@soundscript/soundscript 0.1.13 → 0.1.15

package/project-transform/src/compiler/wat_arrays.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,3768 @@
+import type {
+  CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  CompilerModuleIR,
+  CompilerTaggedPrimitiveBoundaryKindsIR,
+} from './ir.ts';
+import { CompilerUnsupportedError } from './errors.ts';
+import {
+  emitHostTaggedPrimitiveExternrefToTagged,
+  emitTaggedPrimitiveToHostExternref,
+} from './wat_tagged.ts';
+
+export interface BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike {
+  fallbackCodeUnitArrayWatTypeId: string;
+  fallbackWatTypeId: string;
+  runtimeWatTypeId: string;
+}
+
+export interface ArrayRuntimeImportUsage {
+  usesHeapParamBoundary: boolean;
+  usesHeapParamCopyBack: boolean;
+  usesHeapResultBoundary: boolean;
+  usesStringParamBoundary: boolean;
+  usesStringParamCopyBack: boolean;
+  usesStringResultBoundary: boolean;
+  usesNumberParamBoundary: boolean;
+  usesNumberParamCopyBack: boolean;
+  usesNumberResultBoundary: boolean;
+  usesBooleanParamBoundary: boolean;
+  usesBooleanParamCopyBack: boolean;
+  usesBooleanResultBoundary: boolean;
+  usesTaggedParamBoundary: boolean;
+  usesTaggedParamCopyBack: boolean;
+  usesTaggedResultBoundary: boolean;
+}
+
+export interface OwnedArrayTypeUsage {
+  usesOwnedHeapArray: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringArray: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberArray: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanArray: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedArray: boolean;
+}
+
+export interface OwnedArrayBoundaryHelperOptions extends ArrayRuntimeImportUsage {
+  indent(level: number): string;
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(message: string): CompilerUnsupportedError;
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string;
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, {
+    watTypeId: string;
+    fields?: ReadonlyArray<{
+      valueType: string;
+      taggedPrimitiveKinds?: CompilerTaggedPrimitiveBoundaryKindsIR;
+      heapRepresentation?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR['representation'];
+    }>;
+  }>;
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike;
+}
+
+export interface OwnedArrayPushHelperUsage {
+  usesOwnedStringPush: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberPush: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanPush: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedPush: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringUnshift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberUnshift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanUnshift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedUnshift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapPop: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringPop: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberPop: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanPop: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedPop: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapShift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringShift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberShift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanShift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedShift: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapAt: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringAt: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberAt: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanAt: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedAt: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringJoin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberJoin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanJoin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapReverse: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringReverse: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberReverse: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanReverse: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedReverse: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapFill: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringFill: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberFill: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanFill: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedFill: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapCopyWithin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringCopyWithin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberCopyWithin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanCopyWithin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedCopyWithin: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapConcat: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringConcat: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberConcat: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanConcat: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedConcat: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapSlice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringSlice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberSlice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanSlice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedSlice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapSplice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringSplice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberSplice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanSplice: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapIncludes: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringIncludes: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberIncludes: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanIncludes: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedIncludes: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedHeapLastIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedStringLastIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedNumberLastIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedBooleanLastIndexOf: boolean;
+  usesOwnedTaggedLastIndexOf: boolean;
+}
+
+export function emitArrayRuntimeImports(usage: ArrayRuntimeImportUsage): string[] {
+  const {
+    usesHeapParamBoundary,
+    usesHeapParamCopyBack,
+    usesHeapResultBoundary,
+    usesStringParamBoundary,
+    usesStringParamCopyBack,
+    usesStringResultBoundary,
+    usesNumberParamBoundary,
+    usesNumberParamCopyBack,
+    usesNumberResultBoundary,
+    usesBooleanParamBoundary,
+    usesBooleanParamCopyBack,
+    usesBooleanResultBoundary,
+    usesTaggedParamBoundary,
+    usesTaggedParamCopyBack,
+    usesTaggedResultBoundary,
+  } = usage;
+  if (
+    !usesHeapResultBoundary &&
+    !usesHeapParamBoundary && !usesHeapParamCopyBack &&
+    !usesStringParamBoundary && !usesStringParamCopyBack && !usesStringResultBoundary &&
+    !usesNumberParamBoundary && !usesNumberParamCopyBack && !usesNumberResultBoundary &&
+    !usesBooleanParamBoundary && !usesBooleanParamCopyBack && !usesBooleanResultBoundary &&
+    !usesTaggedParamBoundary && !usesTaggedParamCopyBack && !usesTaggedResultBoundary
+  ) {
+    return [];
+  }
+
+  const usesAnyParamBoundary = usesHeapParamBoundary || usesStringParamBoundary || usesNumberParamBoundary ||
+    usesBooleanParamBoundary || usesTaggedParamBoundary;
+  const usesAnyHeapBoundary = usesHeapParamBoundary || usesHeapParamCopyBack || usesHeapResultBoundary;
+  const usesAnyParamCopyBack = usesHeapParamCopyBack || usesStringParamCopyBack || usesNumberParamCopyBack ||
+    usesBooleanParamCopyBack || usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary || usesAnyParamBoundary;
+
+  return [
+    ...(usesAnyParamBoundary || usesAnyHeapBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "length" (func $host_array_length (param externref) (result i32)))',
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "same" (func $host_array_same (param externref) (param externref) (result i32)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesAnyHeapBoundary || usesStringParamBoundary || usesTaggedParamBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "get" (func $host_array_get (param externref) (param i32) (result externref)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesHeapResultBoundary || usesHeapParamCopyBack || usesStringParamBoundary || usesStringResultBoundary ||
+        usesTaggedParamBoundary || usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "push" (func $host_array_push (param externref) (param externref)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesAnyParamCopyBack
+      ? ['(import "soundscript_array" "clear" (func $host_array_clear (param externref)))']
+      : []),
+    ...(usesNumberParamBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "get_number" (func $host_array_get_number (param externref) (param i32) (result f64)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesNumberParamBoundary || usesNumberParamCopyBack || usesNumberResultBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "push_number" (func $host_number_array_push (param externref) (param f64)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanParamBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "get_boolean" (func $host_array_get_boolean (param externref) (param i32) (result i32)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanParamBoundary || usesBooleanParamCopyBack || usesBooleanResultBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "push_boolean" (func $host_boolean_array_push (param externref) (param i32)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesHeapResultBoundary || usesHeapParamCopyBack || usesStringResultBoundary ||
+        usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary
+      ? ['(import "soundscript_array" "empty" (func $host_array_empty (result externref)))']
+      : []),
+    ...(usesNumberResultBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "empty_number" (func $host_number_array_empty (result externref)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanResultBoundary
+      ? [
+        '(import "soundscript_array" "empty_boolean" (func $host_boolean_array_empty (result externref)))',
+      ]
+      : []),
+  ];
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_data';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_data';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_data';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_data';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_data';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array';
+  }
+}
+
+export function emitOwnedArrayTypes(usage: OwnedArrayTypeUsage): string[] {
+  const lines: string[] = [];
+  if (usage.usesOwnedHeapArray) {
+    lines.push('(type $owned_heap_array_data (array (mut (ref null eq))))');
+    lines.push(
+      '(type $owned_heap_array (struct (field (mut (ref null $owned_heap_array_data)))))',
+    );
+  }
+  if (usage.usesOwnedStringArray) {
+    lines.push('(type $owned_string_array_data (array (mut (ref null eq))))');
+    lines.push(
+      '(type $owned_string_array (struct (field (mut (ref null $owned_string_array_data)))))',
+    );
+  }
+  if (usage.usesOwnedNumberArray) {
