@ohos-ports/react-native-quick-crypto 0.0.0-stage → 1.1.8-beta.0

package/src/subtle.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,4545 @@
+import { Buffer as SBuffer } from 'safe-buffer';
+import type {
+  SubtleAlgorithm,
+  KeyUsage,
+  BinaryLike,
+  BufferLike,
+  JWK,
+  AnyAlgorithm,
+  ImportFormat,
+  AesKeyGenParams,
+  EncryptDecryptParams,
+  Operation,
+  AesCtrParams,
+  AesCbcParams,
+  AesGcmParams,
+  AesOcbParams,
+  RsaOaepParams,
+  ChaCha20Poly1305Params,
+} from './utils';
+import { KFormatType, KeyEncoding, KeyType, kNamedCurveAliases } from './utils';
+import { Buffer } from '@craftzdog/react-native-buffer';
+import {
+  CryptoKey,
+  KeyObject,
+  PublicKeyObject,
+  PrivateKeyObject,
+  SecretKeyObject,
+} from './keys';
+import type { CryptoKeyPair } from './utils/types';
+import {
+  binaryLikeToArrayBuffer,
+  bufferLikeToArrayBuffer,
+} from './utils/conversion';
+import { argon2Sync } from './argon2';
+import { lazyDOMException } from './utils/errors';
+import { normalizeHashName, HashContext } from './utils/hashnames';
+import {
+  validateJwkStructure,
+  validateMaxBufferLength,
+} from './utils/validation';
+import { asyncDigest } from './hash';
+import { createSecretKey, createPublicKey } from './keys';
+import { NitroModules } from 'react-native-nitro-modules';
+import type { KeyObjectHandle } from './specs/keyObjectHandle.nitro';
+import type { RsaCipher } from './specs/rsaCipher.nitro';
+import type { CipherFactory } from './specs/cipher.nitro';
+import { pbkdf2DeriveBits } from './pbkdf2';
+import {
+  ecImportKey,
+  ecdsaSignVerify,
+  ec_generateKeyPair,
+  ecDeriveBits,
+} from './ec';
+import { rsa_generateKeyPair } from './rsa';
+import { getRandomValues } from './random';
+import { createHmac } from './hmac';
+import type { Kmac } from './specs/kmac.nitro';
+import { timingSafeEqual } from './utils/timingSafeEqual';
+import { createSign, createVerify } from './keys/signVerify';
+import {
+  ed_generateKeyPairWebCrypto,
+  x_generateKeyPairWebCrypto,
+  xDeriveBits,
+  Ed,
+} from './ed';
+import { mldsa_generateKeyPairWebCrypto, type MlDsaVariant } from './mldsa';
+import {
+  slhdsa_generateKeyPairWebCrypto,
+  SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  type SlhDsaVariant,
+} from './slhdsa';
+import {
+  mlkem_generateKeyPairWebCrypto,
+  type MlKemVariant,
+  MlKem,
+} from './mlkem';
+import type { EncapsulateResult } from './utils';
+import { hkdfDeriveBits, type HkdfAlgorithm } from './hkdf';
+// Temporary enums that need to be defined
+
+enum KWebCryptoKeyFormat {
+  kWebCryptoKeyFormatRaw,
+  kWebCryptoKeyFormatSPKI,
+  kWebCryptoKeyFormatPKCS8,
+}
+
+enum CipherOrWrapMode {
+  kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+  kWebCryptoCipherDecrypt,
+}
+
+// Placeholder functions that need to be implemented
+function hasAnyNotIn(usages: KeyUsage[], allowed: KeyUsage[]): boolean {
+  return usages.some(usage => !allowed.includes(usage));
+}
+
+// Mirrors webidl.requiredArguments. Node throws TypeError when a SubtleCrypto
+// method is called with fewer than the spec-required number of arguments
+// (webcrypto.js:866 etc.); we relied on TypeScript types alone, which apps
+// catching `instanceof TypeError` could not see at runtime.
+function requireArgs(actual: number, required: number, method: string): void {
+  if (actual < required) {
+    throw new TypeError(
+      `Failed to execute '${method}' on 'SubtleCrypto': ${required} arguments required, but only ${actual} present.`,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+// WebCrypto §18.4.4: algorithm name lookup is case-insensitive, but the
+// canonical mixed-case form is preserved in the resulting `name` field
+// (e.g. "aes-gcm" → "AES-GCM"). This map is built lazily on first call so
+// the registry of canonical names below can stay declared after the
+// function. Without this, callers who pass lowercase strings bypass the
+// downstream `SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS` set comparisons silently.
+//
+// The map's value type is `AnyAlgorithm` so callers can use the lookup
+// result directly without re-asserting. The `as AnyAlgorithm` at insertion
+// is the single contract boundary: every name in `SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS` is
+// already a member of `AnyAlgorithm` by construction.
+let _canonicalAlgorithmNames: Map<string, AnyAlgorithm> | null = null;
+function getCanonicalAlgorithmNames(): Map<string, AnyAlgorithm> {
+  if (_canonicalAlgorithmNames === null) {
+    const map = new Map<string, AnyAlgorithm>();
+    for (const set of Object.values(SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS)) {
+      if (!set) continue;
+      for (const name of set) {
+        map.set(name.toLowerCase(), name as AnyAlgorithm);
+      }
+    }
+    _canonicalAlgorithmNames = map;
+  }
+  return _canonicalAlgorithmNames;
+}
+
+// Per-algorithm WebIDL converter table. Mirrors Node's kAlgorithmDefinitions
+// (lib/internal/crypto/util.js): each (algorithm, operation) pair maps to a
+// dictionary converter name, or null when only the `name` member is required.
+// Operation keys are missing when an algorithm cannot perform that operation,
+// causing `normalizeAlgorithm` to reject the call.
+const kAlgorithmDefinitions: Record<string, Record<string, string | null>> = {
+  'AES-CBC': {
+    generateKey: 'AesKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encrypt: 'AesCbcParams',
+    decrypt: 'AesCbcParams',
+    'get key length': 'AesDerivedKeyParams',
+  },
+  'AES-CTR': {
+    generateKey: 'AesKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encrypt: 'AesCtrParams',
+    decrypt: 'AesCtrParams',
+    'get key length': 'AesDerivedKeyParams',
+  },
+  'AES-GCM': {
+    generateKey: 'AesKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    decrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    'get key length': 'AesDerivedKeyParams',
+  },
+  'AES-KW': {
+    generateKey: 'AesKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    'get key length': 'AesDerivedKeyParams',
+    wrapKey: null,
+    unwrapKey: null,
+  },
+  'AES-OCB': {
+    generateKey: 'AesKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    decrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    'get key length': 'AesDerivedKeyParams',
+  },
+  Argon2d: {
+    deriveBits: 'Argon2Params',
+    'get key length': null,
+    importKey: null,
+  },
+  Argon2i: {
+    deriveBits: 'Argon2Params',
+    'get key length': null,
+    importKey: null,
+  },
+  Argon2id: {
+    deriveBits: 'Argon2Params',
+    'get key length': null,
+    importKey: null,
+  },
+  'ChaCha20-Poly1305': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    decrypt: 'AeadParams',
+    'get key length': null,
+  },
+  ECDH: {
+    generateKey: 'EcKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'EcKeyImportParams',
+    deriveBits: 'EcdhKeyDeriveParams',
+  },
+  ECDSA: {
+    generateKey: 'EcKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'EcKeyImportParams',
+    sign: 'EcdsaParams',
+    verify: 'EcdsaParams',
+  },
+  Ed25519: {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: null,
+    verify: null,
+  },
+  Ed448: {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: 'ContextParams',
+    verify: 'ContextParams',
+  },
+  HKDF: {
+    importKey: null,
+    deriveBits: 'HkdfParams',
+    'get key length': null,
+  },
+  HMAC: {
+    generateKey: 'HmacKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'HmacImportParams',
+    sign: null,
+    verify: null,
+    'get key length': 'HmacImportParams',
+  },
+  KMAC128: {
+    generateKey: 'KmacKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'KmacImportParams',
+    sign: 'KmacParams',
+    verify: 'KmacParams',
+    'get key length': 'KmacImportParams',
+  },
+  KMAC256: {
+    generateKey: 'KmacKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'KmacImportParams',
+    sign: 'KmacParams',
+    verify: 'KmacParams',
+    'get key length': 'KmacImportParams',
+  },
+  'ML-DSA-44': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: 'ContextParams',
+    verify: 'ContextParams',
+  },
+  'ML-DSA-65': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: 'ContextParams',
+    verify: 'ContextParams',
+  },
+  'ML-DSA-87': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: 'ContextParams',
+    verify: 'ContextParams',
+  },
+  'ML-KEM-512': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encapsulateBits: null,
+    decapsulateBits: null,
+    encapsulateKey: null,
+    decapsulateKey: null,
+  },
+  'ML-KEM-768': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encapsulateBits: null,
+    decapsulateBits: null,
+    encapsulateKey: null,
+    decapsulateKey: null,
+  },
+  'ML-KEM-1024': {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    encapsulateBits: null,
+    decapsulateBits: null,
+    encapsulateKey: null,
+    decapsulateKey: null,
+  },
+  PBKDF2: {
+    importKey: null,
+    deriveBits: 'Pbkdf2Params',
+    'get key length': null,
+  },
+  'RSA-OAEP': {
+    generateKey: 'RsaHashedKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'RsaHashedImportParams',
+    encrypt: 'RsaOaepParams',
+    decrypt: 'RsaOaepParams',
+  },
+  'RSA-PSS': {
+    generateKey: 'RsaHashedKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'RsaHashedImportParams',
+    sign: 'RsaPssParams',
+    verify: 'RsaPssParams',
+  },
+  'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5': {
+    generateKey: 'RsaHashedKeyGenParams',
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: 'RsaHashedImportParams',
+    sign: null,
+    verify: null,
+  },
+  'SHA-1': { digest: null },
+  'SHA-256': { digest: null },
+  'SHA-384': { digest: null },
+  'SHA-512': { digest: null },
+  'SHA3-256': { digest: null },
+  'SHA3-384': { digest: null },
+  'SHA3-512': { digest: null },
+  cSHAKE128: { digest: 'CShakeParams' },
+  cSHAKE256: { digest: 'CShakeParams' },
+  KT128: { digest: 'KangarooTwelveParams' },
+  KT256: { digest: 'KangarooTwelveParams' },
+  TurboSHAKE128: { digest: 'TurboShakeParams' },
+  TurboSHAKE256: { digest: 'TurboShakeParams' },
+  X25519: {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    deriveBits: 'EcdhKeyDeriveParams',
+  },
+  X448: {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    deriveBits: 'EcdhKeyDeriveParams',
+  },
+};
+
+for (const v of SLH_DSA_VARIANTS) {
+  kAlgorithmDefinitions[v] = {
+    generateKey: null,
+    exportKey: null,
+    importKey: null,
+    sign: null,
+    verify: null,
+  };
+}
+
+// WebIDL dictionary member specs. Mirrors Node's per-converter
+// `createDictionaryConverter` definitions in lib/internal/crypto/webidl.js.
+// `required: true` causes `normalizeAlgorithm` to throw a TypeError when the
+// member is missing — matching the spec'd WebCrypto behavior that
+// `SubtleCrypto.supports` relies on via try/catch.
