@museumwnf/water-in-islam-data 1.0.10

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+{"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53":{"title":"Water as Sacred Presence: Gardens, Paradise, and Salvation","presentation":"","quote":"Inspired by Quranic visions of paradise, water shaped Islamic visual culture through gardens, fountains, ceramic tiles, and carpets. Flowing channels and lush landscapes translated sacred imagery into artistic forms that evoke beauty, harmony, and divine reward."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3":{"title":"Domestic Hygiene","presentation":"","quote":"Cleanliness holds deep spiritual meaning in Islam, where disciplined bodily purification through *al-wudu* and *ghusl* is closely tied to purification of the soul. Water, as the medium of this renewal, shaped the architecture of baths, courtyards, and washing spaces within the home. Its intimate presence in daily life expressed faith’s close connections among discipline, purity, order, and well-being."},"367a1ed0-0e57-5a75-aae5-0a83f8f0367c":{"title":"Contemporary Context: Water in the Islamic World Today","presentation":"This theme examines water as an ethical, technical, symbolic and artistic element in modern Islam. Islamic environmental ethics understand water through the concept of *khalifa*, which defines humans as God’s trustees and caretakers on Earth. This principle promotes stewardship through sustainable practices, including garden reconstruction, communal water management and the preservation of traditional meanings of water through local museums and heritage initiatives.*Khalifa* connects traditional and modern water systems, such as *aflaj* and contemporary infrastructure. It has remained constant across the Muslim world even as methods of collecting, storing and distributing water evolve.  \n  \nUrban transformation demonstrates water’s material and symbolic significance. Streets, so central to the urban landscape, and infrastructure such as parks, water towers and hammams, are shaped by systems of water distribution and sale. Water engineering is also present in visual culture, from banknotes to contemporary art, conveying themes of purity, life and prosperity.  \n  \nWithin this context, the water crisis exposes significant inequalities. Arid regions face severe access challenges, rural communities experience unequal extraction and distribution and climate change increases scarcity and pollution. In the Middle East, armed conflicts further worsen water insecurity by damaging infrastructure and further limiting access. These issues are reflected in cultural expressions and visual art that highlights the historical and cultural significance of water in Islamic culture.","quote":""},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d":{"title":"Water in Human Creativity: Literature, Poetry, and Epics","presentation":"","quote":"In Islamic literature, water serves as a powerful metaphor in poetry and epics. Rivers, springs, and seas signify love and separation, luxury and illusion, reflecting the shifting emotions and moral complexities of human experience."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b":{"title":"Rivers of Life: Agriculture Along the Great Waterways","presentation":"","quote":"The rivers carried more than water — they carried knowledge, power, and prosperity. Along their banks, Islamic civilisation cultivated landscapes that fed cities, moved markets, and transformed the world."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568":{"title":"Water in Knowledge, Science, and Technology","presentation":"","quote":"In Islamic intellectual traditions, water inspired scientific inquiry and innovation. Scholars and engineers studied its movement and power, developing navigation tools, maps, irrigation systems, and hydraulic machines that supported travel, trade, and life."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f":{"title":"Islamic Environmental Ethics and Stewardship","presentation":"","quote":"Within Islamic thought, water management combines technical expertise and ethical considerations with scientific understanding and spiritual insight. \"The Muslims are partners in three things: water, pasture and fire, and their price is unlawful.\" (Sunan Ibn Majah 2472)"},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080":{"title":"Water and the Human Condition: Prophets, Saints, and Sinners","presentation":"","quote":"In Islamic sacred narratives, water mediates divine trial and grace. It marks moments of testing, repentance, and transformation, embodying both punishment and mercy, and reflecting the moral tension among error, patience, and redemption."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0":{"title":"Engineering the Flow: Irrigation Technologies and Water Management","presentation":"","quote":"To make water flow was to master survival. Across centuries and continents, Islamic ingenuity turned ancient techniques into living systems, where engineering met equity, and nature met knowledge."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3":{"title":"\"The Best Charity is a Drink of Water\" (Hadith: Sunan An-Nasa'i 3694)","presentation":"","quote":"The Architecture of Mercy: Endowments and Public Welfare"},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8":{"title":"Water in Gardens","presentation":"","quote":"In the Quran, gardens are a vision of paradise on earth — a space where the spiritual and natural worlds meet through the movement of water. Streams, basins, and channels shaped garden sanctuaries by offering sensory pleasure and spiritual meaning. The rhythmic sound of flowing water encouraged contemplation, while its presence mirrored divine order, balance, and eternal renewal within the cultivated harmony of nature.  Gardens are also the ultimate reward for the righteous believer: “Allah has promised the believers, both men and women, Gardens under which rivers flow, to stay there forever, and splendid homes in the Gardens of Eternity, and—above all—the pleasure of Allah. That is 'truly' the ultimate triumph.” – Quran 9:72"},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141":{"title":"Transport","presentation":"","quote":"The journey of water from source to household was a testament to human ingenuity and adaptation. Through channels, ceramic pipes, and bronze containers, communities devised sophisticated methods to transport water from its sources to urban centres and domestic settings."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c":{"title":"Roots in the Sand: Oasis Agriculture and the Origin of Islamic Farming","presentation":"","quote":"From the harshest environments, Islamic civilisation nurtured thriving agricultural systems. Oasis farming, born of necessity, became a symbol of sustainability, cooperation, and ingenuity. It reminds us that life, when guided by water and community, can flourish even in the desert."},"80cd42c3-f130-56d3-b0fc-8a033ff888a2":{"title":"The Symbolism of Water in sacred Texts, secular Literature, and Science","presentation":"In Islamic thought, water (*ma*) is a foundational element of both spiritual belief and human knowledge. It is mentioned more than 70 times across the Quran, where it signifies the origin of life, divine mercy, and a medium through which God tests, guides, and transforms humankind. Paradise itself is repeatedly imagined through water-filled imagery—'*gardens beneath which rivers flow*'—while *janna* and *jannat*, mentioned over 100 times, are promised as eternal reward for believers (e.g., 2:25; 47:15). Sacred waters such as the river of al-Kawthar (108:1) and the Zamzam wellspring embody divine generosity, healing, and protection, while ritual purification through *wudu* and *tahara* affirms water’s essential role in cleansing body and soul.  \n  \nProphetic narratives reveal water’s dual nature as mercy and punishment. In the story of Jonah (Yunus), cast into the sea and swallowed by the whale (21:87; 37:139–148), water becomes the site of divine trial and forgiveness, where patience and repentance lead to salvation. The flood of Noah (*nuh*), recounted in an entire Quranic chapter (71) and elsewhere (11:40–44), similarly reflects destruction and renewal, affirming divine justice and mercy through water.  \n  \nBeyond sacred texts, water flows through Islamic literature as a metaphor for love, separation, power, and illusion. In works such as the '*Khamsa'* of Nizami, the '*Bustan*', '*Mantiq al-Tayr*', and '*Iskandarnama*', springs and rivers divide or unite lovers, mark scenes of courtly luxury, or symbolise the elusive search for eternal life, as in Alexander’s quest for the Water of Life and its association with *al-Khidr*. In fables like '*Kalila wa Dimna*', water embodies wisdom and deception, capable of saving or destroying those who misread its nature.  \n  \nWater also stands at the heart of knowledge, science, and technological innovation. While the sea evokes fear and danger, it also reflects the infinity of God’s words (18:109). The sea became a pathway for travel, trade, and empires. Muslim societies mastered shipbuilding and navigation, developing astrolabes, celestial globes, star charts, and maps, while linking cosmology to water through constellations such as Pisces and Aquarius. Engineers and scholars advanced hydraulic sciences, designing irrigation systems, measuring devices, and water-powered machines that sustained cities and landscapes across the Islamic world, many of which endure to this day.","quote":""},"949af30f-e113-501b-8cea-ba30237d2ecd":{"title":"Religion and Spirituality","presentation":"In the Islamic tradition, water (maʾ) is a sacred trust that accompanies the believer from birth to the grave. The Qur’an highlights this spiritual quality, stating: “And We sent down from the sky purifying water” (25:48). This theological foundation establishes water as the primary medium of moral order, where the physical act of washing becomes a spiritual transformation. Through the rituals of ablution (*wudu*) and ritual bath (*ghusl*), the believer prepares for prayer by entering a state of sacred presence, fulfilling the Prophetic teaching that “Purity is half of faith”. This journey of purification concludes at the end of life with ghusl al-mayyit, where the ritual washing of the deceased serves as a final act of dignity and respect.  \n  \nThe spiritual life of water also demands ethical stewardship because, as the scripture reminds us, “We sent down water from the sky in measure” (23:18). Its preservation is a religious mandate, reflected in the communal prayer for rain (*salat al-istisqa*) and the sophisticated engineering of aqueducts and measuring vessels designed to prevent waste (*israf*).  \n  \nThis importance is further reflected in architecture and the spatial organisation of the community. In many mosques, courtyards include pools or fountains for ablution, integrating ritual preparation into the physical building. Beyond the mosque, public water structures such as sabils provided drinking water as charitable endowments supported through the institution of *waqf*. Bathhouses (hammams) served both hygienic and social functions, while inscriptions on fountains and endowment plaques record the names of patrons who established these facilities. These structures embody the Prophetic tradition that “the best charity is a drink of water”, turning water provision into a lasting legacy of public welfare and divine service.","quote":""},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a":{"title":"Water as Source of Healing, Life, and Protection","presentation":"","quote":"Across Islamic belief and practice, water sustains life and safeguards the body and soul. Sacred springs, ritual purification, and blessed waters affirm its role as a source of healing, protection, and spiritual renewal."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f":{"title":"\"We Sent Down Water in Measure\" (23:18)","presentation":"","quote":"Divine Equilibrium: Stewardship, Measurement, and Justice"},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1":{"title":"Urban Water Infrastructure","presentation":"","quote":"Water shaped the fabric of urban life through aqueducts, *sabils*, fountains, and subterranean channels. These networks not only sustained cities, but they embodied ideals of generosity and civic ingenuity."},"b81c7cb9-ba05-562a-a64d-68b2e17400e0":{"title":"About","presentation":"This exhibition explores the central role of water in Islamic civilisation, presenting it as the origin of life, a sign of divine mercy, and a shared ethical trust. In Islamic thought, water is not merely a resource but a formative force that shaped agriculture, urban development, ritual practice, artistic expression, and scientific inquiry.  \n  \nBringing together objects, monuments and narratives from multiple regions, it examines water’s material, spiritual and symbolic dimensions, from purification and sacred spaces to literature, technology and environmental reflection. Structured around five interconnected themes, the exhibition links historical experience with contemporary concerns such as sustainability, coexistence and stewardship.  \n  \nReflecting MWNF’s multicultural vision, the exhibition brings together an international community of scholars and partner institutions, building bridges across cultures through shared heritage and knowledge.","quote":""},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a":{"title":"Household Tools","presentation":"","quote":"From humble clay jars to ornate metal ewers, the objects designed to carry water reveal a dialogue between function and artistry. Crafted with care and beauty, these vessels are tangible reminders of the daily rituals of hospitality, hygiene, and devotion that structured domestic life. Their materials and forms vary across regions, yet each embodies an enduring respect for water as both a physical necessity and a spiritual blessing."},"cf106957-b4e8-5d72-9a13-749b82c4b545":{"title":"Water and Agriculture in Islamic Civilisation","presentation":"Agriculture played an important role in economic and urban development in Islamic civilisation. The spread of Islam produced substantial development in agriculture in the diversification of crops; regulations and laws; water management; and agricultural techniques.  \n  \nIslamic civilisation spread over a vast geographical area from Andalusia on the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia, in different geographical, climatic, historical and social settings. Methods of irrigation and water management were employed based on the varied settings of regions and areas.  \n  \nAlthough agricultural techniques are often inherited from former civilisations, advances during the spread of Islam were notable. Techniques for water management were upgraded, transferred from region to region, and maintained, leading to increased productivity.  \nAgriculture affected the urban development of several areas through access to water. One example is Yazid City in Iran, developed via the *qanat* system of transporting water. The change from planting one crop per year to multiple crops had an impact on social life as well.  \n  \nAdvances in legal regulations on the use of water and ownership of land made a great difference in the evolution of agriculture.","quote":""},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117":{"title":"Traditional and Modern Water Systems","presentation":"","quote":"Today, water systems diversity reflects rapid societal change. In rural areas, traditional infrastructure remains largely unchanged, while urban settings adapt ancient engineering to meet modern needs."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203":{"title":"Water Crisis and Inequality","presentation":"","quote":"Muslim-majority regions from North Africa to South Asia experience significant water stress due to climate change, deteriorating infrastructure, unsustainable water consumption and ongoing geopolitical conflict."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e":{"title":"Art and Water, Contemporary Approach","presentation":"","quote":"\"In Islamic art today, water remains both material and metaphor – fluid pigment, dissolving boundary and bearer of memory.\" Sultan Sooud Al-Qassemi, Barjeel Art Foundation"},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032":{"title":"Gardens of Knowledge: Agricultural Science and the Scholars of Water","presentation":"","quote":"\"Islamic scholars cultivated fields of knowledge as carefully as they did the land, blending science, skill, and sustainability into a living legacy.\""},"ebf15498-6f84-536b-aac4-f726dd74ced5":{"title":"Domestic and Urban Spheres","presentation":"In Islam, water plays a crucial role in a Muslim’s spiritual and physical life. For instance, water is essential for daily ablutions (*al-wudu*) before prayers and the full-body cleansing (*ghusl*).  \n  \nIn addition to these ritual dimensions, water played a fundamental role in shaping urban networks across the medieval Islamic world. Water’s movement and distribution — through repositories such as aqueducts, cisterns, channels and urban waterways — defined the rhythm of daily life. On a macro scale, within mosques, private homes and gardens, water created spaces of comfort and reflection, echoing Quranic imagery of paradise (*janna*) and renewal. Islam also emphasises the equitable distribution and conservation of water. Giving water to the thirsty is considered a highly-rewarded act of charity (*sadaqa*).  \n  \nBeyond these practical and spiritual uses, water also shaped quotidian objects. The tools and vessels designed to store and dispense water, including in public baths (*hammam*), are an indication of sophisticated craftsmanship manifested variously in different regions, bridging functionality and artistic expression.","quote":""},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8":{"title":"\"Purity is Half of Faith\" (Hadith: Sahih Muslim 432)","presentation":"","quote":"The Moral Order: Ritual Transformation & Liminal Space"},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1":{"title":"Urban Transformation and Symbolism","presentation":"","quote":"\"Islamic urbanism is not static but rhythmic, it renews itself while preserving its spiritual proportions.\" — Spahic Omer, Muslim Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning"},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/bd0739b4-e518-53b6-944b-b894ad1ed0c1":{"contextual_description":"Islamic civilisation promoted the fair use of water and the rights of access to it. Particularly where water was rare, the concept was of crucial importance. Figuig Oasis in Morocco demonstrates fair water use in oases. It comprises seven villages, each with its own water sources and irrigation systems. They all follow the same rules for sharing water based on time allocation. Water was divided to allow its use based on need. This system began in pre-Islamic times and became more organised during the early Muslim dynasties."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/3db1aa40-2d0f-55e3-aa50-bdad75124cde":{"contextual_description":"A symbol of water heritage, the water clock is used in the oases of southeastern Morocco, particularly in Tafilalet, to measure irrigation turns. Farmers rely on it to know exactly how long they can access water. It has deep cultural meanings, reflecting the sanctity of water-sharing, and is a powerful symbol of Morocco’s living hydraulic heritage and community self-governance."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/ca2113b0-5eb5-5b8a-93c4-620768598a16":{"contextual_description":"Rooted in Moroccan water law, the *maada* reflects principles of equity, transparency and shared responsibility in agricultural water management. It is used to distribute irrigation water fairly among users, as it carefully measures outflows that correspond to established rights defined by custom and law."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/2bb14200-07e8-5e72-bc27-bae5456829a2":{"contextual_description":"During the Islamic era, maintaining water infrastructure from earlier dynasties and building new structures were both important to sustaining water sources for agriculture and life. This aqueduct is an example. It was used to provide water to the Jericho Oasis and to support sugar cane cultivation."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/d067d9ff-2f43-5488-9ea6-7431adf3c70e":{"contextual_description":"An original field map from 'The Survey of Western Palestine' shows the water courses feeding into the Jordan Valley and River in the Jericho Oasis. It documents is an example of the documentation of water sources and pathways during the Islamic era."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/df86140f-b3dd-50bc-b8e3-6c9e8162acf8":{"contextual_description":"A view of Jebel Kuruntul from the Jericho plain, with remnants of Mamluk sugar mills and aqueducts in the mid-distance. This picture provides a full view of the aqueduct and sugar mills, and illustrates the advanced structure and processing of agricultural products."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/e7ebcc4f-c973-5033-b0b6-23a39fc21e3b":{"contextual_description":"An outstanding example of medieval Moroccan hydraulic engineering. The Almohads built new structures and adapted them to the semi-arid environment of Morocco. These cisterns are an example. They capture rain and floodwater using filtration and storage systems to provide water year-round for agriculture, urban life and trade."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/caf7dda9-154c-518a-b7f7-8cecca239eca":{"contextual_description":"One of the traditional cultivation tools, this plough was drawn by animals. A ploughman walked behind it to steer the animals and guide them in the desired direction by using a sturdy rope and verbal commands."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/917d276d-78ae-52cf-8b92-97e4b5c9de82":{"contextual_description":"The sickle is a widely-used manual agricultural tool with a curved blade. It has been typically used for harvesting grain or cutting weeds to feed livestock."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/a8646420-27a2-5cab-a771-f55c9e291ac8":{"contextual_description":"The sickle is a widely-used manual agricultural tool with a curved blade. It has been typically used for harvesting grain or cutting weeds to feed livestock."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/50225ea4-91b0-5ff6-a9b1-d4d7e6a73486":{"contextual_description":"This scythe-like agricultural hand tool is traditionally used for cutting weeds and reaping crops in cultivated fields. It has an angled steel blade for maximum efficiency. Such tools demonstrate the craftsmanship of toolmaking and the efficient use of water in planting in Oman."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/c1e73565-6bf5-5d5a-9cd9-c154dd6315df":{"contextual_description":"This traditional tool for chopping and splitting wood is an indispensable tool in agriculture and construction across Islamic territories. It serves multiple functions. The steel head serves as a wedge to force wood fibres apart, and the wooden handle acts as a lever to increase force at the cutting edge."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/259012fc-984a-5af5-9eb4-9280d2da5bf8":{"contextual_description":"A soil-levelling tool used after ploughing, operated by two people using a double rope to flatten the ground and optimise the irrigation capacity of limited cultivation areas in oasis environments. It reflects a form of sustainable vernacular hydraulic know-how rooted in collective effort."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/06277cdc-c556-5d8b-b426-88207bad1c04":{"contextual_description":"A hand-held tool for cutting cereals during the harvest, marking the culmination of an agricultural cycle, which was all highly dependent on the careful sharing and management of water. Its worn patina, eroded over years of careful use, visibly embodies the agricultural knowledge and restrained techniques that allowed communities to thrive in arid, irrigation-dependent oasis environments."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/2efc2362-5b96-5ac6-984e-97ef57a499a3":{"contextual_description":"A light, versatile hoe used for weeding, shallow soil turning, and marking small water channels to maximise irrigation in oasis plots. Employed for daily micro-interventions on the soil and water flow."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/bd857dd3-e151-578c-a647-71771e6ee9ca":{"contextual_description":"A wider version of the small hoe, used for maintaining the edges of irrigation plots and opening shallow channels. It illustrates the diversity and ingenuity of oasis agricultural practices that allow for the meticulous management of water and soil."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/df0a086c-587d-517f-81c1-fcbc8824abb8":{"contextual_description":"A sturdy tool designed for agricultural earthworks and the cleaning of irrigation canals (*seguia*). Used during seasonal and communal labour, it embodies the farmer’s dual role as both cultivator and water manager."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/ec5ac08e-84e8-5128-a4e8-0497f72fa7d4":{"contextual_description":"The self-sustaining ecosystems of the oases supported food production and carried deep religious, social, and economic meanings. This image depicts veiled women in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula grinding corn used for consumption and animal feed. The image illustrates the contributions of women in agriculture."