+    lines.push('(type $owned_number_array_data (array (mut f64)))');
+    lines.push(
+      '(type $owned_number_array (struct (field (mut (ref null $owned_number_array_data)))))',
+    );
+  }
+  if (usage.usesOwnedBooleanArray) {
+    lines.push('(type $owned_boolean_array_data (array (mut i32)))');
+    lines.push(
+      '(type $owned_boolean_array (struct (field (mut (ref null $owned_boolean_array_data)))))',
+    );
+  }
+  if (usage.usesOwnedTaggedArray) {
+    lines.push('(type $owned_tagged_array_data (array (mut (ref null $tagged_value))))');
+    lines.push(
+      '(type $owned_tagged_array (struct (field (mut (ref null $owned_tagged_array_data)))))',
+    );
+  }
+  return lines;
+}
+
+export function getOwnedArrayToHostHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_to_host_array';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_to_host_array';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_to_host_array';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_to_host_array';
+  }
+}
+
+function getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR): string {
+  const primitiveSuffix = [
+    kinds.includesBoolean ? 'b' : '_',
+    kinds.includesNull ? 'n' : '_',
+    kinds.includesNumber ? 'd' : '_',
+    kinds.includesString ? 's' : '_',
+    kinds.includesUndefined ? 'u' : '_',
+  ].join('');
+  if (!kinds.representation) {
+    return primitiveSuffix;
+  }
+  const representationHex = [...new TextEncoder().encode(kinds.representation.name)]
+    .map((byte) => byte.toString(16).padStart(2, '0'))
+    .join('');
+  return `${primitiveSuffix}__${representationHex}`;
+}
+
+export function getHostArrayToOwnedTaggedArrayHelperName(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+): string {
+  return `host_array_to_owned_tagged_array__${getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(kinds)}`;
+}
+
+export function getOwnedTaggedArrayToHostHelperName(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+): string {
+  return `owned_tagged_array_to_host_array__${getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(kinds)}`;
+}
+
+export function getCopyOwnedTaggedArrayToHostHelperName(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+): string {
+  return `copy_owned_tagged_array_to_host_array__${getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(kinds)}`;
+}
+
+function getTaggedArraySpecializedObjectToHostHelperName(watTypeId: string): string {
+  return `${watTypeId}_to_host_object`;
+}
+
+function getTaggedArrayHostObjectToSpecializedHelperName(watTypeId: string): string {
+  return `host_object_to_${watTypeId}`;
+}
+
+function getTaggedArrayCopySpecializedObjectToHostHelperName(watTypeId: string): string {
+  return `copy_${watTypeId}_to_host_object`;
+}
+
+function getTaggedArrayCopyFallbackObjectToHostHelperName(): string {
+  return 'copy_fallback_object_to_host_object';
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayPushHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_push';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_push';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_push';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_push';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayUnshiftHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_unshift';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_unshift';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_unshift';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_unshift';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayPopHelperName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_pop';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_pop';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_pop';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_pop';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_pop';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayShiftHelperName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_shift';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_shift';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_shift';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_shift';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_shift';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayAtHelperName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_at';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_at';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_at';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_at';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_at';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayJoinHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_join';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_join';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_join';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayReverseHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_reverse';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_reverse';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_reverse';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_reverse';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_reverse';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayFillHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_fill';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_fill';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_fill';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_fill';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_fill';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_copy_within';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_copy_within';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_copy_within';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_copy_within';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_copy_within';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArraySliceHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_slice';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_slice';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_slice';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_slice';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_slice';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArraySpliceHelperName(kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_splice';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_splice';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_splice';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_splice';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayConcatHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_concat';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_concat';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_concat';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_concat';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_concat';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayIncludesHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_includes';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_includes';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_includes';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_includes';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_includes';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayIndexOfHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_index_of';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_index_of';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_index_of';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_index_of';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_index_of';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelperName(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return 'owned_heap_array_last_index_of';
+    case 'string':
+      return 'owned_string_array_last_index_of';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'owned_number_array_last_index_of';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'owned_boolean_array_last_index_of';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'owned_tagged_array_last_index_of';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayBoundaryLabelPrefix(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'array';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'number_array';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'boolean_array';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'tagged_array';
+  }
+}
+
+function getHostArrayGetHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'host_array_get';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'host_array_get_number';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'host_array_get_boolean';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'host_array_get';
+  }
+}
+
+function getHostArrayPushHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'host_array_push';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'host_number_array_push';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'host_boolean_array_push';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'host_array_push';
+  }
+}
+
+function getHostArrayEmptyHelperName(kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged'): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'string':
+      return 'host_array_empty';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'host_number_array_empty';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'host_boolean_array_empty';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return 'host_array_empty';
+  }
+}
+
+function getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+): string {
+  switch (kind) {
+    case 'heap':
+      return '(ref null eq)';
+    case 'string':
+      return '(ref null $string_runtime)';
+    case 'number':
+      return 'f64';
+    case 'boolean':
+      return 'i32';
+    case 'tagged':
+      return '(ref null $tagged_value)';
+  }
+}
+
+function emitHostArrayElementToOwnedBackingLines(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  backingLocalName: string,
+  indexLocalName: string,
+  sourceLocalName: string,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  taggedKinds?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'tagged') {
+    if (!taggedKinds) {
+      throw new Error('Tagged array host-to-owned helpers require tagged element kinds.');
+    }
+    if (!taggedKinds.representation) {
+      return [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}call $host_array_get`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $element_host`,
+        ...emitHostTaggedPrimitiveExternrefToTagged(
+          'element_host',
+          'element_tag',
+          'element_tagged',
+          taggedKinds,
+          3,
+          indent,
+        ),
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.set $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+      ];
+    }
+    if (!createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError) {
+      throw new Error('Tagged heap-array host-to-owned helpers require backend error construction.');
+    }
+    const specializedWatTypeId = taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+      ? layoutsByRepresentationName?.get(taggedKinds.representation.name)?.watTypeId ??
