@tishlang/tish-format 1.0.12 → 1.0.13

package/crates/tish_vm/src/vm.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2192 @@
+//! Stack-based bytecode VM.
+
+use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::sync::Arc;
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "send-values"))]
+use std::rc::Rc;
+use tishlang_core::VmRef;
+
+use tishlang_ast::{BinOp, UnaryOp};
+use tishlang_builtins::array as arr_builtins;
+use tishlang_builtins::construct as construct_builtin;
+use tishlang_builtins::globals as globals_builtins;
+use tishlang_builtins::math as math_builtins;
+use tishlang_builtins::string as str_builtins;
+use tishlang_bytecode::{u8_to_binop, u8_to_unaryop, Chunk, Constant, Opcode, NO_REST_PARAM};
+use tishlang_core::{
+    merge_object_data, object_get, object_has, object_set, NativeFn, ObjectData, ObjectMap, Value,
+};
+
+/// Wrap a closure in the right shared pointer for the current build.
+/// Under `send-values` that's `Arc<dyn Fn + Send + Sync>`; otherwise it's
+/// plain `Rc<dyn Fn>`. Call sites can stay ignorant of the distinction.
+#[cfg(feature = "send-values")]
+#[inline]
+fn make_native_fn<F>(f: F) -> NativeFn
+where
+    F: Fn(&[Value]) -> Value + Send + Sync + 'static,
+{
+    Arc::new(f)
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "send-values"))]
+#[inline]
+fn make_native_fn<F>(f: F) -> NativeFn
+where
+    F: Fn(&[Value]) -> Value + 'static,
+{
+    Rc::new(f)
+}
+
+// Array / string / object methods have the same shape as `NativeFn`, which
+// is already feature-gated (`Rc<dyn Fn>` vs `Arc<dyn Fn + Send + Sync>`).
+// Alias to that so the VM picks the right pointer type automatically.
+type ArrayMethodFn = NativeFn;
+
+/// Feature names enabled for this VM run (`tish run --feature …`). `full` enables every optional capability.
+#[cfg_attr(
+    not(any(
+        feature = "fs",
+        feature = "http",
+        feature = "promise",
+        feature = "timers",
+        feature = "process",
+        feature = "ws"
+    )),
+    allow(dead_code)
+)]
+#[inline]
+fn value_object_from_map(m: ObjectMap) -> Value {
+    Value::Object(VmRef::new(ObjectData::from_strings(m)))
+}
+
+#[cfg(any(
+    feature = "fs",
+    feature = "http",
+    feature = "promise",
+    feature = "timers",
+    feature = "process",
+    feature = "ws"
+))]
+#[inline]
+fn cap_allows(enabled: &HashSet<String>, name: &str) -> bool {
+    enabled.contains("full") || enabled.contains(name)
+}
+
+/// Capabilities linked into this `tishlang_vm` binary (compile-time). Used by [`Vm::new`] and `run()`.
+pub fn all_compiled_capabilities() -> HashSet<String> {
+    #[allow(unused_mut)]
+    let mut s = HashSet::new();
+    #[cfg(feature = "http")]
+    s.insert("http".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "promise")]
+    s.insert("promise".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "timers")]
+    s.insert("timers".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "fs")]
+    s.insert("fs".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "process")]
+    s.insert("process".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "regex")]
+    s.insert("regex".to_string());
+    #[cfg(feature = "ws")]
+    s.insert("ws".to_string());
+    s
+}
+
+/// Look up built-in module export for LoadNativeExport. Returns None if unknown or feature disabled.
+#[cfg_attr(
+    not(any(
+        feature = "fs",
+        feature = "http",
+        feature = "promise",
+        feature = "timers",
+        feature = "process",
+        feature = "ws"
+    )),
+    allow(unused_variables)
+)]
+fn get_builtin_export(enabled: &HashSet<String>, spec: &str, export_name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
+    #[cfg(feature = "fs")]
+    if spec == "tish:fs" && cap_allows(enabled, "fs") {
+        return match export_name {
+            "readFile" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::read_file(args)
+            })),
+            "writeFile" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::write_file(args)
+            })),
+            "fileExists" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::file_exists(args)
+            })),
+            "isDir" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::is_dir(args)
+            })),
+            "readDir" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::read_dir(args)
+            })),
+            "mkdir" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::mkdir(args)
+            })),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    #[cfg(feature = "http")]
+    if spec == "tish:http" && cap_allows(enabled, "http") {
+        return match export_name {
+            // Bytecode compiler lowers `await expr` to `tish:http.await(promise)` (see tish_bytecode compiler).
+            "await" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::await_promise(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null))
+            })),
+            "fetch" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::fetch_promise(args.to_vec())
+            })),
+            "fetchAll" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::fetch_all_promise(args.to_vec())
+            })),
+            "Promise" => Some(tishlang_runtime::promise_object()),
+            "serve" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                // Phase-1 item 2: support `serve(port, { handler, onWorker })`
+                // in addition to `serve(port, handler)`. When an options
+                // object is given and onWorker is a function, invoke it with
+                // worker id 0 and expect it to return the request handler.
+                let raw = args.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                let handler_value = match raw {
+                    Value::Function(_) => raw,
+                    Value::Object(ref obj) => {
+                        let obj_ref = obj.borrow();
+                        if let Some(Value::Function(on_worker)) =
+                            obj_ref.strings.get(&std::sync::Arc::from("onWorker")).cloned()
+                        {
+                            let args_for_init = [Value::Number(0.0)];
+                            on_worker(&args_for_init)
+                        } else if let Some(h) =
+                            obj_ref.strings.get(&std::sync::Arc::from("handler")).cloned()
+                        {
+                            h
+                        } else {
+                            Value::Null
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => Value::Null,
+                };
+                if let Value::Function(f) = handler_value {
+                    tishlang_runtime::http_serve(args, move |req_args| f(req_args))
+                } else {
+                    Value::Null
+                }
+            })),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    #[cfg(all(feature = "promise", not(feature = "http")))]
+    if spec == "tish:http" && cap_allows(enabled, "promise") {
+        return match export_name {
+            "Promise" => Some(tishlang_runtime::promise_object()),
+            "await" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::await_promise(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null))
+            })),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    #[cfg(feature = "timers")]
+    if spec == "tish:timers" && cap_allows(enabled, "timers") {
+        return match export_name {
+            "setTimeout" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::timer_set_timeout(args)
+            })),
+            "setInterval" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::timer_set_interval(args)
+            })),
+            "clearTimeout" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::timer_clear_timeout(args)
+            })),
+            "clearInterval" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::timer_clear_interval(args)
+            })),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    #[cfg(feature = "process")]
+    if spec == "tish:process" && cap_allows(enabled, "process") {
+        return match export_name {
+            "exit" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::process_exit(args)
+            })),
+            "cwd" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::process_cwd(args)
+            })),
+            "exec" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::process_exec(args)
+            })),
+            "argv" => Some(Value::Array(VmRef::new(
+                std::env::args().map(|s| Value::String(s.into())).collect(),
+            ))),
+            "env" => Some(value_object_from_map(
+                std::env::vars()
+                    .map(|(k, v)| (Arc::from(k.as_str()), Value::String(v.into())))
+                    .collect(),
+            )),
+            "process" => {
+                let mut m = ObjectMap::default();
+                m.insert(
+                    "exit".into(),
+                    Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_exit(args)),
+                );
+                m.insert(
+                    "cwd".into(),
+                    Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_cwd(args)),
+                );
+                m.insert(
+                    "exec".into(),
+                    Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_exec(args)),
+                );
+                m.insert(
+                    "argv".into(),
+                    Value::Array(VmRef::new(
+                        std::env::args().map(|s| Value::String(s.into())).collect(),
+                    )),
+                );
+                m.insert(
+                    "env".into(),
+                    value_object_from_map(
+                        std::env::vars()
+                            .map(|(k, v)| (Arc::from(k.as_str()), Value::String(v.into())))
+                            .collect(),
+                    ),
+                );
+                Some(value_object_from_map(m))
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    #[cfg(feature = "ws")]
+    if spec == "tish:ws" && cap_allows(enabled, "ws") {
+        return match export_name {
+            "WebSocket" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::web_socket_client(args)
+            })),
+            "Server" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::web_socket_server_construct(args)
+            })),
+            "wsSend" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                Value::Bool(tishlang_runtime::ws_send_native(
+                    args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null),
+                    &args
+                        .get(1)
+                        .map(|v| v.to_display_string())
+                        .unwrap_or_default(),
+                ))
+            })),
+            "wsBroadcast" => Some(Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                tishlang_runtime::ws_broadcast_native(args)