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/994205d5-4cbf-5123-940f-e8cf76733568":{"contextual_description":"Dates are one of the major crops of oases in the Arabian Peninsula, and are a source of nutrition and economic value. Date production contributed to the prominence of oases on trade routes. Not only were date palms used for their fruit, they were also used for seeds, sap, oil, syrup (molasses) and leaves."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/6474c85c-93ff-5a2b-aed1-f19d91267d32":{"contextual_description":"A tray used to harvest dates, the main product of oases, is woven from palm stems. It is an example of the use of agricultural products to create tools for planting and harvesting."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/51a0b607-c3fc-53ae-887a-28e0930e1977":{"contextual_description":"Dates are one of the main products of oases, used for food and traded. Dates are harvested by climbing a palm tree using this back support and rope. The climber works his way up the tree by looping the *suw’* around the trunk, leaning back against the *quffah*, and stepping upward."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/936cd794-064e-5d12-940e-bf1e6e50ed9d":{"contextual_description":"Dates are one of the main products of oases, used for food and widely traded. Dates are harvested by climbing a palm tree using this back support and rope. The climber works his way up the tree by looping the *suw’* around the trunk, leaning back against the *quffah*, and stepping upward."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/6e31b6a5-0ef9-5e16-a4e7-587236b9e55f":{"contextual_description":"Date syrup, known as molasses, is a popular product in the Arabian Peninsula. It is made in the *medbasa*, a special room with grooves in the floor for collecting dibs (date syrup). The item illustrates the use of dates to produce other edible products. Several *medbasa* rooms still exist in Sharjah."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/b6a22376-b728-5469-93d3-6447ada30dcd":{"contextual_description":"The jar (known as a *dabba* in Qatar) is used to store date syrup (molasses), one of the main products of oasis agriculture. It represents a method of preserving and transporting food products."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/e0a13327-f234-5960-9521-36db9df9c2f2":{"contextual_description":"This item is an example of a unique product produced from apricots in Syria. *qamar ad din* is made from an apricot specific to the Damascus oasis, where it originated. The process involves several phases, from selection, washing and drying, to cutting into strips."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/56729493-bece-56ed-b42b-56951aceb485":{"contextual_description":"This item is a unique product made from apricots in Syria. *Qamar ad din* comes from an apricot specific to the Damascus oasis, where it originated."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/0bcdebe9-b84e-5694-8197-9a09174b5ddc":{"contextual_description":"This item highlights a unique product made from apricots in Syria. *Qamar ad din* comes from an apricot specific to the Damascus oasis, where it originated."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/59856720-e808-59a4-a5dd-3d43a914f193":{"contextual_description":"This item highlights a unique product made from apricots in Syria. *Qamar ad din* comes from an apricot specific to the Damascus oasis, where it originated. The process involves several phases, from selection, washing and drying, to cutting into strips."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/de2188eb-34cd-58f8-b1d7-3ff4c31c0e10":{"contextual_description":"This drawing of a well reflects its function as a symbol of life. As the main source of water, it is the centre of life in oases. The drawing highlights the workloads and roles of men and women in daily life in rural Jordan."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/9b22984f-054e-5953-8840-81d77c3a6f6c":{"contextual_description":"The well wheel is used to lift water from wells for agriculture. It is a mechanism capable of driving traditional irrigation systems. The construction of this cogged well wheel from local hardwoods such as *sidr* (Jujube), reflects a longstanding mastery of water-lifting technologies vital to agriculture in Oman’s arid environment."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/c8819dd1-f182-5a0f-a14a-4878ef70a358":{"contextual_description":"The pulley was essential to obtaining well water. It was made in the Arabian Peninsula in the form of a wheel encircled by a rope to lift the water bucket from a well. It was a process in which animals typically were used to pull the rope that passed through the pulley."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/a347a1bc-c0ce-552f-bca8-ddd0ede99121":{"contextual_description":"Oasis agriculture was based mainly on irrigation from wells. This item was used to raise water from wells, *zājrah*, where donkeys and bullocks work side by side to pull against the weight of the water."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/2699030c-d24f-5975-8daf-c5a255e683fb":{"contextual_description":"The rope is an essential component of a mechanism to obtain water, used with a pulley to lift a bucket from the well."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/9c7c309e-95b1-5dd4-bfcb-b285fe66fe13":{"contextual_description":"In Moroccan oases the main source of water was wells, and the *dlu* is a traditional leather bucket used to draw water for agricultural and urban purposes. The *dlu* was made of local material able to withstand repeated immersion in water."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/83686f23-8c64-582b-9603-c81bcc929d84":{"contextual_description":"The robust engineering of this *ad-dalū* reflects a long-standing tradition of irrigation technologies essential for survival in Oman’s arid landscape. The leather bag is designed to lift water from deep wells and reservoirs by relying on the power of draft animals walking along an inclined path. As the animals ascend, the *dalū* is lowered into the source and filled with water. The animals descend with the filled bag."},"71c38013-b2d8-5de1-a4d0-715042c6db6c/16c961fd-20ce-55d8-bc1a-97a00cf83c3a":{"contextual_description":"Wells represent the major source of water in oases. Inhabitants draw water from deep wells using various means. The pulley and rope in the Arabian Peninsula are used to draw water for drinking and watering animals. This is one type of leather bucket."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/951f1281-dbbc-5f98-a3cf-014f5370daa4":{"contextual_description":"Villages are typical social and economic structures in the River Nile Valley, where a majority of agricultural activities are based. Inhabitants of the village are mainly engaged in agriculture, animal raising and trading. This is a scene depicting the lives of Egyptians in a local village on the Nile. It shows a market stall with men and women engaging in commerce in a natural setting."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/0577c0a9-00ca-5312-948a-f41d27172007":{"contextual_description":"Agricultural wonders in the Ottoman Empire were not limited to agricultural products; gardens were also important. This is the inner garden at the Yildiz Palace, in Beşiktaş, Türkiye, where winter gardens and greenhouses were built. Some were heated for growing special plants."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/c2b5e200-6c5e-5aed-b0e7-ff5190cb8ace":{"contextual_description":"Syria’s historic water distribution systems helped transform a dry region into a thriving centre of civilisation. In Damascus, Roman canals, Ayyubid engineering and channels fed by the Barada River supplied homes, mosques, hammams and schools with running water. The tali system allocated water to each neighbourhood in fixed shares, as overseen by an official to ensure fairness. Similar systems shaped Aleppo and Hama, where canals and norias supported urban life and irrigation."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/82a67950-a197-51b1-9e9f-9704606ab337":{"contextual_description":"Noria Jisriyya and Ma’muriyya in Hama are among the most significant waterwheels on the Orontes River. The Jisriyya once irrigated the orchards of Bustan al-Shahiqa, and part of its aqueduct is still standing. The Ma’muriyya is the largest after the Muhammadiyya. This noria carries a rare Ottoman inscription recording its renovation by an Ottoman governor in AH 857 / AH 1453, demonstrating the empire’s attention to water resources and agriculture."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/ccf44038-5c9f-5d65-b09b-2158d58e8dd0":{"contextual_description":"A wooden waterwheel known locally as naoor (plural: nawa'ir), traditionally used to lift water for irrigation along the upper Euphrates, from Syria into Anbar governorate in western Iraq.  \nMost nawa'ir were ranging from 8-12 metres in diameter and were constructed from mulberry wood (known for durability), cut to size and connected with wooden pegs hammered into place. As the river current caused the wheels to rotate, the jars would raise water from the river and pour it into an aqueduct at the top of the stone platform, which fed into irrigation channels leading to nearby farms."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/3d13df52-30f6-56c3-b85e-1af3158c8db8":{"contextual_description":"This map illustrates water networks around Lebanon under Ottoman administration, reflecting state-led efforts to organise, control, and expand water supply systems. It highlights how hydraulic infrastructure supported agriculture, urban life, and regional connectivity, and reveals the role of imperial governance in managing water as a strategic and economic resource."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/f3206d73-6095-5caf-a4e7-bf0834531b29":{"contextual_description":"Wellheads were used to facilitate access to a well’s water and to protect wells from being polluted. This type of wellhead is distinctive to southern Spain when the region was under Muslim domination. Aside from its functionality and usefulness, it displays artistic embellishments in its inscription and attractive decorations."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/1df95da6-c2a6-5821-adeb-fcc799e8102d":{"contextual_description":"Wellheads were used to facilitate access to the well’s water and to protect it from being polluted. This wellhead from Türkiye is terracotta, and has decorations in the form of chain-like incised lines with circular geometrical shapes in between."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/adbc7415-c860-5757-a1a0-391359648377":{"contextual_description":"This item shows an essential agricultural tool. It is used for dividing fields into manageable plots and creating water channels in the local *falaj* system. It is part of an agricultural system, and is evidence of cooperation among workers."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/a5524031-b360-516a-94b9-64b5c0da70d0":{"contextual_description":"The development of irrigation and hydraulic systems in al-Andalus enabled the introduction of new plant species, expanded arable land and diversified the diet. It changed working methods and the agricultural cycle. Waterwheels spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. The waterwheel buckets, attached by ropes at the mouth and midway along their cylindrical body, represented small technical advances. The oldest ones, with an annular or pointed bottom, gradually gave way to others with a perforated bottom that prevented tilting and breaking, or the backward movement of the wheel."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/c47522b4-f0eb-5b70-b407-45e34aa82ad2":{"contextual_description":"Almond planting was first introduced in the southern region of Portugal. There is a legend that tells how almond trees came to be part of the landscape. An Arab prince, married to a Christian from the north, noticed that his wife lived in a permanent state of melancholy. So, one day he asked her for the reason for this enduring mood. She told him that she missed the snow, frequent in the north of the peninsula. The prince then ordered the planting of almond trees, whose blossoming at the end of winter would create the illusion of fields covered with snow."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/85f8a5c8-a75c-5c8d-aaf9-5d4bd3197079":{"contextual_description":"Almond trees were not only a source of edible fruit and nuts, but extracts from the tree have been used for dyeing clothes and for medicinal purposes. This image shows the leaves of an almond tree."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/0d4071fb-aaec-5b18-86a2-9da858078262":{"contextual_description":"Coffee has its roots in Yemen as a drink of the Sufi religious order, and with the expansion of Islam, coffee spread from the Arabian Peninsula to the whole world, becoming very popular. This item illustrates how new crops were introduced in different areas through the expansion of the Islamic Empire."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/5f4da2e4-f34d-5506-9d07-d076b562b065":{"contextual_description":"*Haal* (cardamom) is a plant that has a distinctive smell and is widely used to flavour coffee."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/401759b6-5085-5c4b-9d34-1f0ff92fb4b0":{"contextual_description":"Cotton is one of the important products in plains- and river-based agriculture that expanded to several countries during the Islamic era. Palestine became a viable cotton producer in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, supplying European countries, but the industry declined, as it was based on cultivation and not processing. This engraving shows a Palestinian woman in Wady et Tuffah using the traditional spinning wheel for cotton. It also highlights the role of agriculture in trade in the region."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/04819827-b629-54c0-a09d-aae0fc53de41":{"contextual_description":"Quality cotton was produced in several countries of the Islamic civilisation. A large volume of the produce was exported to Europe as raw, unprocessed material. Egypt was one of the countries that had remarkable cotton production and export trade."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/92a2e48f-2af8-59fd-83a0-de0e543b4cf5":{"contextual_description":"This basket is used by fishermen to store fish. It is an indigenous basket made using local materials such as bamboo and jute. It filters out the water and leaves only the fish."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/5507a6f9-5c91-5e08-8580-37d4639d41ea":{"contextual_description":"This rectangular trap is made of fine bamboo. It is used to catch small fish."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/6969eb11-654b-54d8-bb68-15b1c598dc2f":{"contextual_description":"A hat made of palm leaves and bamboo for protection from rain and sun."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/ba6186d4-62b5-53d3-a91e-deb20040294b":{"contextual_description":"A traditional object made of coconut shell and used for smoking that demonstrates the use of agricultural materials in the production of daily-use objects."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/f9d10df4-2147-5593-8a1b-b32a3f29fe3d":{"contextual_description":"This item illustrates the usage of agricultural products for other functions. Gourds can be harvested young for consumption as a vegetable, if grown as containers or utensils they are left to grow for longer and harvested when mature. After harvesting, they are dried for several months until the outer shell becomes hard. The dried gourds are usually cut at the top to make an opening through which the seeds are removed and contents added for storage."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/5e39bf3f-621d-5c73-88ad-adaf5e2e110e":{"contextual_description":"This item illustrates the usage of agricultural products for other functions. Gourds can be harvested young for consumption as a vegetable, if grown as containers or utensils they are left to grow for longer and harvested when mature. After harvesting, they are dried for several months until the outer shell becomes hard. The dried gourds are usually cut at the top to make an opening through which the seeds are removed and contents added for storage."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/c9676a7b-c6b5-554a-8e7f-eff83c8e76db":{"contextual_description":"This is a tool used to produce flour from grains like wheat and barley. *Al rahaa* (millstone) is used to grind grains that are fed between two stones through a central hole. It is an example of an agricultural tool used in the region."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/5f645591-1e14-5b0f-8364-892cdd894f3e":{"contextual_description":"These mills reflected the development of hydraulic infrastructure and rationed use of water. They were often connected to other hydraulic structures. Water mills harnessed the power of flowing water to grind cereals such as wheat, barley, and corn for food and trade."},"4ba33798-b360-52eb-90f1-614e0e8be75b/8880bef4-b408-5857-b70d-02d284ed1cc8":{"contextual_description":"Olive trees were planted in several countries across the Islamic Empire. They were used for food and for the production of related products, including oil. Tunisia is one of the countries renowned for olive oil production."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/272af538-1b28-5826-b8e4-73dd4088cacf":{"contextual_description":"These dams reflect early Islamic innovation in managing scarce water for farming. Al-Qanatir refers to two Umayyad-period stone dams south of al-Qastal that collected and stored rainwater for agriculture. Their name echoes qanat, the ingenious Islamic water systems. Built across wadis, the dams reach 187m in length and 9m in height, and have stone walls with insulating plaster, spillways and sluices to regulate water. Nearby remnants point to a small guardhouse."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/b7c62e55-a9a1-5398-b681-ea3ac991c30e":{"contextual_description":"This aqueduct was used to transport and supply water from the Nile to the Citadel of Salah al-Din in Cairo. It was first planned in the Ayyubid period. Water was lifted by wheels to a canal on top of the city wall, and was carried to the citadel for drinking and irrigating nearby fields. In AH 712 / AD 1312, Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad expanded the system with a new tower, four waterwheels, and a long arcade of arches leading to the citadel. Later Mamluk rulers repaired and improved it. The surviving 3km length is a remnant of one of the finest aqueducts in the Islamic world."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/a5f88e89-91d7-5e4f-9dd3-e4a4c67ad5b3":{"contextual_description":"Birkat al-Hajj has a significant importance as a water reservoir, and reflects the efforts to build such reservoirs by lining them with basalt. The water was used for drinking and agriculture. The reservoir was described by Ibn Battuta as a key stop for pilgrims on the route to Mecca."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/2ba716cc-691c-5e7e-acf8-60db1a4864c9":{"contextual_description":"The cistern was the Amman Citadel’s main water source for all purposes. This cistern demonstrates how rainwater was captured and stored here, echoing broader water-management strategies and showing how such systems sustained life and agriculture in dry regions."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/ff70a17c-258e-5bdc-8db2-4e0c80c33e94":{"contextual_description":"The Pools of Solomon are three large stepped reservoirs that collect spring and rainwater south of Jerusalem. Linked by channels so that each fed the next, together they held more than 250,000 cubic metres of water. An aqueduct over 70km long carried water from the pools to Jerusalem, using the natural slope of the land. This system supplied the city with water for drinking, domestic needs and ablutions. The Ottomans later protected the route, even building a small fort near the upper pool."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/8c0075eb-4b33-539a-bc76-35ea94052e11":{"contextual_description":"The Pools of Solomon are three large stepped reservoirs that collect spring and rainwater south of Jerusalem. Linked by channels so that each fed the next, together they held more than 250,000 cubic metres of water. An aqueduct over 70km long carried water from the pools to Jerusalem, using the natural slope of the land. This system supplied the city with water for drinking, domestic needs and ablutions. The Ottomans later protected the route, even building a small fort near the upper pool."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/9fe1b07a-a29a-5eb7-b789-0ae01ef245a2":{"contextual_description":"The great Beni-Isguen Dam sits upstream of the Qsar in the N’tissa Wadi, Algeria. Built to manage seasonal floods and secure water for agriculture, it has two key parts: the spillway, along which are set stones for measuring the water level and to provide an alert in case of dangerous floods, and the reservoir in contact with ground water via two wheels."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/53d92bd8-6058-5d6e-aa92-624acdf171c8":{"contextual_description":"The Aghlabid reservoirs, once part of a system of about fifteen cisterns outside Kairouan, Tunisia, are among the most remarkable hydraulic works of the Islamic world. Fed by rainwater, local tributaries and later by an aqueduct from the Shreshira springs, they secured the city’s water supply. The surviving small and large reservoirs, built with rubble and waterproof plaster, used alternating buttresses for strength. Water settled in the small basin before flowing into the vast circular pool that stored water for daily life."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/98fc8ee5-b043-53ff-bcbc-e902be6f95c4":{"contextual_description":"This watercolour documents one of the natural springs supplying the reservoir complex known as Solomon’s Pools at Artas. It depicts the vaulted Spring House, where water from ‘Ain Farujeh is collected and channelled into the Lower Pool, the largest of three reservoirs. Integrated into the eastern dam wall, this structure illustrates the careful control of water flow within the system."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/039171bf-2e2f-5aa7-bf44-61ab1c1ce815":{"contextual_description":"*Foggaras* are ingenious Saharan water systems that bring underground water to the surface through a series of horizontal wells on gentle slopes, allowing irrigation of palm groves and gardens. Tunnels follow aquifers with precise gradients, and water is pooled and distributed via channels and ponds according to communal needs. Found across the Aurora and Touat oases, *foggaras* demonstrate early, large-scale engineering and cooperative management of scarce desert water for agriculture and survival."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/06a03ccc-4b5c-5969-a53e-8ce5c8584c3c":{"contextual_description":"The nilometer is one of Egypt’s most important hydraulic structures and is unique in the Islamic world. It measured the water level of the Nile, which determined both irrigation and agricultural taxes. Built as a deep stone well with three levels and a central marble pillar marked with measurements, it received water through underground tunnels. It includes early pointed arches, a spiral staircase and some of Egypt’s oldest dated Arabic inscriptions. Restored many times, it reflects the long history of Nile management."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/70653ab8-5803-576a-9e52-d54a89832405":{"contextual_description":"The bridge spans the Medjerda River about two kilometres downstream from Tbourba. Commissioned by the Ottoman government, the Bridge-Dam of al-Battan was constructed around AH 1101 / AD 1690 under Bey Mohamed, son of Murad II. This impressive hydraulic structure combines engineering with architectural grace: sixteen arches rise above a solid inverted vault base that anchors the entire dam. The dam was an important instrument in regulating water flow to ensure availability year-round, while providing transport across the river."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/50fb046c-468c-59a7-bb02-c74c23f67631":{"contextual_description":"This inscription comes from the nilometer on the island of al-Rauda in Cairo, a structure built in AD 861 to measure the annual rise of the Nile. Quranic inscriptions within the monument reflect the spiritual dimension attached to water as a divine provision."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/0f18ba9e-707b-5d69-9843-fd4add181a17":{"contextual_description":"The Fuad Agriculture Museum, opened in the 1930s during the reign of King Faruq, was the first museum of its kind in the Middle East and the Arab world. It presents extensive collections on agricultural life, rural environments and the plants and animals that shaped daily work and food production. The museum reflects modern Egypt’s effort to document and preserve the heritage of farming, a foundation of life along the Nile."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/47ef7084-b735-5fd3-b3a1-84fd153447e7":{"contextual_description":"Norias were an important mechanism to lift water from rivers for wider distribution for irrigation and urban life. Hama’s norias, built with wooden wheels and stone aqueducts, could lift around 50 litres of water per second to irrigate vast orchards and supply city quarters. It is the defining symbol of Hama on the River Orontes."