+        (() => {
+          throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+            `Missing specialized object layout for tagged array boundary ${taggedKinds.representation.name}.`,
+          );
+        })()
+      : undefined;
+    return [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $host_array_get`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $element_host`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $element_host`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $tagged_type_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}(block $element_tagged_done`,
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesUndefined
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 0`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tag_undefined`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesNull
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 6`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tag_null`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesBoolean
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 1`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tagged_boolean_value`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tag_boolean`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesNumber
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 2`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tagged_number_value`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tag_number`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesString
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 3`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $string_to_owned`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tag_string`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+      `${indent(4)}i32.const 4`,
+      `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(4)}(if`,
+      `${indent(5)}(then`,
+      `${indent(6)}local.get $element_host`,
+      `${indent(6)}call $${
+        taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+          ? getTaggedArrayHostObjectToSpecializedHelperName(specializedWatTypeId!)
+          : 'host_object_to_fallback_object'
+      }`,
+      `${indent(6)}call $tag_heap_object`,
+      `${indent(6)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+      `${indent(6)}br $element_tagged_done`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(4)}unreachable`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+      `${indent(3)}array.set $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+    ];
+  }
+  return [
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}call $${getHostArrayGetHelperName(kind)}`,
+    ...(kind === 'string' ? [`${indent(3)}call $string_to_owned`] : []),
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedBackingElementToHostArrayLines(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  hostTargetLocalName: string,
+  backingLocalName: string,
+  indexLocalName: string,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+  taggedKinds?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'tagged') {
+    if (!taggedKinds) {
+      throw new Error('Tagged array owned-to-host helpers require tagged element kinds.');
+    }
+    if (!taggedKinds.representation) {
+      return [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+        ...emitTaggedPrimitiveToHostExternref(
+          'element_tagged',
+          'element_tag',
+          'element_host',
+          taggedKinds,
+          3,
+          indent,
+        ),
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $${hostTargetLocalName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $element_host`,
+        `${indent(3)}call $${getHostArrayPushHelperName(kind)}`,
+      ];
+    }
+    if (!createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError) {
+      throw new Error('Tagged heap-array owned-to-host helpers require backend error construction.');
+    }
+    const specializedWatTypeId = taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+      ? layoutsByRepresentationName?.get(taggedKinds.representation.name)?.watTypeId ??
+        (() => {
+          throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+            `Missing specialized object layout for tagged array boundary ${taggedKinds.representation.name}.`,
+          );
+        })()
+      : undefined;
+    const fallbackWatTypeId = taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'fallback_object_representation'
+      ? fallbackObjectWatTypeId ??
+        (() => {
+          throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+            'Missing fallback object layout for tagged array host boundary helper.',
+          );
+        })()
+      : undefined;
+    return [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}array.get $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+      `${indent(3)}struct.get $tagged_value 0`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}(block $element_host_done`,
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesUndefined
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 0`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tagged_undefined_value`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesNull
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 6`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}ref.null extern`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesBoolean
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 1`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $untag_boolean`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tagged_from_boolean`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesNumber
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 2`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $untag_number`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $tagged_from_number`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      ...(taggedKinds.includesString
+        ? [
+          `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.const 3`,
+          `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(4)}(if`,
+          `${indent(5)}(then`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $untag_string`,
+          `${indent(6)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+          `${indent(6)}call $owned_string_to_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+          `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+          `${indent(4)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+      `${indent(4)}i32.const 4`,
+      `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(4)}(if`,
+      `${indent(5)}(then`,
+      `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+      `${indent(6)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+      `${indent(6)}ref.cast ${
+        taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+          ? `(ref null $${specializedWatTypeId!})`
+          : `(ref null $${fallbackWatTypeId!})`
+      }`,
+      `${indent(6)}call $${
+        taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+          ? getTaggedArraySpecializedObjectToHostHelperName(specializedWatTypeId!)
+          : 'fallback_object_to_host_object'
+      }`,
+      `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+      `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(4)}unreachable`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $${hostTargetLocalName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $element_host`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $${getHostArrayPushHelperName(kind)}`,
+    ];
+  }
+  return [
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${hostTargetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${backingLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${indexLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind)}`,
+    ...(kind === 'string'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(3)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+        `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_to_host`,
+      ]
+      : []),
+    `${indent(3)}call $${getHostArrayPushHelperName(kind)}`,
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitHostArrayToOwnedArrayHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  taggedKinds?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const labelPrefix = getOwnedArrayBoundaryLabelPrefix(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $host_array_to_${wrapperTypeName} (param $value externref) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    ...(kind === 'tagged'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_host externref)`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tag i32)`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tagged (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+      ]
+      : []),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(1)}call $host_array_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $host_${labelPrefix}_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $host_${labelPrefix}_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $host_${labelPrefix}_done`,
+    ...emitHostArrayElementToOwnedBackingLines(
+      kind,
+      'backing',
+      'index',
+      'value',
+      indent,
+      taggedKinds,
+      layoutsByRepresentationName,
+      createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+    ),
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $host_${labelPrefix}_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.new $${wrapperTypeName}`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitCopyOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+  taggedKinds?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const copyElementLines = kind === 'tagged' && taggedKinds?.representation
+    ? (() => {
+      if (!createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError) {
+        throw new Error('Tagged heap-array owned-to-host copy helpers require backend error construction.');
+      }
+      const specializedWatTypeId = taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+        ? layoutsByRepresentationName?.get(taggedKinds.representation.name)?.watTypeId ??
+          (() => {
+            throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+              `Missing specialized object layout for tagged array boundary ${taggedKinds.representation.name}.`,
+            );
+          })()
+        : undefined;
+      const fallbackWatTypeId = taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'fallback_object_representation'
+        ? fallbackObjectWatTypeId ??