+interface IdlField {
+  key: string;
+  required?: boolean;
+}
+
+type NormalizedAlgorithmRecord = SubtleAlgorithm & Record<string, unknown>;
+
+const kRequiredFields: Record<string, IdlField[]> = {
+  AesKeyGenParams: [{ key: 'length', required: true }],
+  AesDerivedKeyParams: [{ key: 'length', required: true }],
+  AesCbcParams: [{ key: 'iv', required: true }],
+  AesCtrParams: [
+    { key: 'counter', required: true },
+    { key: 'length', required: true },
+  ],
+  AeadParams: [
+    { key: 'iv', required: true },
+    { key: 'tagLength' },
+    { key: 'additionalData' },
+  ],
+  EcKeyGenParams: [{ key: 'namedCurve', required: true }],
+  EcKeyImportParams: [{ key: 'namedCurve', required: true }],
+  EcdsaParams: [{ key: 'hash', required: true }],
+  EcdhKeyDeriveParams: [{ key: 'public', required: true }],
+  HmacKeyGenParams: [{ key: 'hash', required: true }, { key: 'length' }],
+  HmacImportParams: [{ key: 'hash', required: true }, { key: 'length' }],
+  HkdfParams: [
+    { key: 'hash', required: true },
+    { key: 'salt', required: true },
+    { key: 'info', required: true },
+  ],
+  Pbkdf2Params: [
+    { key: 'hash', required: true },
+    { key: 'iterations', required: true },
+    { key: 'salt', required: true },
+  ],
+  RsaHashedKeyGenParams: [
+    { key: 'modulusLength', required: true },
+    { key: 'publicExponent', required: true },
+    { key: 'hash', required: true },
+  ],
+  RsaHashedImportParams: [{ key: 'hash', required: true }],
+  RsaOaepParams: [{ key: 'label' }],
+  RsaPssParams: [{ key: 'saltLength', required: true }],
+  ContextParams: [{ key: 'context' }],
+  Argon2Params: [
+    { key: 'nonce', required: true },
+    { key: 'parallelism', required: true },
+    { key: 'memory', required: true },
+    { key: 'passes', required: true },
+    { key: 'version' },
+    { key: 'secretValue' },
+    { key: 'associatedData' },
+  ],
+  KmacKeyGenParams: [{ key: 'length' }],
+  KmacImportParams: [{ key: 'length' }],
+  KmacParams: [
+    { key: 'outputLength', required: true },
+    { key: 'customization' },
+  ],
+  CShakeParams: [
+    { key: 'outputLength', required: true },
+    { key: 'functionName' },
+    { key: 'customization' },
+  ],
+  KangarooTwelveParams: [
+    { key: 'outputLength', required: true },
+    { key: 'customization' },
+  ],
+  TurboShakeParams: [
+    { key: 'outputLength', required: true },
+    { key: 'domainSeparation' },
+  ],
+};
+
+function isBufferSource(value: unknown): value is BufferLike {
+  return value instanceof ArrayBuffer || ArrayBuffer.isView(value);
+}
+
+function validateBufferSource(
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+  key: string,
+): ArrayBuffer | undefined {
+  const value = algorithm[key];
+  if (value === undefined) return undefined;
+  if (!isBufferSource(value)) {
+    throw new TypeError(
+      `Failed to normalize algorithm: '${key}' must be a BufferSource`,
+    );
+  }
+  return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(value);
+}
+
+function validateBinaryLike(
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+  key: string,
+): ArrayBuffer | undefined {
+  const value = algorithm[key];
+  if (value === undefined) return undefined;
+  try {
+    return binaryLikeToArrayBuffer(value as BinaryLike);
+  } catch {
+    throw new TypeError(
+      `Failed to normalize algorithm: '${key}' must be a BufferSource`,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+function validateByteLength(
+  buffer: ArrayBuffer | undefined,
+  key: string,
+  length: number,
+  message?: string,
+): void {
+  if (buffer !== undefined && buffer.byteLength !== length) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      message ?? `${key} must be ${length} bytes`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+function validateUnsignedInteger(
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+  key: string,
+): number | undefined {
+  const value = algorithm[key];
+  if (value === undefined) return undefined;
+  const numberValue = Number(value);
+  if (
+    !Number.isFinite(numberValue) ||
+    !Number.isInteger(numberValue) ||
+    numberValue < 0
+  ) {
+    throw new TypeError(
+      `Failed to normalize algorithm: '${key}' must be an unsigned integer`,
+    );
+  }
+  algorithm[key] = numberValue;
+  return numberValue;
+}
+
+function validateHashAlgorithm(
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+  converterName: string,
+): void {
+  const hash = algorithm.hash as string | { name: string } | undefined;
+  if (hash === undefined) return;
+  const normalizedHash = normalizeHashName(hash, HashContext.WebCrypto);
+  if (
+    ![
+      'SHA-1',
+      'SHA-256',
+      'SHA-384',
+      'SHA-512',
+      'SHA3-256',
+      'SHA3-384',
+      'SHA3-512',
+    ].includes(normalizedHash)
+  ) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported ${converterName}.hash`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+  algorithm.hash = { name: normalizedHash };
+}
+
+function validateAesLength(length: number | undefined): void {
+  if (
+    length !== undefined &&
+    length !== 128 &&
+    length !== 192 &&
+    length !== 256
+  ) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'OperationError');
+  }
+}
+
+function validateMacLength(
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+  key: string,
+  zeroError: 'DataError' | 'OperationError',
+): void {
+  const length = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, key);
+  if (length === undefined) return;
+  if (length === 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`${key} cannot be 0`, zeroError);
+  }
+  if (length % 8) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`Unsupported ${key}`, 'NotSupportedError');
+  }
+}
+
+function validateAeadParams(algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord): void {
+  const iv = validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'iv');
+  const tagLength = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'tagLength');
+  validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'additionalData');
+
+  switch (algorithm.name) {
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+      if (
+        tagLength !== undefined &&
+        ![32, 64, 96, 104, 112, 120, 128].includes(tagLength)
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `${tagLength} is not a valid AES-GCM tag length`,
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+      if (iv !== undefined && (iv.byteLength < 1 || iv.byteLength > 15)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'AES-OCB algorithm.iv must be between 1 and 15 bytes',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      if (tagLength !== undefined && ![64, 96, 128].includes(tagLength)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `${tagLength} is not a valid AES-OCB tag length`,
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      validateByteLength(
+        iv,
+        'algorithm.iv',
+        12,
+        'ChaCha20-Poly1305 IV must be exactly 12 bytes',
+      );
+      if (tagLength !== undefined && tagLength !== 128) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `${tagLength} is not a valid ChaCha20-Poly1305 tag length`,
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+  }
+}
+
+function validateNormalizedAlgorithm(
+  converterName: string,
+  algorithm: NormalizedAlgorithmRecord,
+): void {
+  switch (converterName) {
+    case 'AesKeyGenParams':
+    case 'AesDerivedKeyParams':
+      validateAesLength(validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'length'));
+      break;
+    case 'AesCbcParams':
+      validateByteLength(
+        validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'iv'),
+        'algorithm.iv',
+        16,
+        'algorithm.iv must contain exactly 16 bytes',
+      );
+      break;
+    case 'AesCtrParams': {
+      validateByteLength(
+        validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'counter'),
+        'algorithm.counter',
+        16,
+      );
+      const length = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'length');
+      if (length !== undefined && (length === 0 || length > 128)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'AES-CTR algorithm.length must be between 1 and 128',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+    case 'AeadParams':
+      validateAeadParams(algorithm);
+      break;
+    case 'EcdsaParams':
+    case 'HmacKeyGenParams':
+    case 'HmacImportParams':
+    case 'HkdfParams':
+    case 'Pbkdf2Params':
+    case 'RsaHashedKeyGenParams':
+    case 'RsaHashedImportParams':
+      validateHashAlgorithm(algorithm, converterName);
+      if (converterName === 'HmacKeyGenParams') {
+        validateMacLength(algorithm, 'length', 'OperationError');
+      }
+      if (converterName === 'HkdfParams') {
+        validateBinaryLike(algorithm, 'salt');
+        validateBinaryLike(algorithm, 'info');
+      } else if (converterName === 'Pbkdf2Params') {
+        const iterations = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'iterations');
+        if (iterations === 0) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('iterations cannot be zero', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        validateBinaryLike(algorithm, 'salt');
+      } else if (converterName === 'RsaHashedKeyGenParams') {
+        validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'modulusLength');
+        validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'publicExponent');
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'RsaPssParams':
+      validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'saltLength');
+      break;
+    case 'RsaOaepParams':
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'label');
+      break;
+    case 'ContextParams':
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'context');
+      break;
+    case 'EcdhKeyDeriveParams':
+      if (!(algorithm.public instanceof CryptoKey)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'algorithm.public must be a public key',
+          'InvalidAccessError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'Argon2Params': {
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'nonce');
+      const parallelism = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'parallelism');
+      const memory = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'memory');
+      validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'passes');
+      const version = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'version');
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'secretValue');
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'associatedData');
+      if (
+        parallelism !== undefined &&
+        (parallelism === 0 || parallelism > 2 ** 24 - 1)
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'parallelism must be > 0 and < 16777215',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      if (
+        memory !== undefined &&
+        parallelism !== undefined &&
+        memory < 8 * parallelism
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'memory must be at least 8 times the degree of parallelism',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      if (version !== undefined && version !== 0x13) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `${version} is not a valid Argon2 version`,
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+    case 'KmacKeyGenParams':
+      validateMacLength(algorithm, 'length', 'OperationError');
+      break;
+    case 'KmacImportParams':
+      validateMacLength(algorithm, 'length', 'DataError');
+      break;
+    case 'KmacParams':
+      validateMacLength(algorithm, 'outputLength', 'OperationError');
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'customization');
+      break;
+    case 'CShakeParams':
+    case 'KangarooTwelveParams': {
+      const outputLength = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'outputLength');
+      if (
+        outputLength !== undefined &&
+        (outputLength === 0 || outputLength % 8)
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `Invalid ${converterName} outputLength`,
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'functionName');
+      validateBufferSource(algorithm, 'customization');
+      break;
+    }
+    case 'TurboShakeParams': {
+      const outputLength = validateUnsignedInteger(algorithm, 'outputLength');
+      const domainSeparation = validateUnsignedInteger(
+        algorithm,
+        'domainSeparation',
+      );
+      if (
+        outputLength !== undefined &&
+        (outputLength === 0 || outputLength % 8)
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'Invalid TurboShakeParams outputLength',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      if (
+        domainSeparation !== undefined &&
+        (domainSeparation < 0x01 || domainSeparation > 0x7f)
+      ) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'TurboShakeParams.domainSeparation must be in range 0x01-0x7f',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// WebCrypto §18.4.4 algorithm normalization. Mirrors Node's normalizeAlgorithm
+// in lib/internal/crypto/util.js: canonicalizes `name`, looks up the
+// (name, op) → converter mapping, and rejects inputs that omit required
+// dictionary members. Callers in Subtle.supports rely on this throwing for
+// invalid params — without it, supports() over-reports capability (#1025).
+function normalizeAlgorithm(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+  operation: Operation | string,
+): SubtleAlgorithm {
+  if (typeof algorithm === 'string') {
+    return normalizeAlgorithm({ name: algorithm }, operation);
+  }
+  const name = (algorithm as { name?: unknown }).name;
+  if (typeof name !== 'string') {
+    throw new TypeError("Algorithm: 'name' is required");
+  }
+  const map = getCanonicalAlgorithmNames();
+  const canonical = map.get(name.toLowerCase());
+  if (canonical === undefined) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Unrecognized algorithm name', 'NotSupportedError');
+  }
+  const opMap = kAlgorithmDefinitions[canonical];
+  if (!opMap || !(operation in opMap)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Unrecognized algorithm name', 'NotSupportedError');
+  }
+  const converterName = opMap[operation];
+  if (converterName == null) {
+    return { name: canonical };
+  }
+  const fields = kRequiredFields[converterName];
+  if (!fields) {
+    return { ...algorithm, name: canonical };
+  }
+  const out = { name: canonical } as NormalizedAlgorithmRecord;
+  const src = algorithm as Record<string, unknown>;
+  for (const field of fields) {
+    const value = src[field.key];
+    if (value === undefined) {
+      if (field.required) {
+        throw new TypeError(
+          `Failed to normalize algorithm: '${field.key}' is required in '${converterName}'`,
+        );
+      }
+      continue;
+    }
+    (out as Record<string, unknown>)[field.key] = value;
+  }
+  validateNormalizedAlgorithm(converterName, out);
+  return out;
+}
+
+function getAlgorithmName(name: string, length: number): string {
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+      return `A${length}CBC`;
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+      return `A${length}CTR`;
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+      return `A${length}GCM`;
+    case 'AES-KW':
+      return `A${length}KW`;
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+      return `A${length}OCB`;
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      return 'C20P';
+    default:
+      return `${name}${length}`;
+  }
+}
+
+// Mirrors Node's aliasKeyFormat (lib/internal/crypto/webcrypto.js): for
+// algorithms whose import/export accepts both 'raw' and the disambiguated
+// 'raw-secret' / 'raw-public', collapse the latter to 'raw'. Used per-algorithm
+// — algorithms that demand the disambiguated form (KMAC, AES-OCB,
+// ChaCha20-Poly1305, Argon2*, ML-DSA, ML-KEM) MUST NOT alias.
+function aliasKeyFormat(format: ImportFormat): ImportFormat {
+  if (format === 'raw-secret' || format === 'raw-public') return 'raw';
+  return format;
+}
+
+const kUncompressedSpkiLength: Record<string, number> = {
+  'P-256': 91,
+  'P-384': 120,
+  'P-521': 158,
+};
+
+function ecExportKey(key: CryptoKey, format: KWebCryptoKeyFormat): ArrayBuffer {
+  const keyObject = key.keyObject;
+
+  if (format === KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatRaw) {
+    return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(keyObject.handle.exportKey());
+  } else if (format === KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatSPKI) {
+    const exported = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+      keyObject.export({ format: 'der', type: 'spki' }),
+    );
+
+    // WebCrypto requires uncompressed point format for SPKI exports.
+    // If the key was imported in compressed form, re-export as uncompressed
+    // by reconstructing the point from the JWK x,y coordinates and
+    // round-tripping through initECRaw.