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/6cf00022-784b-5759-b8d0-83362b3892a8":{"contextual_description":"Developed to sustain agriculture and settlement in arid landscapes, the *aflaj* of Oman form a highly refined system of managing scarce groundwater resources. Drawing on deep aquifers, water is carefully guided through gently sloping subterranean channels before emerging into open canals that irrigate fields and supply villages."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/780bb761-cccc-501f-92c8-cf878fd3f94a":{"contextual_description":"Developed to sustain agriculture and settlement in arid landscapes, the *aflaj* of Oman form a highly refined system of managing scarce groundwater resources. Drawing on deep aquifers, water is carefully guided through gently sloping subterranean channels before emerging into open canals that irrigate fields and supply villages."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/8265ac2b-edd3-58b6-b3ab-f770d8536380":{"contextual_description":"The noria is an ancient waterwheel used to lift and distribute river water by harnessing the force of a running stream. In Hama, on the River Orontes, nawa’ir became central to urban life from antiquity through the Islamic periods, with major expansion and restoration under the Seljuqs, Zangids, Ayyubids, Mamluks, and Ottomans. Combining wooden wheels with stone aqueducts and dams, these structures supplied water for irrigation, mosques, and households, shaping both the landscape and identity of the city."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/e7fe2ed2-41fc-52e1-9f87-0a47cf2ec366":{"contextual_description":"Sahrij Swani, the great Basin of Norias in Meknes, was created by Sultan Mulay Isma’il as both an ornamental lake and a secure water reserve for the palaces, mosques, baths, homes and orchards of the kasbah. It is a demonstration of the growing attention to ensuring availability of water for all purposes."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/cc355441-8bda-58b0-8e22-453231bf5d74":{"contextual_description":"This stone capital belonged to a water reservoir at the Umayyad palace of al-Muwaqqar, commissioned by Caliph Yazid II (AH 101-105 / AD 720–724). Decorated with acanthus leaves and paired volutes, it bears inscriptions in Arabic that record the reservoir’s construction and measurements in cubits, serving as a water gauge. The highest level, 15 cubits, is marked on the capital itself. Another inscription invokes blessings on Muhammad. The piece demonstrates early Islamic engineering and the integration of art and hydraulic function."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/3e04cf4b-dd51-58dd-9823-235ef7e5bf28":{"contextual_description":"The *kırkçeşme* water supply system, built under Sultan Süleyman and designed by Mimar Sinan in the 16th century, collected water from springs 25km northwest of Istanbul, and conveyed it through 55km of covered galleries; 33 aqueducts, such as Mağlova and Uzunkemer, carried water across valleys. The system supplied hundreds of fountains, mosques, and public buildings, ensuring running water for the growing population. Parts of it remain functional over 400 years later."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/70e16667-42ec-5316-b9db-51681a1e635b":{"contextual_description":"The Zaghwan Aqueduct reflects Tunisia’s long effort to secure reliable water for its cities. In AH 1275 / AD 1859, Mohamed Bey commissioned engineer Pierre Colin to restore the abandoned Roman aqueduct from Zaghwan to Carthage, along with its Hafsid diversion to Tunis. Completed in AH 1278 / AD 1862, the project refurbished nearly 90km of canal and added 41km of metal piping, ensuring water for Tunis and the Bey’s residences. Its striking arches remain visible today."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/8ee58766-4137-53f4-86a2-b4f92d5e88c2":{"contextual_description":"Built in AH 1319 / AD 1902 under Sultan Abdülhamid II, the Cendere Hamidian Water Pump Station showcases the technological advances that reshaped AD 13th / AD 19th–century travel and communication. Using steam powered pumps, the station pumped water arriving through 20 pipes from Kağıthane, and supplied Balmumcu and Beşiktaş toward Tophane. Its engineering, machinery and architecture make it a rare industrial monument of the late Ottoman period."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/854b7439-bbfc-56ba-b8ec-8a8f3547aedf":{"contextual_description":"Built in the AH 13th / AD 19th century, the water elevation towers of Tameslought supported agricultural life in a semi-arid landscape southeast of Marrakech. Designed to irrigate extensive olive groves, these towers used pressurisation and inverted siphon principles to lift water from lower sources to higher fields without animal or human labour. Constructed from local materials, they enabled efficient irrigation, strengthened olive oil production and encouraged collective water management, reflecting both technical ingenuity and strong communal organisation."},"6516014a-c6c1-5ceb-97a3-d695462efde0/40a24491-a151-5fcc-91ef-2bf6ab681cfe":{"contextual_description":"Khettaras are gravity-fed underground water systems adapted from the Persian qanat and introduced to Morocco during the Islamic period. Since the AH 7th / AD 11th century, particularly under the Almoravids, they became essential in regions such as the Haouz near Marrakech, later spreading to southern oasis zones. By channelling groundwater through gently sloping tunnels and vertical shafts, khettaras supplied farms and settlements without mechanical energy. Beyond their hydraulic ingenuity, they structured agricultural production, settlement patterns, and communal water law, shaping social and political life in Morocco’s arid landscapes."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/adf29b71-2134-5e1e-9a4d-f53704a0c96c":{"contextual_description":"This folio comes from a Persian translation of 'The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence' by Zakaria ibn Muhammad al-Qazwini. It is a celebrated AH 7th / AD 13th century cosmography that brought together geography, astronomy, astrology, and natural history. Blending scientific observation with marvels and symbolic knowledge, the work reflects medieval understandings of the natural world. The folio is richly decorated on both sides with miniatures of fruit-bearing trees, evoking abundance, order, and the harmony of creation as conceived in the Islamic intellectual tradition."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/43d36a1f-d7cf-5be4-a5b1-6be810f0a44a":{"contextual_description":"This illustration depicts the Delta Barrage, a dam constructed in the early AH 13th / AD 19th century under Muhammad Ali Pasha and designed by the French engineer Mougelle to regulate the Nile’s flow throughout the year. Spanning the Damietta and Rosetta branches, this dam controlled water levels for irrigation, and also served a defensive role in protecting Cairo and Upper Egypt. Structural weaknesses required major improvements beginning in AH 1300 / AD 1883, under Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff. The Delta Barrage reflects Egypt's long tradition of large-scale hydraulic works essential to agriculture and state power."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/b67e6522-70cc-5da9-90f7-2ff7e05334de":{"contextual_description":"This illustrated page comes from *Voyage d’Egypte et de Nubie*, compiled by the Danish naval officer Fréderic-Louis Norden during his mission to document Egypt’s monuments in the early AH 12th / AD 18th century. Published after his death, and later expanded with scientific commentary by the orientalist Louis Langles, the work reflects the period’s growing European fascination with Egypt. Here, the focus is on traditional hydraulic machines, highlighting water-lifting technologies as objects of study and knowledge within agricultural science and the scholarly observation of water management."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/ef4f21d7-33af-5ff7-996d-5ccaaea3b716":{"contextual_description":"Dioscorides, born in the 1st century AD in Anazarbus, authored *De Materia Medica*, a foundational treatise on plants, minerals, and natural substances that shaped medical and agricultural knowledge for over a millennium. Translated into Syriac and later into Arabic in AH 3th / AD 9th century Baghdad by Istafan bin Basil and Hunayn ibn Ishaq at the Abbasid court, the work entered the scholarly canon of the Islamic world. Continuously revised and illustrated, it informed pharmacology, botany, and water management. A famous Arabic version, known as '*Khawass al-Ashjar*' circulated in the AH 7th / AD 13th century. The treatise reflects the integration of classical science into Islamic traditions of knowledge."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/cfb7606e-a373-5a15-b4c2-59c50e12bbd1":{"contextual_description":"The *acte habus*, or *waqf* deed, documents the charitable endowment of water rights in Islamic Morocco, recording how a designated share of water was permanently assigned to a mosque, madrasa, or public fountain. Rooted in the belief that water is a divine trust, such deeds linked irrigation and domestic supply to religious merit and social responsibility. Beyond their legal role, these documents reveal how water management was embedded in moral values, ensuring continuity of access, community welfare, and the sacred stewardship of a vital resource."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/35b3df79-f218-5bc7-b927-3ebce6617212":{"contextual_description":"This manuscript contains a *fatwa*, or Islamic legal/religious opinion, addressing the management and equitable distribution of water in Moroccan society. Issued by a jurist in AH 14th / AD mid-20th century Marrakech, it shows how Islamic law governed irrigation rights, resolved disputes between users, and framed water as a sacred trust requiring fairness. The document reflects the enduring role of religious scholarship in shaping ethical water stewardship, complementing customary practices and reinforcing water as a collective right entrusted by God."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/54b7f0e6-62da-5705-8338-38899880db76":{"contextual_description":"Mastery of water distribution was fundamental to the cultivation of gardens and the sustaining of urban life, making this waterway an expression of agricultural knowledge in practice. Fed by the Aupah (Kirazlı) and Çınar springs, the highest-capacity branches of the Halkalı system, the Süleymaniye waterway supplied the entire Süleymaniye complex, including its *imaret* (soup kitchen), *maristan* (hospital), *maktab* (school), public fountains, and some 80 additional points across Istanbul. The map records how water was conveyed into the city and allocated among key quarters, revealing the technical expertise and planning that linked hydraulic engineering, garden cultivation, and imperial welfare."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/b58f90d3-ab29-544a-802e-de4a743b3782":{"contextual_description":"An original plan from 'The Survey of Western Palestine' showing aqueducts bringing water from wadies Fara, Kelt and Nuwayimeh into the Jericho Oasis. These aqueducts date from the Hellenistic era to the Umayyad-period Khirbet al Mafjar, a huge agricultural estate and palace, and the Mamluk-period sugar mill, Tawaheen es Sukkar.  \n  \nThe aqueduct was constructed in the Hellenistic era and was used and added to for centuries well into the Islamic era."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/b5dea0ff-581f-5cc4-9710-b906e79d8606":{"contextual_description":"By regulating access to water essential for irrigation and rural livelihoods, this imperial Ottoman decree (*ferman*), issued during the reign of Abdülmecid, highlights the legal frameworks that sustained agricultural production. Addressing water distribution to the villages of the Eşeközü hamlet in the Kayseri district, it demonstrates how state authority, agricultural needs, and hydraulic knowledge were closely linked in the governance of cultivated landscapes."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/5fcf2a0f-bef9-51e3-98ec-e531c609e76f":{"contextual_description":"By documenting the techniques that enabled irrigation and the cultivation of land, this technical manuscript reflects the close relationship between agriculture and scholarly knowledge in the Ottoman world. Describing water channels, wells, and pumping systems, it demonstrates how agricultural productivity depended on carefully studied hydraulic engineering. Such manuscripts transmit practical knowledge developed by engineers and scholars, showing that farming was supported not only by labour and experience but also by written science and technical expertise."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/266741c2-bf7b-5d6f-a674-8e5d076a5ff5":{"contextual_description":"This manuscript illustrates the intersection of scholarship and hydraulic engineering in medieval Islamic societies. In the early AH 7th / AD 13th century, Isma’il ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari wrote *Kitab fi ma’rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya* ('The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'), detailing elaborate machines in courtly settings in eastern Anatolia. This AH 755 / AD 1354 Mamluk copy, produced by Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Izmiri, preserves text and illustrations, showing the advanced understanding of mechanics and water management applied to gardens and decorative devices."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/f29ba31e-8639-5f48-a62d-da9fd5548379":{"contextual_description":"Al-Jazari’s book demonstrates the rich intellectual engagement with mechanical inventions in the medieval Islamic world. This page depicts a series of intricate devices, highlighting the combination of creativity and functional design. The illustrations show how engineers conceptualised and communicated complex mechanisms, reflecting a tradition of practical experimentation and knowledge-sharing that extended beyond al-Jazari’s own workshop to inform subsequent generations of scholars and artisans."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/2164cd06-bf3a-55d7-bf48-ca695e6a8ad8":{"contextual_description":"Water-intensive farming and settlement life relied on devices that could lift water from rivers, wells, or channels to higher ground. This depiction highlights the use of animal power, here a donkey, to operate a mechanical system that transfers water efficiently, translating theoretical understanding into practical action. Such mechanisms demonstrate how engineering knowledge was embedded in daily agricultural practice, responding to local environments and labour resources while ensuring a steady water supply for fields and communities."},"eb0a0f58-72d0-5c98-a5dc-283759eac032/8f4ff1c4-6f48-5b34-aa89-065bac12fd58":{"contextual_description":"This folio depicts a sophisticated water clock in which flowing water activates a system of wheels and moving figures to mark the passage of time. By transforming hydraulic motion into visual and acoustic signals, the device demonstrates how water was used as a medium for precise measurement. Its carefully coordinated elements reflect an advanced understanding of flow, control, and mechanical balance, showing how scholarly knowledge translated natural forces into regulated systems that structured daily life."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/84c3e4f8-605d-53a1-b426-23bf2c3da3ff":{"contextual_description":"The Haram al-Sharif ('Noble Sanctuary') in Jerusalem is the third most important site in Islam after Mecca and Medina. It includes Qubbat al-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock) and al-Aqsa Mosque, which were built in AH 72 / AD 692 and AH 86 / AD 705 respectively. The Haram al-Sharif is where the Prophet Muhammad set out on his midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*isra*) and from where he ascended to the heavens (*miraj*)."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/a6b897bd-f4cf-520b-8f53-eaa70742f24d":{"contextual_description":"A freestanding sabil commissioned by the Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay (r. AH 872–901 / AD 1468–96) continues to provide visitors to the Haram al-Sharif with fresh water. Built in the late AH 9th / AD 15th century, it was executed in a style reminiscent of Mamluk Cairo, distinguished by alternating courses of red and yellow stone (*ablaq*) and an elaborately carved dome."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/1af1d10a-2cc7-596f-bf06-78187998a7a5":{"contextual_description":"Captured in the early AH 14 / AD 20th century, this photograph shows officials taking part in one of the ceremonies related to the opening of a newly restored aqueduct outside al-Aqsa Mosque in the *Haram al-Sharif*."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/54b7f0e6-62da-5705-8338-38899880db76":{"contextual_description":"Designed to supply water to the entire Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul— including the ancillary structures that provided religious and cultural services — the Süleymaniye waterway also extended to districts inhabited by courtiers and dignitaries.  \n  \nThis AH 12th / AD 18th century map is significant because it not only informs the ways in which water was brought to Istanbul, but illustrates the social topography of a major city linking Europe and Asia."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/6b752699-5c64-545c-bc60-cee4a818828a":{"contextual_description":"The Süleymaniye was commissioned by Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (r. AH 926–74 / AD 1520–66) and designed by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan. Like other Ottoman imperial foundations in Türkiye, the mosque is part of a larger *külliye* that included four *madrasa*s, *imaret*, *maristan*, *maktab*, public fountains and the final resting place of Süleyman and his wife Hurrem Sultan (Roxelana).  \n  \nThe largest Ottoman-period complex in Istanbul, it is considered a masterpiece of Ottoman architecture and one of Sinan’s greatest works."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/3d879733-02cf-5253-9cfd-8064a6162e46":{"contextual_description":"The centrepiece of the Süleymaniye Complex is the courtyard mosque surrounded by an enclosure wall. The two sets of buildings to the right and left of the mosque are the four *madrasa*s; the small domed building on the lower right is the bathhouse; and the hospital, hospice, and guesthouse are located at the top of the map. All units would have been served by water carried by the Süleymaniye waterway."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/3e04cf4b-dd51-58dd-9823-235ef7e5bf28":{"contextual_description":"Like the Süleymaniye Complex, the Kırkçeşme water-supply system was commissioned by Sultan Süleyman and designed by Mimar Sinan around AH 971 / AD 1564. It consists of 33 aqueducts that addressed Istanbul’s water shortage, and originally served over 300 fountains, later extended to 580, across the city."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/99762133-8cf7-53d1-8eda-d82b2fa784fc":{"contextual_description":"Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda (d. AH 1190 / AD 1776) was a leader of the janissaries in Egypt and a significant patron of architecture in Cairo. Among the many buildings bearing his name is this two-story institution that combined two distinct acts of charity: on the lower level is the *sabil* or public drinking fountain; which is surmounted by an elementary school (*kuttab*) that provided instruction in reading, writing, Arabic grammar, and Quran recitation. *Sabil-kuttab*s were most common in Cairo during the Mamluk and subsequent Ottoman periods."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/2c3a04e9-0655-5170-a239-4b2b39590ceb":{"contextual_description":"Built by Husayn Pasha, a high-ranking officer, this public drinking fountain manifests the Islamic tradition of charitable water endowments. Inscribed with the phrase \"Everything lives through water,\" it provided refreshment for the community while proclaiming the patron’s piety and generosity. Originally located outside Bab al-Djazira, the fountain was later relocated several times, but continued to symbolise the civic and spiritual importance of water in Ottoman Algiers."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/cddfb9f1-24f6-5ec1-9d92-61e25537d0f0":{"contextual_description":"A landmark of Istanbul’s Tulip Era, this monumental fountain features four *sabil*s, one at each corner of the building. Commissioned by the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III (r. AH 1115–42 / AD 1703–30), the rich marble decoration and baroque floral motifs paired with Ottoman inscriptions represent the trend of combining imperial patronage with Western influences introduced into the 18th-century Ottoman domain."},"aff608af-f2c7-54b7-8325-794e1d8d4ba1/be95323f-98c6-5d71-b3cd-1dadf17ac848":{"contextual_description":"Very different from the previous examples of Ottoman-period public drinking fountains, this one, in the shape of a bench, was built by the governor of Damascus in honour of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in AH 971 / AD 1564. It was originally installed in his mosque in Damascus, which was demolished in AH 1348 / AD 1930, after which the fountain was salvaged and moved to the National Museum.  \n  \nCarved from fine marble and richly decorated with *diwani* calligraphy (popular at the time), geometric mosaics, and mother-of-pearl inlay, it demonstrates the importance of charitable water provisions and elite patronage in the urban and religious life of AH 10th / AD 16th-century Damascus."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/fa92c390-e643-54a9-977e-24fd6b430f78":{"contextual_description":"Named \"*Badiʿ*\", or \"the incomparable\", this palace was famed for its courtyard pools, fountains, and surrounding gardens. Though much of the palace is now in ruins, its vast basins are a reminder of how water and greenery created an earthly vision of paradise, where water was employed for luxury and spectacle."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/9efe59c2-396a-5501-b735-409567b30c10":{"contextual_description":"Founded by Fatima al-Fihriya, the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Kairouan, the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fez incorporated pools and hydraulic channels to supply water for ablution and refreshment. Water from local wells was directed into the courtyard, where its presence enhanced both function and aesthetics. Drawing on the Andalusi and Maghribi tradition of integrating water into architecture, these pools echoed the Quranic image of gardens beneath which rivers flow (al-Taqwah: 72 and 89), transforming the mosque into a place of prayer and an image of paradise."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/1ab339a4-5240-55e2-8b19-26e3b148eaee":{"contextual_description":"Inlaid with polychrome marble, this small fountain was typical of Ottoman public and garden spaces. Its flowing water created soothing soundscapes, sometimes even masking conversations in official meetings. Beyond utility, such fountains contributed to the atmosphere of privacy, comfort, and contemplation within gardens and courtyards."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/e73e50f5-4ffa-5604-92fb-44dfca8db77b":{"contextual_description":"Discovered at the palace of Dar al-Bahr in Qalʿat Bani Hammad, this marble fountain basin once formed part of a larger water system. Its functional design included an outlet for water pipes, highlighting its dual role as a utilitarian and decorative feature in a palace context."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/c8ac7220-3d99-53ee-9519-74dfdb23602a":{"contextual_description":"Richly decorated with Italian marble, ceramic tiles, and stucco, Dar Ibn ‘Abd Allah is organised around a courtyard centered on a fountain with three tiered basins. The architecture integrates water into the domestic setting, offering refreshment and tranquillity."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/d5375de6-3519-58b6-9293-816ebe908c99":{"contextual_description":"This cast-bronze vessel shaped like a ram once served as a fountainhead or aquamanile in a palace or large home. Water was channelled through the body and poured from the open mouth. Such animal-shaped vessels were popular across the Islamic world, blending symbolic imagery, craftsmanship, and the practical needs of domestic life."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/d9dfd75f-e33c-57a3-934a-0a4ecc4c317f":{"contextual_description":"This hollow cast-bronze lion once served as part of a fountain, with water spouting from its open mouth. Its abstract, stylised form, spiral patterns, and inscription link it to Fatimid Egypt, where courtly taste encouraged figural sculpture. Likely part of a larger ensemble of animal figures, it demonstrates how water features combined utility, artistic experimentation, and symbolic imagery."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/94b71ce7-ccd0-5bbd-857e-86f8e67e5e4f":{"contextual_description":"Although its provenance is unknown, the discovery of this gilded hind in the Cordoba region suggests that it once decorated an Andalusi palace fountain. Yet, it is chronologically connected to the ram and lion in this same series. Hollow, it channelled water through the body, animating palace gardens with sound and motion."