+            })),
+            _ => None,
+        };
+    }
+    None
+}
+
+/// Console output: println! on native, web_sys::console on wasm
+#[cfg(not(feature = "wasm"))]
+fn vm_log(s: &str) {
+    println!("{}", s);
+}
+#[cfg(not(feature = "wasm"))]
+fn vm_log_err(s: &str) {
+    eprintln!("{}", s);
+}
+#[cfg(feature = "wasm")]
+fn vm_log(s: &str) {
+    #[wasm_bindgen::prelude::wasm_bindgen]
+    extern "C" {
+        #[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console)]
+        fn log(s: &str);
+    }
+    log(s);
+}
+#[cfg(feature = "wasm")]
+fn vm_log_err(s: &str) {
+    #[wasm_bindgen::prelude::wasm_bindgen]
+    extern "C" {
+        #[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console)]
+        fn error(s: &str);
+    }
+    error(s);
+}
+
+/// Initialize default globals (console, Math, JSON, etc.)
+#[allow(unused_variables)]
+fn init_globals(enabled: &HashSet<String>) -> ObjectMap {
+    let mut g = ObjectMap::default();
+
+    let mut console = ObjectMap::default();
+    console.insert(
+        "debug".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s =
+                tishlang_core::format_values_for_console(args, tishlang_core::use_console_colors());
+            vm_log(&s);
+            Value::Null
+        }),
+    );
+    console.insert(
+        "log".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s =
+                tishlang_core::format_values_for_console(args, tishlang_core::use_console_colors());
+            vm_log(&s);
+            Value::Null
+        }),
+    );
+    console.insert(
+        "info".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s =
+                tishlang_core::format_values_for_console(args, tishlang_core::use_console_colors());
+            vm_log(&s);
+            Value::Null
+        }),
+    );
+    console.insert(
+        "warn".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s =
+                tishlang_core::format_values_for_console(args, tishlang_core::use_console_colors());
+            vm_log_err(&s);
+            Value::Null
+        }),
+    );
+    console.insert(
+        "error".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s =
+                tishlang_core::format_values_for_console(args, tishlang_core::use_console_colors());
+            vm_log_err(&s);
+            Value::Null
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert("console".into(), value_object_from_map(console));
+
+    let mut math = ObjectMap::default();
+    math.insert(
+        "abs".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.abs())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "sqrt".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.sqrt())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "floor".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.floor())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "ceil".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.ceil())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "round".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.round())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "random".into(),
+        Value::native(|_| Value::Number(rand::random::<f64>())),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "min".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let nums: Vec<f64> = args.iter().filter_map(|v| v.as_number()).collect();
+            Value::Number(nums.into_iter().fold(f64::NAN, |a, b| a.min(b)))
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "max".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let nums: Vec<f64> = args.iter().filter_map(|v| v.as_number()).collect();
+            Value::Number(nums.into_iter().fold(f64::NAN, |a, b| a.max(b)))
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "pow".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::pow(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "sin".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::sin(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "cos".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::cos(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "tan".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::tan(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "log".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::log(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "exp".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::exp(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "sign".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::sign(args)),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "trunc".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| math_builtins::trunc(args)),
+    );
+    // Trig/hypot not covered by `math_builtins`; needed by the 3D engine's
+    // camera + character-controller math (atan2/hypot) on the wasm VM, where
+    // (unlike `--target js`) there is no host `Math` to fall through to.
+    math.insert(
+        "atan2".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let y = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            let x = args.get(1).and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(y.atan2(x))
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "atan".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.atan())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "asin".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.asin())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "acos".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let n = args.first().and_then(|v| v.as_number()).unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+            Value::Number(n.acos())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert(
+        "hypot".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let nums: Vec<f64> = args.iter().filter_map(|v| v.as_number()).collect();
+            let sum_sq: f64 = nums.iter().map(|n| n * n).sum();
+            Value::Number(sum_sq.sqrt())
+        }),
+    );
+    math.insert("PI".into(), Value::Number(std::f64::consts::PI));
+    math.insert("E".into(), Value::Number(std::f64::consts::E));
+    g.insert("Math".into(), value_object_from_map(math));
+
+    let mut json = ObjectMap::default();
+    json.insert(
+        "parse".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let s = args
+                .first()
+                .map(|v| v.to_display_string())
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            tishlang_core::json_parse(&s).unwrap_or(Value::Null)
+        }),
+    );
+    json.insert(
+        "stringify".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let v = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+            Value::String(tishlang_core::json_stringify(v).into())
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert("JSON".into(), value_object_from_map(json));
+
+    g.insert(
+        "parseInt".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::parse_int(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "parseFloat".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::parse_float(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "encodeURI".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::encode_uri(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "decodeURI".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::decode_uri(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "htmlEscape".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            tishlang_builtins::string::escape_html(args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null))
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "Boolean".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::boolean(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "isFinite".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::is_finite(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "isNaN".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::is_nan(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert("Infinity".into(), Value::Number(f64::INFINITY));
+    g.insert("NaN".into(), Value::Number(f64::NAN));
+    g.insert(
+        "typeof".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let v = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+            Value::String(v.type_name().into())
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "Symbol".into(),
+        tishlang_builtins::symbol::symbol_object(),
+    );
+
+    // Date - at minimum Date.now() for timing
+    let mut date = ObjectMap::default();
+    date.insert(
+        "now".into(),
+        Value::native(|_args: &[Value]| {
+            let ms = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+                .duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                .as_millis() as f64;
+            Value::Number(ms)
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert("Date".into(), value_object_from_map(date));
+
+    g.insert(
+        "Uint8Array".into(),
+        construct_builtin::uint8_array_constructor_value(),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "AudioContext".into(),
+        construct_builtin::audio_context_constructor_value(),
+    );
+
+    // Object methods - delegate to tishlang_builtins::globals
+    let mut object_methods = ObjectMap::default();
+    object_methods.insert(
+        "assign".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::object_assign(args)),
+    );
+    object_methods.insert(
+        "fromEntries".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::object_from_entries(args)),
+    );
+    object_methods.insert(
+        "keys".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::object_keys(args)),
+    );
+    object_methods.insert(
+        "values".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::object_values(args)),
+    );
+    object_methods.insert(
+        "entries".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::object_entries(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert("Object".into(), value_object_from_map(object_methods));
+
+    // Array.isArray
+    let mut array_static = ObjectMap::default();
+    array_static.insert(
+        "isArray".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::array_is_array(args)),
+    );
+    g.insert("Array".into(), value_object_from_map(array_static));
+
+    // String(value) as callable + String.fromCharCode
+    let string_convert_fn = Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::string_convert(args));
+    let mut string_static = ObjectMap::default();
+    string_static.insert(
+        "fromCharCode".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| globals_builtins::string_from_char_code(args)),
+    );
+    string_static.insert(Arc::from("__call"), string_convert_fn);
+    g.insert("String".into(), value_object_from_map(string_static));
+
+    // JSX / Lattish: stubs for bytecode VM when no DOM (e.g. console). Override via set_global in browser.