+          (() => {
+            throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+              'Missing fallback object layout for tagged array host copy-back helper.',
+            );
+          })()
+        : undefined;
+      return [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tagged`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+        `${indent(3)}struct.get $tagged_value 0`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $element_tag`,
+        `${indent(3)}(block $element_host_done`,
+        ...(taggedKinds.includesUndefined
+          ? [
+            `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.const 0`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+            `${indent(4)}(if`,
+            `${indent(5)}(then`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $tagged_undefined_value`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+            `${indent(5)})`,
+            `${indent(4)})`,
+          ]
+          : []),
+        ...(taggedKinds.includesNull
+          ? [
+            `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.const 6`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+            `${indent(4)}(if`,
+            `${indent(5)}(then`,
+            `${indent(6)}ref.null extern`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+            `${indent(5)})`,
+            `${indent(4)})`,
+          ]
+          : []),
+        ...(taggedKinds.includesBoolean
+          ? [
+            `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.const 1`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+            `${indent(4)}(if`,
+            `${indent(5)}(then`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $untag_boolean`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $tagged_from_boolean`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+            `${indent(5)})`,
+            `${indent(4)})`,
+          ]
+          : []),
+        ...(taggedKinds.includesNumber
+          ? [
+            `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.const 2`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+            `${indent(4)}(if`,
+            `${indent(5)}(then`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $untag_number`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $tagged_from_number`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+            `${indent(5)})`,
+            `${indent(4)})`,
+          ]
+          : []),
+        ...(taggedKinds.includesString
+          ? [
+            `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.const 3`,
+            `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+            `${indent(4)}(if`,
+            `${indent(5)}(then`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $untag_string`,
+            `${indent(6)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+            `${indent(6)}call $owned_string_to_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}local.set $element_host`,
+            `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+            `${indent(5)})`,
+            `${indent(4)})`,
+          ]
+          : []),
+        `${indent(4)}local.get $element_tag`,
+        `${indent(4)}i32.const 4`,
+        `${indent(4)}i32.eq`,
+        `${indent(4)}(if`,
+        `${indent(5)}(then`,
+        `${indent(6)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+        `${indent(6)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+        `${indent(6)}call $host_object_lookup_cached`,
+        `${indent(6)}local.tee $element_host`,
+        `${indent(6)}ref.is_null`,
+        `${indent(6)}if`,
+        ...(taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+          ? [
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+            `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${specializedWatTypeId!})`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $${getTaggedArraySpecializedObjectToHostHelperName(specializedWatTypeId!)}`,
+            `${indent(7)}local.set $element_host`,
+          ]
+          : [
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+            `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${fallbackWatTypeId!})`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $fallback_object_to_host_object`,
+            `${indent(7)}local.set $element_host`,
+          ]),
+        `${indent(6)}else`,
+        ...(taggedKinds.representation.kind === 'specialized_object_representation'
+          ? [
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_host`,
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+            `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${specializedWatTypeId!})`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $${getTaggedArrayCopySpecializedObjectToHostHelperName(specializedWatTypeId!)}`,
+          ]
+          : [
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_host`,
+            `${indent(7)}local.get $element_tagged`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $untag_heap_object`,
+            `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${fallbackWatTypeId!})`,
+            `${indent(7)}call $${getTaggedArrayCopyFallbackObjectToHostHelperName()}`,
+          ]),
+        `${indent(6)}end`,
+        `${indent(6)}br $element_host_done`,
+        `${indent(5)})`,
+        `${indent(4)})`,
+        `${indent(4)}unreachable`,
+        `${indent(3)})`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $target`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $element_host`,
+        `${indent(3)}call $host_array_push`,
+      ];
+    })()
+    : emitOwnedBackingElementToHostArrayLines(
+      kind,
+      'target',
+      'backing',
+      'index',
+      indent,
+      stringRuntimeLayout,
+      taggedKinds,
+      layoutsByRepresentationName,
+      fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+      createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+    );
+  return [
+    `(func $copy_${wrapperTypeName}_to_host_array (param $target externref) (param $value (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    ...(kind === 'tagged'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tag i32)`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tagged (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_host externref)`,
+      ]
+      : []),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $target`,
+    `${indent(1)}call $host_array_clear`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $copy_${wrapperTypeName}_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $copy_${wrapperTypeName}_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $copy_${wrapperTypeName}_done`,
+    ...copyElementLines,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $copy_${wrapperTypeName}_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitHostArrayToOwnedTaggedArrayHelper(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const lines = emitHostArrayToOwnedArrayHelper(
+    'tagged',
+    indent,
+    kinds,
+    layoutsByRepresentationName,
+    createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+  );
+  lines[0] =
+    `(func $${getHostArrayToOwnedTaggedArrayHelperName(kinds)} (param $value externref) (result (ref null $owned_tagged_array))`;
+  return lines;
+}
+
+function emitCopyOwnedTaggedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const lines = emitCopyOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+    'tagged',
+    indent,
+    undefined,
+    kinds,
+    layoutsByRepresentationName,
+    fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+    createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+  );
+  lines[0] =
+    `(func $${getCopyOwnedTaggedArrayToHostHelperName(kinds)} (param $target externref) (param $value (ref null $owned_tagged_array))`;
+  return lines;
+}
+
+function emitOwnedTaggedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+  kinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const lines = emitOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+    'tagged',
+    indent,
+    stringRuntimeLayout,
+    kinds,
+    layoutsByRepresentationName,
+    fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+    createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+  );
+  lines[0] =
+    `(func $${getOwnedTaggedArrayToHostHelperName(kinds)} (param $value (ref null $owned_tagged_array)) (result externref)`;
+  return lines;
+}
+
+function collectTaggedArrayBoundaryKindSets(
+  module: CompilerModuleIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, {
+    fields?: ReadonlyArray<{
+      valueType: string;
+      taggedPrimitiveKinds?: CompilerTaggedPrimitiveBoundaryKindsIR;
+      heapRepresentation?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR['representation'];
+    }>;
+  }>,
+): readonly CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR[] {
+  const sets = new Map<string, CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR>();
+  for (const func of module.functions) {
+    for (const param of func.hostTaggedArrayParams ?? []) {
+      sets.set(getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(param), param);
+    }
+    if (func.hostTaggedArrayResultKinds) {
+      sets.set(getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(func.hostTaggedArrayResultKinds), func.hostTaggedArrayResultKinds);
+    }
+    for (const property of func.hostFallbackTaggedArrayProperties ?? []) {
+      sets.set(getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(property), property);
+    }
+  }
+  for (const layout of layoutsByRepresentationName?.values() ?? []) {
+    for (const field of layout.fields ?? []) {
+      if (field.valueType !== 'owned_tagged_array_ref' || !field.taggedPrimitiveKinds) {
+        continue;
+      }
+      const boundaryKinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR = {
+        ...field.taggedPrimitiveKinds,
+        representation: field.heapRepresentation,
+      };
+      sets.set(getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(boundaryKinds), boundaryKinds);
+    }
+  }
+  for (const field of module.runtime?.classStaticFields ?? []) {
+    if (field.kind !== 'class_static_tagged_array_field') {
+      continue;
+    }
+    const boundaryKinds: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR = {
+      includesBoolean: field.includesBoolean,
+      includesNull: field.includesNull,
+      includesNumber: field.includesNumber,
+      includesString: field.includesString,
+      includesUndefined: field.includesUndefined,
+      representation: field.representation,
+    };
+    sets.set(getTaggedArrayKindsSuffix(boundaryKinds), boundaryKinds);
+  }
+  return [...sets.values()];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+  taggedKinds?: CompilerFunctionHostTaggedArrayBoundaryIR,
+  layoutsByRepresentationName?: ReadonlyMap<string, { watTypeId: string }>,
+  fallbackObjectWatTypeId?: string,
+  createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError?: (message: string) => CompilerUnsupportedError,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const labelPrefix = getOwnedArrayBoundaryLabelPrefix(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${getOwnedArrayToHostHelperName(kind)} (param $value (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result externref)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $result externref)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    ...(kind === 'tagged'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tag i32)`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_tagged (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+        `${indent(1)}(local $element_host externref)`,
+      ]
+      : []),
+    `${indent(1)}call $${getHostArrayEmptyHelperName(kind)}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $result`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $owned_${labelPrefix}_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $owned_${labelPrefix}_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $owned_${labelPrefix}_done`,
+    ...emitOwnedBackingElementToHostArrayLines(
+      kind,
+      'result',
+      'backing',
+      'index',
+      indent,
+      stringRuntimeLayout,
+      taggedKinds,
+      layoutsByRepresentationName,
+      fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+      createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+    ),
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $owned_${labelPrefix}_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $result`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayPushHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${getOwnedArrayPushHelperName(kind)} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $value ${
+      getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind)