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/423edaa9-5903-51ec-8463-bb8b8f296ac0":{"contextual_description":"A longstanding misconception regarding this object is that it was an ablutions basin. However, this ​​trough-shaped basin has an inscription that clearly states it was made for al-Madinat al-Zahira, a palace-city east of Cordoba, not to be confused with the more popular caliphal foundation of Madinat al-Zahra, west of Cordoba, which it imitated. The former was built by al-Mansur, the vizier of caliph Hisham II, from AH 368/AD 978–979 to AH 370 / AD 980–981, and was subsequently sacked and destroyed in AH 399 / AD 1009.  \n  \nAccording to recent scholarship, this basin is the only definitively identifiable physical object to survive from al-Mansur’s palace-city."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/f3206d73-6095-5caf-a4e7-bf0834531b29":{"contextual_description":"Designed to crown and protect a well, this ceramic wellhead from al-Andalus formed a permanent architectural feature within domestic or courtyard spaces. Bands of gazelles, birds, and a Kufic inscription decorate its surface, highlighting the technical skill of Andalusi potters and the care invested in objects linked to water use."},"6b701948-1e27-542e-a3fb-9f27270569b8/57cc1222-eb27-50a3-a07e-f50f9d3b6df8":{"contextual_description":"During the Almohad period of the Maghreb and al-Andalus, this type of well cover was widely used. It was built to protect wells in domestic courtyards."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/737806d7-854c-58a5-859c-ab293df1c697":{"contextual_description":"Beyond its practical use in serving liquids, this turquoise-glazed ewer belongs to the Seljuq golden age of Islamic ceramics (AH 6th to early 7th centuries / AD 12th to early 13th centuries). Its refined decoration highlights the era’s technical experimentation with new materials and artistic sophistication. Such ewers were common in domestic and courtly contexts, blending daily function with aesthetic refinement."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/65d84165-06a7-5d0b-ac03-b4ff990a614c":{"contextual_description":"Earthenware pitches such as this example found at an archaeological site in Qatar were used for storing and pouring water in domestic settings. Its surface is decorated with embossed Arabic inscriptions and raised dot motifs, combining everyday function with ornamental detail characteristic of Seljuq ceramic production."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/fc02ecdb-689c-509d-96c1-73d4f70fdd9f":{"contextual_description":"This incised earthenware strainer was built into a jug designed to filter water and keep it clean. Decorated with a gazelle motif against a filigree background, it exemplifies how even simple utilitarian objects were transformed into finely-crafted works."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/d5b9e11e-718d-5aa3-96a6-19db21c63d48":{"contextual_description":"Part of the celebrated group signed by the craftsman Ahmad, this bronze ewer features a pear-shaped body, a tall faceted neck, and a beak-shaped spout. Found in the Ferghana Valley of Central Asia, it demonstrates the sophistication of Seljuq metalwork, combining refined decoration with practical use. It would have been used in an elite household for pouring water during ablutions or meals, and embodies the artistic innovation of the Seljuq period."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/f4e08daf-1b0e-5384-a2e2-01f66362c1a8":{"contextual_description":"This is one of the most famous surviving examples of metalwork from Mosul in Iraq. The medallions covering its body depict courtly life: princes, noblewomen, musicians, hunters, and even scenes from the Persian epic *Shahnama*. Signed by Shuja ibn Mana ʿal-Mawsili, the ewer is an excellent example of the prestige of Mosul’s workshops, which produced vessels for rulers and courts across the Islamic world. After the Mongol invasion of Iraq in AH 656 / AD 1258, craftsmen from Mosul emigrated to Mamluk Egypt and Syria, greatly influencing contemporaneous metalwork in the eastern Mediterranean."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/00fde39b-cb4b-573a-a34d-ec581ba70747":{"contextual_description":"Made for Amir Tabtaq, governor of Qus under Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, this large copper ewer is adorned with inscriptions, silver inlay, the blazon of the cupbearer, vegetal motifs, and paired birds. It exemplifies the refined workmanship of Mamluk metalworkers. Used for handwashing, bathing, or ritual ablution, it functioned as both a utilitarian tool and a mark of elite status."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/08370678-1edc-5ca0-9184-65193805a21d":{"contextual_description":"Made of stiff auburn leather, this conical water flask is embroidered with delicate gold and silver tendrils and rosettes.  \nIt is richly decorated with embroidery and ornament, suggesting it was not just a rugged portable container but also a valued household or ceremonial item. Such decorated leather flasks were used for carrying water, combining functionality with refined ornament."},"c313de84-08f6-5017-93b2-06aba8eeb41a/d0fdcc5e-91d6-513a-8712-eddfdbcbc2bb":{"contextual_description":"Highly-crafted and inlaid metalware intended to hold water was not limited to ewers. Here is an example of an inlaid brass bowl with decoration and scenes alluding to its use. Inside are fish, creating an illusion of water, an effect that would have been intensified when the bowl was filled with water."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/b7c62e55-a9a1-5398-b681-ea3ac991c30e":{"contextual_description":"This Mamluk-period aqueduct was constructed to carry water from the Nile to the Citadel of Salah al-Din, the seat of power, ensuring a reliable supply for drinking, irrigation, and the needs of the city’s growing population. Combining waterwheels, canals, and monumental arches, it stands as a major example of large-scale hydraulic engineering and urban infrastructure in medieval Cairo."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/47ef7084-b735-5fd3-b3a1-84fd153447e7":{"contextual_description":"The great wooden waterwheels of Hama, set along the Orontes River, lifted water into stone aqueducts for urban use and irrigation. Some reached over 20 metres in diameter, and could raise up to 50 litres of water per second. Their rhythmic sound and monumental scale made them practical and symbolic landmarks of the city."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/89912f77-5007-5b87-b040-477f1e025008":{"contextual_description":"Bir Barruta is a historic well complex in Kairouan, traditionally attributed to the late AH 2nd / AD 8th century, and later to the AH 11th / AD 17th century, combining a venerated water source with architectural and hydraulic features. Housed beneath a domed chamber and operated by a camel-driven noria, it demonstrates the continuity of medieval water-lifting technologies and the spiritual significance attached to water in urban life, reinforced by legends linking its waters to Mecca."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/dca06548-60d2-591f-be82-63c5dcb76dbf":{"contextual_description":"*Qanats* are ancient water systems devised in Iran that converted barren landscapes into fertile oases; they tapped into aquifers, using gravity to carry water from mountains and plains. While they were typically designed to provide fresh water for drinking and irrigation, this AH 6th-7th / AD 12th–13th century example was found inside the psychiatric hospital in the Norman capital of Palermo in Sicily."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/96862a7c-67c2-5620-8aec-1de6038367b4":{"contextual_description":"*Sabil*s were repositories for drinking water only, not for collecting water for domestic uses. For the latter, Cairenes resorted to three sources of water: the closest canal or lake; water delivered by water carriers (if affordable); or a water seller who carried a container on his back."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/76d29e61-a5bc-54cd-a43f-47d05f5023a9":{"contextual_description":"This AH 13th / AD 19th-century water seller’s jar from Egypt was designed for transporting and dispensing drinking water in urban settings. Combining an earthenware body that kept water cool through evaporation with a decorated copper-alloy upper section and a rope harness for carrying, it reflects the practical ingenuity and visual expression associated with the work of water sellers in everyday life."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/c6289030-4d40-5f38-a6ab-eee433c36021":{"contextual_description":"Used by *guerrab*s to transport and distribute drinking water in urban spaces, this traditional leather *gerba* from Marrakech predates modern water systems. Made of tanned goat leather and designed to keep water cool, it highlights the craftsmanship, mobility, and social role of water sellers in Moroccan daily life."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/ed80b77c-602e-5a8d-b638-f78573537b9e":{"contextual_description":"Constructed from wood covered with linen and a chalk ground, this ornate flask is enriched with gilding and painted decoration. Its surface shows scenes of lovers and musicians in a garden, imagery commonly used in Safavid art to convey refined leisure and elite court life. With its silk and silver-thread handle, the flask functioned both as a container and as an object of display, to be admired as much as used."},"6df2d667-393f-56fd-ac89-764ecf509141/453f3a5b-187a-5166-a765-65ade4b1ccda":{"contextual_description":"Called pilgrim flasks after similarly-shaped canteens used by pilgrims to hold holy water or oil, this glazed example from AH 6th / AD 12th-century Syria was used to hold drinking water. The loop and ring handles on each side of the neck would have held a strap to carry the vessel over one’s shoulder. This small flask was clearly designed for mobility, given its small size, handles, and that it was suspended for carrying."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/3aa48e34-139d-5bd3-bfa8-f680701449fa":{"contextual_description":"Set within a bathhouse interior, this Persian miniature depicts figures engaged in washing and grooming. At the centre, Mihr is seated while attendants comb his hair, surrounded by others holding water bowls and tools. The arched interior and tiled walls frame the scene, presenting the bathhouse as a place of cleanliness, care, and social interaction."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/d4d36416-99bf-596d-9a47-6564817a352c":{"contextual_description":"While this small bathhouse’s date of construction is subject to debate, it continued to be used during the Norman period of in Sicily. Located outside of Palermo, it features vaulted chambers that divide the space into pools of different temperature — not unlike the Roman caldarium (hot), tepidarium (warm), and frigidarium (cold) — with niches to store personal items, and a ventilation system."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/669ae124-15ce-5c67-9bec-02ed2c263b44":{"contextual_description":"This painted stucco fragment, depicting a seated youth holding a cup, is all that survives from a Fatimid bathhouse in Fustat. Its vibrant imagery illustrates the decorative culture of leisure and refinement within bathing spaces, and gives insight into how these private spaces were adorned."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/13d3eb45-bbf2-5877-9cc8-c417bbc933c7":{"contextual_description":"Baths were the bride's first event on her wedding day. All of her toiletries, such as this set from Tunisia, were set out ready for her to use, with a series of tools for exfoliation, depilation, application of a clay face mask, and more.  \n  \nWealthy families in Tunis prepared a *knastru l’arussa* for brides, filled with silver-plated toiletry items for the traditional hammam ritual. It included perfume sprinklers, kohl containers, mirrors, henna tools, and silver-covered clogs. These objects highlight the intimate link between water, beauty, ritual purity, and social status in Tunisian domestic culture."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/65ea1a70-4285-5586-a31f-993aad43d313":{"contextual_description":"Wooden clogs (*qabqab*) are used in bathhouses to protect a bather’s feet from unclean water and soap. Two types of clogs were used in the Ottoman context: the slightly stilted *nalin*, which are elaborate and inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and their simpler counterpart, referred to as *takunya*."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/86a75b94-021f-5db3-96eb-016ecb97e55a":{"contextual_description":"A *peştamal* is a flat-woven towel — a staple in *hammam*s in Türkiye up to the present day — that was used for drying and as a body wrap."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/15768cf0-980c-51f2-b47d-469752c0833f":{"contextual_description":"A perfume sprinkler, or *qumqum*, is a vessel made of glass or metal to hold fragrant liquids like rosewater. Known for their elegant elongated shapes, such as this example from Egypt, they were used for personal perfuming or purification in baths, homes, and ceremonies."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/bcb0d716-3ff3-5099-bbea-e5dbfa4ca8ea":{"contextual_description":"Medieval *hammam*s offered a variety of services for their customers: from essential bathing to more elaborate pampering that could take up the entire day. Dating to the AH 5th - 6th / AD 11th - 12th centuries, this ceramic bath scraper was used to exfoliate and cleanse the skin.  \n  \nAn attendant would rub down their customer, then wash them. After softening a bather’s skin in the steamy hot room of a *hammam*, an attendant would use the molded design showing a mirror image of two birds in profile to scrub away dead skin."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/c3a60de7-7739-5569-a493-72f898995d35":{"contextual_description":"Part of a bride's hammam trousseau, this 1AH 13th / AD 19th centuryTurkish soap box (*sabunluk*) is made from tinned copper and fitted with a perforated base to allow drainage. Designed to store and protect toiletry items, it also signaled refinement and social status within Ottoman bath culture."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/50bb9522-7edf-55cb-9e33-6128026679d2":{"contextual_description":"A different yet contemporaneous example of a bath scrapper from Iran, this one is three-dimensional and represents a rodent or a hedgehog."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/09d75fcb-1b94-596b-b06d-9d0cafd7ec1b":{"contextual_description":"Commissioned for Amir al-Sayfi Tabtaq, governor of Qus under Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, this deep copper basin is richly inlaid with silver. A thuluth inscription records his titles, while goblet blazons—signifying the office of cupbearer—and six spiral-arranged fish ornament its surface. Employed for hand-washing and other domestic tasks, the basin unites practical use with luxurious craftsmanship, conveying rank and refinement within Mamluk society."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/527966ed-d28f-58f5-9256-b9e2bdda13d7":{"contextual_description":"This AH 13th / AD 19th-century Ottoman hand towel (*peşkir*) from Bursa is made of cotton and decorated with embroidered floral motifs. Used in bathing and domestic washing practices, it illustrates the role of textiles in everyday rituals of cleanliness, hospitality, and care associated with water in Ottoman life."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/7012632f-2b4f-5d3e-92f4-ac4cefbb88e2":{"contextual_description":"Likely used as an ablution jug, this vessel would have held water for washing before prayer. Comparable metal and ceramic examples are closely associated with the ritual practice of purification."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/c9473d55-f147-5b34-9a51-f9346192c691":{"contextual_description":"This monumental brass basin, inlaid with silver and gold, bears inscriptions praising the Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun. The design of circling fish in the interior’s base confirms that this basin was used to hold water, and perhaps was an ablution vessel."},"2a31b6e0-43fa-5b33-af86-569f085568d3/76a0fab5-c56c-5a84-a26f-a080a457ec38":{"contextual_description":"Umm al-Walid is a large Umayyad settlement southeast of Madaba in Jordan, featuring a palace (*qasr*), mosque, bath complex, cisterns, and domestic units. Built in the early AH 2nd / AD 8th century, it demonstrates the sophistication of Umayyad architecture, with evidence of decorated plaster, bronze vessels, and intricate water systems that served both ritual and daily needs."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/4e3affb5-40c1-50d3-a231-858339d308ec":{"contextual_description":"The Midhat al-Sultan exemplifies the central role of water in Islamic ritual purification, providing a dedicated architectural space for ablution before prayer. As a transitional or liminal environment, it marks the passage from the ordinary to the sacred, where physical cleansing becomes a means of spiritual preparation. Its design reflects the moral and religious significance of purity, reinforcing the principle expressed in the Hadith that \"purity is half of faith\"."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/8f4ff1c4-6f48-5b34-aa89-065bac12fd58":{"contextual_description":"This illustrated water clock design by al-Jazari demonstrates the sophisticated use of hydraulic engineering to measure time in the Islamic world. Operating through controlled water flow and mechanical movement, it structured the timing of daily life, including the moments of prayer. It reflects a scientific and artistic tradition in which water becomes a precise instrument for organising both practical activities and spiritual rhythms."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/95a24295-8c1a-5e62-b168-d1e4bc467df1":{"contextual_description":"The strainer from Fustat reflects the importance of maintaining clean and uncontaminated water, a key principle underlying the theme \"Purity is Half of Faith\". Placed at the neck of a vessel, it functioned as a filter, preventing impurities from entering stored water. By preserving water quality, it supported both everyday hygiene and the requirements of ritual purification (*wudu*). This object demonstrates how practical design contributed to the broader religious value of cleanliness in Islamic daily life."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/b17a0ebe-93ea-5da9-852e-8d870c57d28b":{"contextual_description":"This small Nasrid bucket highlights the importance of water in Islamic purification rituals. Used in the hammam, it helped create steam by pouring water over hot marble, making bathing both a physical and spiritual preparation for prayer, reflecting the Hadith that \"purity is half of faith\" (Sahih Muslim 432). Made of gilded bronze and decorated with arabesques and inscriptions wishing happiness and blessing, it reflects the value placed on cleanliness and ritual in Nasrid society."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/af9d7fca-f2b2-5ed6-bde8-dcb7f47f2b6e":{"contextual_description":"The healing bowl from Istanbul reflects the spiritual and purifying role of water in Islamic culture. Water placed within the bowl was blessed through recitation and used for drinking or bodily application, conveying healing and protection. The object demonstrates how water was understood not only as a physical cleanser but also as a medium of spiritual purification and well-being."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/c6654d83-b0d4-5ea8-9d0d-ca1e16dcf6cf":{"contextual_description":"This carved marble basin reflects the central role of water in ritual purity within Islamic practice. Likely used for washing or ablutions, its functional design featuring a drainage hole and shallow form facilitated controlled water use. The decorative imagery of aquatic life further reinforces its association with water. As both a utilitarian and symbolic object, it embodies the connection between cleanliness, spiritual preparation, and the material culture of daily religious life."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/6ef20010-b29f-5ba5-b05d-712654faf4e1":{"contextual_description":"This illustration from Istanbul emphasises the role of water in ritual purification within Islamic practice. The inscription directs the believer to prayer while explicitly pointing to objects used for ablution—a basin, ewer, and towel—highlighting the preparation required before worship. It reflects the centrality of cleanliness and ritual purity (*wudu*) as an essential component of faith."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/527966ed-d28f-58f5-9256-b9e2bdda13d7":{"contextual_description":"This embroidered Ottoman hand towel reflects the importance of cleanliness in daily life, closely linked to Islamic ideas of purity. Used for drying hands and face after washing, it formed part of domestic hygiene practices that supported ritual preparation. Its decorative motifs also highlight the aesthetic care given to everyday objects associated with cleanliness and bodily refinement."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/8fa53d48-0936-5c84-b8fd-f6b62e626943":{"contextual_description":"This Fatimid textile panel exemplifies the central role of ritual purity in the final passage of a believer’s life, likely serving as a funerary shroud. As a material boundary for washing of the deceased (*ghusl al-mayyit*), it marks the ultimate liminal space between the earthly realm and the divine presence. Its inscriptions and delicate craftsmanship reinforce the moral significance of purity, embodying the principle that \"purity is half of faith\", even at the threshold of the grave, where physical cleansing serves as a final act of spiritual dignity."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/a62f63d8-c1f1-5204-8bb2-6ddc75ddc126":{"contextual_description":"This Fatimid tiraz textile served as a funerary shroud, accompanying the ritual washing of the deceased (*ghusl al-mayyit*) in the believer’s passage from earthly life to eternity. Through this final act of purification, water embodies the principle that “purity is half of faith”,, marking the transition toward the afterlife. The textile thus reflects how ritual cleansing and burial practices preserve both spiritual readiness and human dignity."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/3df1bf22-8f27-5e65-a7c7-723e78198a6c":{"contextual_description":"This Ottoman tile panel depicting Mecca centers on the Kaʿba and includes the well of Zamzam, a sacred source of water in Islam. Unlike engineered water systems, Zamzam represents a divinely granted source of blessing linked to pilgrimage rituals. Such images of holy sites, as noted by scholars like Oleg Grabar and Gülru Necipoğlu, served devotional purposes, reinforcing spiritual ties to Mecca. Here, water is both a physical necessity and a sacred symbol of life, renewal and divine grace."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/874a55c0-c892-5903-b78b-97296b5906c4":{"contextual_description":"The Mulay Isma‘il Mausoleum in Meknès exemplifies the integration of water into both ritual and social functions. Its fountains and circular and octagonal pools within courtyards and funerary halls reflect the Islamic emphasis on purification, echoing the teaching that “purity is half of faith”. Beyond their ceremonial role, these water features also express the ruler’s patronage and generosity, providing both aesthetic richness and access to water in sacred spaces, in line with the principle that giving water is among the best forms of charity. In this way, water structures in royal funerary complexes combine spiritual practice with civic care."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/3a4eeb80-f00f-5032-b121-9f9674fb7c84":{"contextual_description":"This illustration reflects the symbolic presence of purification at the threshold of death, the final stage of the human journey. Although water is not depicted, the scene evokes the ritual of washing of the deceased (*ghusl al-mayyit*), an essential act of dignity before burial. It highlights how ideas of purity and respect extend into funerary practices, shaping the moral and spiritual understanding of transition between life and death."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/9af42e97-684b-524b-9e58-10d261ae46fb":{"contextual_description":"This folio from a Mantiq al-Tayr manuscript illustrates a funeral procession and a moral lesson on the inevitability of death. Although water is not depicted, the scene can be indirectly related to Islamic funerary practice, where washing the deceased (*ghusl al-mayyit*) forms an essential act of respect and preparation for burial. The illustration therefore reflects broader cultural ideas of purity, mortality and spiritual transition rather than direct water use."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/67c28023-6887-56d5-b36c-f9ef6c475499":{"contextual_description":"This illustration reflects the symbolic presence of purification at the threshold of death, the final stage of the human journey. Although water is not depicted, the scene evokes the ritual of washing of the deceased (*ghusl al-mayyit*), an essential act of dignity before burial. It highlights how ideas of purity and respect extend into funerary practices, shaping the moral and spiritual understanding of transition between life and death."