+    g.insert("h".into(), Value::native(|_args: &[Value]| Value::Null));
+    g.insert(
+        "Fragment".into(),
+        value_object_from_map(ObjectMap::default()),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "createRoot".into(),
+        Value::native(|_args: &[Value]| {
+            let mut render_obj = ObjectMap::default();
+            render_obj.insert(
+                "render".into(),
+                Value::native(|_args: &[Value]| Value::Null),
+            );
+            value_object_from_map(render_obj)
+        }),
+    );
+    g.insert(
+        "useState".into(),
+        Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+            let init = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+            let arr = vec![init, Value::native(|_| Value::Null)];
+            Value::Array(VmRef::new(arr))
+        }),
+    );
+    let mut document_obj = ObjectMap::default();
+    document_obj.insert("body".into(), Value::Null);
+    g.insert("document".into(), value_object_from_map(document_obj));
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "process")]
+    if cap_allows(enabled, "process") {
+        let mut process_obj = ObjectMap::default();
+        process_obj.insert(
+            "exit".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_exit(args)),
+        );
+        process_obj.insert(
+            "cwd".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_cwd(args)),
+        );
+        process_obj.insert(
+            "exec".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::process_exec(args)),
+        );
+        process_obj.insert(
+            "argv".into(),
+            Value::Array(VmRef::new(
+                std::env::args().map(|s| Value::String(s.into())).collect(),
+            )),
+        );
+        process_obj.insert(
+            "env".into(),
+            value_object_from_map(
+                std::env::vars()
+                    .map(|(k, v)| (Arc::from(k.as_str()), Value::String(v.into())))
+                    .collect(),
+            ),
+        );
+        g.insert("process".into(), value_object_from_map(process_obj));
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "timers")]
+    if cap_allows(enabled, "timers") {
+        g.insert(
+            "setTimeout".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::timer_set_timeout(args)),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "clearTimeout".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::timer_clear_timeout(args)),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "setInterval".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::timer_set_interval(args)),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "clearInterval".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::timer_clear_interval(args)),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "http")]
+    if cap_allows(enabled, "http") {
+        g.insert(
+            "fetch".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::fetch_promise(args.to_vec())),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "fetchAll".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| tishlang_runtime::fetch_all_promise(args.to_vec())),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "registerStaticRoute".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                let path = match args.first() {
+                    Some(Value::String(s)) => s.to_string(),
+                    _ => return Value::Null,
+                };
+                let body = match args.get(1) {
+                    Some(Value::String(s)) => s.as_bytes().to_vec(),
+                    _ => return Value::Null,
+                };
+                let ct = match args.get(2) {
+                    Some(Value::String(s)) => s.to_string(),
+                    _ => "application/octet-stream".to_string(),
+                };
+                tishlang_runtime::register_static_route(&path, &body, &ct);
+                Value::Null
+            }),
+        );
+        g.insert(
+            "serve".into(),
+            Value::native(|args: &[Value]| {
+                // Phase-1 item 2 (see tish:http.serve above for full docs).
+                let raw = args.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                let handler_value = match raw {
+                    Value::Function(_) => raw,
+                    Value::Object(ref obj) => {
+                        let obj_ref = obj.borrow();
+                        if let Some(Value::Function(on_worker)) =
+                            obj_ref.strings.get(&std::sync::Arc::from("onWorker")).cloned()
+                        {
+                            let args_for_init = [Value::Number(0.0)];
+                            on_worker(&args_for_init)
+                        } else if let Some(h) =
+                            obj_ref.strings.get(&std::sync::Arc::from("handler")).cloned()
+                        {
+                            h
+                        } else {
+                            Value::Null
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => Value::Null,
+                };
+                if let Value::Function(f) = handler_value {
+                    tishlang_runtime::http_serve(args, move |req_args| f(req_args))
+                } else {
+                    Value::Null
+                }
+            }),
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(any(feature = "http", feature = "promise"))]
+    if cap_allows(enabled, "http") || cap_allows(enabled, "promise") {
+        g.insert("Promise".into(), tishlang_runtime::promise_object());
+    }
+
+    g
+}
+
+/// Shared scope for closure capture (parent frame's locals).
+type ScopeMap = VmRef<ObjectMap>;
+
+/// Options for the convenience [`run_with_options`] helper (one-shot VM run from the CLI).
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default)]
+pub struct VmRunOptions {
+    /// When true and not inside a nested chunk (`enclosing` is `None`), top-level [`Opcode::DeclareVar`]
+    /// also writes to globals so the REPL keeps bindings across input lines.
+    pub repl_mode: bool,
+    /// Enabled capabilities for this run (e.g. `fs`, `http`, `full`). Empty = none (secure default).
+    pub capabilities: HashSet<String>,
+}
+
+pub struct Vm {
+    stack: Vec<Value>,
+    scope: ObjectMap,
+    /// Enclosing scope for closures (captured parent frame locals).
+    enclosing: Option<ScopeMap>,
+    globals: VmRef<ObjectMap>,
+    /// Capabilities for `LoadNativeExport` and globals such as `process` / `serve`.
+    capabilities: Arc<HashSet<String>>,
+    /// Externally registered native modules, keyed by import spec (e.g.
+    /// `"cargo:tish_pg"`). Populated by embedders before `run` (see
+    /// [`register_native_module`]). Phase-2 item 11: unblocks `cargo:`
+    /// imports on the cranelift and llvm backends which run this VM.
+    native_modules: VmRef<HashMap<String, VmRef<ObjectMap>>>,
+}
+
+impl Vm {
+    /// VM with every capability that exists in this `tishlang_vm` build (embedders, tests, `run()`).
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::with_capabilities_arc(Arc::new(all_compiled_capabilities()))
+    }
+
+    /// VM with an explicit capability set (e.g. from `tish run --feature …`).