+    const namedCurve = key.algorithm.namedCurve;
+    const expected =
+      namedCurve === undefined
+        ? undefined
+        : kUncompressedSpkiLength[namedCurve];
+    if (expected !== undefined && exported.byteLength !== expected) {
+      const jwk = keyObject.handle.exportJwk({}, false);
+      if (!jwk.x || !jwk.y) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'Failed to re-export EC public key as uncompressed SPKI',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      const x = Buffer.from(jwk.x, 'base64url');
+      const y = Buffer.from(jwk.y, 'base64url');
+      const raw = new Uint8Array(1 + x.length + y.length);
+      raw[0] = 0x04;
+      raw.set(x, 1);
+      raw.set(y, 1 + x.length);
+      const tmp =
+        NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+      const curveAlias =
+        kNamedCurveAliases[namedCurve as keyof typeof kNamedCurveAliases];
+      if (!tmp.initECRaw(curveAlias, raw.buffer as ArrayBuffer)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'Failed to re-export EC public key as uncompressed SPKI',
+          'OperationError',
+        );
+      }
+      return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+        tmp.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.SPKI),
+      );
+    }
+    return exported;
+  } else if (format === KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatPKCS8) {
+    const exported = keyObject.export({ format: 'der', type: 'pkcs8' });
+    return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(exported);
+  } else {
+    throw new Error(`Unsupported EC export format: ${format}`);
+  }
+}
+
+function rsaExportKey(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  format: KWebCryptoKeyFormat,
+): ArrayBuffer {
+  const keyObject = key.keyObject;
+
+  if (format === KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatSPKI) {
+    // Export public key in SPKI format
+    const exported = keyObject.export({ format: 'der', type: 'spki' });
+    return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(exported);
+  } else if (format === KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatPKCS8) {
+    // Export private key in PKCS8 format
+    const exported = keyObject.export({ format: 'der', type: 'pkcs8' });
+    return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(exported);
+  } else {
+    throw new Error(`Unsupported RSA export format: ${format}`);
+  }
+}
+
+async function rsaCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: EncryptDecryptParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  const rsaParams = algorithm as RsaOaepParams;
+
+  // Validate key type matches operation
+  const expectedType =
+    mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt ? 'public' : 'private';
+  if (key.type !== expectedType) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'The requested operation is not valid for the provided key',
+      'InvalidAccessError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get hash algorithm from key
+  const hashAlgorithm = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash);
+
+  // Prepare label (optional)
+  const label = rsaParams.label
+    ? bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(rsaParams.label)
+    : undefined;
+
+  // Create RSA cipher instance
+  const rsaCipherModule =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<RsaCipher>('RsaCipher');
+
+  // RSA-OAEP padding constant = 4
+  const RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING = 4;
+
+  if (mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt) {
+    // Encrypt with public key
+    return rsaCipherModule.encrypt(
+      key.keyObject.handle,
+      data,
+      RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING,
+      hashAlgorithm,
+      label,
+    );
+  } else {
+    // Decrypt with private key
+    return rsaCipherModule.decrypt(
+      key.keyObject.handle,
+      data,
+      RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING,
+      hashAlgorithm,
+      label,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+async function aesCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: EncryptDecryptParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+      return aesCtrCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm as AesCtrParams);
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+      return aesCbcCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm as AesCbcParams);
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+      return aesGcmCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm as AesGcmParams);
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+      return aesOcbCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm as AesOcbParams);
+    default:
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Unsupported AES algorithm: ${name}`,
+        'NotSupportedError',
+      );
+  }
+}
+
+async function aesCtrCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: AesCtrParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  // Validate counter and length
+  if (!algorithm.counter || algorithm.counter.byteLength !== 16) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'AES-CTR algorithm.counter must be 16 bytes',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  if (algorithm.length < 1 || algorithm.length > 128) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'AES-CTR algorithm.length must be between 1 and 128',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get cipher type based on key length
+  const keyLength = (key.algorithm as { length: number }).length;
+  const cipherType = `aes-${keyLength}-ctr`;
+
+  // Create cipher
+  const factory =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<CipherFactory>('CipherFactory');
+  const cipher = factory.createCipher({
+    isCipher: mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+    cipherType,
+    cipherKey: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.export()),
+    iv: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(algorithm.counter),
+  });
+
+  // Process data
+  const updated = cipher.update(data);
+  const final = cipher.final();
+
+  // Concatenate results
+  const result = new Uint8Array(updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+
+  return result.buffer;
+}
+
+async function aesCbcCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: AesCbcParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  // Validate IV
+  const iv = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(algorithm.iv);
+  if (iv.byteLength !== 16) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'algorithm.iv must contain exactly 16 bytes',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get cipher type based on key length
+  const keyLength = (key.algorithm as { length: number }).length;
+  const cipherType = `aes-${keyLength}-cbc`;
+
+  // Create cipher
+  const factory =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<CipherFactory>('CipherFactory');
+  const cipher = factory.createCipher({
+    isCipher: mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+    cipherType,
+    cipherKey: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.export()),
+    iv,
+  });
+
+  // Process data
+  const updated = cipher.update(data);
+  const final = cipher.final();
+
+  // Concatenate results
+  const result = new Uint8Array(updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+
+  return result.buffer;
+}
+
+interface AeadCipherConfig {
+  algorithmName: string;
+  validTagLengths: number[];
+  cipherSuffix: string;
+  iv: ArrayBuffer;
+}
+
+async function aesAeadCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  config: AeadCipherConfig,
+  additionalData?: BufferLike,
+  tagLength: number = 128,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  if (!config.validTagLengths.includes(tagLength)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `${tagLength} is not a valid ${config.algorithmName} tag length`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const tagByteLength = tagLength / 8;
+  const keyLength = (key.algorithm as { length: number }).length;
+  const cipherType = `aes-${keyLength}-${config.cipherSuffix}`;
+
+  const factory =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<CipherFactory>('CipherFactory');
+  const cipher = factory.createCipher({
+    isCipher: mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+    cipherType,
+    cipherKey: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.export()),
+    iv: config.iv,
+    authTagLen: tagByteLength,
+  });
+
+  let processData: ArrayBuffer;
+
+  if (mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherDecrypt) {
+    const dataView = new Uint8Array(data);
+
+    if (dataView.byteLength < tagByteLength) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'The provided data is too small.',
+        'OperationError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    const ciphertextLength = dataView.byteLength - tagByteLength;
+    processData = dataView.slice(0, ciphertextLength).buffer;
+    const authTag = dataView.slice(ciphertextLength).buffer;
+    cipher.setAuthTag(authTag);
+  } else {
+    processData = data;
+  }
+
+  if (additionalData) {
+    cipher.setAAD(bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(additionalData));
+  }
+
+  const updated = cipher.update(processData);
+  const final = cipher.final();
+
+  if (mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt) {
+    const tag = cipher.getAuthTag();
+    const result = new Uint8Array(
+      updated.byteLength + final.byteLength + tag.byteLength,
+    );
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(tag), updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+    return result.buffer;
+  } else {
+    const result = new Uint8Array(updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+    return result.buffer;
+  }
+}
+
+async function aesGcmCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: AesGcmParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  return aesAeadCipher(
+    mode,
+    key,
+    data,
+    {
+      algorithmName: 'AES-GCM',
+      validTagLengths: [32, 64, 96, 104, 112, 120, 128],
+      cipherSuffix: 'gcm',
+      iv: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(algorithm.iv),
+    },
+    algorithm.additionalData,
+    algorithm.tagLength,
+  );
+}
+
+async function aesOcbCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: AesOcbParams,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  const ivBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(algorithm.iv);
+  if (ivBuffer.byteLength < 1 || ivBuffer.byteLength > 15) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'AES-OCB algorithm.iv must be between 1 and 15 bytes',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  return aesAeadCipher(
+    mode,
+    key,
+    data,
+    {
+      algorithmName: 'AES-OCB',
+      validTagLengths: [64, 96, 128],
+      cipherSuffix: 'ocb',
+      iv: ivBuffer,
+    },
+    algorithm.additionalData,
+    algorithm.tagLength,
+  );
+}
+
+async function aesKwCipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  const isWrap = mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt;
+
+  // AES-KW requires input to be a multiple of 8 bytes (64 bits)
+  if (data.byteLength % 8 !== 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `AES-KW input length must be a multiple of 8 bytes, got ${data.byteLength}`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // AES-KW requires at least 16 bytes of input (128 bits)
+  if (isWrap && data.byteLength < 16) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `AES-KW input must be at least 16 bytes, got ${data.byteLength}`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get cipher type based on key length
+  const keyLength = (key.algorithm as { length: number }).length;
+  // Use aes*-wrap for both operations (matching Node.js)
+  const cipherType = `aes${keyLength}-wrap`;
+
+  // Export key material
+  const exportedKey = key.keyObject.export();
+  const cipherKey = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(exportedKey);
+
+  // AES-KW uses a default IV as specified in RFC 3394
+  const defaultWrapIV = new Uint8Array([
+    0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6, 0xa6,
+  ]);
+
+  const factory =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<CipherFactory>('CipherFactory');
+
+  const cipher = factory.createCipher({
+    isCipher: isWrap,
+    cipherType,
+    cipherKey,
+    iv: defaultWrapIV.buffer, // RFC 3394 default IV for AES-KW
+  });
+
+  // Process data
+  const updated = cipher.update(data);
+  const final = cipher.final();
+
+  // Concatenate results
+  const result = new Uint8Array(updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+  result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+
+  return result.buffer;
+}
+
+async function chaCha20Poly1305Cipher(
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+  algorithm: ChaCha20Poly1305Params,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+  const { iv, additionalData, tagLength = 128 } = algorithm;
+
+  // Validate IV (must be 12 bytes for ChaCha20-Poly1305)
+  const ivBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(iv);
+  if (!ivBuffer || ivBuffer.byteLength !== 12) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'ChaCha20-Poly1305 IV must be exactly 12 bytes',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Validate tag length (only 128-bit supported)
+  if (tagLength !== 128) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'ChaCha20-Poly1305 only supports 128-bit auth tags',
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const tagByteLength = 16; // 128 bits = 16 bytes
+
+  // Create cipher using existing ChaCha20-Poly1305 implementation
+  const factory =
+    NitroModules.createHybridObject<CipherFactory>('CipherFactory');
+  const cipher = factory.createCipher({
+    isCipher: mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+    cipherType: 'chacha20-poly1305',
+    cipherKey: bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.export()),
+    iv: ivBuffer,
+    authTagLen: tagByteLength,
+  });
+
+  let processData: ArrayBuffer;
+  let authTag: ArrayBuffer | undefined;
+
+  if (mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherDecrypt) {
+    // For decryption, extract auth tag from end of data
+    const dataView = new Uint8Array(data);
+
+    if (dataView.byteLength < tagByteLength) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'The provided data is too small.',
+        'OperationError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    // Split data and tag
+    const ciphertextLength = dataView.byteLength - tagByteLength;
+    processData = dataView.slice(0, ciphertextLength).buffer;
+    authTag = dataView.slice(ciphertextLength).buffer;
+
+    // Set auth tag for verification
+    cipher.setAuthTag(authTag);
+  } else {
+    processData = data;
+  }
+
+  // Set additional authenticated data if provided
+  if (additionalData) {
+    cipher.setAAD(bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(additionalData));
+  }
+
+  // Process data
+  const updated = cipher.update(processData);
+  const final = cipher.final();
+
+  if (mode === CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt) {
+    // For encryption, append auth tag to result
+    const tag = cipher.getAuthTag();
+    const result = new Uint8Array(
+      updated.byteLength + final.byteLength + tag.byteLength,
+    );
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(tag), updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+    return result.buffer;
+  } else {
+    // For decryption, just concatenate plaintext
+    const result = new Uint8Array(updated.byteLength + final.byteLength);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(updated), 0);
+    result.set(new Uint8Array(final), updated.byteLength);
+    return result.buffer;
+  }
+}
+
+async function aesGenerateKey(
+  algorithm: AesKeyGenParams,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  const { length } = algorithm;
+  const name = algorithm.name;
+
+  if (!name) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Algorithm name is required', 'OperationError');
+  }
+
+  // Validate key length
+  if (![128, 192, 256].includes(length)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Invalid AES key length: ${length}. Must be 128, 192, or 256.`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Validate usages
+  const validUsages: KeyUsage[] = [
+    'encrypt',
+    'decrypt',
+    'wrapKey',
+    'unwrapKey',
+  ];
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, validUsages)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`Unsupported key usage for ${name}`, 'SyntaxError');
+  }
+
+  // Generate random key bytes
+  const keyBytes = new Uint8Array(length / 8);
+  getRandomValues(keyBytes);
+
+  // Create secret key
+  const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyBytes);
+
+  // Construct algorithm object with guaranteed name
+  const keyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm = { name, length };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, keyAlgorithm, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+async function hmacGenerateKey(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  // Validate usages
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['sign', 'verify'])) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Unsupported key usage for HMAC key', 'SyntaxError');
+  }
+
+  // Get hash algorithm
+  const hash = algorithm.hash;
+  if (!hash) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'HMAC algorithm requires a hash parameter',
+      'TypeError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const hashName = normalizeHashName(hash);
+
+  // Determine key length
+  let length = algorithm.length;
+  if (length === undefined) {
+    // Use hash output length as default key length
+    switch (hashName) {
+      case 'SHA-1':
+        length = 160;
+        break;
+      case 'SHA-256':
+        length = 256;
+        break;
+      case 'SHA-384':
+        length = 384;
+        break;
+      case 'SHA-512':
+        length = 512;
+        break;
+      default:
+        length = 256; // Default to 256 bits
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (length === 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'Zero-length key is not supported',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Generate random key bytes
+  const keyBytes = new Uint8Array(Math.ceil(length / 8));
+  getRandomValues(keyBytes);
+
+  // Create secret key
+  const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyBytes);
+
+  // Construct algorithm object with hash normalized to { name: string } format per WebCrypto spec
+  const webCryptoHashName = normalizeHashName(hash, HashContext.WebCrypto);
+  const keyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm = {
+    name: 'HMAC',
+    hash: { name: webCryptoHashName },
+    length,
+  };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, keyAlgorithm, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+async function kmacGenerateKey(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['sign', 'verify'])) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+      'SyntaxError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const defaultLength = name === 'KMAC128' ? 128 : 256;
+  const length = algorithm.length ?? defaultLength;
+
+  if (length === 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'Zero-length key is not supported',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const keyBytes = new Uint8Array(Math.ceil(length / 8));
+  getRandomValues(keyBytes);
+
+  const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyBytes);
+
+  const keyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm = { name: name as AnyAlgorithm, length };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, keyAlgorithm, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+function kmacSignVerify(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  // KmacParams.outputLength is required per
+  // https://wicg.github.io/webcrypto-modern-algos/#KmacParams-dictionary
+  // and the rename from `length` (commit ab8dc2b84c2). Mirror Node's
+  // mac.js:213-223 by reading `outputLength` (in bits).