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/58fa783b-fcd4-5e91-94db-27e287fe0a3a":{"contextual_description":"This stone font from Islamic Lisbon illustrates the intimate scale at which water functioned in ritual life. Likely associated with a mosque in the Moorish quarter, its hollowed interior and drainage hole suggest use in ablution or controlled water handling. The Kufic inscription repeating al-mulk (“sovereignty” or “dominion”) gives the object a spiritual dimension, showing how even modest utilitarian objects in Islamic contexts carried epigraphic meaning. In this way, the font reflects how everyday acts such as washing are embedded within a wider moral and religious framework, where water mediates between the physical and the sacred."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/61b325b8-80e3-5eb6-965c-6a739644da2c":{"contextual_description":"This Ottoman-period magic bowl from Karbala reflects a dimension of water use in Islamic culture that extends beyond physical purification into spiritual protection. Inscribed with Qur’anic verses, including the Throne Verse (*ayat al-kursi*), along with talismanic symbols and letter combinations linked to the science of letters (*ʿilm al-huruf*), such vessels were believed to imbue water with protective and healing power. Drinking or washing with this water was therefore understood not only as cleansing, but also as a means of seeking divine protection, broadening the meaning of purity within Islamic tradition."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/73f84a24-f5cb-5b01-a246-825bbc54061e":{"contextual_description":"This finely crafted brass ewer illustrates the essential role of water in practices of ritual purification in Islamic society. Used for pouring water during ablutions, its elegant form and controlled spout reflect both functionality and refinement. The rich decorative program, including animal motifs and Kufic inscription, elevates a utilitarian object into a symbol of cultural and spiritual value, linking physical cleanliness with artistic expression and religious life."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/aa909809-8909-59a0-93b9-734f8fbbac08":{"contextual_description":"The ewer and basin ensemble extends the function of the single ewer, creating a practical system for ritual and daily washing. It allows careful handling of water, supports ablution in private or shared spaces, and reinforces the integration of hygiene, devotion and routine life in Islamic culture."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/561aaeb9-370b-5fcf-a378-3e28beb72013":{"contextual_description":"This monumental marble ablutions basin, produced in the workshops of Madinat al-Zahira under the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, exemplifies the role of water in ritual purification. Designed for communal use, it facilitated the washing performed before prayer (*wudu*), reflecting the teaching that “purity is half of faith”. Its decoration, with vegetal motifs, animals and aquatic imagery such as fish and birds, emphasizes water’s symbolism of life, abundance and divine order, transforming a functional object into an expression of faith and artistic refinement."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/b827d08e-f0bc-510a-a648-cf439d7d9603":{"contextual_description":"The Great Mosque of Mahdiyya illustrates the integration of water within Islamic worship. While not a hydraulic structure, it presupposes ablution (*wudu*)), required before prayer and reflecting the principle that purity is central to faith. Its architecture incorporates systems for collecting rainwater, including terrace towers designed for water management. The mosque thus combines ritual needs with environmental adaptation, where purification practices are supported by practical strategies for water use."},"f45fdab9-b22d-5759-be60-cc34bf79daa8/3aa48e34-139d-5bd3-bfa8-f680701449fa":{"contextual_description":"This mihr in a bathhouse in Khwarazm marks a space where bodily cleansing and spiritual orientation intersect. Situated within a setting of daily hygiene, it reflects how practices of purification extend beyond formal worship, embedding awareness of ritual readiness and inner discipline within everyday acts of washing and care."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/14ee4a5f-bff1-588b-9820-cb9f561187d3":{"contextual_description":"The Minbar of Burhan al-Din, though primarily an architectural and religious object, demonstrates the symbolic importance of water in Islamic spiritual life. Used for delivering khutbas, particularly during prayers for rain or guidance, the minbar became a locus where the community collectively acknowledged water as a divine gift. The sermons conveyed from this elevated platform at the Haram al-Sharif reinforced both ritual obedience and awareness of water’s essential role, linking the minbar indirectly to the principles underlying the subtheme “We Sent Down Water in Measure”."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/1db0e720-f403-55bb-bc4c-a2724a5d3198":{"contextual_description":"This Mughal folio vividly illustrates Dhu’l-Nun, the Egyptian mystic, praying for rain, linking water directly to divine provision and communal sustenance. The painting visually narrates the spiritual dimension of water, showing it as a precious resource granted by God in measured quantities to ensure life and prosperity. Its inclusion in a manuscript of Sadi emphasises the ethical and religious imperative of recognising water as a gift that sustains society. The folio therefore exemplifies the subtheme “We Sent Down Water in Measure”, demonstrating the intersection of spiritual practice and environmental need in Islamic thought."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/854b7439-bbfc-56ba-b8ec-8a8f3547aedf":{"contextual_description":"The water elevation towers of Tameslouht embody the Quranic principle of measured water distribution. Through interconnected cylinders regulating pressure, they ensured equitable allocation across uneven terrain. In arid conditions, they reflect a refined balance between need and availability, aligned with Islamic ethics of stewardship and avoidance of waste (*israf*)."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/ca2113b0-5eb5-5b8a-93c4-620768598a16":{"contextual_description":"The *maada* is a traditional device used to regulate the equitable distribution of water in Moroccan irrigation systems. By dividing water into measured shares based on established rights, it reflects how communities combined technical knowledge with social agreements to manage scarce resources fairly. It illustrates the ethical and practical importance of water governance in Islamic societies."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/4bdfecc0-d509-5f10-a2c2-d42df7edbbd8":{"contextual_description":"The Mérida Citadel, an early Umayyad fortress on the Iberian Peninsula (AH 220 / AD AD 835), integrated a rectangular cistern (*aljibe*) to capture and filter river water, ensuring a reliable supply during siege. This cistern illustrates how water management was not only a technical necessity but also part of the sociopolitical and environmental resilience of Islamic Mérida, intertwining resource availability with defense and civic life."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/3d13df52-30f6-56c3-b85e-1af3158c8db8":{"contextual_description":"This AH 1290 / AD 1873 map of Beirut’s water networks visualises the organized distribution of water under Ottoman administration, translating natural sources into a regulated urban system. By mapping flow from river to city, it reflects a structured approach to allocation, control and sustainability, embodying the balance between resource availability and communal need central to Islamic environmental ethics."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/53d92bd8-6058-5d6e-aa92-624acdf171c8":{"contextual_description":"The Aghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan (AH 248 / AD 862) exemplify the Qur’anic principle of measured provision. Their two-basin system filters and stores water for the city, reflecting precise engineering, environmental stewardship (*khilafa*) and the ethical mandate to manage resources equitably and sustainably."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/ca86461f-b00f-59a9-9387-955c29fd93d4":{"contextual_description":"This cistern embodies the Quranic principle of water “sent down in measure”, translating divine balance into architectural form. Its multi-level design and regulated access ensured efficient storage, equitable distribution, and sustainable use, supporting urban resilience and communal life."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/dca06548-60d2-591f-be82-63c5dcb76dbf":{"contextual_description":"The *qanat* system of Palermo exemplifies the Islamic conception of water as a carefully regulated and limited resource. Developed within Islamic hydraulic engineering, qanats channel groundwater through underground galleries that reduce evaporation and ensure a steady, controlled flow. In Palermo, this system supported agriculture, gardens, fountains and hammams, embedding water management within the urban fabric. It reflects the idea of water as a resource that must be distributed with balance, restraint and care."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/921f77b9-6113-54f0-b1e8-4e21bad038e4":{"contextual_description":"The Nilometer on Roda Island, Cairo, illustrates the careful regulation of water resources in line with Islamic teachings. Its calibrated column translated the Nile’s annual rise into precise data, guiding agriculture and taxation, and linking hydraulic knowledge with justice, stewardship and societal order."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/66affcfc-1ce8-51d8-89a5-6519fe1900a5":{"contextual_description":"This ritual ladle, used in the Taghounja festival, embodies a communal supplication for rain, where water is invoked as a measured divine gift. Through performative ritual, it reflects a collective ethic of dependence, balance and respect for water as a sacred and life-sustaining trust."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/3076edae-27f9-506f-b97b-e1e64d686e4e":{"contextual_description":"This AH 9th / AD 15th century Timurid miniature from Nizami’s *Haft Paykar* depicts the drowning of a braggart who misuses a desert well, offering a vivid moral lesson on the consequences of excess and imbalance. The scene portrays water as a divinely measured and precious resource, highlighting its role as a medium of justice, ethical restraint and moral accountability in human behaviour."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/780bb761-cccc-501f-92c8-cf878fd3f94a":{"contextual_description":"This contemporary panel from the Nizwa water system articulates the Qur’anic principle of measured provision through explicit prohibitions safeguarding water purity. By regulating human conduct, it reflects Islamic stewardship (*khilafa*) and the ethical imperative to prevent waste and contamination."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/aff03989-ad30-5ece-8870-d4767c21a7c4":{"contextual_description":"This AH 1308 / AD 1891 manuscript documenting the Falaj al-ʿAzizi system embodies the ethical and technical regulation of water within Islamic society. By recording precise irrigation cycles through the timed use of the ṭāsah vessel, it transforms water distribution into a disciplined practice of balance, cooperation and justice. The detailed listing of users, gardens, mosques, and endowments reveals how water functioned as a shared trust (*amanah*), structured through knowledge, measurement, and communal responsibility."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/3db1aa40-2d0f-55e3-aa50-bdad75124cde":{"contextual_description":"This traditional water clock from southern Morocco was used to regulate irrigation by measuring time rather than volume. As the perforated bowl slowly filled and sank, it marked equal intervals for water use. By dividing access in this way, communities ensured fair distribution, reflecting a shared responsibility to manage water as a limited and valuable resource."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/1af1d10a-2cc7-596f-bf06-78187998a7a5":{"contextual_description":"This photograph documents the opening ceremony of a restored aqueduct outside Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem in AH 1318 / AD 1901. Officials, including Ottoman authorities, are shown gathered in the mosque courtyard as water from the new pipe is introduced. Produced by Maison Bonfils in Beirut, the image captures both the technical achievement of water restoration and its civic and religious significance, highlighting the role of aqueducts in sustaining urban life and sacred spaces in Jerusalem."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/2323bcc8-14a4-5648-9efb-4af0e3ab79f0":{"contextual_description":"This photograph records the opening ceremony of a newly restored aqueduct outside the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem in AH 1318 / AD 1901. Religious and civic dignitaries are gathered in the mosque courtyard as water from the new system is introduced. Produced by Maison Bonfils in Beirut, the albumen print captures both the technical renewal of water infrastructure and its civic and religious importance, highlighting the role of aqueducts in sustaining urban life and sacred spaces in Jerusalem."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/35b3df79-f218-5bc7-b927-3ebce6617212":{"contextual_description":"This AH 14th / AD 20th-century Moroccan manuscript presents a fatwa regulating water use, embodying the ethical framework of measured distribution. By addressing allocation, conflict resolution and equitable access, it reflects the integration of Islamic law (fiqh) with environmental stewardship, framing water as a shared trust governed by justice, balance and communal responsibility."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/d248e070-ab9e-5ba1-a0ee-5e9465f34998":{"contextual_description":"This ceramic wellhead embodies the principles of controlled water access and distribution in medieval societies. Positioned at the point of extraction, it structured the drawing of water, reflecting the necessity of managing a vital resource with care and measure. Its geometric ornamentation and Kufic inscription further underscore the cultural significance of water infrastructure, where utility, aesthetics, and the ethical notion of balanced provision converge."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/8f22c49f-8c37-5394-b56a-6ffb903f4644":{"contextual_description":"The figure of the water carrier (*saqqa*) represents a vital aspect of daily life in Islamic cities, where individuals distributed drinking water to the public in streets and marketplaces. Carrying water in skins or containers, they provided access to those without direct sources. Their role embodied the Islamic ideal that giving water is among the highest forms of charity, transforming a basic service into an act of generosity and social care."},"a9af03e0-1b2c-5d10-b279-d1dc98fd209f/2699030c-d24f-5975-8daf-c5a255e683fb":{"contextual_description":"This braided leather rope reflects the practical technologies that enabled access to water in arid environments. Used to draw water from wells, it embodies a direct engagement with natural resources, where durability and craftsmanship ensured survival. Its function highlights the controlled extraction of water, linking everyday practice to broader principles of measured use and environmental adaptation."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/243b7d17-b497-57be-91d2-6243b6feb1db":{"contextual_description":"The photograph documents an Ottoman public fountain as a key example of the charitable provision of water in Islamic societies. Such fountains were typically established through endowments (*waqf*), ensuring free and continuous access to water for the public and reflecting the Prophetic teaching that “the best charity is a drink of water”. Beyond their practical function, these structures embodied ideals of piety, social responsibility and civic generosity, forming an integral part of the urban landscape. They illustrate how water was transformed from a basic necessity into a sustained act of public welfare and mercy, reinforcing the ethical and religious significance of providing for others within the community."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/2ba716cc-691c-5e7e-acf8-60db1a4864c9":{"contextual_description":"The Citadel of Amman water cistern is a large Umayyad-period reservoir built to collect and store rainwater for use within the fortress complex. Integrated into a system of channels and settling tanks, it ensured a reliable water supply for domestic needs and maintenance of the site. Its construction reflects early Islamic hydraulic engineering and the importance of water management in arid environments, where storage and control of rainfall were essential for survival."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/cf43be20-3056-5622-8889-efb30105a578":{"contextual_description":"The Sabil Birkat al-Sultan in Jerusalem, built in AH 942 / AD 1536 under Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, is one of several Ottoman public water fountains commissioned for charitable use. Designed to provide free drinking water to residents and travellers, it reflects the Islamic principle of water as an act of charity (*sadaqa*), in line with the idea that giving water is among the best forms of benevolence. Its inscription and architectural refinement emphasise both royal patronage and the social duty of ensuring access to water in urban space."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/cfb7606e-a373-5a15-b4c2-59c50e12bbd1":{"contextual_description":"This *waqf* deed from Marrakech records the charitable endowment of a water right (*tour d’eau*), ensuring its use for irrigation or supply to a mosque, madrasa or public fountain. As a *waqf* (or *habus*), it reflects the Islamic principle of charity (*sadaqa jariya*), where water is dedicated for continuous public benefit. The document illustrates how water resources were legally and morally managed in Moroccan society, linking Islamic law, social responsibility and equitable access to essential resources."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/e2b8b610-c17b-5cf9-8de7-71247ad67a93":{"contextual_description":"The Sabil of Yussef Dey in Bizerte (AH 1041 / AD 1632) expresses the Islamic tradition of public charity through the provision of free drinking water. Located at a busy crossroads near the old port, it served travellers and residents alike, embodying the idea that giving water is one of the highest forms of charity. Its inscription directly addresses passers-by, inviting the thirsty to drink and transforming charity into a public and accessible act. In this way, the sabil makes generosity visible, turning water into a shared civic and spiritual resource."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/2c3a04e9-0655-5170-a239-4b2b39590ceb":{"contextual_description":"The public fountains of Algiers, including the fountain commissioned by Dey Husayn (AH 1235 / AD 1820), reflect Ottoman urban welfare through waqf endowments. Integrated into a citywide network, they provided free drinking water across the city. Managed by civic authorities, these fountains linked governance with public service. Marble inscriptions honoured benefactors and their duty to serve the “thirsty and deprived,” turning water provision into a visible expression of charity and social responsibility."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/e5e16857-e12d-5158-a527-24b6fdc2f03b":{"contextual_description":"This painting complements the public fountains of Algiers by depicting women collecting water, emphasizing the social and communal role of water access in daily life. It visually extends the theme of civic welfare, illustrating how water provision supported both practical needs and community cohesion."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/99762133-8cf7-53d1-8eda-d82b2fa784fc":{"contextual_description":"The Sabil-Kuttab of ‘Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in Cairo (AH 1157 / AD 1744) is a key example of Ottoman charitable architecture. Located at a busy intersection, its façades provided drinking water through copper-grilled openings. The building combined a sabil for water distribution with a *kuttab* above for free Qur’anic education, linking care and learning. Decorative tiles and a Kaba panel connected local charity to the wider Islamic world. Funded by *waqf*, it institutionalised enduring public service."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/e3a4654f-e644-505b-97fd-048cdac26af2":{"contextual_description":"This engraving depicts a fountain placed beside a space for prayer, illustrating the close relationship between water provision and religious practice in Ottoman society. It highlights how access to water supported both daily needs and ritual purification (*wudu*), often integrated within or near spaces of worship, reinforcing the connection between physical sustenance and spiritual life."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/33ee7607-809e-5cf9-a706-4f4328b63e58":{"contextual_description":"The Waqfiyya of Haseki Hürrem Sultan (AH 964 / AD 1557) documents one of the most important Ottoman charitable endowments supporting public welfare in Jerusalem. It details the funding and maintenance of institutions such as soup kitchens and water-related services, ensuring long-term access to essential resources. As a *waqf* deed, it reflects how charity was legally structured to sustain community needs. The document illustrates the integration of faith, governance, and social care, where providing water and sustenance formed part of enduring public service."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/3c285072-d8e0-5e80-b1db-184e3086a9f7":{"contextual_description":"‘He Who Gives the Drink’ reflects the Islamic ethical emphasis on providing water as a highly valued form of charity, rooted in the saying that “the best charity is a drink of water”. Across Islamic societies, offering water to others has been understood as an act of ongoing merit and generosity. The painting reinterprets this principle in a modern visual form, presenting the simple gesture of pouring water as a meaningful expression of care, dignity and social responsibility."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/a7d954cb-047a-5fba-956a-72a0641f0f4d":{"contextual_description":"The Zawiya al-Ahmadiyya in Gaza (AH 730-733 / AD 1330–1331) links water, ritual purification and charitable care within Islamic practice. At its centre, an octagonal fountain structures the courtyard and enables ablution (wudu), preparing worshippers for prayer. Beyond its ritual role, the continuous flow of water also offers cooling and comfort, reflecting water as a shared benefit. In this sense, the complex expresses the ethical ideal that providing access to water is an act of care and generosity, aligning with the Islamic emphasis on giving water as a form of charity."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/e0be250d-30cf-5ae5-8b10-ae23369913aa":{"contextual_description":"The Mihrişah Sultan Fountain in Küçüksu (AH 1221 / AD 1806) reflects the continued importance of public water provision in Ottoman urban culture. Commissioned during a period of stylistic westernisation, it combines new architectural forms with the traditional function of the sabil. As a public fountain, it provided accessible drinking water within the urban landscape of Istanbul, supporting daily life and communal needs. In this way, the monument demonstrates how water infrastructure remained a visible expression of civic care and public benefaction in the late Ottoman period."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/1a802b5f-7232-5ccb-8b4c-b24f06f99dd0":{"contextual_description":"This brass public fountain bowl from Istanbul (AH beginning of 14th / AD early 20th century) reflects the Ottoman tradition of providing drinking water as an act of charitable endowment (*waqf*). Produced in Süleymaniye, a centre for metalwork, it carries an inscription dedicating it to the Fatih Mosque, indicating its role within a wider religious and civic network of water provision. Used in public fountains, such bowls enabled access to drinking water for all, embodying the principle that offering water is a valued form of social care and communal responsibility."},"659b895d-1c67-583f-8d27-8170d5b1d7c3/dfc1fe0e-a18b-5c28-8991-a7248880aa75":{"contextual_description":"This coconut shell dipper from Anatolia (AH 13th / AD 19th century) reflects the symbolic and devotional dimensions of water in Ottoman daily life. Inscribed with the Basmala and the verse “We made from water every living thing” (Quran 21:30), it frames the act of drawing or using water as a reminder of its sacred origin. Beyond its practical function, the object links everyday water use to ideas of life, divine creation, and gratitude. It illustrates how even simple utensils could carry spiritual meaning and reinforce water as a shared gift sustaining all living beings."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/976e4cdd-1e6a-5b04-bf79-4bef870d8a1a":{"contextual_description":"While the meaning of these mosaics is still unclear, one interpretation is that they represent Paradise and the Gardens of Paradise. As the mosque stands in Damascus, a city historically nourished by the Barada River, the imagery of flowing water may also resonate with the lived experience of fertility and abundance. In this sense, water becomes both a spiritual symbol of Paradise and a reflection of divine blessing manifested on earth."