+    pub fn with_capabilities(capabilities: HashSet<String>) -> Self {
+        Self::with_capabilities_arc(Arc::new(capabilities))
+    }
+
+    fn with_capabilities_arc(capabilities: Arc<HashSet<String>>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            stack: Vec::new(),
+            scope: ObjectMap::default(),
+            enclosing: None,
+            globals: VmRef::new(init_globals(capabilities.as_ref())),
+            capabilities,
+            native_modules: VmRef::new(HashMap::new()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Register an externally-supplied native module under a `cargo:`-style
+    /// spec (e.g. `"cargo:tish_pg"`). The `exports` map is what
+    /// `LoadNativeExport` will index into when user code imports from this
+    /// spec. Intended to be called by the `tishlang_cranelift_runtime` /
+    /// `tishlang_llvm` link step, or by external embedders that want to
+    /// expose Rust crates to `.tish` programs running on the bytecode VM.
+    pub fn register_native_module(&mut self, spec: impl Into<String>, exports: ObjectMap) {
+        self.native_modules
+            .borrow_mut()
+            .insert(spec.into(), VmRef::new(exports));
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_global(&self, name: &str) -> Option<Value> {
+        self.globals.borrow().get(name).cloned()
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_global(&mut self, name: Arc<str>, value: Value) {
+        self.globals.borrow_mut().insert(name, value);
+    }
+
+    /// Names of all globals (for REPL bare-word tab completion).
+    pub fn global_names(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        self.globals
+            .borrow()
+            .keys()
+            .map(|k| k.as_ref().to_string())
+            .collect()
+    }
+
+    fn read_u16(code: &[u8], ip: &mut usize) -> u16 {
+        let a = code[*ip] as u16;
+        let b = code[*ip + 1] as u16;
+        *ip += 2;
+        (a << 8) | b
+    }
+
+    fn read_i16(code: &[u8], ip: &mut usize) -> i16 {
+        Self::read_u16(code, ip) as i16
+    }
+
+    /// Pop innermost try handler, truncate stack, push thrown value, jump to catch.
+    fn unwind_throw(
+        try_handlers: &mut Vec<(usize, usize)>,
+        stack: &mut Vec<Value>,
+        ip: &mut usize,
+        v: Value,
+    ) -> Result<(), String> {
+        let (catch_ip, stack_len) = try_handlers
+            .pop()
+            .ok_or_else(|| format!("Uncaught throw: {}", v.to_display_string()))?;
+        stack.truncate(stack_len);
+        stack.push(v);
+        *ip = catch_ip;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn run(&mut self, chunk: &Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
+        self.run_with_options(chunk, false)
+    }
+
+    /// Run a chunk using this VM's capability set. `repl_mode` persists top-level `let` across REPL lines.
+    pub fn run_with_options(&mut self, chunk: &Chunk, repl_mode: bool) -> Result<Value, String> {
+        self.run_chunk(chunk, &chunk.nested, &[], repl_mode)
+    }
+
+    fn run_chunk(
+        &mut self,
+        chunk: &Chunk,
+        nested: &[Chunk],
+        args: &[Value],
+        repl_mode: bool,
+    ) -> Result<Value, String> {
+        let code = &chunk.code;
+        let constants = &chunk.constants;
+        let names = &chunk.names;
+
+        let mut ip = 0;
+        let local_scope: ScopeMap = VmRef::new(ObjectMap::default());
+        {
+            let mut ls = local_scope.borrow_mut();
+            let param_count = chunk.param_count as usize;
+            if chunk.rest_param_index != NO_REST_PARAM {
+                let ri = chunk.rest_param_index as usize;
+                for (i, name) in chunk.names.iter().take(param_count).enumerate() {
+                    if i < ri {
+                        let v = args.get(i).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                        ls.insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                    } else if i == ri {
+                        let rest_arr: Vec<Value> = args.iter().skip(ri).cloned().collect();
+                        ls.insert(Arc::clone(name), Value::Array(VmRef::new(rest_arr)));
+                    }
+                }
+            } else {
+                for (i, name) in chunk.names.iter().take(param_count).enumerate() {
+                    if let Some(v) = args.get(i) {
+                        ls.insert(Arc::clone(name), v.clone());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let mut try_handlers: Vec<(usize, usize)> = vec![];
+        let mut block_undo_stack: Vec<Vec<(Arc<str>, Option<Value>)>> = vec![];
+
+        loop {
+            if ip >= code.len() {
+                break;
+            }
+            let op = code[ip];
+            ip += 1;
+            if op == Opcode::Nop as u8 {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let opcode = Opcode::from_u8(op).ok_or_else(|| format!("Unknown opcode: {}", op))?;
+
+            match opcode {
+                Opcode::Nop => {}
+                Opcode::LoadConst => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let c = constants
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Constant index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = match c {
+                        Constant::Number(n) => Value::Number(*n),
+                        Constant::String(s) => Value::String(Arc::clone(s)),
+                        Constant::Bool(b) => Value::Bool(*b),
+                        Constant::Null => Value::Null,
+                        Constant::Closure(nested_idx) => {
+                            let inner = nested
+                                .get(*nested_idx)
+                                .ok_or_else(|| "Nested chunk index out of bounds".to_string())?;
+                            let inner_clone = inner.clone();
+                            let globals = self.globals.clone();
+                            let enclosing = Some(local_scope.clone());
+                            let capabilities = Arc::clone(&self.capabilities);
+                            let native_modules = self.native_modules.clone();
+                            Value::native(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                                let mut vm = Vm {
+                                    stack: Vec::new(),
+                                    scope: ObjectMap::default(),
+                                    enclosing: enclosing.clone(),
+                                    globals: globals.clone(),
+                                    capabilities: Arc::clone(&capabilities),
+                                    native_modules: native_modules.clone(),
+                                };
+                                vm.run_chunk(&inner_clone, &inner_clone.nested, args, false)
+                                    .unwrap_or(Value::Null)
+                            })
+                        }
+                    };
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::LoadVar => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = local_scope
+                        .borrow()
+                        .get(name.as_ref())
+                        .cloned()
+                        .or_else(|| {
+                            self.enclosing
+                                .as_ref()
+                                .and_then(|e| e.borrow().get(name.as_ref()).cloned())
+                        })
+                        .or_else(|| self.scope.get(name.as_ref()).cloned())
+                        .or_else(|| self.globals.borrow().get(name.as_ref()).cloned())
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Undefined variable: {}", name))?;
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::StoreVar => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    // Update innermost scope that has the variable (matches interpreter Scope.assign)
+                    if local_scope.borrow().contains_key(name.as_ref()) {
+                        local_scope.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                    } else if self
+                        .enclosing
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|e| e.borrow().contains_key(name.as_ref()))
+                        .unwrap_or(false)
+                    {
+                        let en = self.enclosing.as_ref().unwrap();
+                        en.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                    } else if self.scope.contains_key(name.as_ref()) {
+                        self.scope.insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                    } else if self.globals.borrow().contains_key(name.as_ref()) {
+                        self.globals.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                    } else {
+                        // New variable: at top level (no enclosing) store in globals so REPL persists across lines
+                        if self.enclosing.is_none() {
+                            self.globals.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                        } else {
+                            local_scope.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::DeclareVar => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    if let Some(frame) = block_undo_stack.last_mut() {
+                        let old = local_scope.borrow().get(name.as_ref()).cloned();
+                        frame.push((Arc::clone(name), old));
+                    }
+                    // REPL: persist top-level bindings only (not block-locals shadowing globals).