+    }) (result f64)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $old_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $new_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_push_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_push_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_push_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_push_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.set $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.convert_i32_u`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayUnshiftHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${getOwnedArrayUnshiftHelperName(kind)} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $value ${
+      getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind)
+    }) (result f64)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $old_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $new_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_unshift_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_unshift_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_unshift_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_unshift_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.set $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.convert_i32_u`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayPopHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array pop helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayPopHelperName(kind);
+  const poppedLocal = kind === 'heap'
+    ? '(local $popped (ref null eq))'
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? `(local $popped (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId}))`
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? '(local $popped f64)'
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? '(local $popped i32)'
+    : '(local $popped (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  const tagLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $popped`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_heap_object`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $popped`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_string`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $popped`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_number`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $popped`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_boolean`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $popped`,
+    ];
+  const captureLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $popped`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $popped`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'tagged'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $popped`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $popped`,
+    ];
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $old_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $new_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${poppedLocal}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.eqz`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}call $tag_undefined`,
+    `${indent(3)}return`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    ...captureLines,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_pop_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_pop_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_pop_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_pop_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.set $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    ...tagLines,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array shift helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayShiftHelperName(kind);
+  const shiftedLocal = kind === 'heap'
+    ? '(local $shifted (ref null eq))'
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? `(local $shifted (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId}))`
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? '(local $shifted f64)'
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? '(local $shifted i32)'
+    : '(local $shifted (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  const tagLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $shifted`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_heap_object`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $shifted`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_string`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $shifted`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_number`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $shifted`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_boolean`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $shifted`,
+    ];
+  const captureLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $shifted`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $shifted`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'tagged'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $shifted`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $shifted`,
+    ];
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $old_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $new_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${shiftedLocal}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.eqz`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}call $tag_undefined`,
+    `${indent(3)}return`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    ...captureLines,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_shift_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_shift_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_shift_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $old_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_shift_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $new_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.set $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    ...tagLines,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayAtHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array at helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayAtHelperName(kind);
+  const valueLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_heap_object`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_string`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_number`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tag_boolean`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    ];
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $index f64) (result (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.ne`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.floor`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.neg`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.lt`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.const -1`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.ceil`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if (result (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}call $tag_undefined`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_s`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if (result (ref null $tagged_value))`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}call $tag_undefined`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    ...valueLines.map((line) => `${indent(3)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`),
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitTaggedValueComparisonLines(
+  mode: 'strict' | 'same_value_zero',
+  matchLines: readonly string[],
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): { locals: string[]; lines: string[] } {
+  const numberEqualityLines = mode === 'same_value_zero'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(7)}(if`,
+      `${indent(8)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(9)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(8)})`,
+      `${indent(7)})`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}f64.ne`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}f64.ne`,
+      `${indent(7)}i32.and`,
+      `${indent(7)}(if`,
+      `${indent(8)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(9)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(8)})`,
+      `${indent(7)})`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(7)}(if`,
+      `${indent(8)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(9)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(8)})`,
+      `${indent(7)})`,
+    ];
+  return {
+    locals: [
+      '(local $candidate_tag i32)',
+      '(local $search_tag i32)',
+      '(local $candidate_number f64)',
+      '(local $search_number f64)',
+    ],
+    lines: [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}struct.get $tagged_value 0`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}struct.get $tagged_value 0`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $search_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search_tag`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(5)}(if`,
+      `${indent(6)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(7)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(6)})`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 6`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(5)}(if`,
+      `${indent(6)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(7)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(6)})`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(5)}(if`,
+      `${indent(6)}(then`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 1`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.set $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 1`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.set $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(7)}(if`,
+      `${indent(8)}(then`,
+      ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(9)}${line}`),
+      `${indent(8)})`,
+      `${indent(7)})`,
+      `${indent(6)})`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 2`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(5)}(if`,
+      `${indent(6)}(then`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 1`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.set $candidate_number`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 1`,
+      `${indent(7)}local.set $search_number`,
+      ...numberEqualityLines,
+      `${indent(6)})`,
+      `${indent(5)})`,
+      ...(stringRuntimeLayout
+        ? [
+          `${indent(5)}local.get $candidate_tag`,
+          `${indent(5)}i32.const 3`,
+          `${indent(5)}i32.eq`,
+          `${indent(5)}(if`,
+          `${indent(6)}(then`,
+          `${indent(7)}local.get $candidate`,
+          `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 2`,
+          `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+          `${indent(7)}local.get $search`,
+          `${indent(7)}struct.get $tagged_value 2`,
+          `${indent(7)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+          `${indent(7)}call $owned_string_equals`,
+          `${indent(7)}(if`,
+          `${indent(8)}(then`,
+          ...matchLines.map((line) => `${indent(9)}${line}`),
+          `${indent(8)})`,
+          `${indent(7)})`,
+          `${indent(6)})`,
+          `${indent(5)})`,
+        ]
+        : []),
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ],
+  };
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayJoinHelper(
+  kind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (!stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned array join helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const arrayTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayJoinHelperName(kind);
+  if (kind === 'string') {
+    return [
+      `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${arrayTypeName})) (param $separator (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})) (param $empty (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})) (result (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId}))`,
+      `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+      `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+      `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+      `${indent(1)}(local $result (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId}))`,
+      `${indent(1)}(local $current (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId}))`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+      `${indent(1)}struct.get $${arrayTypeName} 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.eqz`,
+      `${indent(1)}(if`,
+      `${indent(2)}(then`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $empty`,
+      `${indent(3)}return`,
+      `${indent(2)})`,
+      `${indent(1)})`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $result`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+      `${indent(1)}(block $${arrayTypeName}_join_done`,