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/e499a2f7-848f-5df1-9fa7-91f86560bc7a":{"contextual_description":"This miniature represents the Prophet and the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) at the gates of Paradise, where the river of al-Kawthar is located. During the Day of Judgement the water from this pond is said to quench the thirst of believers once they arrive in heaven. Water here represents the divine, paradise, resurrection, and eternal divine life."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/b28a9cb1-d598-55c9-b41f-810d7501f26e":{"contextual_description":"This wall-hanging depicts the Day of Judgement, during which believers wait at the gates of Paradise to be let in, if they are deemed worthy. Water from the river of al-Kawthar is said to quench the thirst of believers once they arrive in heaven. Water here represents the divine, paradise, resurrection, and eternal divine life."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/ddae96ee-0a28-502f-8e17-b2bcb708c842":{"contextual_description":"Palaces and gardens in the Islamic world were regarded as representations of the gardens of paradise on earth, which included elaborate fountains and irrigation systems. Fountains echo the river of al-Kawthar in Paradise. This miniature shows a fantastical palace intended to represent the world as one great paradisiacal garden."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/4dd61021-5e8a-5fd5-810d-b1e74272df27":{"contextual_description":"The 'Alhambra vases' were key elements of luxury in the Nasrid courts. Made in specialised workshops using complex techniques, they incorporated brief poems in their decoration. Their verses speak of the object’s own beauty, content and use.  \n  \nAs translated by Eduardo Saavedra in 1875, the inscription around the neck of the Hornos Vase extols the value of water: “Every fountain springs forth as the most perfect stream and increases abundant kindness and excellent joys. And it affirms the memory of happiness and poverty that faded away morning and evening with the fortune of time.”"},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/f2b30653-1067-5aa7-9c72-d2460e69c602":{"contextual_description":"Water plays a prominent role in Andalusi architecture, often serving as a common thread in texts of Islamic sacred literature. It is a symbol of life, reflecting the architectural design of the palace. We see water in ponds, fountains and irrigation channels with practical, symbolic and aesthetic functions, intertwining with vegetation and evoking paradise. This tile was possibly used as a doorjamb or window frame in which wading birds, vegetation and blueish tones evoke water."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/ec2b47b7-972d-5810-ba34-0de3d1ab60ec":{"contextual_description":"Islamic gardens, especially those in India, where this fountain comes from, are very intricately organised.  \n  \nFountains might stand in strategic positions. Gardens and fountains are seen as representations of Paradise on earth, hence their importance in the Islamic world. Fountains echo the river of al-Kawthar in Paradise."},"1173b86c-adcb-5487-87ea-85f5d2fd9b53/f3206d73-6095-5caf-a4e7-bf0834531b29":{"contextual_description":"The visible inscriptions on the wellhead \"Blessing from God\". The inscription reflects divine blessing, as water is the primary source of life. In Arabic figurative speech, the expression \"your secret is in a well\" (\"سِرّك في بير\") symbolically refers to safeguarding a secret. Just as wells are deep, secrets are understood to be deeply buried and carefully kept within a person."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/a88af66c-c0e8-53eb-84fb-d717a6e64b71":{"contextual_description":"The prophet Jonah (Yunus in Arabic) is swallowed by a large fish or whale for disobeying God. Only after praying and asking for forgiveness is he spat out. Water here represents danger and divine knowledge, forgiveness, and penance."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/631aa281-1e4b-5420-ade4-a96e85f76823":{"contextual_description":"The upper register of the manuscript depicts an episode in the Book of Jonah. The prophet Jonah (Yunus in Arabic) is swallowed by a large fish or whale for disobeying God. Only after praying and asking for forgiveness is he spat out. Water here represents danger, divine knowledge, forgiveness, and penance."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/7cd0ab3d-d184-5010-9789-f9acf0f02164":{"contextual_description":"The story of 'Jaish al-Khabt' highlights hardship, trust in God, and divine relief. During severe starvation, God sent a massive fish ashore, allowing the companions of the prophet and his army to survive.  \n  \nThe emphasis endurance, reliance on God, and divine providence. Water here functions as the medium through which sustenance and salvation and mercy of God arrive."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/3d413bd9-6459-56f9-b20f-0c6ad4da7138":{"contextual_description":"Several spiritual acts occur along a riverbank: a sinner, drunk, cries out to Allah for pardon. A spring emanates from beneath him as a symbol of penance, piety, and potential divine forgiveness. Below the sinner, a man performs ablutions in the flowing water, seen as inherently pure. Here, water is purifying, physically and spiritually.  \nFurther downstream two men are engaged in a discussion over books. Here, water stands for knowledge and wisdom, potentially even divine knowledge or understanding, if the discussion is theological."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/1db0e720-f403-55bb-bc4c-a2724a5d3198":{"contextual_description":"The story depicted in this folio emphasises spiritual interconnectedness with nature and God, and divine mercy and intercession in the form of rain. Through devoted prayer, and by putting his full faith in God, Dhu’l-Nun receives merciful and lifesaving rainwater."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/b360485b-6f06-52f5-8afa-c7da8b424e29":{"contextual_description":"In this folio, water represents life and salvation for the dog. The act of giving water — helping someone or something helpless — would grant one forgiveness of sins in the eyes of God. Thus, water represents purification and divine mercy. “In a desert a man found a dog that was dying from thirst. Using his hat as a bucket, he fetched water from a well and gave it to the helpless animal. The prophet of the time stated that God had forgiven the man his sins because of his kindly act.”"},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/ffcd92fc-eeb5-59d9-b68c-cb3761598112":{"contextual_description":"This painting depicts Saint Christopher, a Christian, in an Islamic context. It evokes the symbolism of water in both cultures. In this painting, and in paintings of this saint in a Christian context, water represents a barrier, danger, doubt, and potentially death, but also spiritual and physical purification, rebirth, renewal, and strength."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/a4c33dc9-eaaf-537d-8169-735901528712":{"contextual_description":"Prayers in this book are written in such a way as to represent Noah’s Ark, which is inextricably linked to water. It symbolises death, divine fury, and punishment, but also  salvation and du‘a’ (supplication) as a means of rescuing believers from danger. Both the text and the image produced by the text are related to religion."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/ef2849a5-25fd-5444-91e0-bbced44ef7cb":{"contextual_description":"As in depictions of Noah’s Ark, in this miniature the ship represents safety from the raging, deadly water. God, as the helmsman, is steering the ship to safety for those on board who put their faith in him. Here, water symbolises death, destruction, and steering away from the path of faith. It also symbolises purification and renewal."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/b2e41c7e-7a61-5679-8331-cf0502aafce3":{"contextual_description":"This calligram represents an Ottoman military galleon with the names of seven sleepers and verses from their story on the hull (18: 9-26). They sleep for centuries in a cave, protected by God from persecution. Putting the verses and their names on the ship had a protective and talismanic function.  \n  \nWater represents a means of transportation, trade, and warfare, but also a perilous and potentially deadly environment."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/565b99ed-bd0b-5eb2-9957-b457eb06256d":{"contextual_description":"This manuscript depicts an episode from the story of the divinely-sent flood and Noah's Ark. Water here represents death, divine fury, and punishment. At the same time, it represents cleanliness and purity, since, according to the story, God sent the flood to cleanse the earth of mankind, who had turned evil, and to save the people and animals on the ark."},"5e107040-dcc0-547b-91d1-5e7258472080/24076761-2e3f-5b3e-a32f-bd43a7159e11":{"contextual_description":"Water represents a divine challenge here, since the ship in this illustration is in the midst of a stormy sea commanded by God. Water is potentially deadly but also a vessel and tool of God."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/4ec3692a-da87-552e-ac10-f537e89b9844":{"contextual_description":"This water scoop is inscribed with religious scripture meant to give healing, cleansing, and holy properties to water it held. The inscription is the surah al-Anbiya’ (XXI), verse 30, \"and [we made] from water every living thing\"."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/55a16ba0-2271-55f9-a721-330ebfa3c86a":{"contextual_description":"The Quranic inscriptions inside the shell are intended to imbue water they touch with purifying and healing powers, especially if the shell is used as a drinking vessel."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/d38cdc8d-50ab-51ca-aa0b-c514b1ad25bf":{"contextual_description":"The Well of Zamzam is a miraculously and divinely generated source of water. Water from the well is considered sacred and imbued with healing properties, hence pilgrims want to bring some home in flasks or bottles. Here is an example of a bottle of Chinese origin, evidence of cultural interactions between the Islamic world and the Qing Empire."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/2d80cf5d-ba07-53d5-b33e-704dd9422ff0":{"contextual_description":"The depiction of water wells demonstrates the sanctity of water and the spirituality of the pilgrimage ritual. Not everyone was able to go on pilgrimage, so these proxy pilgrimage scrolls were a way to certify that they sent someone in their place."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/5b372de9-b0fb-515e-9cfd-b9dc1a319004":{"contextual_description":"The Well of Zamzam is a miraculously and divinely generated source of water. Its water is considered sacred and imbued with healing properties, hence pilgrims want to bring some home in flasks or bottles."},"981d7f37-ff97-5e15-936b-4b7fe274ae4a/6ef20010-b29f-5ba5-b05d-712654faf4e1":{"contextual_description":"A decorative plaque hung on the wall facing the qibla, reminding inhabitants of prayer and ablution. In Islamic tradition, *wudu* (washing body parts with water) functions as a ritual of purification that is protective and spiritually restorative. While not a medical practice, it is associated with inner healing, moral renewal, and readiness for prayer."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/8a43e272-5955-5154-8fa0-88b2e96e38db":{"contextual_description":"In this painting water acts as a physical barrier between the two lovers. All around the water animal couples are sitting together, yet Layla and Majnun are kept apart. Water here represents love, desire, and longing, but also separation, spiritual and physical."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/098603c3-0e49-56ad-b8b9-002a51013b03":{"contextual_description":"Here, in the verses inscribed in the bowl, water denotes longing and separation, and also love, life, and innocence. The presence of animal couples around the water emphasises the link between water and love."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/3aa48e34-139d-5bd3-bfa8-f680701449fa":{"contextual_description":"This miniature depicts a scene from a male bath house, where Mihr, the central seated person, is having his long hair detangled.  \n  \nThe scene depicts the groom preparing for his marriage, a moment of transition into a new stage of life. Water in this context symbolises purity, luxury, and renewal, reflecting both physical refinement and spiritual readiness. Until today, in many Muslim societies, pre-wedding bathing rituals for the bride and groom remain common practices, marking preparation for marriage and the beginning of a new chapter.  \n  \nThe setting in the bath house implies physical and spiritual cleansing. Water in this context would also be a symbol of purity, spiritual love, and beauty."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/bb9ea159-8f6e-567e-8ab2-c157d3a5a4fe":{"contextual_description":"At this point in the story, Bahram Gur has abandoned Dilaram in the wilderness after she had enraged him. He finds her again years later, after a musician has taught her to play mesmerising music. Bahram Gur asks Dilaram for forgiveness, she accepts, and then returns to his palace with him. Here, water symbolises nature, resolution of conflict, and peace. While there is water separating the landscape, Bahram Gur and Dilaram are not separated, but on the same shore."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/1fac7c01-da10-5444-a33f-3a12dd628c73":{"contextual_description":"The imagery of water here denotes purity and the source of life, in which the fish embody undying love. It also represents abundance and luxury."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/80ec473c-4e6b-511d-b91b-93a3915f3d1a":{"contextual_description":"One must learn to see beyond surface appearances; what the eye perceives may not reveal the truth of the heart.  \n  \nThis is exactly why the blue pavilion is framed with water imagery in Persian garden paintings — water reflects, but reflection can distort. The princess’s tale teaches Bahrām Gūr to look beyond appearances. Water can clarify or confuse, reveal or distort truth. Here, water symbolises the delicate balance between beauty and illusion."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/dd37cb6c-5fe7-5291-9694-a57b72fd71ce":{"contextual_description":"This folio depicts a paradisiacal landscape with birds around a stream. The birds symbolise individual human souls in search of the Simurgh, a mystical bird representing ultimate spiritual unity. The stream represents divine clarity, mercy, and unity."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/8c1795c2-edea-5574-9b38-7d00712566c6":{"contextual_description":"*Ghazal* is one of the most common poetic forms in Eastern literature (especially Persian, Ottoman, and Indo-Muslim), where themes such as love, longing, divine beauty, and water imagery often appear.  \n  \nIn the story of Yusuf and Zulaikha water represents (unrequited) love, separation, and sexual desire. In this folio it also represents tranquillity and luxury in a garden intended to reflect a paradisiacal garden on earth."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/3c22b430-103a-5b59-9e3b-9d99ad85c41c":{"contextual_description":"In this illustration water is important in the setting where Khusrau first sees Shirin. Here in the lovers’ meeting place water symbolises Shirin’s physical and mental purity, but also beauty and sexual desire."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/6b133300-0d3d-528b-b6f5-24756b78840e":{"contextual_description":"This folio depicts a group of young girls being spied on while bathing in the moonlight. They are unaware they are being watched, playing in the water without a care. Water here represents female beauty, luxury, purity, innocence, but also sexual desire, deception, and concealment."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/4c41081f-654f-5037-bec1-4a15780d81e4":{"contextual_description":"Water imagery is very common in Divan (or *Diwan*) poetry. Metaphors using water to express love and desire are common, and may include tears, rivers, fountains, and gardens. The rose-nightingale relationship also illustrates earthly and divine love and devotion, often in water-themed metaphors."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/3a307635-ffe3-5220-97dc-55418b834b06":{"contextual_description":"In this miniature water is a contested and volatile space. The river becomes a dangerous battleground, an arena of chaos, trial and uncertainty. The artist accurately depicted warfare equipment contemporary to him instead of equipment from the age of Alexander."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/c6fab33c-128f-5952-a3cd-58bbd8dbdf74":{"contextual_description":"The churning, creature-filled waters below form a zone of danger and trial, intensifying the hero’s rescue by the Simurgh. This rescue marks the passage from peril to paradise, with which the Simurgh is often associated. The Simurgh is a mythological bird associated with wisdom whose natural habitat is near large bodies of water."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/a188b610-3a96-522a-bd03-4582eeb9782a":{"contextual_description":"Water has two functions here: it is a mirror of truth and illusion and it reveals the limits of brute strength, elevating the wisdom of the small and powerless.  \n  \nWater symbolises both reality and cunning deception. Water is also linked to the moon, as depicted in the way the moon is reflected, scaring away the king of the elephants."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/9abb7272-105f-517c-bdb7-1b2c5f4fbb8d":{"contextual_description":"Water plays a dual role in this folio: It can be benevolent or harmful, a source of life or a wet grave. Lifesaving water here harbours a dangerous dragon ready to snap at the man taking refuge in the well, at other times seen as a safe haven and means of survival."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/3076edae-27f9-506f-b97b-e1e64d686e4e":{"contextual_description":"Water plays a double role here. First, a positive one: a way for people to quench their thirst. Second, a negative one: a deadly trap where a heedless man drowns. Water here is both salvation and punishment."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/287aebbf-9894-5ecb-8960-2840ddeb8028":{"contextual_description":"Water found through divine intervention; water as lifesaving. Rustam and Rakhsh nearly die of heat and thirst in the desert before they find a spring with help from divine providence. Rustam bathes and grooms his faithful steed by the water’s edge."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/b360485b-6f06-52f5-8afa-c7da8b424e29":{"contextual_description":"In this folio, water represents life and salvation for the dog. The act of giving water — helping someone or something helpless — would grant forgiveness of sins in the eyes of God. Thus, water represents purification and divine mercy. \"In a desert a man found a dog that was dying from thirst. Using his hat as a bucket, he fetched water from a well and gave it to the helpless animal. The prophet of the time stated that God had forgiven the man his sins because of his kindly act.\""},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/c0bcda5e-13db-52bc-bb9d-bd8a30172b7a":{"contextual_description":"In the story depicted here, water represents a perilous, impassable barrier, but also a means of transportation if one has a ferry. Through God’s favour, the dervish is able to miraculously cross the river on his rug. The ferry boat is depicted as a western carrack, a three-masted ship."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/9fe6d598-8fe9-54f5-a020-64c09f507b9a":{"contextual_description":"The upper register of the manuscript depicts Khizr, a wise man and servant of God who accompanies Moses (Musa), filling his cup at the fountain of life. Here, water symbolises life, youth, immortality, knowledge and wisdom, since finding the fountain of youth is no easy task."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/63d6a74b-43a6-5890-b669-be82ccd1e9cb":{"contextual_description":"This illustration depicts the Prophets Elias and Khizr at the Fountain of Life, while Alexander wanders aimlessly in the background, unable to find it. Water here represents knowledge, life, youth, immortality, and wisdom."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/6a832488-86ba-5604-ae82-1a09bfc941e1":{"contextual_description":"Alexander seeks the advice of seven wise men, not just pursuing conquest, but also wisdom. The wise men are depicted sitting in a circle with Alexander near a stream. Water here symbolises knowledge, clarity, and wisdom."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/808e42aa-3897-5311-a251-f5db500b20ba":{"contextual_description":"This very sumptuous engraved silver jug was made during the AH 10th / AD 16th century in the Ottoman Empire. Its lavishness implies that it was made for someone wealthy. It is a practical vessel used to store and serve water."},"36b99d7f-1117-5074-a5ac-d49177ae0f4d/693fde71-c979-51e6-9882-e06aaa72bfba":{"contextual_description":"Water has several roles here. The lion mistakes his reflection on its surface for another lion. This keeps the hare safe from the lion, who is too distracted by his perceived competitor. Water reflects truth but also creates illusion, and is a tool for survival. It symbolises wisdom, clear vision, mental strength, but also deceit and danger."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/553c240c-5caf-5984-b1e8-4c850193d712":{"contextual_description":"This Iznik-ware plate depicts a heavy European sailing ship at sea. Water here is a means of transportation, especially in the context of Ottoman trade, which connected the empire with the rest of the known world. Not only does a ship represent physical travel and trade, but it may represent the journey of the soul."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/b2e41c7e-7a61-5679-8331-cf0502aafce3":{"contextual_description":"This calligram represents an Ottoman military galleon, with the names of seven sleepers and verses from their story on the hull. They sleep for centuries in a cave, protected by God from persecution. Putting the verses and their names on the ship had a protective and talismanic function. Water represents a means of transportation, trade, and warfare, but also a perilous and potentially deadly environment. In the Qur’an the story is recounted within Sura 18 (al-Kahf, “The Cave”); verses 9–26."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/062db38a-3877-5180-b1fc-420fbc315eb8":{"contextual_description":"This Iznik-ware plate depicts a heavy European sailing ship at sea. It is a rather accurate representation, not a product of the imagination. Water here is a means of transportation, especially in the context of Ottoman trade, which connected the empire with the rest of the known world."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/9542c162-3c0b-561e-b602-b6a4de8cbfa0":{"contextual_description":"This illustration is both irrelevant and revolutionary. The texts refer to a medicinal plant that can be found on the shores of the Gagos River, but the artist took the time to draw a ferry using the water of that same river as a means of transportation."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/199856ac-c212-5178-92f8-cce5c77fe5a8":{"contextual_description":"This treatise is the most important written source for medieval Islamic astronomical instruments. It includes discussions of sundials, armillary spheres, astrolabes and quadrants for determining time from solar altitude. All of these would have been used in marine navigation."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/e48fd70d-86b7-555a-9467-7d4638fe6609":{"contextual_description":"This manuscript contains maps, descriptions, and illustrations of bodies of water and means of transportation. It puts great emphasis on the pilgrimage to Mecca, and highlights the route there."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/f6e4da40-9b57-5255-bf33-109bd778c698":{"contextual_description":"This is a pilgrim’s guide with advice on how best to reach Mecca for Hadj. It includes detailed advice on getting there, which means of transportation to use, and when. It describes travel over land and sea. It teaches pilgrims how to stay healthy, which rituals to observe, and describes the people one might encounter."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/c918e63f-95b9-514f-ab7c-6c8af40ed696":{"contextual_description":"This folio features a map of Arabia. Countries and large cities are represented by colourful circles with inscriptions. The inscription “Eb-i Zamzam” refers to the Zamzam Well located in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca. Trees, flowery shrubs, and mountain formations are represented between the circles."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/20a83168-eff1-50c4-8679-4433d0c5d9a5":{"contextual_description":"This is an illustrated manual on navigation and sailing by Ottoman navigator and cartographer Piri Reis (b. Hajji Mehmed). Water is seen and used as a means of transportation. The manual accurately depicts oceans, land, islands, and the location of certain cities and fortresses."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/4f87efcc-547d-5f24-9478-459114df4d69":{"contextual_description":"This is an astronomical instrument used as a star chart and physical model of the visible half-dome of the sky, to tell time and triangulate one’s position while travelling on land or sea. It was a vital tool in the fields of astronomy, astrology, topography, and navigation."