+                    if repl_mode && self.enclosing.is_none() && block_undo_stack.is_empty() {
+                        self.globals
+                            .borrow_mut()
+                            .insert(Arc::clone(name), v.clone());
+                    }
+                    local_scope.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                }
+                Opcode::DeclareVarPlain => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    if repl_mode && self.enclosing.is_none() && block_undo_stack.is_empty() {
+                        self.globals
+                            .borrow_mut()
+                            .insert(Arc::clone(name), v.clone());
+                    }
+                    local_scope.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                }
+                Opcode::EnterBlock => {
+                    block_undo_stack.push(Vec::new());
+                }
+                Opcode::ExitBlock => {
+                    let frame = block_undo_stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "ExitBlock without matching EnterBlock".to_string())?;
+                    for (name, old) in frame.into_iter().rev() {
+                        let mut ls = local_scope.borrow_mut();
+                        match old {
+                            Some(prev) => {
+                                ls.insert(name, prev);
+                            }
+                            None => {
+                                ls.remove(name.as_ref());
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::LoadGlobal => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = self
+                        .globals
+                        .borrow()
+                        .get(name.as_ref())
+                        .cloned()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Undefined global: {}", name))?;
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::StoreGlobal => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let name = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Name index out of bounds: {}", idx))?;
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    self.globals.borrow_mut().insert(Arc::clone(name), v);
+                }
+                Opcode::Pop => {
+                    self.stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                }
+                Opcode::PopN => {
+                    let n = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    for _ in 0..n {
+                        self.stack
+                            .pop()
+                            .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::Dup => {
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .last()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?
+                        .clone();
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::Call => {
+                    let argc = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    let mut args = Vec::with_capacity(argc);
+                    for _ in 0..argc {
+                        args.push(
+                            self.stack
+                                .pop()
+                                .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow in call".to_string())?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    args.reverse();
+                    let callee = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow: no callee".to_string())?;
+                    let f = match &callee {
+                        Value::Function(f) => f.clone(),
+                        Value::Object(o) => {
+                            if let Some(Value::Function(call_fn)) =
+                                o.borrow().strings.get("__call")
+                            {
+                                call_fn.clone()
+                            } else {
+                                return Err(format!(
+                                    "Call of non-function: {}",
+                                    callee.type_name()
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(format!("Call of non-function: {}", callee.type_name()));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let result = f(&args);
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::CallSpread => {
+                    let callee = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow: no callee in CallSpread".to_string())?;
+                    let args_array = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow in CallSpread".to_string())?;
+                    let args: Vec<Value> = match &args_array {
+                        Value::Array(a) => a.borrow().clone(),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(format!(
+                                "CallSpread: args must be array, got {}",
+                                args_array.to_display_string()
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let f = match &callee {
+                        Value::Function(f) => f.clone(),
+                        Value::Object(o) => {
+                            if let Some(Value::Function(call_fn)) =
+                                o.borrow().strings.get("__call")
+                            {
+                                call_fn.clone()
+                            } else {
+                                return Err(format!(
+                                    "Call of non-function: {}",
+                                    callee.type_name()
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(format!("Call of non-function: {}", callee.type_name()));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let result = f(&args);
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::Construct => {
+                    let argc = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    let mut args = Vec::with_capacity(argc);
+                    for _ in 0..argc {
+                        args.push(
+                            self.stack
+                                .pop()
+                                .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow in construct".to_string())?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    args.reverse();
+                    let callee = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow: no callee for construct".to_string())?;
+                    let result = construct_builtin::construct(&callee, &args);
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::ConstructSpread => {
+                    let callee = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow: callee in ConstructSpread".to_string())?;
+                    let args_array = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow in ConstructSpread".to_string())?;
+                    let args: Vec<Value> = match &args_array {
+                        Value::Array(a) => a.borrow().clone(),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(format!(
+                                "ConstructSpread: args must be array, got {}",
+                                args_array.to_display_string()
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let result = construct_builtin::construct(&callee, &args);
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::Return => {
+                    let v = self.stack.pop().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    return Ok(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::Jump => {
+                    let offset = Self::read_i16(code, &mut ip) as isize;
+                    ip = (ip as isize + offset).max(0) as usize;
+                }
+                Opcode::JumpIfFalse => {
+                    let offset = Self::read_i16(code, &mut ip) as isize;
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    if !v.is_truthy() {
+                        ip = (ip as isize + offset).max(0) as usize;
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::JumpBack => {
+                    let dist = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    ip = ip.saturating_sub(dist);
+                }
+                Opcode::BinOp => {
+                    let op_u8 = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as u8;
+                    let r = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let l = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let op =
+                        u8_to_binop(op_u8).ok_or_else(|| format!("Unknown binop: {}", op_u8))?;
+                    let result = eval_binop(op, &l, &r)?;
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::UnaryOp => {
+                    let op_u8 = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as u8;
+                    let o = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let op = u8_to_unaryop(op_u8)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Unknown unary op: {}", op_u8))?;
+                    let result = eval_unary(op, &o)?;
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::GetMember => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let key = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Name index out of bounds".to_string())?;
+                    let obj = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let v = get_member(&obj, key)?;
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::GetMemberOptional => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let key = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Name index out of bounds".to_string())?;
+                    let obj = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let v = get_member(&obj, key).unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::SetMember => {
+                    let idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let key = names
+                        .get(idx as usize)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Name index out of bounds".to_string())?;
+                    let val = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let obj = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    set_member(&obj, key, val.clone())?;
+                    self.stack.push(val); // assignment yields value
+                }
+                Opcode::GetIndex => {
+                    let idx_val = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let obj = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let v = get_index(&obj, &idx_val)?;
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::SetIndex => {
+                    // Stack: [obj, idx, val, val] (Dup of val for expression result).
+                    // Pop val (dup), val, idx, obj; use (obj, idx, val) for set_index; leave val on stack.