+  if (typeof algorithm.outputLength !== 'number') {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `${name}Params.outputLength is required`,
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+  const outputLengthBits = algorithm.outputLength;
+
+  if (outputLengthBits % 8 !== 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported ${name}Params outputLength`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const outputLengthBytes = outputLengthBits / 8;
+
+  const keyData = key.keyObject.export();
+
+  const kmac = NitroModules.createHybridObject<Kmac>('Kmac');
+
+  let customizationBuffer: ArrayBuffer | undefined;
+  if (algorithm.customization !== undefined) {
+    customizationBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(algorithm.customization);
+  }
+
+  kmac.createKmac(
+    name,
+    bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(keyData),
+    outputLengthBytes,
+    customizationBuffer,
+  );
+  kmac.update(bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data));
+  const computed = kmac.digest();
+
+  if (signature === undefined) {
+    return computed;
+  }
+
+  const sigBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(signature);
+  if (computed.byteLength !== sigBuffer.byteLength) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  return timingSafeEqual(new Uint8Array(computed), new Uint8Array(sigBuffer));
+}
+
+async function kmacImportKey(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  let keyObject: KeyObject;
+
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwk = data as JWK;
+
+    if (!jwk || typeof jwk !== 'object') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+    if (jwk.kty !== 'oct') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK "kty" Parameter', 'DataError');
+    }
+    validateJwkStructure(jwk, extractable, keyUsages, 'sig');
+
+    const expectedAlg = name === 'KMAC128' ? 'K128' : 'K256';
+    if (jwk.alg !== undefined && jwk.alg !== expectedAlg) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'JWK "alg" Parameter and algorithm name mismatch',
+        'DataError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['sign', 'verify'])) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+        'SyntaxError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwk, undefined);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined || keyType !== 0) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+
+    keyObject = new SecretKeyObject(handle);
+  } else if (format === 'raw-secret') {
+    // KMAC accepts only the disambiguated 'raw-secret' form (Node mac.js:141-145
+    // returns undefined for plain 'raw' when not HMAC).
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['sign', 'verify'])) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+        'SyntaxError',
+      );
+    }
+    keyObject = createSecretKey(data as BinaryLike);
+  } else {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to import ${name} key with format ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const exported = keyObject.export();
+  const keyLength = exported.byteLength * 8;
+
+  if (keyLength === 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Zero-length key is not supported', 'DataError');
+  }
+
+  if (algorithm.length !== undefined && algorithm.length !== keyLength) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'DataError');
+  }
+
+  const keyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm = {
+    name: name as AnyAlgorithm,
+    length: keyLength,
+  };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, keyAlgorithm, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+function rsaImportKey(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): CryptoKey {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  let checkSet: KeyUsage[];
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+    case 'RSA-PSS':
+      checkSet = ['sign', 'verify'];
+      break;
+    case 'RSA-OAEP':
+      checkSet = ['encrypt', 'decrypt', 'wrapKey', 'unwrapKey'];
+      break;
+    default:
+      throw new Error(`Unsupported RSA algorithm: ${name}`);
+  }
+  const checkUsages = (): void => {
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, checkSet)) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+        'SyntaxError',
+      );
+    }
+  };
+
+  let keyObject: KeyObject;
+
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwk = data as JWK;
+
+    if (!jwk || typeof jwk !== 'object') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+    if (jwk.kty !== 'RSA') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK "kty" Parameter', 'DataError');
+    }
+    const expectedUse = name === 'RSA-OAEP' ? 'enc' : 'sig';
+    validateJwkStructure(jwk, extractable, keyUsages, expectedUse);
+    checkUsages();
+
+    if (jwk.alg !== undefined) {
+      let jwkContext: HashContext;
+      switch (name) {
+        case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+          jwkContext = HashContext.JwkRsa;
+          break;
+        case 'RSA-PSS':
+          jwkContext = HashContext.JwkRsaPss;
+          break;
+        default:
+          jwkContext = HashContext.JwkRsaOaep;
+      }
+      const expectedAlg = normalizeHashName(algorithm.hash, jwkContext);
+      if (jwk.alg !== expectedAlg) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'JWK "alg" does not match the requested algorithm',
+          'DataError',
+        );
+      }
+    }
+
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwk, undefined);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+
+    if (keyType === KeyType.PUBLIC) {
+      keyObject = new PublicKeyObject(handle);
+    } else if (keyType === KeyType.PRIVATE) {
+      keyObject = new PrivateKeyObject(handle);
+    } else {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+  } else if (format === 'spki') {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    keyObject = KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+      'public',
+      keyData,
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.SPKI,
+    );
+  } else if (format === 'pkcs8') {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    keyObject = KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+      'private',
+      keyData,
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.PKCS8,
+    );
+  } else {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported format for ${name} import: ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get the modulus length from the key and add it to the algorithm
+  const keyDetails = (keyObject as PublicKeyObject | PrivateKeyObject)
+    .asymmetricKeyDetails;
+
+  // Convert publicExponent number to big-endian byte array
+  let publicExponentBytes: Uint8Array | undefined;
+  if (keyDetails?.publicExponent) {
+    const exp = keyDetails.publicExponent;
+    // Convert number to big-endian bytes
+    const bytes: number[] = [];
+    let value = exp;
+    while (value > 0) {
+      bytes.unshift(value & 0xff);
+      value = Math.floor(value / 256);
+    }
+    publicExponentBytes = new Uint8Array(bytes.length > 0 ? bytes : [0]);
+  }
+
+  // Normalize hash to { name: string } format per WebCrypto spec
+  const hashName = normalizeHashName(algorithm.hash, HashContext.WebCrypto);
+  const normalizedHash = { name: hashName };
+
+  const algorithmWithDetails = {
+    ...algorithm,
+    modulusLength: keyDetails?.modulusLength,
+    publicExponent: publicExponentBytes,
+    hash: normalizedHash,
+  };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, algorithmWithDetails, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+async function hmacImportKey(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  const checkUsages = (): void => {
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['sign', 'verify'])) {
+      throw new Error('Unsupported key usage for an HMAC key');
+    }
+  };
+
+  let keyObject: KeyObject;
+
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwk = data as JWK;
+
+    if (!jwk || typeof jwk !== 'object') {
+      throw new Error('Invalid keyData');
+    }
+    if (jwk.kty !== 'oct') {
+      throw new Error('Invalid JWK format for HMAC key');
+    }
+    validateJwkStructure(jwk, extractable, keyUsages, 'sig');
+    checkUsages();
+
+    if (algorithm.length !== undefined) {
+      if (!jwk.k) {
+        throw new Error('JWK missing key data');
+      }
+      const decoded = SBuffer.from(jwk.k, 'base64');
+      const keyBitLength = decoded.length * 8;
+      if (algorithm.length === 0) {
+        throw new Error('Zero-length key is not supported');
+      }
+      if (algorithm.length !== keyBitLength) {
+        throw new Error('Invalid key length');
+      }
+    }
+
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwk, undefined);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined || keyType !== 0) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+
+    keyObject = new SecretKeyObject(handle);
+  } else if (format === 'raw' || format === 'raw-secret') {
+    // HMAC accepts both 'raw' and 'raw-secret' (Node mac.js:141-145).
+    checkUsages();
+    keyObject = createSecretKey(data as BinaryLike);
+  } else {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to import HMAC key with format ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Normalize hash to { name: string } format per WebCrypto spec
+  const hashName = normalizeHashName(algorithm.hash, HashContext.WebCrypto);
+  const normalizedAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm = {
+    ...algorithm,
+    name: 'HMAC',
+    hash: { name: hashName },
+  };
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, normalizedAlgorithm, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+async function aesImportKey(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+  const { name, length } = algorithm;
+
+  const validUsages: KeyUsage[] = [
+    'encrypt',
+    'decrypt',
+    'wrapKey',
+    'unwrapKey',
+  ];
+  const checkUsages = (): void => {
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, validUsages)) {
+      throw new Error(`Unsupported key usage for ${name}`);
+    }
+  };
+
+  // AES-OCB and ChaCha20-Poly1305 require the disambiguated 'raw-secret' form
+  // and reject 'raw' (Node aes.js:243-249, chacha20_poly1305.js:104-134).
+  // Other AES variants accept both 'raw' and 'raw-secret'.
+  const requiresRawSecret = name === 'AES-OCB' || name === 'ChaCha20-Poly1305';
+  const acceptsRaw =
+    format === 'raw-secret' || (format === 'raw' && !requiresRawSecret);
+
+  let keyObject: KeyObject;
+  let actualLength: number;
+
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwk = data as JWK;
+
+    if (jwk.kty !== 'oct') {
+      throw new Error('Invalid JWK format for AES key');
+    }
+    validateJwkStructure(jwk, extractable, keyUsages, 'enc');
+    checkUsages();
+
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwk, undefined);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined || keyType !== 0) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+
+    keyObject = new SecretKeyObject(handle);
+
+    const exported = keyObject.export();
+    actualLength = exported.byteLength * 8;
+  } else if (acceptsRaw) {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    actualLength = keyData.byteLength * 8;
+
+    if (name === 'ChaCha20-Poly1305') {
+      if (actualLength !== 256) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'Invalid ChaCha20-Poly1305 key length',
+          'DataError',
+        );
+      }
+    } else if (![128, 192, 256].includes(actualLength)) {
+      throw new Error('Invalid AES key length');
+    }
+
+    keyObject = createSecretKey(keyData);
+  } else {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to import ${name} key with format ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Validate length if specified
+  if (length !== undefined && length !== actualLength) {
+    throw new Error(
+      `Key length mismatch: expected ${length}, got ${actualLength}`,
+    );
+  }
+
+  return new CryptoKey(
+    keyObject,
+    { name, length: actualLength },
+    keyUsages,
+    extractable,
+  );
+}
+
+function edImportKey(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): CryptoKey {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+
+  const isX = name === 'X25519' || name === 'X448';
+  const allowedUsages: KeyUsage[] = isX
+    ? ['deriveKey', 'deriveBits']
+    : ['sign', 'verify'];
+  const checkUsages = (): void => {
+    if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, allowedUsages)) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+        'SyntaxError',
+      );
+    }
+  };
+
+  let keyObject: KeyObject;
+
+  if (format === 'spki') {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    keyObject = KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+      'public',
+      keyData,
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.SPKI,
+    );
+  } else if (format === 'pkcs8') {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    keyObject = KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+      'private',
+      keyData,
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.PKCS8,
+    );
+  } else if (format === 'raw') {
+    checkUsages();
+    const keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    handle.init(1, keyData);
+    keyObject = new PublicKeyObject(handle);
+  } else if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwkData = data as JWK;
+    if (!jwkData || typeof jwkData !== 'object') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+    }
+    if (jwkData.kty !== 'OKP') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK "kty" Parameter', 'DataError');
+    }
+    const expectedUse = isX ? 'enc' : 'sig';
+    validateJwkStructure(jwkData, extractable, keyUsages, expectedUse);
+
+    if (jwkData.crv !== name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'JWK "crv" Parameter and algorithm name mismatch',
+        'DataError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    if (!isX && jwkData.alg !== undefined) {
+      if (jwkData.alg !== name && jwkData.alg !== 'EdDSA') {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'JWK "alg" does not match the requested algorithm',
+          'DataError',
+        );
+      }
+    }
+
+    checkUsages();
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwkData);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK data', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK data', 'DataError');
+    }
+    if (keyType === KeyType.PRIVATE) {
+      keyObject = new PrivateKeyObject(handle);
+    } else {
+      keyObject = new PublicKeyObject(handle);
+    }
+  } else {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported format for ${name} import: ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+// Lengths (in bytes) of seedless ML-DSA / ML-KEM PKCS#8 encodings. A PKCS#8
+// blob of exactly this length contains only the expanded private key with no
+// seed; Node rejects these to keep cross-implementation interop intact.
+// Refs: node lib/internal/crypto/ml_dsa.js (mlDsaImportKey, pkcs8 case)
+//       node lib/internal/crypto/ml_kem.js (mlKemImportKey, pkcs8 case)
+export const PQC_SEEDLESS_PKCS8_LENGTHS: Readonly<Record<string, number>> = {
+  'ML-DSA-44': 2588,
+  'ML-DSA-65': 4060,
+  'ML-DSA-87': 4924,
+  'ML-KEM-512': 1660,
+  'ML-KEM-768': 2428,
+  'ML-KEM-1024': 3196,
+};
+
+// Map from PQC algorithm name to display family. Used to render the
+// import-rejection error message in the same form Node emits.
+const PQC_FAMILY: Readonly<Record<string, 'ML-DSA' | 'ML-KEM' | 'SLH-DSA'>> = {
+  'ML-DSA-44': 'ML-DSA',
+  'ML-DSA-65': 'ML-DSA',
+  'ML-DSA-87': 'ML-DSA',
+  'ML-KEM-512': 'ML-KEM',
+  'ML-KEM-768': 'ML-KEM',
+  'ML-KEM-1024': 'ML-KEM',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s': 'SLH-DSA',
+  'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f': 'SLH-DSA',
+};
+
+function pqcImportKeyObject(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  name: string,
+): { keyObject: KeyObject; isPublic: boolean } {
+  if (format === 'spki') {
+    return {
+      keyObject: KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+        'public',
+        bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike),
+        KFormatType.DER,
+        KeyEncoding.SPKI,
+      ),
+      isPublic: true,
+    };
+  } else if (format === 'pkcs8') {
+    const ab = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike);
+    const family = PQC_FAMILY[name];
+    if (
+      family !== undefined &&
+      ab.byteLength === PQC_SEEDLESS_PKCS8_LENGTHS[name]
+    ) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Importing an ${family} PKCS#8 key without a seed is not supported`,
+        'NotSupportedError',
+      );
+    }
+    return {
+      keyObject: KeyObject.createKeyObject(
+        'private',
+        ab,
+        KFormatType.DER,
+        KeyEncoding.PKCS8,
+      ),
+      isPublic: false,
+    };
+  } else if (format === 'raw-public') {
+    // ML-DSA / ML-KEM reject plain 'raw' — only 'raw-public' is accepted for
+    // public-key import (Node webcrypto.js:493-499, 506-511).