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/c4881e68-7c39-56c5-b3f0-6cce92967fde":{"contextual_description":"This is a scientific instrument used for mapping and identifying celestial objects. It was of great importance in navigation. Its use is described in numerous treatises and compendiums. An astrolabe quadrant is only one quarter of the whole astrolabe, and thus is a more portable but  limited version of the tool."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/47841d48-79ec-58b9-b41e-191373a1f401":{"contextual_description":"This is a scientific instrument used for mapping and identifying celestial objects. It was often used in navigation. Its use is described in numerous treatises and compendiums. This celestial globe displays representations of the zodiac constellations."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/7f9184b3-e5c5-5b96-9044-9e3632342518":{"contextual_description":"In Islamic manuscript traditions, Aquarius—known in Arabic as Sakib al-Ma’a (“the Water-Pourer”)—is typically depicted as a youthful figure pouring water from a vessel, often a large jar or ewer. The flowing stream symbolises abundance, life, and celestial order. In astronomical manuscripts, particularly those inspired by al-Sufi’s Book of Fixed Stars, the constellation appears both as a star diagram and as a figural image, blending scientific knowledge with artistic imagination. The emphasis is not on mythological narrative but on cosmic harmony and the life-giving symbolism of water within the universe."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/7ba195d6-65ec-551c-a8e0-708a9b2d02fd":{"contextual_description":"In the lower register, this folio depicts the moon visiting the zodiac sign Aquarius represented by the planet Saturn as a water carrier (*Sākib al-Māʾ*) lifting a bucket from a well. We observe the close link between the moon and water. In Islamic astronomical and astrological manuscripts planets are often personified and associated with specific zodiac signs."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/082bacd6-16e3-586f-a335-1f20e16f1574":{"contextual_description":"This folio shows a representation of the constellation Pisces, represented as one or two fish. “Pisces” is the Latin word for fish. It is a zodiac sign linked to the element of water."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/eaba556c-159b-5ff6-bb2c-403f067fb3ea":{"contextual_description":"This page of *The Wonders of Creation and the Marvels of Creation* depicts and describes a nilometer, a graduated pillar or other vertical surface that serves to indicate the height reached by the Nile during its annual floods."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/921f77b9-6113-54f0-b1e8-4e21bad038e4":{"contextual_description":"This is a photograph of a nilometer, a graduated pillar or other vertical surface that serves to indicate the height reached by the Nile during its annual floods, which were vital for Egyptian agriculture."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/50fb046c-468c-59a7-bb02-c74c23f67631":{"contextual_description":"This was a part of a Nilometer. The inscription is a verse from the Quran, Surat 17, verse 81: \"The truth has come and falsehood has vanished. Indeed, falsehood is bound to vanish.\"  \n  \nThis inscription has protective properties for the reader as well as everyone near the Nilometer."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/a79bac20-ac03-5eb0-a5b4-78ee75d14bac":{"contextual_description":"This folio from *The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices* by Al-Jazari depicts a water-powered mechanism for a so-called perpetual flute, an automaton that plays music by using water to fill tubes and push air out of connected pipes, creating a sound."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/8f4ff1c4-6f48-5b34-aa89-065bac12fd58":{"contextual_description":"This folio from the *Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices* by Al-Jazari depicts a water-powered mechanism for a so-called perpetual flute, an automaton that plays music by using water to fill tubes and push air out of connected pipes, creating a sound."},"4e8133ba-b181-554a-bd52-4bf13639f568/aff03989-ad30-5ece-8870-d4767c21a7c4":{"contextual_description":"This book features a very detailed description of the intricate water-sharing system of Seiq Town. It includes descriptions of who used how much water in what part of town and for what purpose, including whether it was for their work — by farmers, for example."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/257ccf09-0e87-544d-b414-048f20fa253e":{"contextual_description":"Water is essential to society and holds particular importance in Islamic culture. This document reflects Islamic environmental ethics by emphasising stewardship (*khalifa*) and collective responsibility for water resources. The Chérifien government recognises water as a shared trust (*amanah*) that must be managed wisely through fair and sustainable practices, to support public welfare, environmental balance and urban prosperity for current and future generations."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/35b3df79-f218-5bc7-b927-3ebce6617212":{"contextual_description":"This manuscript presents an Islamic legal opinion (*fatwa*) on water management in Moroccan society, issued by a Marrakech jurist in the mid-20th century. It shows how Islamic law governed access to water as both a vital resource and a sacred trust. The text addresses disputes, irrigation schedules and equitable distribution. Written in formal Arabic calligraphy, it underscores the enduring connection between faith, law and Morocco’s infrastructural traditions."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/bd0739b4-e518-53b6-944b-b894ad1ed0c1":{"contextual_description":"Water management in Islamic settlements, especially in arid regions, represents a distinctive model of communal stewardship. In Figuig, the seven villages follow a shared responsibility to act as caretakers, not owners, of natural resources. Governance based on trust, fairness and accountability is essential to ensure water use benefits the community. Collective oversight and self-restraint reflect an ethical commitment to maintaining balance, preventing harm and preserving harmony between people and nature."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/874b60ef-b765-5082-af83-13f968df2603":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in AH 1425 / AD 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in AH 1437 / AD 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/7f7c4ce4-76d9-564b-8aed-37310307bd29":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/9251a080-d226-575a-a4ea-21c512003341":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/7aa40655-0454-5ca9-a08d-a7b127809828":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/7b27d949-147f-5c86-9d27-735160b02265":{"contextual_description":"Traditional irrigation systems, developed and refined over centuries, remain a reliable solution in arid regions. In agriculture, water channels—often using natural gravity—are essential for collecting and distributing water. This method is especially important for a common activity: date palm cultivation. Date palms thrive with minimal water and are widely used by Muslim communities, particularly as a source of food during Ramadan."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/a3ca7690-63a9-5b21-b899-a1cd0634aad6":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/3b63ac5c-bed8-5b55-a57c-cad9fadc9abf":{"contextual_description":"Established in AH 1371 / AD 1953, this park was rehabilitated in partnership with the Greater Amman Municipality and the Center for the Study of the Built Environment. The project started in 2004 and incorporated sustainable landscape strategies focused on water conservation, including a 160-cubic-metre rainwater reservoir, drip irrigation, preservation of mature trees, and drought-tolerant planting. As a result, the park was re-established as a public cultural asset and received the Global Gold Award for Sustainability from the Green World Organization in 2016."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/8c1ce795-2e1e-5f97-aef2-961645077b3c":{"contextual_description":"This illustration is one of the earliest depictions of the Jardin d'Essai du Hamma. Established in the 1830s, its reconstruction began in 2004, the same year as the Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts Park. The renewal focused on sustainability in gardens during the 2000s, emphasizing the harmonious coexistence of water, plants, and wildlife."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/636bf7d9-ec1e-5f19-9066-a00f83cc0389":{"contextual_description":"This drawing features a common element in garden and park design: the fountain. Since antiquity, fountains have shaped urban landscapes through their decorative and spiritual purposes. In Islam, the sound of running water holds spiritual meaning: it symbolises purity, paradise and divine mercy.  \n  \n\"And We sent down from the sky blessed water, whereby We caused gardens and grain of harvest to grow.\" (50:9)"},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/a59f0217-db60-514a-918e-e2064dcaa836":{"contextual_description":"Sustainability, particularly regarding water, is a growing concern: museums today increasingly incorporate relevant cultural touchstones, including everyday objects, professional practices, and water infrastructure. Guided by Islamic theory, museums have redefined their role to address contemporary water issues such as pollution, rapid urbanisation and unregulated resource extraction. This shift has led to the creation of institutions like the first Water Museum in South Asia, located in Bangladesh."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/6969eb11-654b-54d8-bb68-15b1c598dc2f":{"contextual_description":"This wide-brimmed hat, made from local materials such as palm, date and bamboo leaves, provides essential protection from the sun and rain for farmers and field labourers."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/92a2e48f-2af8-59fd-83a0-de0e543b4cf5":{"contextual_description":"Fishermen use this traditional pot, made from local materials such as bamboo and jute, to store fish. The *kharoi* is a practical tool, as it drains water while preserving the catch."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/ba6186d4-62b5-53d3-a91e-deb20040294b":{"contextual_description":"This traditional device features a large coconut shell pot filled with water. As a tool for smoking, tobacco is placed on top; the smoke is filtered through the water in the shell. Although hookahs of this style are now rare, they nevertheless show how water can be used in quotidian environments."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/932d00a8-7e17-58ff-be92-98f6baf076a9":{"contextual_description":"This device, made of bamboo and iron spikes, is used to catch large fish. The *konch* resembles the *juti* but consists of more than ten split bamboo pieces securely bound together. Each bamboo splint is fitted with a sharp iron cap. Fishermen wait patiently near water; when a fish appears, they throw the device to pin the fish."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/b1cbba99-2fd5-591a-b5db-72131d524dbc":{"contextual_description":"Water has been central to the cultural heritage of the Middle East: it has shaped settlement, mobility and technological progress. Safina Projects examines this connection by documenting traditional watercraft from riverine cultures. The *guffa* coracle is among the earliest known boats, and it demonstrates how communities created durable vessels suited to their environment."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/ec258946-b7f7-59b8-b4b1-67d33abe102a":{"contextual_description":"This round-bottomed brass bowl closely resembles the circular form of the *guffa* coracle. Both take advantage of water’s hydrodynamic relationship to solids, whether to transport people across rivers or to hold water for ritual cleansing. Through these forms, water becomes a visual and sensory experience: as the *guffa* rotates with the current, rippling reflections animate the engraved fish in the bowl. Circular design, unique in how it interacts with water, becomes part of the human sensory experience. It turns water from a useful liquid to a medium for cultural and symbolic expression."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/c2c90fee-2d3b-51a4-b037-269edb0d3947":{"contextual_description":"The engraving, featuring a dense vegetal motif, symbolises the incorporation of nature and water in the metalwork design. This visual representation of the use of natural materials in the construction of *guffa* coracles, such as palm leaves and pomegranate wands, is a testament to the commitment to sustainability and traditional craftsmanship."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/dc06833a-9788-51e9-902c-0aa50894cafe":{"contextual_description":"Water has shaped cultural life in Middle Eastern river systems, influencing movement, labour, and exchange. The Meshouf canoe, traditionally used in southern Iraq’s marshlands, reflects this connection through its elongated, shallow design suited to reeds and slow currents. Within Safina Projects, the Meshouf stands as a living tradition of riverine craftsmanship, preserving knowledge tied to water landscapes and supporting cultural heritage in fragile aquatic environments."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/9ed02b2f-a45f-534c-b1cd-4ae3fb12a563":{"contextual_description":"When humans live near bodies of water, some form of aquatic transportation is sure to result. One such example is the *kelek* raft, traditionally used on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Constructed from timber and inflated animal skins, the *kelek* was designed for downstream travel. Once the destination was reached, the *kelek* was then dismantled and reused. Documented by Safina Projects, this efficient vessel demonstrates a strong understanding of river dynamics and resource cycles, highlighting how mobility, trade and sustainability were integral to water-based cultural practices."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/99fc3787-8328-5389-bfa1-31e4e423d3fc":{"contextual_description":"The *Ashari Balam* is a refined vessel designed for South Asian waterways. Its long, narrow hull and shallow draught make it ideal for shallow rivers and seasonal floods. The *Ashari* Balam is a product of local boat-building knowledge influenced by climate, materials and water currents.  \n  \nThis highlights how craftsmanship traditions developed in direct response to aquatic environments."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/59637e21-e996-5c65-8ae3-bfff88ce3191":{"contextual_description":"The *shasha* raft, constructed from river reeds, demonstrates the resourceful use of abundant natural materials for transportation. Its buoyant, flexible design allows safe navigation through changing currents and shallow waters. Its design indicates a deep knowledge of local ecosystems and combines daily life, craftsmanship and environmental stewardship along the rivers."},"5c132532-2bdd-5527-aa0b-3f55c3a5d81f/3ccc0b03-e4f1-5d41-ad95-8b54e2d41ec2":{"contextual_description":"The *isbiya* or *kaiya* barge model exemplifies large-scale river transport developed for commercial and communal purposes. Its broad, flat-bottomed design was excellent for moving heavy loads along slow-moving rivers and canals. The model reflects a careful attention to proportion, balance and materials, highlighting the advanced engineering and maritime expertise of riverine communities."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/6fd9b97e-1c3c-550d-86de-69c8df9a777f":{"contextual_description":"The *aflaj of al-ain* are ancient underground and surface canals that distribute spring water to settlements and farmland. Their ingenious engineering regulates flow and ensures equitable access, supporting agriculture and daily life in arid regions.Their longevity demonstrates centuries of communal management built on environmental knowledge and ethical responsibility, highlighting the close relationship between society and scarce water resources."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/cd08f697-95bf-58e9-a1b6-c49a280cb53a":{"contextual_description":"This historic map documents Istanbul’s complex water supply system, including a water pumping station that delivered clean water throughout the city. It demonstrates the critical roles of engineering, urban planning and administrative oversight in promoting public health and sustainability.  \n  \nIn Istanbul, water infrastructure drew upon Byzantine cistern systems, Roman aqueduct principles and Ottoman expertise in gravity-fed distribution networks. Traditional knowledge informed the selection of spring sources in forested catchments, the calculation of gradients to allow water to flow without mechanical force, and the construction of underground channels that minimised evaporation and contamination."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/3775a215-fec3-5e28-a9bd-0073e3a53bad":{"contextual_description":"These pumping devices were central to Istanbul’s water distribution, as they moved water from reservoirs and aqueducts to urban districts. They showcase how technological innovation, engineering and planning combine to meet social needs, ensure reliable access to water, supporting public health and enable the city's growth."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/0aaf92c9-7d79-5c73-9fa2-77d4e01e4339":{"contextual_description":"The Aden Tanks are designed to capture seasonal rainfall for urban and agricultural use during dry periods. In creating such a system to support life in an arid region, the community balanced resource management, social needs and environmental constraints, creating a resilient system that endure over time."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/1d941c91-caad-5f1a-afeb-8f61cac1c17f":{"contextual_description":"This photograph depicts a modern solution to the problem of water distribution: a truck transporting large water bottles. Supplying the needs of a growing city like Abu Dhabi requires careful planning and creativity, and the use of trucks demonstrates the integration of people, technology and the urban environment."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/e75ff051-2970-51bc-a6a9-7957d6e7a07f":{"contextual_description":"These large bottles provide a practical solution for storing and dispensing water. Their robust construction ensures safe handling, repeated use, and easy connection to fountains. Simple, durable vessels continue to be relevant, as humans draw water from infrastructural hubs for everyday use."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/7ff898af-053b-5722-ab8e-29a5b55c2f3c":{"contextual_description":"This water factory, which once supplied water to all of Beirut, is a showcase of industrial-scale water processing and distribution. Traditional practices are updated with modern infrastructure: technology, urban planning and social responsibility come together to maintain hygienic, sustainable and culturally relevant water systems even as the population grows."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/a4cf7fae-a9ae-5166-8514-a539c0071d36":{"contextual_description":"The animal-skin water bag is a traditional, portable water storage solution essential for desert travel and daily use. Lightweight, flexible and durable, it allows water to be transported over long distances with minimal spoilage. Its design demonstrates a deep understanding of local materials and environmental conditions, highlighting how communities developed sustainable methods to secure water in challenging environments, including today."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/8f22c49f-8c37-5394-b56a-6ffb903f4644":{"contextual_description":"This postcard shows the daily use of water bags, which required significant strength to carry over short distances. For longer journeys, animals transported water across the desert."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/5f7c5e22-bab5-509c-9bc3-4554ce7a19aa":{"contextual_description":"This is a traditional container used for water preservation. This water bag has been crafted from goat skin. The skin has been tanned, cleaned and stitched before being filled with water. The neck of the goat is used to form the spout, while the legs serve as handles or for fastening the container. The fine properties of the leather ensure that water remains cool even in hot conditions."},"d9892ae7-847a-57c8-bac6-b4d4da472117/07befffd-dc31-5878-905e-6942ef2ae5bf":{"contextual_description":"Glass water bottles offer a modern solution for storing and transporting water, as they combine durability, reusability and (often) decorative design. They help households hygienically manage drinking and ceremonial water. These bottles demonstrate how functional needs, technological innovation and cultural expression come together to shape water use in domestic and communal settings over time."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/3c285072-d8e0-5e80-b1db-184e3086a9f7":{"contextual_description":"The painting depicts a water-seller, a symbol of hospitality, civic responsibility and social cohesion. The ordinary figure becomes a cultural emblem: water provision shapes urban identity and serves as a visual metaphor for generosity, labour and the rhythms of city life.  \n  \nThe presence of water-sellers significantly shaped public spaces by improving water access and highlighting social hierarchies, communal reliance and labour mobility in the historical context of Islamic cities."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/0df653b4-ce77-5caa-b099-6e37aa20f3e3":{"contextual_description":"As illustrated in the painting entitled 'He Who Gives the Drink', bowls were utilised for the distribution of water. The product's design is practical, and the use of earthenware is preferable to metals due to its lower cost. This simple object has the potential to serve as a powerful symbol of caring and trust between people."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/65d84165-06a7-5d0b-ac03-b4ff990a614c":{"contextual_description":"Another item represented in the painting can be seen as similar to this pitcher. In this context, the item is commonly used in the home, particularly in the kitchen. The artist has placed it in an urban setting to reimagine the ancient visual elements of the city."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/5dbd63f4-cda6-5258-9993-25b851533e70":{"contextual_description":"This historical postcard shows a water-seller—an iconic figure in Islamic urban life—in Constantinople. For centuries, water-sellers have provided essential access to water, and through their work shaped public spaces, daily routines and urban identities. They remain enduring symbols of communal responsibility and the moral economy of water in Islamic cities."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/6224a3d5-30a8-5634-88d3-a81ba5d2f7d0":{"contextual_description":"This painting depicts a young water-seller. Artists have consistently portrayed water sellers as cultural icons, and their everyday labour has taken diverse visual forms across regions and eras. These representations reinforce the water seller as a powerful symbol of human interaction through water in Islamic urban contexts."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/acb3ac1d-a8d1-5e6d-8676-b4ad052935b5":{"contextual_description":"Set in an urban area of Iraq in the early 1970s, this scene depicts a communal water container placed in the street. The vessel serves as a shared water source for pedestrians and market users, illustrating daily water-sharing practices in a dense city environment. The image underscores the street’s role as a space for movement, commerce, collective resource use and social interaction in a time of urban transformation. Water  connects members of the community."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/9a636ec0-fac1-5ec8-ac03-9b0f3503e7b7":{"contextual_description":"The *habb* water cooler, still in use today, represents a longstanding tradition of public water provision in Iraqi streets. Once serving passersby and travellers, it remains a symbol of hospitality, civic care and shared access. Its display in the Open Museum for Water Culture demonstrates the continuity of urban practices: visitors can appreciate the functional and cultural importance of communal water systems over time."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/e7257473-92f9-5eae-b41d-b2f6ecdc2d18":{"contextual_description":"For centuries, fresh and cold water was embraced as a precious resource, prompting the development of various methods of cooling water for drinking. This tray is an example of a domestic approach to this purpose. It highlights the contrast between urban cooling efficiency and the use of simple utensils and unique items from a wealthy domestic environment."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/55b885c3-3848-5186-968f-b9f9fb25db41":{"contextual_description":"This contemporary dispenser demonstrates how the mechanics behind water provision change with technology. Its dual hot and cold functions provide comfort, efficiency and accessibility in modern cities. In the present as in the past, care, hygiene and communal service are central in urban Islamic life."