+                    let dup_val = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let val = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let idx_val = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let obj = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    set_index(&obj, &idx_val, val.clone())?;
+                    self.stack.push(dup_val); // assignment yields the assigned value
+                }
+                Opcode::NewArray => {
+                    let n = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    let mut elems = Vec::with_capacity(n);
+                    for _ in 0..n {
+                        elems.push(
+                            self.stack
+                                .pop()
+                                .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    elems.reverse();
+                    self.stack.push(Value::Array(VmRef::new(elems)));
+                }
+                Opcode::NewObject => {
+                    let n = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    let mut map = ObjectMap::with_capacity(n.max(1));
+                    for _ in 0..n {
+                        let val = self
+                            .stack
+                            .pop()
+                            .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                        let key_val = self
+                            .stack
+                            .pop()
+                            .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                        let key = key_val.to_display_string().into();
+                        map.insert(key, val);
+                    }
+                    self.stack.push(value_object_from_map(map));
+                }
+                Opcode::EnterTry => {
+                    let offset = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) as usize;
+                    let catch_ip = ip + offset;
+                    try_handlers.push((catch_ip, self.stack.len()));
+                }
+                Opcode::ExitTry => {
+                    try_handlers.pop();
+                }
+                Opcode::ConcatArray => {
+                    let right = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let left = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let (mut a, b) = (
+                        match &left {
+                            Value::Array(arr) => arr.borrow().clone(),
+                            _ => {
+                                return Err(format!(
+                                    "ConcatArray: left must be array, got {}",
+                                    left.to_display_string()
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        },
+                        match &right {
+                            Value::Array(arr) => arr.borrow().clone(),
+                            _ => {
+                                return Err(format!(
+                                    "ConcatArray: right must be array, got {}",
+                                    right.to_display_string()
+                                ));
+                            }
+                        },
+                    );
+                    a.extend(b);
+                    self.stack.push(Value::Array(VmRef::new(a)));
+                }
+                Opcode::MergeObject => {
+                    let right = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let left = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    match (&left, &right) {
+                        (Value::Object(l), Value::Object(r)) => {
+                            let merged = merge_object_data(l, r);
+                            self.stack.push(Value::Object(VmRef::new(merged)));
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(format!(
+                                "MergeObject: expected two objects, got {} and {}",
+                                left.to_display_string(),
+                                right.to_display_string()
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::ArraySortNumeric => {
+                    let operand = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let asc = operand == 0;
+                    let arr = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let result = if asc {
+                        arr_builtins::sort_numeric_asc(&arr)
+                    } else {
+                        arr_builtins::sort_numeric_desc(&arr)
+                    };
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::ArraySortByProperty => {
+                    let prop_idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let asc = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip) == 0;
+                    let arr = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let prop = constants
+                        .get(prop_idx as usize)
+                        .and_then(|c| {
+                            if let Constant::String(s) = c {
+                                Some(s.as_ref())
+                            } else {
+                                None
+                            }
+                        })
+                        .unwrap_or("");
+                    let result = arr_builtins::sort_by_property_numeric(&arr, prop, asc);
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::ArrayMapIdentity => {
+                    let arr = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let result = match &arr {
+                        Value::Array(a) => Value::Array(VmRef::new(a.borrow().clone())),
+                        _ => Value::Null,
+                    };
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::ArrayMapBinOp => {
+                    let binop_u8 = code[ip];
+                    ip += 1;
+                    let const_idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let param_left = code[ip] == 0; // 0 = param on left (x op const), 1 = param on right (const op x)
+                    ip += 1;
+                    let binop = u8_to_binop(binop_u8)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| format!("Unknown binop in ArrayMapBinOp: {}", binop_u8))?;
+                    let arr = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let const_val = constants
+                        .get(const_idx as usize)
+                        .map(|c| c.to_value())
+                        .unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    let result = if let Value::Array(a) = &arr {
+                        let arr_borrow = a.borrow();
+                        let mapped: Vec<Value> = arr_borrow
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|v| {
+                                let l: Value = if param_left {
+                                    (*v).clone()
+                                } else {
+                                    const_val.clone()
+                                };
+                                let r: Value = if param_left {
+                                    const_val.clone()
+                                } else {
+                                    (*v).clone()
+                                };
+                                eval_binop(binop, &l, &r).unwrap_or(Value::Null)
+                            })
+                            .collect();
+                        Value::Array(VmRef::new(mapped))
+                    } else {
+                        Value::Null
+                    };
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::ArrayFilterBinOp => {
+                    let binop_u8 = code[ip];
+                    ip += 1;
+                    let const_idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let param_left = code[ip] == 0; // 0 = param on left (x op const), 1 = param on right (const op x)
+                    ip += 1;
+                    let binop = u8_to_binop(binop_u8).ok_or_else(|| {
+                        format!("Unknown binop in ArrayFilterBinOp: {}", binop_u8)
+                    })?;
+                    let arr = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    let const_val = constants
+                        .get(const_idx as usize)
+                        .map(|c| c.to_value())
+                        .unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    let result = if let Value::Array(a) = &arr {
+                        let arr_borrow = a.borrow();
+                        let filtered: Vec<Value> = arr_borrow
+                            .iter()
+                            .filter(|v| {
+                                let l: Value = if param_left {
+                                    (*v).clone()
+                                } else {
+                                    const_val.clone()
+                                };
+                                let r: Value = if param_left {
+                                    const_val.clone()
+                                } else {
+                                    (*v).clone()
+                                };
+                                let b = eval_binop(binop, &l, &r).unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                                b.is_truthy()
+                            })
+                            .cloned()
+                            .collect();
+                        Value::Array(VmRef::new(filtered))
+                    } else {
+                        Value::Null
+                    };
+                    self.stack.push(result);
+                }
+                Opcode::Throw => {
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow".to_string())?;
+                    Self::unwind_throw(&mut try_handlers, &mut self.stack, &mut ip, v)?;
+                }
+                Opcode::AwaitPromise => {
+                    let v = self
+                        .stack
+                        .pop()
+                        .ok_or_else(|| "Stack underflow in AwaitPromise".to_string())?;
+                    #[cfg(any(feature = "http", feature = "promise"))]
+                    {
+                        use tishlang_core::Value as V;
+                        match v {
+                            V::Promise(p) => match p.block_until_settled() {
+                                Ok(val) => self.stack.push(val),
+                                Err(rej) => {
+                                    Self::unwind_throw(
+                                        &mut try_handlers,
+                                        &mut self.stack,
+                                        &mut ip,
+                                        rej,
+                                    )?;
+                                }
+                            },
+                            other => self.stack.push(tishlang_runtime::await_promise(other)),
+                        }
+                    }
+                    #[cfg(not(any(feature = "http", feature = "promise")))]
+                    {
+                        self.stack.push(v);
+                    }
+                }
+                Opcode::LoadNativeExport => {
+                    let spec_idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let export_idx = Self::read_u16(code, &mut ip);
+                    let spec = match constants.get(spec_idx as usize) {
+                        Some(Constant::String(s)) => s.as_ref(),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(
+                                "LoadNativeExport: spec constant out of bounds or not string"
+                                    .to_string(),
+                            );
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let export_name = match constants.get(export_idx as usize) {
+                        Some(Constant::String(s)) => s.as_ref(),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err("LoadNativeExport: export_name constant out of bounds or not string".to_string());
+                        }
+                    };
+                    // Phase-2 item 11: consult externally registered native
+                    // modules (populated via `Vm::register_native_module`)
+                    // before falling through to the built-in lookup. Embedders
+                    // on the cranelift / llvm backends that want to expose
+                    // `cargo:…` Rust crates should register the module's
+                    // exports map before calling `vm.run(chunk)`.
+                    let from_registry: Option<Value> = if spec.starts_with("cargo:") {
+                        let regs = self.native_modules.borrow();
+                        regs.get(spec)
+                            .and_then(|m| m.borrow().get(&Arc::from(export_name)).cloned())
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    };
+                    let v = from_registry
+                        .or_else(|| get_builtin_export(self.capabilities.as_ref(), spec, export_name))
+                        .ok_or_else(|| {
+                            if spec.starts_with("cargo:") {
+                                format!(
+                                    "cargo:{} is not registered on the bytecode VM. Embedders must call Vm::register_native_module before run(). Spec: {} export: {}",
+                                    spec.trim_start_matches("cargo:"),
+                                    spec,
+                                    export_name,
+                                )
+                            } else {
+                                format!(
+                                    "Built-in module '{}' does not export '{}' or capability not enabled for this run. Use e.g. tish run --feature fs (or full). The tish binary must also be built with that capability linked in.",
+                                    spec, export_name
+                                )
+                            }
+                        })?;
+                    self.stack.push(v);
+                }
+                Opcode::Closure | Opcode::LoadThis => {
+                    return Err(format!("Unhandled opcode: {:?}", opcode));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        #[cfg(feature = "timers")]
+        if cap_allows(self.capabilities.as_ref(), "timers") {
+            tishlang_runtime::drain_timers();
+        }
+
+        Ok(self.stack.pop().unwrap_or(Value::Null))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for Vm {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+/// Rough byte capacity for string coercion (matches hot paths like `"x" + n + "ms"`).