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    if (
+      !handle.initPqcRaw(
+        name,
+        bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike),
+        true,
+      )
+    ) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Failed to import ${name} raw public key`,
+        'DataError',
+      );
+    }
+    return { keyObject: new PublicKeyObject(handle), isPublic: true };
+  } else if (format === 'raw-seed') {
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    if (
+      !handle.initPqcRaw(
+        name,
+        bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data as BufferLike),
+        false,
+      )
+    ) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(`Failed to import ${name} raw seed`, 'DataError');
+    }
+    return { keyObject: new PrivateKeyObject(handle), isPublic: false };
+  } else if (format === 'jwk') {
+    const jwkData = data as JWK;
+    const isPublic = jwkData.priv === undefined;
+    const handle =
+      NitroModules.createHybridObject<KeyObjectHandle>('KeyObjectHandle');
+    let keyType: KeyType | undefined;
+    try {
+      keyType = handle.initJwk(jwkData);
+    } catch (err) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK data', {
+        name: 'DataError',
+        cause: err,
+      });
+    }
+    if (keyType === undefined) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK data', 'DataError');
+    }
+    return {
+      keyObject: isPublic
+        ? new PublicKeyObject(handle)
+        : new PrivateKeyObject(handle),
+      isPublic,
+    };
+  }
+  throw lazyDOMException(
+    `Unsupported format for ${name} import: ${format}`,
+    'NotSupportedError',
+  );
+}
+
+// Per WebCrypto AKP JWK rules, public-vs-private is determined by the presence
+// of `priv`. For binary formats it follows from the format itself.
+function pqcIsPublicImport(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+): boolean {
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    return (
+      typeof data === 'object' &&
+      data !== null &&
+      (data as JWK).priv === undefined
+    );
+  }
+  return format === 'spki' || format === 'raw-public';
+}
+
+function validatePqcJwk(
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  name: string,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  expectedUse: 'sig' | 'enc',
+): void {
+  if (typeof data !== 'object' || data === null) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid keyData', 'DataError');
+  }
+  const jwk = data as JWK;
+  if (jwk.kty !== 'AKP') {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid JWK "kty" Parameter', 'DataError');
+  }
+  validateJwkStructure(jwk, extractable, keyUsages, expectedUse);
+  if (jwk.alg !== name) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'JWK "alg" Parameter and algorithm name mismatch',
+      'DataError',
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+// Validates that `format` is one of the formats PQC algorithms accept; rejects
+// plain 'raw' early so the format error wins over usage-based errors.
+function validatePqcFormat(format: ImportFormat, name: string): void {
+  if (
+    format !== 'spki' &&
+    format !== 'pkcs8' &&
+    format !== 'raw-public' &&
+    format !== 'raw-seed' &&
+    format !== 'jwk'
+  ) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported format for ${name} import: ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+function mldsaImportKey(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): CryptoKey {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+  validatePqcFormat(format, name);
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    validatePqcJwk(data, name, extractable, keyUsages, 'sig');
+  }
+  const isPublic = pqcIsPublicImport(format, data);
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, isPublic ? ['verify'] : ['sign'])) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+      'SyntaxError',
+    );
+  }
+  const { keyObject } = pqcImportKeyObject(format, data, name);
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+function slhdsaImportKey(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): CryptoKey {
+  return mldsaImportKey(format, data, algorithm, extractable, keyUsages);
+}
+
+function mlkemImportKey(
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  data: BufferLike | JWK,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): CryptoKey {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+  validatePqcFormat(format, name);
+  if (format === 'jwk') {
+    validatePqcJwk(data, name, extractable, keyUsages, 'enc');
+  }
+  const isPublic = pqcIsPublicImport(format, data);
+  const allowedUsages: KeyUsage[] = isPublic
+    ? ['encapsulateBits', 'encapsulateKey']
+    : ['decapsulateBits', 'decapsulateKey'];
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, allowedUsages)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported key usage for ${name} key`,
+      'SyntaxError',
+    );
+  }
+  const { keyObject } = pqcImportKeyObject(format, data, name);
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, extractable);
+}
+
+const exportKeySpki = async (
+  key: CryptoKey,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer | unknown> => {
+  switch (key.algorithm.name) {
+    case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'RSA-PSS':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'RSA-OAEP':
+      if (key.type === 'public') {
+        return rsaExportKey(key, KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatSPKI);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ECDSA':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ECDH':
+      if (key.type === 'public') {
+        return ecExportKey(key, KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatSPKI);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'Ed25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'Ed448':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X448':
+      if (key.type === 'public') {
+        // Export Ed/X key in SPKI DER format
+        return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.SPKI),
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ML-DSA-44':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-65':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-87':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+      if (key.type === 'public') {
+        // Export ML-DSA / SLH-DSA key in SPKI DER format
+        return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.SPKI),
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ML-KEM-512':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-768':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+      if (key.type === 'public') {
+        return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.SPKI),
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+  }
+
+  throw new Error(
+    `Unable to export a spki ${key.algorithm.name} ${key.type} key`,
+  );
+};
+
+const exportKeyPkcs8 = async (
+  key: CryptoKey,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer | unknown> => {
+  switch (key.algorithm.name) {
+    case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'RSA-PSS':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'RSA-OAEP':
+      if (key.type === 'private') {
+        return rsaExportKey(key, KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatPKCS8);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ECDSA':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ECDH':
+      if (key.type === 'private') {
+        return ecExportKey(key, KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatPKCS8);
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'Ed25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'Ed448':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X448':
+      if (key.type === 'private') {
+        // Export Ed/X key in PKCS8 DER format
+        return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.PKCS8),
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'ML-DSA-44':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-65':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-87':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-512':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-768':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+      if (key.type === 'private') {
+        const ab = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.PKCS8),
+        );
+        // 22 bytes of PKCS#8 ASN.1 + seed (32 ML-DSA, 64 ML-KEM). Guards
+        // against a seedless KeyObject that was wrapped via toCryptoKey.
+        const expected = key.algorithm.name.startsWith('ML-DSA') ? 54 : 86;
+        if (ab.byteLength !== expected) {
+          throw lazyDOMException(
+            'The operation failed for an operation-specific reason',
+            'OperationError',
+          );
+        }
+        return ab;
+      }
+      break;
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+      if (key.type === 'private') {
+        return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(
+          key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(KFormatType.DER, KeyEncoding.PKCS8),
+        );
+      }
+      break;
+  }
+
+  throw new Error(
+    `Unable to export a pkcs8 ${key.algorithm.name} ${key.type} key`,
+  );
+};
+
+// Mirrors Node's export key matrix (lib/internal/crypto/webcrypto.js
+// exportKeyRawSecret / exportKeyRawPublic, lines 472-563):
+//
+//   raw         — AES-CTR/CBC/GCM/KW + HMAC (secret); ECDSA/ECDH/Ed/X (public)
+//   raw-secret  — AES-CTR/CBC/GCM/KW + HMAC + AES-OCB + KMAC + ChaCha20-Poly1305
+//   raw-public  — ECDSA/ECDH + Ed/X + ML-DSA + ML-KEM (public)
+const exportKeyRaw = (
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  format: 'raw' | 'raw-secret' | 'raw-public',
+): ArrayBuffer => {
+  const name = key.algorithm.name;
+  const isPublic = key.type === 'public';
+  const isSecret = key.type === 'secret';
+
+  const exportSecret = (): ArrayBuffer => {
+    const exported = key.keyObject.export();
+    return exported.buffer.slice(
+      exported.byteOffset,
+      exported.byteOffset + exported.byteLength,
+    ) as ArrayBuffer;
+  };
+  const exportRawPublic = (): ArrayBuffer =>
+    bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.handle.exportKey());
+
+  const fail = (): never => {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to export ${name} ${key.type} key using ${format} format`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  };
+
+  // Symmetric: AES-CTR/CBC/GCM/KW and HMAC accept both 'raw' and 'raw-secret';
+  // AES-OCB / KMAC* / ChaCha20-Poly1305 only 'raw-secret'.
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+    case 'AES-KW':
+    case 'HMAC':
+      if (!isSecret) return fail();
+      if (format === 'raw' || format === 'raw-secret') return exportSecret();
+      return fail();
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+    case 'KMAC128':
+    case 'KMAC256':
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      if (!isSecret) return fail();
+      if (format === 'raw-secret') return exportSecret();
+      return fail();
+    case 'ECDSA':
+    case 'ECDH':
+      if (!isPublic) return fail();
+      if (format === 'raw' || format === 'raw-public') {
+        return ecExportKey(key, KWebCryptoKeyFormat.kWebCryptoKeyFormatRaw);
+      }
+      return fail();
+    case 'Ed25519':
+    case 'Ed448':
+    case 'X25519':
+    case 'X448':
+      if (!isPublic) return fail();
+      if (format === 'raw' || format === 'raw-public') return exportRawPublic();
+      return fail();
+    case 'ML-DSA-44':
+    case 'ML-DSA-65':
+    case 'ML-DSA-87':
+    case 'ML-KEM-512':
+    case 'ML-KEM-768':
+    case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+      // ML-DSA / ML-KEM / SLH-DSA keys do not recognize plain 'raw' (Node
+      // webcrypto.js lines 488-510).
+      if (!isPublic) return fail();
+      if (format === 'raw-public') return exportRawPublic();
+      return fail();
+  }
+
+  return fail();
+};
+
+const exportKeyJWK = (key: CryptoKey): ArrayBuffer | unknown => {
+  const jwk = key.keyObject.handle.exportJwk(
+    {
+      key_ops: [...key.usages],
+      ext: key.extractable,
+    },
+    true,
+  );
+  switch (key.algorithm.name) {
+    case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+      jwk.alg = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash, HashContext.JwkRsa);
+      return jwk;
+    case 'RSA-PSS':
+      jwk.alg = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash, HashContext.JwkRsaPss);
+      return jwk;
+    case 'RSA-OAEP':
+      jwk.alg = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash, HashContext.JwkRsaOaep);
+      return jwk;
+    case 'HMAC':
+      jwk.alg = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash, HashContext.JwkHmac);
+      return jwk;
+    case 'KMAC128':
+      jwk.alg = 'K128';
+      return jwk;
+    case 'KMAC256':
+      jwk.alg = 'K256';
+      return jwk;
+    case 'ECDSA':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ECDH':
+      jwk.crv ||= key.algorithm.namedCurve;
+      return jwk;
+    case 'Ed25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'Ed448':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X25519':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'X448':
+      return jwk;
+    case 'ML-DSA-44':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-65':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-DSA-87':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-512':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-768':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+      return jwk;
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-KW':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      if (key.algorithm.length === undefined) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `Algorithm ${key.algorithm.name} missing required length property`,
+          'InvalidAccessError',
+        );
+      }
+      jwk.alg = getAlgorithmName(key.algorithm.name, key.algorithm.length);
+      return jwk;
+    default:
+    // Fall through
+  }
+
+  throw lazyDOMException(
+    `JWK export not yet supported: ${key.algorithm.name}`,
+    'NotSupportedError',
+  );
+};
+
+// PBKDF2 import. Mirrors Node's importGenericSecretKey ordering
+// (keys.js:945-971): extractable → usage → format → length. Callers pre-alias
+// 'raw-secret' / 'raw-public' to 'raw' via aliasKeyFormat
+// (webcrypto.js:798-808).
+const pbkdf2ImportKey = async (
+  { name, length }: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  keyData: BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> => {
+  if (extractable) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`${name} keys are not extractable`, 'SyntaxError');
+  }
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['deriveKey', 'deriveBits'])) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported key usage for a ${name} key`,
+      'SyntaxError',
+    );
+  }
+  if (format !== 'raw') {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to import ${name} key with format ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const checkLength =
+    typeof keyData === 'string' || SBuffer.isBuffer(keyData)
+      ? keyData.length * 8
+      : keyData.byteLength * 8;
+  if (length !== undefined && length !== checkLength) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'DataError');
+  }
+
+  const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyData as BinaryLike);
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, false);
+};
+
+// Argon2 import. Node gates the format at the dispatcher level — only
+// 'raw-secret' enters importGenericSecretKey (webcrypto.js:813-822). To match
+// that, format is the first check here; remaining ordering matches Node's
+// importGenericSecretKey.
+const argon2ImportKey = async (
+  { name, length }: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  keyData: BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> => {
+  if (format !== 'raw-secret') {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to import ${name} key with format ${format}`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+  if (extractable) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`${name} keys are not extractable`, 'SyntaxError');
+  }
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['deriveKey', 'deriveBits'])) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unsupported key usage for a ${name} key`,
+      'SyntaxError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const checkLength =
+    typeof keyData === 'string' || SBuffer.isBuffer(keyData)
+      ? keyData.length * 8
+      : keyData.byteLength * 8;
+  if (length !== undefined && length !== checkLength) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'DataError');
+  }
+
+  const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyData as BinaryLike);
+  return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, false);
+};
+
+const hkdfImportKey = async (
+  format: ImportFormat,
+  keyData: BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  extractable: boolean,
+  keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+): Promise<CryptoKey> => {
+  const { name } = algorithm;
+  // WebCrypto §28.7.6: HKDF keys are never extractable. The previous
+  // implementation passed `extractable` through verbatim, allowing callers
+  // to round-trip the input keying material via `exportKey` — defeating
+  // the whole point of the deriveBits-only usage.