+      `${indent(2)}(loop $${arrayTypeName}_join_loop`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+      `${indent(3)}br_if $${arrayTypeName}_join_done`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $separator`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_concat`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $current`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $current`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_concat`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}br $${arrayTypeName}_join_loop`,
+      `${indent(2)})`,
+      `${indent(1)})`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $result`,
+      ')',
+    ];
+  }
+
+  const firstValueLines = kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tagged_from_number`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $host_result`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+      `${indent(1)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(1)}call $tagged_from_boolean`,
+      `${indent(1)}local.set $host_result`,
+    ];
+  const appendCurrentLines = kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $host_result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $tagged_from_number`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $string_concat`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $host_result`,
+    ]
+    : [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $host_result`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $tagged_from_boolean`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $string_concat`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.set $host_result`,
+    ];
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${arrayTypeName})) (param $separator (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})) (param $empty (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId})) (result (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout.runtimeWatTypeId}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $host_separator externref)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $host_result externref)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${arrayTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.eqz`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $empty`,
+    `${indent(3)}return`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $separator`,
+    `${indent(1)}call $owned_string_to_host`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $host_separator`,
+    ...firstValueLines,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${arrayTypeName}_join_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${arrayTypeName}_join_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${arrayTypeName}_join_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $host_result`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $host_separator`,
+    `${indent(3)}call $string_concat`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $host_result`,
+    ...appendCurrentLines,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${arrayTypeName}_join_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $host_result`,
+    `${indent(1)}call $string_to_owned`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines(
+  sourceLocalName: string,
+  targetLocalName: string,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  return [
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.ne`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.floor`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.neg`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.le`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.ceil`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitNormalizeLastIndexFromIndexLines(
+  sourceLocalName: string,
+  targetLocalName: string,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  return [
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.ne`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.floor`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.neg`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.le`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.const -1`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $${sourceLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.ceil`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $${targetLocalName}`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArraySliceHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArraySliceHelperName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $start f64) (param $end f64) (param $has_end i32) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $result_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_end i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $result_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('start', 'normalized_start', indent),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('end', 'normalized_end', indent).map((line) => `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $result_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $result_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_slice_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_slice_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $result_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_slice_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_slice_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.new $${wrapperTypeName}`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayConcatHelperName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $left (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $right (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $left_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $right_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $result_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $left_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $right_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $left`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $left_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $right`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $right_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $left_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $left_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $right_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $right_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $left_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $right_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_left_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_left_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_left_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_left_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_right_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_right_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_right_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_concat_right_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $result_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.new $${wrapperTypeName}`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArraySpliceHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArraySpliceHelperName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $start f64) (param $delete_count f64) (param $items (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $items_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $remaining_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $removed_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $insert_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $available_delete_count i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_delete_count i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $remaining_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $items`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $items_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $items_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $insert_length`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('start', 'normalized_start', indent),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $available_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $delete_count`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $delete_count`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.ne`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $delete_count`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.le`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.set $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $delete_count`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $available_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+    `${indent(5)}f64.ge`,
+    `${indent(5)}(if`,
+    `${indent(6)}(then`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $available_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(6)}(else`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.get $delete_count`,
+    `${indent(7)}f64.floor`,
+    `${indent(7)}i32.trunc_f64_s`,
+    `${indent(7)}local.set $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(6)})`,
+    `${indent(5)})`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $removed_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $insert_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $remaining_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $remaining_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $remaining_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_removed_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_removed_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_removed_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $removed_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_removed_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_prefix_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_prefix_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_prefix_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $remaining_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_prefix_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_insert_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_insert_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $insert_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_insert_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $remaining_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $items_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_insert_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $insert_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_suffix_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_suffix_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $remaining_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_suffix_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $remaining_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $insert_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_delete_count`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_splice_suffix_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $remaining_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.set $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $removed_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.new $${wrapperTypeName}`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayReverseHelperName(kind);
+  const tempLocal = kind === 'heap'
+    ? '(local $temp (ref null eq))'
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? '(local $temp (ref null eq))'
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? '(local $temp f64)'
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? '(local $temp i32)'
+    : '(local $temp (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $left i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $right i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${tempLocal}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $left`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $right`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_reverse_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_reverse_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_s`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_reverse_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $temp`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $temp`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $left`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $left`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $right`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $right`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_reverse_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayFillHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayFillHelperName(kind);