+fn estimate_string_concat_len(v: &Value) -> usize {
+    match v {
+        Value::String(s) => s.len(),
+        Value::Number(_) => 24,
+        Value::Bool(_) => 5,
+        Value::Null => 4,
+        _ => 32,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Append JS-style string conversion without an intermediate `String` per operand (unlike
+/// `format!("{}{}", a.to_display_string(), b.to_display_string())`, which triple-allocates).
+fn append_value_for_string_concat(out: &mut String, v: &Value) {
+    use std::fmt::Write;
+    match v {
+        Value::Number(n) => {
+            if n.is_nan() {
+                out.push_str("NaN");
+            } else if *n == f64::INFINITY {
+                out.push_str("Infinity");
+            } else if *n == f64::NEG_INFINITY {
+                out.push_str("-Infinity");
+            } else {
+                let _ = write!(out, "{n}");
+            }
+        }
+        Value::String(s) => out.push_str(s.as_ref()),
+        Value::Bool(b) => out.push_str(if *b { "true" } else { "false" }),
+        Value::Null => out.push_str("null"),
+        _ => out.push_str(&v.to_display_string()),
+    }
+}
+
+fn eval_binop(op: BinOp, l: &Value, r: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    use tishlang_ast::BinOp::*;
+    use tishlang_core::Value::*;
+    let ln = l.as_number().unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+    let rn = r.as_number().unwrap_or(f64::NAN);
+    match op {
+        Add => {
+            if matches!(l, Value::String(_)) || matches!(r, Value::String(_)) {
+                let cap = estimate_string_concat_len(l) + estimate_string_concat_len(r);
+                let mut buf = std::string::String::with_capacity(cap);
+                append_value_for_string_concat(&mut buf, l);
+                append_value_for_string_concat(&mut buf, r);
+                Ok(String(buf.into()))
+            } else {
+                Ok(Number(ln + rn))
+            }
+        }
+        Sub => Ok(Number(ln - rn)),
+        Mul => Ok(Number(ln * rn)),
+        Div => Ok(Number(if rn == 0.0 { f64::NAN } else { ln / rn })),
+        Mod => Ok(Number(if rn == 0.0 { f64::NAN } else { ln % rn })),
+        Pow => Ok(Number(ln.powf(rn))),
+        Eq => Ok(Bool(l.strict_eq(r))),
+        Ne => Ok(Bool(!l.strict_eq(r))),
+        StrictEq => Ok(Bool(l.strict_eq(r))),
+        StrictNe => Ok(Bool(!l.strict_eq(r))),
+        Lt => Ok(Bool(ln < rn)),
+        Le => Ok(Bool(ln <= rn)),
+        Gt => Ok(Bool(ln > rn)),
+        Ge => Ok(Bool(ln >= rn)),
+        And => Ok(Bool(l.is_truthy() && r.is_truthy())),
+        Or => Ok(Bool(l.is_truthy() || r.is_truthy())),
+        BitAnd => Ok(Number((ln as i32 & rn as i32) as f64)),
+        BitOr => Ok(Number((ln as i32 | rn as i32) as f64)),
+        BitXor => Ok(Number((ln as i32 ^ rn as i32) as f64)),
+        Shl => Ok(Number(((ln as i32) << (rn as i32)) as f64)),
+        Shr => Ok(Number(((ln as i32) >> (rn as i32)) as f64)),
+        In => Ok(Bool(match r {
+            Value::Object(_) => object_has(r, l),
+            Value::Array(a) => {
+                let key_s: Arc<str> = match l {
+                    Value::String(s) => Arc::clone(s),
+                    Value::Number(n) => n.to_string().into(),
+                    _ => l.to_display_string().into(),
+                };
+                if key_s.as_ref() == "length" {
+                    true
+                } else if let Ok(idx) = key_s.parse::<usize>() {
+                    idx < a.borrow().len()
+                } else {
+                    false
+                }
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        })),
+    }
+}
+
+fn eval_unary(op: UnaryOp, o: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    use tishlang_ast::UnaryOp::*;
+    use tishlang_core::Value::*;
+    match op {
+        Not => Ok(Bool(!o.is_truthy())),
+        Neg => Ok(Number(-o.as_number().unwrap_or(f64::NAN))),
+        Pos => Ok(Number(o.as_number().unwrap_or(f64::NAN))),
+        BitNot => Ok(Number(!(o.as_number().unwrap_or(0.0) as i32) as f64)),
+        Void => Ok(Null),
+    }
+}
+
+fn get_member(obj: &Value, key: &Arc<str>) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    match obj {
+        Value::Object(m) => {
+            let map = m.borrow();
+            map.strings
+                .get(key.as_ref())
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| format!("Property '{}' not found", key))
+        }
+        Value::Array(a) => {
+            let key_s = key.as_ref();
+            if let Ok(idx) = key_s.parse::<usize>() {
+                let arr = a.borrow();
+                return arr
+                    .get(idx)
+                    .cloned()
+                    .ok_or_else(|| "Index out of bounds".to_string());
+            }
+            if key_s == "length" {
+                return Ok(Value::Number(a.borrow().len() as f64));
+            }
+            let a_clone = a.clone();
+            let method: ArrayMethodFn = match key_s {
+                "push" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::push(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), args)
+                }),
+                "pop" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::pop(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()))
+                }),
+                "shift" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::shift(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()))
+                }),
+                "unshift" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::unshift(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), args)
+                }),
+                "reverse" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::reverse(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()))
+                }),
+                "shuffle" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::shuffle(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()))
+                }),
+                "slice" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let start = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let end = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::slice(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), start, end)
+                }),
+                "concat" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    arr_builtins::concat(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), args)
+                }),
+                "join" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let sep = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::join(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), sep)
+                }),
+                "indexOf" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::index_of(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), search)
+                }),
+                "includes" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let from = args.get(1);
+                    arr_builtins::includes(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), search, from)
+                }),
+                "map" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::map(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "filter" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::filter(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "reduce" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    let init = args.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::reduce(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb, &init)
+                }),
+                "forEach" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::for_each(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "find" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::find(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "findIndex" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::find_index(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "some" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::some(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "every" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::every(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "flat" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let depth = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Number(1.0));
+                    arr_builtins::flat(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), depth)
+                }),
+                "flatMap" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cb = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Null);
+                    arr_builtins::flat_map(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()), &cb)
+                }),
+                "sort" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let cmp = args.first();
+                    if let Some(Value::Function(_)) = cmp {
+                        arr_builtins::sort_with_comparator(
+                            &Value::Array(a_clone.clone()),
+                            cmp.unwrap(),
+                        )
+                    } else {
+                        arr_builtins::sort_default(&Value::Array(a_clone.clone()))
+                    }
+                }),
+                "splice" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let start = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let delete_count = args.get(1).map(|v| v as &Value);
+                    let items: Vec<Value> = args.get(2..).unwrap_or(&[]).to_vec();
+                    arr_builtins::splice(
+                        &Value::Array(a_clone.clone()),
+                        start,
+                        delete_count,
+                        &items,
+                    )
+                }),
+                _ => return Err(format!("Property '{}' not found", key)),
+            };
+            Ok(Value::Function(method))
+        }
+        Value::String(s) => {
+            let key_s = key.as_ref();
+            if let Ok(idx) = key_s.parse::<usize>() {
+                return match s.chars().nth(idx) {
+                    Some(c) => Ok(Value::String(Arc::from(c.to_string()))),
+                    None => Err("Index out of bounds".to_string()),
+                };