+  if (extractable) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(`${name} keys are not extractable`, 'SyntaxError');
+  }
+  if (hasAnyNotIn(keyUsages, ['deriveKey', 'deriveBits'])) {
+    throw new Error(`Unsupported key usage for a ${name} key`);
+  }
+
+  switch (format) {
+    case 'raw': {
+      const keyObject = createSecretKey(keyData as BinaryLike);
+      return new CryptoKey(keyObject, { name }, keyUsages, false);
+    }
+    default:
+      throw new Error(`Unable to import ${name} key with format ${format}`);
+  }
+};
+
+const checkCryptoKeyPairUsages = (pair: CryptoKeyPair) => {
+  if (
+    pair.privateKey &&
+    pair.privateKey instanceof CryptoKey &&
+    pair.privateKey.keyUsages &&
+    pair.privateKey.keyUsages.length > 0
+  ) {
+    return;
+  }
+  throw lazyDOMException(
+    'Usages cannot be empty when creating a key.',
+    'SyntaxError',
+  );
+};
+
+function argon2DeriveBits(
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  baseKey: CryptoKey,
+  length: number,
+): ArrayBuffer {
+  if (length === 0 || length % 8 !== 0) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'Invalid Argon2 derived key length',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+  if (length < 32) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      'Argon2 derived key length must be at least 32 bits',
+      'OperationError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const { nonce, parallelism, memory, passes, secretValue, associatedData } =
+    algorithm;
+  const tagLength = length / 8;
+  const message = baseKey.keyObject.export();
+  const algName = algorithm.name.toLowerCase();
+
+  const result = argon2Sync(algName, {
+    message,
+    nonce: nonce ?? new Uint8Array(0),
+    parallelism: parallelism ?? 1,
+    tagLength,
+    memory: memory ?? 65536,
+    passes: passes ?? 3,
+    secret: secretValue,
+    associatedData,
+    version: algorithm.version,
+  });
+
+  return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(result);
+}
+
+// Type guard to check if result is CryptoKeyPair
+export function isCryptoKeyPair(
+  result: CryptoKey | CryptoKeyPair,
+): result is CryptoKeyPair {
+  return 'publicKey' in result && 'privateKey' in result;
+}
+
+function hmacSignVerify(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean {
+  // Get hash algorithm from key
+  const hashName = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash);
+
+  // Export the secret key material
+  const keyData = key.keyObject.export();
+
+  // Create HMAC and compute digest
+  const hmac = createHmac(hashName, keyData);
+  hmac.update(bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data));
+  const computed = hmac.digest();
+
+  if (signature === undefined) {
+    // Sign operation - return the HMAC as ArrayBuffer
+    return computed.buffer.slice(
+      computed.byteOffset,
+      computed.byteOffset + computed.byteLength,
+    );
+  }
+
+  const sigBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(signature);
+  const computedBuffer = computed.buffer.slice(
+    computed.byteOffset,
+    computed.byteOffset + computed.byteLength,
+  );
+
+  if (computedBuffer.byteLength !== sigBuffer.byteLength) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  return timingSafeEqual(
+    new Uint8Array(computedBuffer),
+    new Uint8Array(sigBuffer),
+  );
+}
+
+function rsaSignVerify(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  padding: 'pkcs1' | 'pss',
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+  saltLength?: number,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean {
+  // Get hash algorithm from key
+  const hashName = normalizeHashName(key.algorithm.hash);
+
+  // Determine RSA padding constant
+  const RSA_PKCS1_PADDING = 1;
+  const RSA_PKCS1_PSS_PADDING = 6;
+  const paddingValue =
+    padding === 'pss' ? RSA_PKCS1_PSS_PADDING : RSA_PKCS1_PADDING;
+
+  if (signature === undefined) {
+    // Sign operation
+    const signer = createSign(hashName);
+    signer.update(data);
+    const sig = signer.sign({
+      key: key,
+      padding: paddingValue,
+      saltLength,
+    });
+    return sig.buffer.slice(sig.byteOffset, sig.byteOffset + sig.byteLength);
+  }
+
+  // Verify operation
+  const verifier = createVerify(hashName);
+  verifier.update(data);
+  return verifier.verify(
+    {
+      key: key,
+      padding: paddingValue,
+      saltLength,
+    },
+    signature,
+  );
+}
+
+function edSignVerify(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean {
+  const isSign = signature === undefined;
+  const expectedKeyType = isSign ? 'private' : 'public';
+
+  if (key.type !== expectedKeyType) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Key must be a ${expectedKeyType} key`,
+      'InvalidAccessError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  // Get curve type from algorithm name (Ed25519 or Ed448)
+  const algorithmName = key.algorithm.name;
+  const curveType = algorithmName.toLowerCase() as 'ed25519' | 'ed448';
+
+  // Create Ed instance with the curve
+  const ed = new Ed(curveType, {});
+
+  // Export raw key bytes (exportKey with no format returns raw for Ed keys)
+  const rawKey = key.keyObject.handle.exportKey();
+  const dataBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data);
+
+  if (isSign) {
+    // Sign operation - use raw private key
+    const sig = ed.signSync(dataBuffer, rawKey);
+    return sig;
+  } else {
+    // Verify operation - use raw public key
+    const signatureBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(signature!);
+    return ed.verifySync(signatureBuffer, dataBuffer, rawKey);
+  }
+}
+
+function mldsaSignVerify(
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean {
+  const isSign = signature === undefined;
+  const expectedKeyType = isSign ? 'private' : 'public';
+
+  if (key.type !== expectedKeyType) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Key must be a ${expectedKeyType} key`,
+      'InvalidAccessError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  const dataBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data);
+
+  if (isSign) {
+    const signer = createSign('');
+    signer.update(dataBuffer);
+    const sig = signer.sign({ key: key });
+    return sig.buffer.slice(sig.byteOffset, sig.byteOffset + sig.byteLength);
+  } else {
+    const signatureBuffer = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(signature!);
+    const verifier = createVerify('');
+    verifier.update(dataBuffer);
+    return verifier.verify({ key: key }, signatureBuffer);
+  }
+}
+
+const signVerify = (
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: BufferLike,
+  signature?: BufferLike,
+): ArrayBuffer | boolean => {
+  const usage: Operation = signature === undefined ? 'sign' : 'verify';
+  algorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, usage);
+
+  if (algorithm.name !== key.algorithm.name) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+  }
+
+  if (!key.usages.includes(usage)) {
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `Unable to use this key to ${usage}`,
+      'InvalidAccessError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  switch (algorithm.name) {
+    case 'ECDSA':
+      return ecdsaSignVerify(key, data, algorithm, signature);
+    case 'HMAC':
+      return hmacSignVerify(key, data, signature);
+    case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+      return rsaSignVerify(key, data, 'pkcs1', signature);
+    case 'RSA-PSS':
+      return rsaSignVerify(key, data, 'pss', signature, algorithm.saltLength);
+    case 'Ed25519':
+    case 'Ed448':
+      return edSignVerify(key, data, signature);
+    case 'ML-DSA-44':
+    case 'ML-DSA-65':
+    case 'ML-DSA-87':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+    case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+      return mldsaSignVerify(key, data, signature);
+    case 'KMAC128':
+    case 'KMAC256':
+      return kmacSignVerify(key, data, algorithm, signature);
+  }
+  throw lazyDOMException(
+    `Unrecognized algorithm name '${algorithm.name}' for '${usage}'`,
+    'NotSupportedError',
+  );
+};
+
+// Algorithm-mismatch and usage checks live at the public-method call sites
+// (encrypt / decrypt / wrapKey / unwrapKey) so spec-mandated message and
+// ordering — algorithm-mismatch first, then usage — is preserved
+// (Node webcrypto.js, commit 4cb1f284136).
+const cipherOrWrap = async (
+  mode: CipherOrWrapMode,
+  algorithm: EncryptDecryptParams,
+  key: CryptoKey,
+  data: ArrayBuffer,
+): Promise<ArrayBuffer> => {
+  validateMaxBufferLength(data, 'data');
+
+  switch (algorithm.name) {
+    case 'RSA-OAEP':
+      return rsaCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm);
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+    // Fall through
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+      return aesCipher(mode, key, data, algorithm);
+    case 'AES-KW':
+      return aesKwCipher(mode, key, data);
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      return chaCha20Poly1305Cipher(
+        mode,
+        key,
+        data,
+        algorithm as ChaCha20Poly1305Params,
+      );
+  }
+};
+
+const SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS: Record<string, Set<string>> = {
+  encrypt: new Set([
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+  ]),
+  decrypt: new Set([
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+  ]),
+  sign: new Set([
+    'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+    'RSA-PSS',
+    'ECDSA',
+    'HMAC',
+    'KMAC128',
+    'KMAC256',
+    'Ed25519',
+    'Ed448',
+    'ML-DSA-44',
+    'ML-DSA-65',
+    'ML-DSA-87',
+    ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  ]),
+  verify: new Set([
+    'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+    'RSA-PSS',
+    'ECDSA',
+    'HMAC',
+    'KMAC128',
+    'KMAC256',
+    'Ed25519',
+    'Ed448',
+    'ML-DSA-44',
+    'ML-DSA-65',
+    'ML-DSA-87',
+    ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  ]),
+  digest: new Set([
+    'SHA-1',
+    'SHA-256',
+    'SHA-384',
+    'SHA-512',
+    'SHA3-256',
+    'SHA3-384',
+    'SHA3-512',
+    'cSHAKE128',
+    'cSHAKE256',
+    'TurboSHAKE128',
+    'TurboSHAKE256',
+    'KT128',
+    'KT256',
+  ]),
+  generateKey: new Set([
+    'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+    'RSA-PSS',
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+    'ECDSA',
+    'ECDH',
+    'Ed25519',
+    'Ed448',
+    'X25519',
+    'X448',
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-KW',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+    'HMAC',
+    'KMAC128',
+    'KMAC256',
+    'ML-DSA-44',
+    'ML-DSA-65',
+    'ML-DSA-87',
+    'ML-KEM-512',
+    'ML-KEM-768',
+    'ML-KEM-1024',
+    ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  ]),
+  importKey: new Set([
+    'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+    'RSA-PSS',
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+    'ECDSA',
+    'ECDH',
+    'Ed25519',
+    'Ed448',
+    'X25519',
+    'X448',
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-KW',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+    'HMAC',
+    'KMAC128',
+    'KMAC256',
+    'HKDF',
+    'PBKDF2',
+    'Argon2d',
+    'Argon2i',
+    'Argon2id',
+    'ML-DSA-44',
+    'ML-DSA-65',
+    'ML-DSA-87',
+    'ML-KEM-512',
+    'ML-KEM-768',
+    'ML-KEM-1024',
+    ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  ]),
+  exportKey: new Set([
+    'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+    'RSA-PSS',
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+    'ECDSA',
+    'ECDH',
+    'Ed25519',
+    'Ed448',
+    'X25519',
+    'X448',
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-KW',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+    'HMAC',
+    'KMAC128',
+    'KMAC256',
+    'ML-DSA-44',
+    'ML-DSA-65',
+    'ML-DSA-87',
+    'ML-KEM-512',
+    'ML-KEM-768',
+    'ML-KEM-1024',
+    ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+  ]),
+  deriveBits: new Set([
+    'PBKDF2',
+    'HKDF',
+    'ECDH',
+    'X25519',
+    'X448',
+    'Argon2d',
+    'Argon2i',
+    'Argon2id',
+  ]),
+  wrapKey: new Set([
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-KW',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+  ]),
+  unwrapKey: new Set([
+    'AES-CTR',
+    'AES-CBC',
+    'AES-GCM',
+    'AES-KW',
+    'AES-OCB',
+    'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+    'RSA-OAEP',
+  ]),
+  encapsulateBits: new Set(['ML-KEM-512', 'ML-KEM-768', 'ML-KEM-1024']),
+  decapsulateBits: new Set(['ML-KEM-512', 'ML-KEM-768', 'ML-KEM-1024']),
+  encapsulateKey: new Set(['ML-KEM-512', 'ML-KEM-768', 'ML-KEM-1024']),
+  decapsulateKey: new Set(['ML-KEM-512', 'ML-KEM-768', 'ML-KEM-1024']),
+};
+
+const ASYMMETRIC_ALGORITHMS = new Set<string>([
+  'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+  'RSA-PSS',
+  'RSA-OAEP',
+  'ECDSA',
+  'ECDH',
+  'Ed25519',
+  'Ed448',
+  'X25519',
+  'X448',
+  'ML-DSA-44',
+  'ML-DSA-65',
+  'ML-DSA-87',
+  'ML-KEM-512',
+  'ML-KEM-768',
+  'ML-KEM-1024',
+  ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+]);
+
+// Per-algorithm validators for deriveBits (mirrors Node's hkdf.js:141-149,
+// pbkdf2.js:96-105, argon2.js:194-209). Used by Subtle.supports to reject
+// length values that the actual deriveBits implementation would reject.
+function validateKdfDeriveBitsLength(
+  length: number | null | undefined,
+  algName: string,
+): void {
+  if (length === null || length === undefined) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+  }
+  if (length % 8) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('length must be a multiple of 8', 'OperationError');
+  }
+  if (algName.startsWith('Argon2') && length < 32) {
+    throw lazyDOMException('length must be >= 32', 'OperationError');
+  }
+}
+
+// Mirrors Node's webcrypto.js:1652-1731 `check`. Normalizes the algorithm,
+// looks it up in SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS, and runs per-algorithm validation
+// (deriveBits length validators, HMAC+SHA3 generateKey rejection).
+// `op` is the operation key in SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS — wrapKey/unwrapKey fall
+// back to encrypt/decrypt to mirror Node's normalize fallback.
