {
+  if (!vegaUtil.isObject(spec)) {
+    vegaUtil.error('Input Vega specification must be an object.');
+  }
+  config = vegaUtil.mergeConfig(defaults(), config, spec.config);
+  return parseView(spec, new Scope(config, options)).toRuntime();
+}
+
+exports.AxisDomainRole = AxisDomainRole;
+exports.AxisGridRole = AxisGridRole;
+exports.AxisLabelRole = AxisLabelRole;
+exports.AxisRole = AxisRole;
+exports.AxisTickRole = AxisTickRole;
+exports.AxisTitleRole = AxisTitleRole;
+exports.DataScope = DataScope;
+exports.FrameRole = FrameRole;
+exports.LegendEntryRole = LegendEntryRole;
+exports.LegendLabelRole = LegendLabelRole;
+exports.LegendRole = LegendRole;
+exports.LegendSymbolRole = LegendSymbolRole;
+exports.LegendTitleRole = LegendTitleRole;
+exports.MarkRole = MarkRole;
+exports.Scope = Scope;
+exports.ScopeRole = ScopeRole;
+exports.config = defaults;
+exports.parse = parse;
+exports.signal = parseSignal;
+exports.signalUpdates = parseSignalUpdates;
+exports.stream = parseStream;