+  const valueType = getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $value ${valueType}) (param $start f64) (param $end f64) (param $has_end i32) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_end i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('start', 'normalized_start', indent),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('end', 'normalized_end', indent).map((line) =>
+      `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`
+    ),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_fill_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_fill_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_fill_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $value`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_fill_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelperName(kind);
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $target f64) (param $start f64) (param $end f64) (param $has_end i32) (result (ref null $${wrapperTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $copy_backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_target i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_end i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $copy_length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $available_target i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('target', 'normalized_target', indent),
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('start', 'normalized_start', indent),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('end', 'normalized_end', indent).map((line) =>
+      `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`
+    ),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_end`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_target`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $available_target`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $available_target`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $available_target`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(3)}(if`,
+    `${indent(4)}(then`,
+    `${indent(5)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.set $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(4)}(else`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.get $available_target`,
+    `${indent(5)}local.set $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(4)})`,
+    `${indent(3)})`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.new_default $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $copy_backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_capture_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_capture_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_capture_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $copy_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_capture_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_write_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_write_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $copy_length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_write_done`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $normalized_target`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $copy_backing`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}array.set $${dataTypeName}`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_copy_within_write_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array includes helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayIncludesHelperName(kind);
+  const searchType = getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind);
+  const taggedComparison = kind === 'tagged'
+    ? emitTaggedValueComparisonLines(
+      'same_value_zero',
+      [
+        'i32.const 1',
+        'local.set $found',
+        `br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      ],
+      indent,
+      stringRuntimeLayout,
+    )
+    : undefined;
+  const candidateLocal =
+    kind === 'heap'
+      ? '(local $candidate (ref null eq))'
+      : kind === 'string'
+      ? `(local $candidate (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId}))`
+      : kind === 'number'
+      ? '(local $candidate f64)'
+      : kind === 'boolean'
+      ? '(local $candidate i32)'
+      : '(local $candidate (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  const equalityLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}ref.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.set $found`,
+      `${indent(5)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_equals`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.set $found`,
+      `${indent(5)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.set $found`,
+      `${indent(5)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}f64.ne`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}f64.ne`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.and`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.set $found`,
+      `${indent(5)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}i32.const 1`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.set $found`,
+      `${indent(5)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : taggedComparison!.lines;
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $search ${searchType}) (param $from_index f64) (param $has_from_index i32) (result i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $found i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${candidateLocal}`,
+    ...(taggedComparison?.locals.map((local) => `${indent(1)}${local}`) ?? []),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_from_index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('from_index', 'normalized_start', indent).map((line) =>
+      `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`
+    ),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $found`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_done`,
+    ...(kind === 'string'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]
+      : [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]),
+    ...equalityLines,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_includes_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $found`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array indexOf helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayIndexOfHelperName(kind);
+  const searchType = getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind);
+  const taggedComparison = kind === 'tagged'
+    ? emitTaggedValueComparisonLines(
+      'strict',
+      [
+        'local.get $index',
+        'f64.convert_i32_s',
+        'return',
+      ],
+      indent,
+      stringRuntimeLayout,
+    )
+    : undefined;
+  const candidateLocal =
+    kind === 'heap'
+      ? '(local $candidate (ref null eq))'
+      : kind === 'string'
+      ? `(local $candidate (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId}))`
+      : kind === 'number'
+      ? '(local $candidate f64)'
+      : kind === 'boolean'
+      ? '(local $candidate i32)'
+      : '(local $candidate (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  const equalityLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}ref.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_equals`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : taggedComparison!.lines;
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $search ${searchType}) (param $from_index f64) (param $has_from_index i32) (result f64)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${candidateLocal}`,
+    ...(taggedComparison?.locals.map((local) => `${indent(1)}${local}`) ?? []),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_from_index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeSliceIndexLines('from_index', 'normalized_start', indent).map((line) =>
+      `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`
+    ),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_index_of_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_index_of_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.ge_u`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_index_of_done`,
+    ...(kind === 'string'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]
+      : [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]),
+    ...equalityLines,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.add`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_index_of_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.const -1`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+function emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper(
+  kind: 'heap' | 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean' | 'tagged',
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  if (kind === 'string' && !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw new CompilerUnsupportedError(
+      'Owned string-array lastIndexOf helpers require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const wrapperTypeName = getOwnedArrayWatTypeName(kind);
+  const dataTypeName = getOwnedArrayDataWatTypeName(kind);
+  const helperName = getOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelperName(kind);
+  const searchType = getOwnedArrayPushValueWatType(kind);
+  const taggedComparison = kind === 'tagged'
+    ? emitTaggedValueComparisonLines(
+      'strict',
+      [
+        'local.get $index',
+        'f64.convert_i32_s',
+        'return',
+      ],
+      indent,
+      stringRuntimeLayout,
+    )
+    : undefined;
+  const candidateLocal =
+    kind === 'heap'
+      ? '(local $candidate (ref null eq))'
+      : kind === 'string'
+      ? `(local $candidate (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId}))`
+      : kind === 'number'
+      ? '(local $candidate f64)'
+      : kind === 'boolean'
+      ? '(local $candidate i32)'
+      : '(local $candidate (ref null $tagged_value))';
+  const equalityLines = kind === 'heap'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}ref.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'string'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}call $owned_string_equals`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'number'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}f64.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : kind === 'boolean'
+    ? [
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $candidate`,
+      `${indent(3)}local.get $search`,
+      `${indent(3)}i32.eq`,
+      `${indent(3)}(if`,
+      `${indent(4)}(then`,
+      `${indent(5)}local.get $index`,
+      `${indent(5)}f64.convert_i32_s`,
+      `${indent(5)}return`,
+      `${indent(4)})`,
+      `${indent(3)})`,
+    ]
+    : taggedComparison!.lines;
+  return [
+    `(func $${helperName} (param $array (ref null $${wrapperTypeName})) (param $search ${searchType}) (param $from_index f64) (param $has_from_index i32) (result f64)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $backing (ref null $${dataTypeName}))`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $length i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $normalized_start i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}(local $index i32)`,
+    `${indent(1)}${candidateLocal}`,
+    ...(taggedComparison?.locals.map((local) => `${indent(1)}${local}`) ?? []),
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $array`,
+    `${indent(1)}struct.get $${wrapperTypeName} 0`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $backing`,
+    `${indent(1)}array.len`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(1)}i32.eqz`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    `${indent(3)}f64.const -1`,
+    `${indent(3)}return`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $has_from_index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(if`,
+    `${indent(2)}(then`,
+    ...emitNormalizeLastIndexFromIndexLines('from_index', 'normalized_start', indent).map((line) =>
+      `${indent(1)}${line.slice(indent(1).length)}`
+    ),
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(2)}(else`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $length`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.get $normalized_start`,
+    `${indent(1)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(1)}(block $${wrapperTypeName}_last_index_of_done`,
+    `${indent(2)}(loop $${wrapperTypeName}_last_index_of_loop`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 0`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.lt_s`,
+    `${indent(3)}br_if $${wrapperTypeName}_last_index_of_done`,
+    ...(kind === 'string'
+      ? [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}ref.cast (ref null $${stringRuntimeLayout!.runtimeWatTypeId})`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]
+      : [