+function supportsCheck(
+  op: string,
+  alg: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+  length?: number | null,
+): boolean {
+  let normalizedAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm;
+  try {
+    normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(alg, op as Operation);
+  } catch {
+    if (op === 'wrapKey') return supportsCheck('encrypt', alg);
+    if (op === 'unwrapKey') return supportsCheck('decrypt', alg);
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const supported = SUPPORTED_ALGORITHMS[op];
+  if (!supported || !supported.has(normalizedAlgorithm.name)) {
+    if (op === 'wrapKey') return supportsCheck('encrypt', alg);
+    if (op === 'unwrapKey') return supportsCheck('decrypt', alg);
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  if (op === 'deriveBits') {
+    const name = normalizedAlgorithm.name;
+    if (name === 'HKDF' || name === 'PBKDF2' || name.startsWith('Argon2')) {
+      try {
+        validateKdfDeriveBitsLength(length, name);
+      } catch {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (op === 'generateKey' && normalizedAlgorithm.name === 'HMAC') {
+    const hashName =
+      typeof normalizedAlgorithm.hash === 'string'
+        ? normalizedAlgorithm.hash
+        : (normalizedAlgorithm.hash as { name?: string } | undefined)?.name;
+    if (
+      normalizedAlgorithm.length === undefined &&
+      typeof hashName === 'string' &&
+      hashName.startsWith('SHA3-')
+    ) {
+      return false;
+    }
+  }
+
+  return true;
+}
+
+function supportsImpl(
+  operation: string,
+  algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+  lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm: unknown,
+): boolean {
+  switch (operation) {
+    case 'decapsulateBits':
+    case 'decapsulateKey':
+    case 'decrypt':
+    case 'deriveBits':
+    case 'deriveKey':
+    case 'digest':
+    case 'encapsulateBits':
+    case 'encapsulateKey':
+    case 'encrypt':
+    case 'exportKey':
+    case 'generateKey':
+    case 'getPublicKey':
+    case 'importKey':
+    case 'sign':
+    case 'unwrapKey':
+    case 'verify':
+    case 'wrapKey':
+      break;
+    default:
+      return false;
+  }
+
+  let length: number | null | undefined;
+
+  if (operation === 'deriveKey') {
+    // deriveKey decomposes to importKey of derived alg + deriveBits with that
+    // alg's key length. Node webcrypto.js:1547-1563.
+    if (lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm != null) {
+      const additional = lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm as
+        | SubtleAlgorithm
+        | AnyAlgorithm;
+      if (!supportsCheck('importKey', additional)) return false;
+      try {
+        length = getKeyLength(normalizeAlgorithm(additional, 'get key length'));
+      } catch {
+        return false;
+      }
+      return supportsCheck('deriveBits', algorithm, length);
+    }
+    // No additional algorithm given — only check the deriveBits side.
+    return supportsCheck('deriveBits', algorithm);
+  }
+
+  if (operation === 'wrapKey') {
+    // wrapKey decomposes to encrypt of wrapping alg + exportKey of wrapped alg.
+    // Node webcrypto.js:1564-1572.
+    if (lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm != null) {
+      const additional = lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm as
+        | SubtleAlgorithm
+        | AnyAlgorithm;
+      if (!supportsCheck('exportKey', additional)) return false;
+    }
+    return supportsCheck('wrapKey', algorithm);
+  }
+
+  if (operation === 'unwrapKey') {
+    // unwrapKey decomposes to decrypt of wrapping alg + importKey of wrapped
+    // alg. Node webcrypto.js:1573-1581.
+    if (lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm != null) {
+      const additional = lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm as
+        | SubtleAlgorithm
+        | AnyAlgorithm;
+      if (!supportsCheck('importKey', additional)) return false;
+    }
+    return supportsCheck('unwrapKey', algorithm);
+  }
+
+  if (operation === 'deriveBits') {
+    if (lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm == null) {
+      length = null;
+    } else if (typeof lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm === 'number') {
+      length = lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm;
+    } else {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return supportsCheck('deriveBits', algorithm, length);
+  }
+
+  if (operation === 'getPublicKey') {
+    let normalized: SubtleAlgorithm;
+    try {
+      normalized = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'exportKey');
+    } catch {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return ASYMMETRIC_ALGORITHMS.has(normalized.name);
+  }
+
+  if (operation === 'encapsulateKey' || operation === 'decapsulateKey') {
+    // sharedKeyAlgorithm must support importKey, with HMAC/KMAC limited to
+    // length === undefined or 256 (Node webcrypto.js:1610-1645).
+    const additional = lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm as
+      | SubtleAlgorithm
+      | AnyAlgorithm;
+    let normalizedAdd: SubtleAlgorithm;
+    try {
+      normalizedAdd = normalizeAlgorithm(additional, 'importKey');
+    } catch {
+      return false;
+    }
+    switch (normalizedAdd.name) {
+      case 'AES-OCB':
+      case 'AES-KW':
+      case 'AES-GCM':
+      case 'AES-CTR':
+      case 'AES-CBC':
+      case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      case 'HKDF':
+      case 'PBKDF2':
+      case 'Argon2i':
+      case 'Argon2d':
+      case 'Argon2id':
+        break;
+      case 'HMAC':
+      case 'KMAC128':
+      case 'KMAC256': {
+        const addLen = normalizedAdd.length;
+        if (addLen !== undefined && addLen !== 256) return false;
+        break;
+      }
+      default:
+        return false;
+    }
+    return supportsCheck(operation, algorithm);
+  }
+
+  return supportsCheck(operation, algorithm);
+}
+
+export class Subtle {
+  // Spec-compliant capability detector. Mirrors Node's webcrypto.js:1506-1649
+  // `SubtleCrypto.supports`, including:
+  //   • composed-operation decomposition (deriveKey, wrapKey, unwrapKey,
+  //     encapsulateKey, decapsulateKey, getPublicKey)
+  //   • per-algorithm length validators for deriveBits (HKDF/PBKDF2/Argon2)
+  //   • HMAC + SHA3 generateKey with no length → false
+  // Static-only per the WICG spec.
+  static supports(
+    operation: string,
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm: unknown = null,
+  ): boolean {
+    return supportsImpl(operation, algorithm, lengthOrAdditionalAlgorithm);
+  }
+
+  async decrypt(
+    algorithm: EncryptDecryptParams | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    data: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 3, 'decrypt');
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+      algorithm,
+      'decrypt',
+    ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    if (normalizedAlgorithm.name !== key.algorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+    if (!key.usages.includes('decrypt')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Unable to use this key to decrypt',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+    return cipherOrWrap(
+      CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherDecrypt,
+      normalizedAlgorithm,
+      key,
+      bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data),
+    );
+  }
+
+  async digest(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    data: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 2, 'digest');
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'digest');
+    return asyncDigest(normalizedAlgorithm, data);
+  }
+
+  async deriveBits(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    baseKey: CryptoKey,
+    length: number | null = null,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 2, 'deriveBits');
+    // WebCrypto §SubtleCrypto.deriveBits step 11: throw InvalidAccessError
+    // unless `baseKey.[[usages]]` contains "deriveBits" specifically. The
+    // previous `deriveBits || deriveKey` accept-either branch silently
+    // promoted deriveKey-only keys into deriveBits use, contradicting the
+    // spec usage gate.
+    if (!baseKey.usages.includes('deriveBits')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'baseKey does not have deriveBits usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'deriveBits');
+    if (baseKey.algorithm.name !== normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+    switch (normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      case 'PBKDF2':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        return pbkdf2DeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+      case 'X25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'X448':
+        return xDeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+      case 'ECDH':
+        return ecDeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+      case 'HKDF':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        return hkdfDeriveBits(
+          normalizedAlgorithm as unknown as HkdfAlgorithm,
+          baseKey,
+          length,
+        );
+      case 'Argon2d':
+      case 'Argon2i':
+      case 'Argon2id':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        return argon2DeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+    }
+    throw lazyDOMException(
+      `'subtle.deriveBits()' for ${normalizedAlgorithm.name} is not implemented.`,
+      'NotSupportedError',
+    );
+  }
+
+  async deriveKey(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    baseKey: CryptoKey,
+    derivedKeyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 5, 'deriveKey');
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'deriveBits');
+    // Validate the derived-key algorithm up front (mirrors Node webcrypto.js:341).
+    // The normalized form is unused — `this.importKey` re-normalizes below.
+    normalizeAlgorithm(derivedKeyAlgorithm, 'importKey');
+
+    // Validate baseKey usage
+    if (!baseKey.usages.includes('deriveKey')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'baseKey does not have deriveKey usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    if (baseKey.algorithm.name !== normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+
+    // Calculate required key length (may be null for KDF-derived material).
+    // Mirrors Node webcrypto.js:350 — uses the raw derivedKeyAlgorithm with
+    // op='get key length' so AES `length` survives normalization (the
+    // 'importKey' converter for AES is null and strips dictionary members).
+    const length = getKeyLength(
+      normalizeAlgorithm(derivedKeyAlgorithm, 'get key length'),
+    );
+
+    // Step 1: Derive bits
+    let derivedBits: ArrayBuffer;
+    switch (normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      case 'PBKDF2':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        derivedBits = await pbkdf2DeriveBits(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          baseKey,
+          length,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'X25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'X448':
+        derivedBits = await xDeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+        break;
+      case 'ECDH':
+        derivedBits = await ecDeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+        break;
+      case 'HKDF':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        derivedBits = hkdfDeriveBits(
+          normalizedAlgorithm as unknown as HkdfAlgorithm,
+          baseKey,
+          length,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'Argon2d':
+      case 'Argon2i':
+      case 'Argon2id':
+        if (length === null) {
+          throw lazyDOMException('length cannot be null', 'OperationError');
+        }
+        derivedBits = argon2DeriveBits(normalizedAlgorithm, baseKey, length);
+        break;
+      default:
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          `'subtle.deriveKey()' for ${normalizedAlgorithm.name} is not implemented.`,
+          'NotSupportedError',
+        );
+    }
+
+    // Step 2: Import as key. Use 'raw-secret' so derived material flows into
+    // AEADs / KMAC correctly — they reject plain 'raw' (Node webcrypto.js:381-385).
+    return this.importKey(
+      'raw-secret',
+      derivedBits,
+      derivedKeyAlgorithm,
+      extractable,
+      keyUsages,
+    );
+  }
+
+  async encrypt(
+    algorithm: EncryptDecryptParams | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    data: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 3, 'encrypt');
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+      algorithm,
+      'encrypt',
+    ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    if (normalizedAlgorithm.name !== key.algorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+    if (!key.usages.includes('encrypt')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Unable to use this key to encrypt',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+    return cipherOrWrap(
+      CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+      normalizedAlgorithm,
+      key,
+      bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(data),
+    );
+  }
+
+  async exportKey(
+    format: ImportFormat,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer | JWK> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 2, 'exportKey');
+    if (!key.extractable)
+      throw lazyDOMException('key is not extractable', 'InvalidAccessError');
+
+    if (format === 'raw-seed') {
+      const pqcAlgos: string[] = [
+        'ML-KEM-512',
+        'ML-KEM-768',
+        'ML-KEM-1024',
+        'ML-DSA-44',
+        'ML-DSA-65',
+        'ML-DSA-87',
+        ...SLH_DSA_VARIANTS,
+      ];
+      if (!pqcAlgos.includes(key.algorithm.name)) {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'raw-seed export only supported for PQC keys',
+          'NotSupportedError',
+        );
+      }
+      if (key.type !== 'private') {
+        throw lazyDOMException(
+          'raw-seed export requires a private key',
+          'InvalidAccessError',
+        );
+      }
+      return bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(key.keyObject.handle.exportKey());
+    }
+
+    switch (format) {
+      case 'spki':
+        return (await exportKeySpki(key)) as ArrayBuffer;
+      case 'pkcs8':
+        return (await exportKeyPkcs8(key)) as ArrayBuffer;
+      case 'jwk':
+        return exportKeyJWK(key) as JWK;
+      case 'raw':
+      case 'raw-secret':
+      case 'raw-public':
+        return exportKeyRaw(key, format) as ArrayBuffer;
+    }
+  }
+
+  async wrapKey(
+    format: ImportFormat,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    wrappingKey: CryptoKey,
+    wrapAlgorithm: EncryptDecryptParams | AnyAlgorithm,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 4, 'wrapKey');
+    // Mirrors Node webcrypto.js:923-927: prefer the 'wrapKey' op (only
+    // AES-KW defines it) and fall back to 'encrypt' for cipher-based wrap
+    // algorithms like AES-GCM and RSA-OAEP.
+    let normalizedWrapAlgorithm: EncryptDecryptParams;
+    try {
+      normalizedWrapAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+        wrapAlgorithm,
+        'wrapKey',
+      ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    } catch {
+      normalizedWrapAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+        wrapAlgorithm,
+        'encrypt',
+      ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    }
+
+    if (normalizedWrapAlgorithm.name !== wrappingKey.algorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+    if (!wrappingKey.usages.includes('wrapKey')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Unable to use this key to wrapKey',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    // Step 1: Export the key
+    const exported = await this.exportKey(format, key);
+
+    // Step 2: Convert to ArrayBuffer if JWK
+    let keyData: ArrayBuffer;
+    if (format === 'jwk') {
+      const jwkString = JSON.stringify(exported);
+      const buffer = SBuffer.from(jwkString, 'utf8');
+
+      // For AES-KW, pad to multiple of 8 bytes (accounting for null terminator)
+      if (normalizedWrapAlgorithm.name === 'AES-KW') {
+        const length = buffer.length;
+        // Add 1 for null terminator, then pad to multiple of 8
+        const paddedLength = Math.ceil((length + 1) / 8) * 8;
+        const paddedBuffer = SBuffer.alloc(paddedLength);
+        buffer.copy(paddedBuffer);
+        // Null terminator for JSON string (remaining bytes are already zeros from alloc)
+        paddedBuffer.writeUInt8(0, length);
+        keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(paddedBuffer);
+      } else {
+        keyData = bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(buffer);
+      }
+    } else {
+      keyData = exported as ArrayBuffer;
+    }
+
+    // Step 3: Encrypt the exported key
+    return cipherOrWrap(
+      CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherEncrypt,
+      normalizedWrapAlgorithm,
+      wrappingKey,
+      keyData,
+    );
+  }
+
+  async unwrapKey(
+    format: ImportFormat,
+    wrappedKey: BufferLike,
+    unwrappingKey: CryptoKey,
+    unwrapAlgorithm: EncryptDecryptParams | AnyAlgorithm,
+    unwrappedKeyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 7, 'unwrapKey');
+    // Mirrors Node webcrypto.js:1006-1010: prefer 'unwrapKey', fall back to
+    // 'decrypt' for cipher-based unwrap algorithms.