+            }
+            if key_s == "length" {
+                return Ok(Value::Number(s.chars().count() as f64));
+            }
+            let s_clone: Arc<str> = Arc::clone(s);
+            let method: ArrayMethodFn = match key_s {
+                "indexOf" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let from = args.get(1);
+                    str_builtins::index_of(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), search, from)
+                }),
+                "lastIndexOf" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let position = args.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(Value::Number(f64::INFINITY));
+                    str_builtins::last_index_of(
+                        &Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)),
+                        search,
+                        &position,
+                    )
+                }),
+                "includes" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let from = args.get(1);
+                    str_builtins::includes(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), search, from)
+                }),
+                "slice" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let start = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let end = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::slice(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), start, end)
+                }),
+                "substring" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let start = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let end = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::substring(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), start, end)
+                }),
+                "split" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let sep = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::split(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), sep)
+                }),
+                "trim" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    str_builtins::trim(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)))
+                }),
+                "toUpperCase" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    str_builtins::to_upper_case(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)))
+                }),
+                "toLowerCase" => make_native_fn(move |_args: &[Value]| {
+                    str_builtins::to_lower_case(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)))
+                }),
+                "startsWith" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::starts_with(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), search)
+                }),
+                "endsWith" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::ends_with(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), search)
+                }),
+                "replace" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let replacement = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::replace(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), search, replacement)
+                }),
+                "replaceAll" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let search = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let replacement = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::replace_all(
+                        &Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)),
+                        search,
+                        replacement,
+                    )
+                }),
+                "charAt" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let idx = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::char_at(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), idx)
+                }),
+                "charCodeAt" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let idx = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::char_code_at(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), idx)
+                }),
+                "repeat" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let count = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::repeat(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), count)
+                }),
+                "padStart" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let target_len = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let pad = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::pad_start(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), target_len, pad)
+                }),
+                "padEnd" => make_native_fn(move |args: &[Value]| {
+                    let target_len = args.first().unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    let pad = args.get(1).unwrap_or(&Value::Null);
+                    str_builtins::pad_end(&Value::String(Arc::clone(&s_clone)), target_len, pad)
+                }),
+                _ => return Err(format!("Property '{}' not found", key)),
+            };
+            Ok(Value::Function(method))
+        }
+        #[cfg(any(feature = "http", feature = "promise"))]
+        Value::Promise(p) => match key.as_ref() {
+            "then" => {
+                let pc = Arc::clone(p);
+                Ok(Value::native(move |args| {
+                    tishlang_runtime::promise_instance_then(&pc, args)
+                }))
+            }
+            "catch" => {
+                let pc = Arc::clone(p);
+                Ok(Value::native(move |args| {
+                    tishlang_runtime::promise_instance_catch(&pc, args)
+                }))
+            }
+            _ => Err(format!("Property '{}' not found", key)),
+        },
+        _ => Err(format!(
+            "Cannot read property '{}' of {}",
+            key,
+            obj.type_name()
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn set_member(obj: &Value, key: &Arc<str>, val: Value) -> Result<(), String> {
+    match obj {
+        Value::Object(m) => {
+            m.borrow_mut().strings.insert(Arc::clone(key), val);
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Value::Array(a) => {
+            let idx: usize = key.as_ref().parse().unwrap_or(0);
+            let mut arr = a.borrow_mut();
+            if idx < arr.len() {
+                arr[idx] = val;
+            } else {
+                arr.resize(idx + 1, Value::Null);
+                arr[idx] = val;
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        _ => Err(format!("Cannot set property of {}", obj.type_name())),
+    }
+}
+
+fn get_index(obj: &Value, idx: &Value) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    match obj {
+        Value::Array(a) => {
+            let i = match idx {
+                Value::Number(n) => *n as usize,
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "Array index must be number, got {}",
+                        idx.type_name()
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            Ok(a
+                .borrow()
+                .get(i)
+                .cloned()
+                .unwrap_or(Value::Null))
+        }
+        Value::String(s) => {
+            let i = match idx {
+                Value::Number(n) => {
+                    let n = *n;
+                    if n < 0.0 || n.fract() != 0.0 {
+                        return Err(format!(
+                            "String index must be non-negative integer, got {}",
+                            n
+                        ));
+                    }
+                    let i = n as usize;
+                    let len = s.chars().count();
+                    if i >= len {
+                        return Err("Index out of bounds".to_string());
+                    }
+                    i
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "String index must be number, got {}",
+                        idx.type_name()
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            match s.chars().nth(i) {
+                Some(c) => Ok(Value::String(Arc::from(c.to_string()))),
+                None => Err("Index out of bounds".to_string()),
+            }
+        }
+        Value::Object(_) => object_get(obj, idx).ok_or_else(|| {
+            format!(
+                "Property '{}' not found",
+                idx.to_display_string()
+            )
+        }),
+        #[cfg(any(feature = "http", feature = "promise"))]
+        Value::Promise(_) => {
+            let key_arc: std::sync::Arc<str> = match idx {
+                Value::String(s) => std::sync::Arc::clone(s),
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "Promise bracket access requires a string key, got {}",
+                        idx.type_name()
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            get_member(obj, &key_arc)
+        },
+        _ => Err(format!(
+            "Cannot read property '{}' of {}",
+            idx.to_display_string(),
+            obj.type_name()
+        )),
+    }
+}
+
+fn set_index(obj: &Value, idx: &Value, val: Value) -> Result<(), String> {
+    match obj {
+        Value::Array(a) => {
+            let i = match idx {
+                Value::Number(n) => *n as usize,
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "Array index must be number, got {}",
+                        idx.type_name()
+                    ));
+                }
+            };
+            let mut arr = a.borrow_mut();
+            while arr.len() <= i {
+                arr.push(Value::Null);
+            }
+            arr[i] = val;
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Value::Object(_) => object_set(obj, idx, val),
+        _ => Err(format!("Cannot set property of {}", obj.type_name())),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Run a chunk with every capability linked into this `tishlang_vm` build (tests, embedders).
+pub fn run(chunk: &Chunk) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    let mut vm = Vm::new();
+    vm.run_with_options(chunk, false)
+}
+
+/// Run a chunk with options (e.g. REPL persistence for top-level declarations).
+pub fn run_with_options(chunk: &Chunk, opts: VmRunOptions) -> Result<Value, String> {
+    let mut vm = Vm::with_capabilities(opts.capabilities);
+    vm.run_with_options(chunk, opts.repl_mode)
+}