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $backing`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+        `${indent(3)}array.get $${dataTypeName}`,
+        `${indent(3)}local.set $candidate`,
+      ]),
+    ...equalityLines,
+    `${indent(3)}local.get $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.const 1`,
+    `${indent(3)}i32.sub`,
+    `${indent(3)}local.set $index`,
+    `${indent(3)}br $${wrapperTypeName}_last_index_of_loop`,
+    `${indent(2)})`,
+    `${indent(1)})`,
+    `${indent(1)}f64.const -1`,
+    ')',
+  ];
+}
+
+export function emitHostOwnedArrayResultAdaptation(
+  resultKind: 'string' | 'number' | 'boolean',
+  ownedArrayParamKinds: readonly ('string' | 'number' | 'boolean')[],
+  level: number,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+): string[] {
+  return ownedArrayParamKinds.includes(resultKind)
+    ? [
+      `${indent(level)}call $copy_owned_${resultKind}_array_to_host_array`,
+      `${indent(level)}local.get $result_host_param`,
+    ]
+    : [`${indent(level)}call $${getOwnedArrayToHostHelperName(resultKind)}`];
+}
+
+export function emitOwnedArrayBoundaryHelpers(
+  module: CompilerModuleIR,
+  options: OwnedArrayBoundaryHelperOptions,
+): string[] {
+  const {
+    usesStringParamBoundary,
+    usesStringParamCopyBack,
+    usesStringResultBoundary,
+    usesNumberParamBoundary,
+    usesNumberParamCopyBack,
+    usesNumberResultBoundary,
+    usesBooleanParamBoundary,
+    usesBooleanParamCopyBack,
+    usesBooleanResultBoundary,
+    usesTaggedParamBoundary,
+    usesTaggedParamCopyBack,
+    usesTaggedResultBoundary,
+    indent,
+    createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+    fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+    layoutsByRepresentationName,
+    stringRuntimeLayout,
+  } = options;
+  if (
+    !usesStringParamBoundary && !usesStringParamCopyBack && !usesStringResultBoundary &&
+    !usesNumberParamBoundary && !usesNumberParamCopyBack && !usesNumberResultBoundary &&
+    !usesBooleanParamBoundary && !usesBooleanParamCopyBack && !usesBooleanResultBoundary &&
+    !usesTaggedParamBoundary && !usesTaggedParamCopyBack && !usesTaggedResultBoundary
+  ) {
+    return [];
+  }
+  if ((usesStringParamBoundary || usesStringParamCopyBack || usesStringResultBoundary) &&
+    !stringRuntimeLayout) {
+    throw createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError(
+      'Owned string-array host boundaries require the owned string runtime.',
+    );
+  }
+  const taggedKindSets = usesTaggedParamBoundary || usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary
+    ? collectTaggedArrayBoundaryKindSets(module, layoutsByRepresentationName)
+    : [];
+
+  return [
+    ...(usesStringParamBoundary ? emitHostArrayToOwnedArrayHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesStringParamBoundary || usesStringParamCopyBack
+      ? emitCopyOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesStringResultBoundary
+      ? emitOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesNumberParamBoundary ? emitHostArrayToOwnedArrayHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesNumberParamBoundary || usesNumberParamCopyBack
+      ? emitCopyOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('number', indent)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesNumberResultBoundary ? emitOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanParamBoundary ? emitHostArrayToOwnedArrayHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanParamBoundary || usesBooleanParamCopyBack
+      ? emitCopyOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('boolean', indent)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesBooleanResultBoundary ? emitOwnedArrayToHostArrayHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesTaggedParamBoundary
+      ? taggedKindSets.flatMap((kinds) =>
+        emitHostArrayToOwnedTaggedArrayHelper(
+          kinds,
+          indent,
+          layoutsByRepresentationName,
+          createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+        ))
+      : []),
+    ...(usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary
+      ? taggedKindSets.flatMap((kinds) =>
+        emitCopyOwnedTaggedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+          kinds,
+          indent,
+          layoutsByRepresentationName,
+          fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+          createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+        ))
+      : []),
+    ...(usesTaggedParamCopyBack || usesTaggedResultBoundary
+      ? taggedKindSets.flatMap((kinds) =>
+        emitOwnedTaggedArrayToHostArrayHelper(
+          kinds,
+          indent,
+          stringRuntimeLayout,
+          layoutsByRepresentationName,
+          fallbackObjectWatTypeId,
+          createUnsupportedHeapRuntimeBackendError,
+        ))
+      : []),
+  ];
+}
+
+export function emitOwnedArrayNativeHelpers(
+  options: OwnedArrayPushHelperUsage,
+  indent: (level: number) => string,
+  stringRuntimeLayout?: BackendStringRuntimeLayoutLike,
+): string[] {
+  const {
+    usesOwnedStringPush,
+    usesOwnedNumberPush,
+    usesOwnedBooleanPush,
+    usesOwnedTaggedPush,
+    usesOwnedStringUnshift,
+    usesOwnedNumberUnshift,
+    usesOwnedBooleanUnshift,
+    usesOwnedTaggedUnshift,
+    usesOwnedHeapPop,
+    usesOwnedStringPop,
+    usesOwnedNumberPop,
+    usesOwnedBooleanPop,
+    usesOwnedTaggedPop,
+    usesOwnedHeapShift,
+    usesOwnedStringShift,
+    usesOwnedNumberShift,
+    usesOwnedBooleanShift,
+    usesOwnedTaggedShift,
+    usesOwnedHeapAt,
+    usesOwnedStringAt,
+    usesOwnedNumberAt,
+    usesOwnedBooleanAt,
+    usesOwnedTaggedAt,
+    usesOwnedStringJoin,
+    usesOwnedNumberJoin,
+    usesOwnedBooleanJoin,
+    usesOwnedHeapReverse,
+    usesOwnedStringReverse,
+    usesOwnedNumberReverse,
+    usesOwnedBooleanReverse,
+    usesOwnedTaggedReverse,
+    usesOwnedHeapFill,
+    usesOwnedStringFill,
+    usesOwnedNumberFill,
+    usesOwnedBooleanFill,
+    usesOwnedTaggedFill,
+    usesOwnedHeapCopyWithin,
+    usesOwnedStringCopyWithin,
+    usesOwnedNumberCopyWithin,
+    usesOwnedBooleanCopyWithin,
+    usesOwnedTaggedCopyWithin,
+    usesOwnedHeapConcat,
+    usesOwnedStringConcat,
+    usesOwnedNumberConcat,
+    usesOwnedBooleanConcat,
+    usesOwnedTaggedConcat,
+    usesOwnedHeapSlice,
+    usesOwnedStringSlice,
+    usesOwnedNumberSlice,
+    usesOwnedBooleanSlice,
+    usesOwnedTaggedSlice,
+    usesOwnedHeapSplice,
+    usesOwnedStringSplice,
+    usesOwnedNumberSplice,
+    usesOwnedBooleanSplice,
+    usesOwnedHeapIncludes,
+    usesOwnedStringIncludes,
+    usesOwnedNumberIncludes,
+    usesOwnedBooleanIncludes,
+    usesOwnedTaggedIncludes,
+    usesOwnedHeapIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedStringIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedNumberIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedBooleanIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedTaggedIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedHeapLastIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedStringLastIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedNumberLastIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedBooleanLastIndexOf,
+    usesOwnedTaggedLastIndexOf,
+  } = options;
+  return [
+    ...(usesOwnedStringPush ? emitOwnedArrayPushHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberPush ? emitOwnedArrayPushHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanPush ? emitOwnedArrayPushHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedPush ? emitOwnedArrayPushHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringUnshift ? emitOwnedArrayUnshiftHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberUnshift ? emitOwnedArrayUnshiftHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanUnshift ? emitOwnedArrayUnshiftHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedUnshift ? emitOwnedArrayUnshiftHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapPop ? emitOwnedArrayPopHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringPop ? emitOwnedArrayPopHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberPop ? emitOwnedArrayPopHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanPop ? emitOwnedArrayPopHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedPop ? emitOwnedArrayPopHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapShift ? emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringShift ? emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberShift ? emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanShift ? emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedShift ? emitOwnedArrayShiftHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapAt ? emitOwnedArrayAtHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringAt ? emitOwnedArrayAtHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberAt ? emitOwnedArrayAtHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanAt ? emitOwnedArrayAtHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedAt ? emitOwnedArrayAtHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringJoin ? emitOwnedArrayJoinHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberJoin ? emitOwnedArrayJoinHelper('number', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanJoin ? emitOwnedArrayJoinHelper('boolean', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapReverse ? emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringReverse ? emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberReverse ? emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanReverse ? emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedReverse ? emitOwnedArrayReverseHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapFill ? emitOwnedArrayFillHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringFill ? emitOwnedArrayFillHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberFill ? emitOwnedArrayFillHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanFill ? emitOwnedArrayFillHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedFill ? emitOwnedArrayFillHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapCopyWithin ? emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringCopyWithin ? emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberCopyWithin ? emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanCopyWithin ? emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedCopyWithin ? emitOwnedArrayCopyWithinHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapConcat ? emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringConcat ? emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberConcat ? emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanConcat ? emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedConcat ? emitOwnedArrayConcatHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapSlice ? emitOwnedArraySliceHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringSlice ? emitOwnedArraySliceHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberSlice ? emitOwnedArraySliceHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanSlice ? emitOwnedArraySliceHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedSlice ? emitOwnedArraySliceHelper('tagged', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapSplice ? emitOwnedArraySpliceHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringSplice ? emitOwnedArraySpliceHelper('string', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberSplice ? emitOwnedArraySpliceHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanSplice ? emitOwnedArraySpliceHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapIncludes ? emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringIncludes
+      ? emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberIncludes ? emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanIncludes ? emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedIncludes ? emitOwnedArrayIncludesHelper('tagged', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringIndexOf
+      ? emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayIndexOfHelper('tagged', indent, stringRuntimeLayout) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedHeapLastIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper('heap', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedStringLastIndexOf
+      ? emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper('string', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedNumberLastIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper('number', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedBooleanLastIndexOf ? emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper('boolean', indent) : []),
+    ...(usesOwnedTaggedLastIndexOf
+      ? emitOwnedArrayLastIndexOfHelper('tagged', indent, stringRuntimeLayout)
+      : []),
+  ];
+}