+    let normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm: EncryptDecryptParams;
+    try {
+      normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+        unwrapAlgorithm,
+        'unwrapKey',
+      ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    } catch {
+      normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+        unwrapAlgorithm,
+        'decrypt',
+      ) as EncryptDecryptParams;
+    }
+
+    if (normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm.name !== unwrappingKey.algorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+    if (!unwrappingKey.usages.includes('unwrapKey')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Unable to use this key to unwrapKey',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    // Step 1: Decrypt the wrapped key
+    const decrypted = await cipherOrWrap(
+      CipherOrWrapMode.kWebCryptoCipherDecrypt,
+      normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm,
+      unwrappingKey,
+      bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(wrappedKey),
+    );
+
+    // Step 2: Convert to appropriate format
+    let keyData: BufferLike | JWK;
+    if (format === 'jwk') {
+      const buffer = SBuffer.from(decrypted);
+      // For AES-KW, the data may be padded - find the null terminator
+      let jwkString: string;
+      if (normalizedUnwrapAlgorithm.name === 'AES-KW') {
+        // Find the null terminator (if present) to get the original string
+        const nullIndex = buffer.indexOf(0);
+        if (nullIndex !== -1) {
+          jwkString = buffer.toString('utf8', 0, nullIndex);
+        } else {
+          // No null terminator, try to parse the whole buffer
+          jwkString = buffer.toString('utf8').trim();
+        }
+      } else {
+        jwkString = buffer.toString('utf8');
+      }
+      keyData = JSON.parse(jwkString) as JWK;
+    } else {
+      keyData = decrypted;
+    }
+
+    // Step 3: Import the key
+    return this.importKey(
+      format,
+      keyData,
+      unwrappedKeyAlgorithm,
+      extractable,
+      keyUsages,
+    );
+  }
+
+  async generateKey(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey | CryptoKeyPair> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 3, 'generateKey');
+    algorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'generateKey');
+    let result: CryptoKey | CryptoKeyPair;
+    switch (algorithm.name) {
+      case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'RSA-PSS':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'RSA-OAEP':
+        result = await rsa_generateKeyPair(algorithm, extractable, keyUsages);
+        break;
+      case 'ECDSA':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ECDH':
+        result = await ec_generateKeyPair(
+          algorithm.name,
+          algorithm.namedCurve!,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      case 'AES-CTR':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-CBC':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-GCM':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-KW':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-OCB':
+        result = await aesGenerateKey(
+          algorithm as AesKeyGenParams,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305': {
+        const length = (algorithm as AesKeyGenParams).length ?? 256;
+
+        if (length !== 256) {
+          throw lazyDOMException(
+            'ChaCha20-Poly1305 only supports 256-bit keys',
+            'NotSupportedError',
+          );
+        }
+
+        result = await aesGenerateKey(
+          {
+            name: 'ChaCha20-Poly1305',
+            length: 256,
+          } as unknown as AesKeyGenParams,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      }
+      case 'HMAC':
+        result = await hmacGenerateKey(algorithm, extractable, keyUsages);
+        break;
+      case 'KMAC128':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'KMAC256':
+        result = await kmacGenerateKey(algorithm, extractable, keyUsages);
+        break;
+      case 'Ed25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'Ed448':
+        result = await ed_generateKeyPairWebCrypto(
+          algorithm.name.toLowerCase() as 'ed25519' | 'ed448',
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      case 'ML-DSA-44':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-DSA-65':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-DSA-87':
+        result = await mldsa_generateKeyPairWebCrypto(
+          algorithm.name as MlDsaVariant,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+        result = await slhdsa_generateKeyPairWebCrypto(
+          algorithm.name as SlhDsaVariant,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      case 'X25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'X448':
+        result = await x_generateKeyPairWebCrypto(
+          algorithm.name.toLowerCase() as 'x25519' | 'x448',
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      case 'ML-KEM-512':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-KEM-768':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+        result = await mlkem_generateKeyPairWebCrypto(
+          algorithm.name as MlKemVariant,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        checkCryptoKeyPairUsages(result as CryptoKeyPair);
+        break;
+      default:
+        throw new Error(
+          `'subtle.generateKey()' is not implemented for ${algorithm.name}.
+            Unrecognized algorithm name`,
+        );
+    }
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  async getPublicKey(
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 2, 'getPublicKey');
+    if (key.type === 'secret') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('key must be a private key', 'NotSupportedError');
+    }
+    if (key.type !== 'private') {
+      throw lazyDOMException('key must be a private key', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+
+    const publicKeyObject = createPublicKey(key.keyObject);
+    return publicKeyObject.toCryptoKey(key.algorithm, true, keyUsages);
+  }
+
+  async importKey(
+    format: ImportFormat,
+    data: BufferLike | BinaryLike | JWK,
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    keyUsages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 5, 'importKey');
+    // Per-algorithm format handling. Some algorithms alias raw-secret/raw-public
+    // to 'raw' (RSA, EC, Ed/X, HMAC, HKDF, PBKDF2); others demand the
+    // disambiguated form (KMAC, AES-OCB, ChaCha20-Poly1305, Argon2, ML-DSA,
+    // ML-KEM). 'raw-seed' is never normalized — PQC import handles it directly.
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'importKey');
+    let result: CryptoKey;
+    switch (normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      case 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'RSA-PSS':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'RSA-OAEP':
+        result = rsaImportKey(
+          aliasKeyFormat(format),
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'ECDSA':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ECDH':
+        result = ecImportKey(
+          aliasKeyFormat(format),
+          data,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'HMAC':
+        // No aliasing — Node routes HMAC straight into mac.js, which accepts
+        // 'raw' / 'raw-secret' / 'jwk' and rejects everything else
+        // (webcrypto.js:774-781, mac.js:136-174).
+        result = await hmacImportKey(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'KMAC128':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'KMAC256':
+        result = await kmacImportKey(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'AES-CTR':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-CBC':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-GCM':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-KW':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'AES-OCB':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+        result = await aesImportKey(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'PBKDF2':
+        result = await pbkdf2ImportKey(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          aliasKeyFormat(format),
+          data as BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'Argon2d':
+      case 'Argon2i':
+      case 'Argon2id':
+        result = await argon2ImportKey(
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'HKDF':
+        result = await hkdfImportKey(
+          aliasKeyFormat(format),
+          data as BufferLike | BinaryLike,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'X25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'X448':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'Ed25519':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'Ed448':
+        result = edImportKey(
+          aliasKeyFormat(format),
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-128f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-192f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHA2-256f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-128f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-192f':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256s':
+      case 'SLH-DSA-SHAKE-256f':
+        result = slhdsaImportKey(
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'ML-DSA-44':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-DSA-65':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-DSA-87':
+        result = mldsaImportKey(
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      case 'ML-KEM-512':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-KEM-768':
+      // Fall through
+      case 'ML-KEM-1024':
+        result = mlkemImportKey(
+          format,
+          data as BufferLike | JWK,
+          normalizedAlgorithm,
+          extractable,
+          keyUsages,
+        );
+        break;
+      default:
+        throw new Error(
+          `"subtle.importKey()" is not implemented for ${normalizedAlgorithm.name}`,
+        );
+    }
+
+    if (
+      (result.type === 'secret' || result.type === 'private') &&
+      result.usages.length === 0
+    ) {
+      throw new Error(
+        `Usages cannot be empty when importing a ${result.type} key.`,
+      );
+    }
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  async sign(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    data: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 3, 'sign');
+    return signVerify(
+      normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'sign'),
+      key,
+      data,
+    ) as ArrayBuffer;
+  }
+
+  async verify(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    signature: BufferLike,
+    data: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<boolean> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 4, 'verify');
+    return signVerify(
+      normalizeAlgorithm(algorithm, 'verify'),
+      key,
+      data,
+      signature,
+    ) as boolean;
+  }
+
+  private _encapsulateCore(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+  ): EncapsulateResult {
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+      algorithm,
+      'encapsulateBits' as Operation,
+    );
+
+    if (key.algorithm.name !== normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+
+    const variant = normalizedAlgorithm.name as MlKemVariant;
+    const mlkem = new MlKem(variant);
+
+    const keyData = key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.SPKI,
+    );
+    mlkem.setPublicKey(
+      bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(keyData),
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.SPKI,
+    );
+
+    return mlkem.encapsulateSync();
+  }
+
+  private _decapsulateCore(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    ciphertext: BufferLike,
+  ): ArrayBuffer {
+    const normalizedAlgorithm = normalizeAlgorithm(
+      algorithm,
+      'decapsulateBits' as Operation,
+    );
+
+    if (key.algorithm.name !== normalizedAlgorithm.name) {
+      throw lazyDOMException('Key algorithm mismatch', 'InvalidAccessError');
+    }
+
+    const variant = normalizedAlgorithm.name as MlKemVariant;
+    const mlkem = new MlKem(variant);
+
+    const keyData = key.keyObject.handle.exportKey(
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.PKCS8,
+    );
+    mlkem.setPrivateKey(
+      bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(keyData),
+      KFormatType.DER,
+      KeyEncoding.PKCS8,
+    );
+
+    return mlkem.decapsulateSync(bufferLikeToArrayBuffer(ciphertext));
+  }
+
+  async encapsulateBits(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+  ): Promise<EncapsulateResult> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 2, 'encapsulateBits');
+    if (!key.usages.includes('encapsulateBits')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Key does not have encapsulateBits usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    return this._encapsulateCore(algorithm, key);
+  }
+
+  async encapsulateKey(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    sharedKeyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    usages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<{ key: CryptoKey; ciphertext: ArrayBuffer }> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 5, 'encapsulateKey');
+    if (!key.usages.includes('encapsulateKey')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Key does not have encapsulateKey usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    const { sharedKey, ciphertext } = this._encapsulateCore(algorithm, key);
+    // Node imports the encapsulated shared bits as 'raw-secret'
+    // (webcrypto.js:1370-1374) so AEADs / KMAC accept the result.
+    const importedKey = await this.importKey(
+      'raw-secret',
+      sharedKey,
+      sharedKeyAlgorithm,
+      extractable,
+      usages,
+    );
+
+    return { key: importedKey, ciphertext };
+  }
+
+  async decapsulateBits(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    ciphertext: BufferLike,
+  ): Promise<ArrayBuffer> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 3, 'decapsulateBits');
+    if (!key.usages.includes('decapsulateBits')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Key does not have decapsulateBits usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    return this._decapsulateCore(algorithm, key, ciphertext);
+  }
+
+  async decapsulateKey(
+    algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    key: CryptoKey,
+    ciphertext: BufferLike,
+    sharedKeyAlgorithm: SubtleAlgorithm | AnyAlgorithm,
+    extractable: boolean,
+    usages: KeyUsage[],
+  ): Promise<CryptoKey> {
+    requireArgs(arguments.length, 6, 'decapsulateKey');
+    if (!key.usages.includes('decapsulateKey')) {
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Key does not have decapsulateKey usage',
+        'InvalidAccessError',
+      );
+    }
+
+    const sharedKey = this._decapsulateCore(algorithm, key, ciphertext);
+    // Node imports the decapsulated shared bits as 'raw-secret'
+    // (webcrypto.js:1490-1494).
+    return this.importKey(
+      'raw-secret',
+      sharedKey,
+      sharedKeyAlgorithm,
+      extractable,
+      usages,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+export const subtle = new Subtle();
+
+// Returns the number of bits to derive for an `importKey` algorithm, mirroring
+// Node's webcrypto.js:269-306 `getKeyLength`. Returns null for KDF algorithms
+// (HKDF / PBKDF2 / Argon2) — those carry their full derived secret without a
+// fixed key length. Throws OperationError on invalid AES / HMAC inputs rather
+// than silently coercing to a default (Node commit 4cb1f284136 behavior).
+function getKeyLength(algorithm: SubtleAlgorithm): number | null {
+  const name = algorithm.name;
+  const length = (algorithm as { length?: number }).length;
+
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'AES-CTR':
+    case 'AES-CBC':
+    case 'AES-GCM':
+    case 'AES-KW':
+    case 'AES-OCB':
+      if (length !== 128 && length !== 192 && length !== 256) {
+        throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'OperationError');
+      }
+      return length;
+
+    case 'HMAC': {
+      if (length === undefined) {
+        return getHmacBlockSize(
+          (algorithm.hash as { name?: string } | undefined)?.name ??
+            (algorithm.hash as string | undefined),
+        );
+      }
+      if (typeof length === 'number' && length !== 0) {
+        return length;
+      }
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'OperationError');
+    }
+
+    case 'KMAC128':
+      return typeof length === 'number' ? length : 128;
+    case 'KMAC256':
+      return typeof length === 'number' ? length : 256;
+
+    case 'ChaCha20-Poly1305':
+      return 256;
+
+    case 'HKDF':
+    case 'PBKDF2':
+    case 'Argon2d':
+    case 'Argon2i':
+    case 'Argon2id':
+      return null;
+
+    default:
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        `Cannot determine key length for ${name}`,
+        'NotSupportedError',
+      );
+  }
+}
+
+function getHmacBlockSize(name: string | undefined): number {
+  switch (name) {
+    case 'SHA-1':
+    case 'SHA-256':
+      return 512;
+    case 'SHA-384':
+    case 'SHA-512':
+      return 1024;
+    case 'SHA3-256':
+    case 'SHA3-384':
+    case 'SHA3-512':
+      // SHA-3 / HMAC interaction undefined — Node throws here too
+      // (webcrypto-modern-algos issue #23).
+      throw lazyDOMException(
+        'Explicit algorithm length member is required',
+        'NotSupportedError',
+      );
+    default:
+      throw lazyDOMException('Invalid key length', 'OperationError');
+  }
+}