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/e75ff051-2970-51bc-a6a9-7957d6e7a07f":{"contextual_description":"This large water bottle offers hygiene, durability and convenience. In this regard, it complements modern water dispensers and demonstrates how urban communities in contemporary Islamic cities manage water flow to ensure reliable, accessible and comfortable daily use."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/d44e755b-544a-5b87-ab35-3d8d7a526900":{"contextual_description":"In modern cities, monumental fountains often symbolise affluence and civic pride, continuing a tradition rooted in historical urban design. Fountains once played a key role in water distribution for domestic, religious and public needs, but they now primarily serve ornamental purposes with recirculated water not intended for consumption. This change reflects broader shifts in urban water infrastructure and management: as methods of water distribution evolve, the role of the fountain changes from infrastructural to decorative."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/e9dff449-577c-56f3-bea6-fe9aed565cd2":{"contextual_description":"Madkhal Meski acts as an urban threshold linking residential and commercial areas. Shared or publicly accessible water sources in these spaces strengthen their collective function. This oasis demonstrates how water can move beyond its practical use to shape urban identity: water catalyses urban transformation, bridging infrastructure, daily life and the city's changing character."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/4b57dc84-c0da-56e1-9847-5733e0f4b17c":{"contextual_description":"Although hammams vary structurally across regions, they remain a fundamental element of urban space and religious life in Muslim communities. Their continued existence exemplifies how cultural heritage lives on even in modern urban life."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/dc40d869-95c3-5400-84b7-7eabea52160f":{"contextual_description":"This image of Abu Dhabi’s port underscores the importance of waterways in urban life. Ports have shaped the city’s development, fostering commerce, connecting communities, and helping distribute resources. Water's practical importance has imbued it with a cultural meaning, and Abu Dhabi's port has become a symbol of economic vitality, social interaction, and the city’s adaptation to its maritime environment within Islamic urban contexts."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/d272b706-e988-52a1-b273-e159b6ad2394":{"contextual_description":"This photograph shows Alexandria’s historic port, and with it, the urban life and commerce it has fostered. Like Abu Dhabi’s port, it made the city a trade hub and connected neighbourhoods, markets and distant regions. Beyond its practical importance, water plays a symbolic role, as it reflects economic vitality, social interaction and adaptation to maritime environments. By extension, it defines Alexandria’s identity as a centre of cultural and commercial exchange in the Islamic world."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/3aebebea-4cf3-5974-9e63-500ab4b27d13":{"contextual_description":"This artwork depicts Algiers’s port and the interplay between urban space, water and human activity. It presents the port not only as a commercial hub but also as an artistic subject, highlighting movement, labour and architecture. Infrastructure becomes a visual narrative, illustrating how maritime spaces inspire aesthetic reflection and document the symbolic and practical roles of ports in Islamic urban settings."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/41630e07-5101-57d7-abf2-5ab1ecb38a7b":{"contextual_description":"A contemporary water feature at Marina Square demonstrates how leisure, aesthetics, and community engagement can be integrated into urban design. Through water, public spaces are transformed into spaces of relaxation, modernity and environmental awareness. This approach also continues the Islamic tradition of incorporating water into urban life."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/71cad149-fed8-5115-8233-481306cd7baf":{"contextual_description":"The Riyadh water tower exemplifies the modernisation of urban water infrastructure. Its height and visibility make it functional and symbolic while reflecting the interplay between state planning and technology in delivering essential resources. The tower stands as a marker of progress, civic pride and collective reliance on engineered water systems, transforming the city skyline."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/854b7439-bbfc-56ba-b8ec-8a8f3547aedf":{"contextual_description":"The water elevation towers of Tameslouht demonstrate local solutions for lifting and distributing water throughout the village and its agricultural lands. Like modern urban towers, they serve practical and symbolic roles in shaping the landscape and supporting equitable access. They are products of traditional engineering, community planning, and the integration of water infrastructure into daily life. In turn, these towers influence settlement patterns and reinforce civic and environmental order."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/b3d61f15-fe4d-58ff-84ab-c50f1d094b79":{"contextual_description":"This reconstructed noria is displayed in the museum to highlight traditional urban water engineering. As a functional exhibit, it demonstrates historical methods of lifting and distributing water and engages visitors directly. In doing so, it illustrates how water infrastructure has shaped urban life while connecting engineering, public education and cultural heritage in a modern museum context."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/e4118b8f-ec9b-5c19-a12a-b574e5770778":{"contextual_description":"The Hama noria on this banknote elevates a practical water device to a national symbol. Its depiction highlights technological heritage, civic identity and the importance of water in urban life. Its depiction in something as quotidian as a banknote reinforces water’s functional and symbolic significance as it connects historical engineering to modern Islamic cultural identity."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/56415f91-e77f-5cd8-9b17-7f2cfd7678b9":{"contextual_description":"This banknote from Iraq is representative of Dukan dam widely regarded as a prime example of hydraulic engineering. The dam, which takes advantage of water’s utility for generating electricity, has become a source of national pride. Such infrastructure is a prominent feature of daily life in Iraq."},"f9092d23-3069-5905-aa85-7a774bee0ab1/47ef7084-b735-5fd3-b3a1-84fd153447e7":{"contextual_description":"The noria is a multifaceted symbol that represents human ingenuity in harnessing rivers, supporting urban centres, and shaping settlement patterns. It also embodies cultural memory, technological heritage, and the enduring significance of water in Islamic urban landscapes."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/6cf00022-784b-5759-b8d0-83362b3892a8":{"contextual_description":"In recent decades, traditional water systems have faced significant challenges stemming from climate change, inefficient irrigation, groundwater over-extraction and inadequate maintenance of waterways.  \n  \nRapid urban expansion and reduced rainfall have strained traditional water systems such as the *aflaj*, which are vital for irrigation and domestic use across Oman. Since groundwater relies on rainfall for aquifer recharge, over-extraction without adequate replenishment has depleted groundwater and dried up many *aflaj*, which leads to water scarcity in many settlements."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/780bb761-cccc-501f-92c8-cf878fd3f94a":{"contextual_description":"The *aflaj* irrigation system has long served as the main method of water distribution in Oman. Despite decades of attentive local stewardship, water quality has declined in most areas due to pollution and climate change. Because *falaj* channels are mainly aboveground, they are vulnerable to contamination and damage from human activity and natural disasters such as cyclones. As a result, many regions now face water scarcity."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/596cad3c-2681-5cf6-9051-4412702f2662":{"contextual_description":"In arid regions of the Middle East, such as Syria, many villages face severe water scarcity. In such dry places, communities rely primarily on wells for water and use various methods to access it. These wells are usually simple holes reinforced with locally sourced materials. In some cases, old iron barrels are used to protect the well and support a rope-and-bucket system for drawing water. The collected water is used for domestic needs, including hygiene and cooking."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/2699030c-d24f-5975-8daf-c5a255e683fb":{"contextual_description":"In common usage, a rope is an essential item in daily life. In this context, it is used to pull the bucket filled with water from the well."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/16c961fd-20ce-55d8-bc1a-97a00cf83c3a":{"contextual_description":"This is a traditional bucket used to extract water from wells. This object, crafted from leader and wood, is a functional item that has retained its relevance in the rural context."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/9996f4ea-09b3-5823-85d6-5e7bcbba4f53":{"contextual_description":"This domestic electric kettle highlights a stark socioeconomic gap: while affluent urban areas reliably enjoy amenities such as safe, hot water, underserved rural regions struggle for  basic water collection, storage and sanitation. The kettle symbolises inequality and disparities in infrastructure, technology and access between affluent urban centres and underserved rural or marginalised populations."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/de2188eb-34cd-58f8-b1d7-3ff4c31c0e10":{"contextual_description":"This drawing of women gathering at a well represents both the daily struggle for survival and the vulnerability of water resources in conflict-affected regions. In the Middle East, geopolitical tensions often disrupt access to wells, rivers and aquifers, worsening scarcity in already fragile environments. The image illustrates how warfare, displacement and contested control over water intensify inequalities and turn essential resources into symbols of social, political and human struggle."},"dcde71d1-a00d-5854-af52-7562c71ef203/e7ebcc4f-c973-5033-b0b6-23a39fc21e3b":{"contextual_description":"The cisterns of Sidi Bou Othmane demonstrate how communities historically built shared infrastructure to manage water scarcity. These underground reservoirs, larger than simple wells, collect and store rainwater to supply entire neighbourhoods. A necessity in such an arid environment, they are also ingeniously designed. Although they were built to ensure communal access to water, this access was not equal to all: it often depended on proximity, status or communal agreements. Water management, then as now, is governed by social, environmental and political realities."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/14528fdb-aac4-5802-9e2a-7d180f77e89f":{"contextual_description":"This sculpture embodies the generative and sustaining power of water. Its flowing stone forms evoke drops and waves, symbolising life's emergence and continuity. By using natural materials as an artistic medium, Saudi merges cultural memory, ecological awareness and spiritual resonance. Water is more than a physical necessity: it is a source of inspiration in contemporary art, and in the process connects nature, humanity and urban imagination."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/757d52c8-68e2-55b0-a6dd-013360a68f6d":{"contextual_description":"Beyond their everyday utility, traditional practices of water preservation and distribution  encompass the cultural, visual and historical importance in Muslim cultures. The depiction of a woman holding dates represents a collective agricultural heritage in arid regions, as the strategic use of heat-resistant trees, such as palms, provides food while conserving water."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/6474c85c-93ff-5a2b-aed1-f19d91267d32":{"contextual_description":"The *al-mikhrafa* is a traditional basket used to harvest dates in Iraq and the broader Middle East. Its lightweight, sturdy construction—crafted from woven palm fronds—enables workers to transport large quantities of fruit from the palms to storage. The basket reflects the practical methods of date harvesting and complements Faeq Hassan’s painting 'Woman with a Branch of Dates', as both highlight the close relationship between people, labor and the date palm as a vital resource."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/f5f82f9c-9ac9-5e1c-a3c2-abc35136e204":{"contextual_description":"In this painting, al-Farsi integrates calligraphic forms with landscape elements to highlight the cultural and spiritual significance of the date palm. Dates, central to Islamic life, are mentioned in the Qur'an as a form of divine sustenance and are traditionally used to break the fast during Ramadan. The work also illustrates the agricultural prevalence of date palms in arid regions: these trees require little irrigation and are long-lived. In this context, large plantations are a compelling artistic statement in contemporary Islamic art."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/22ddf4a8-a461-5541-b2ef-5ba7ee3077c2":{"contextual_description":"This photograph combines portraiture, landscape and cultural symbolism through double exposure: a smiling woman with a water vessel is overlaid against Petra’s carved sandstone. The image presents her as a symbol of endurance, connecting her daily labour to the enduring legacy of desert civilisation. The water jug, representing survival and burden, complements the persistence of eroded stone. Warm earth tones contrast with her embroidered dress, while a second figure carrying bottled water highlights modern scarcity and connects heritage, gender and ecological resilience."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/ea673384-62f0-543a-9c73-1de5e9760d99":{"contextual_description":"This carved wooden *tabica*, a notable example of Mudéjar carpentry, depicts a woman carrying water. Created within Islamic, Christian, and Andalusian traditions, the figure represents shared Mediterranean conceptions of labour, sustenance and survival—themes that cross cultural and religious boundaries. As an early depiction of the water bearer, the work highlights how water and the women who carried it became lasting symbols, connecting craft, daily life and intercultural exchange through a universal task."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/e5e16857-e12d-5158-a527-24b6fdc2f03b":{"contextual_description":"Girdlestone’s painting shows women gathered at a well, presenting water as both a resource and a communal space. The well serves as a place for exchange and conversation, where daily labour strengthens social bonds among women. The composition emphasises water collection as a routine activity that fosters connection. Historically, wells were gendered spaces in Islamic and Middle Eastern societies and this reality linked water to solidarity, memory and social life."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/58e675c8-a21b-5a2c-9c4a-7f6e89c931a4":{"contextual_description":"The bronze sculpture depicts a fallaha, or peasant woman, carrying a water vessel. It symbolises the social emancipation of women in Egypt during the early AH 14th / AD 20th century. Artistic representations of this subject varied across regions and cultures. Over time, the image of a peasant woman, once associated with domestic duties, became a symbol of women’s rights and a growing revolutionary ideal. Today, sculptures of the *fallaha* are common throughout Cairo."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/79654ea0-6789-5820-8872-523377275635":{"contextual_description":"Artistic depictions of domestic life have grown significantly in recent years, using a range of media and techniques to honour the rich Muslim cultural heritage. This painting documents methods of harvesting rainwater; vessels, placed by windows to collect water for household use, symbolise divine benevolence."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/8824cf0d-482f-5edf-b817-6c7d29f4e28d":{"contextual_description":"This AH 3th / AD 9th-century ceramic jar showcases the region's water storage and domestic practices. Its sturdy form and glazed surface demonstrate technical skill and a practical design for collecting, cooling and preserving water in a hot climate. Placed near architectural openings, these jars are functional vessels for storing water for everyday use, as well as for small-scale irrigation. As a historical artefact, the vessel links past water practices to ongoing traditions of memory, climate adaptation and daily life."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/f47f0ca3-d20f-52a5-9154-91f2f0643e3c":{"contextual_description":"This truck transports and distributes water, but its decoration also makes it a dynamic celebration of Mughal artistic heritage. The patterns and motifs connect water, gardens and the flow of life, thereby illustrating the enduring influence of water-inspired aesthetics in contemporary culture. This work integrates the craft, mobility and visual storytelling through which everyday objects can embody cultural memory and encourage reflection on the symbolism of water."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/1bb31649-1e9b-5230-8b99-97b6a5d58379":{"contextual_description":"Water holds profound spiritual significance in Islam and plays a central role in religious practices across diverse theological perspectives. As part of the *hajj* pilgrimage, a fundamental tenet of the Islamic faith, adherents travel to Mecca and consume water from the Zamzam well. Hajj Day is traditionally dedicated to filling water bottles and reservoirs with Zamzam water for use during the pilgrimage. In recent times, pilgrims have been using plastic bottles for this purpose."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/7b93b78c-6567-5a3e-b316-2148fb7531d1":{"contextual_description":"This AH 1299 / AD 1882 Spanish engraving depicts a panoramic view of Mecca, featuring the Kaaba at its centre and pilgrims assembled in the Al-Haram Mosque. The image documents the scale, devotion and unity observed during *hajj*, illustrating the sheer size and diversity of the faithful at this sacred site."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/c84d09d1-0f57-5e87-a7aa-64d875878f56":{"contextual_description":"This contemporary object exemplifies the evolving practices associated with the Hajj pilgrimage. Although the Zamzam well in Mecca is considered sacred, access to the well in Mecca is often restricted. Pilgrims therefore increasingly depend on bottled Zamzam water and water trucks. The bottle represents the continuity of tradition within a modern framework, demonstrating that water remains integral to ritual and devotion by sustaining pilgrims both physically and spiritually despite contemporary logistical constraints."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/1c63d183-a91c-5829-afdb-0349f794e35f":{"contextual_description":"This Iranian textile, produced in AH 1416 / AD 1996, represents the aftermath of the Battle of Karbala in AH 60 / AD 680 and the subsequent revolt led by al-Mukhtar in Kufa, which sought to avenge the martyrdom of Imam Husayn. It evokes the thirst and suffering experienced by Husayn’s camp, with particular emphasis on Abbas, the water-bearer, who persisted in bringing water despite his injuries. Utilising painted and stamped designs, the textile narrates the Shi’i struggle for justice and the consolidation of Shi’i identity. By integrating historical events with artistic symbolism, the work examines water, sacrifice and devotion as enduring motifs within Shi’i memory and ritual practice, thereby connecting history, faith and contemporary artistic interpretation."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/2c3a04e9-0655-5170-a239-4b2b39590ceb":{"contextual_description":"The Persian term *saqqakhana* denotes public water fountains that commemorate Shi‘i martyrs who were deprived of water during their defeat at Karbala in AH 60 / AD 680. These structures typically feature a grill window for offerings and an internal drinking fountain which may be adorned with candles, beads, ribbons or illustrations of the battle. Artists frequently reference *saqqakhanas* both visually and symbolically, thereby connecting water, ritual, memory and devotion to the historical sacrifice of Husayn and his followers."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/f2163dcf-e3a7-5a00-95fa-1fb0aded33bd":{"contextual_description":"This artwork pays tribute to Muslim pearl divers and their deep relationship with the sea. In it, water is both an economic resource and a spiritual medium; it symbolises labour, risk and devotion. By integrating historical practices and contemporary artistic techniques, the painting underscores the dual significance of water as a source of sustenance and inspiration, connecting economic activity, religious meaning and human resilience beneath the waves."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/05030e88-a801-560e-adf0-b4fbd7bc01ba":{"contextual_description":"The historic diving helmet, once used by pearl divers, serves as a tangible connection to the maritime labour depicted in Riki Salam’s 'The Perfect Pearls'. This helmet symbolises the hazardous aquatic work undertaken by Muslim deep-sea divers, whose daily routines and spiritual practices are closely connected to the sea."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/98ad12e2-4367-5b81-8dbf-f9a4884da329":{"contextual_description":"*Khab* are finger protectors worn by Muslim pearl divers to shield their hands during extended, hazardous dives. These tools are essential for safe work on the sea floor and exemplify the skill, endurance and labour inherent in a maritime tradition closely connected to faith and community."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/2db682ad-c7e4-59dd-9859-27fe8d2aa524":{"contextual_description":"This model represents the vessel type most frequently employed in Sharjah's historic pearl trade. These lightweight, manoeuvrable boats transported divers, their equipment and harvested pearls across shallow coastal waters."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/f3e50480-1c5d-5176-b1fb-c6f2af3663dc":{"contextual_description":"The *jendoul* is a reconstructed wooden vessel inspired by an illustration by al-Wasiti in the '*Maqamat al-Hariri*'. Created as part of the Safina Project, it demonstrates traditional woodcraft and shipbuilding techniques. Based exclusively on the miniature, this reconstruction interprets water as both an agent of commerce and a medium for artistic and cultural expression."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/b7f10e19-c20f-5b48-8cdd-620972d403d1":{"contextual_description":"This illustrated folio presents a *jendoul*, a traditional wooden vessel that was an important part of maritime life in the medieval Islamic world. The image details the boat’s structure and its function in trade and transport, providing insights into ship design, seafaring practices and daily activities along rivers and coasts. As a component of the Maqamat al-Hariri, the folio integrates literary narrative with visual documentation to preserve both cultural memory and practical knowledge of historical watercraft."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/aeae855a-e3c6-5f8b-bf24-41b0aab9a746":{"contextual_description":"Calligraphy is one of the most important art manifestations in Islamic culture. Through many centuries, it encountered its expression in many shapes and symbols. This artwork, written in *sülüs* calligraphy (classical Ottoman Turkish), presents a traditional Anatolian blessing, \"May you be as precious as water\", intended to emphasise the visual and symbolic connotation between water and Islamic thought by presenting it in drop shape. Its colours and ornaments create a beautiful composition full of the meaning of water as virtue and benevolence."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/6ab0933c-542d-5c8c-a994-abf73ce3c6c4":{"contextual_description":"Representing a sequence of drop shaped writings, this piece embodies the profound meaning of water to Islamic culture. In this modern composition, water evokes the Quran citation “And We made from water every living thing.”, creating an illusion of movement with rhythmic repetition."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/a6f33d2e-166a-5e87-b6b6-163f4087a9f0":{"contextual_description":"This miniature is replete with the profound symbolism of water as a vital source of life. It symbolises the relationship between humanity, nature and water, depicted by a mother and child surrounded by nature. A drop-shaped frame is followed by a Quran citation: \"We created every living thing from water.\", that embraces the divine power of creation of water."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/63698440-e26d-5c05-b0ba-57c4d79eadcf":{"contextual_description":"This calligraphy is executed on marbled paper using the ebru technique, a traditional Turkish art form recognised by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity since 2014. The swirling, fluid patterns of the marbled paper visually reinforce the Qur'an verse by evoking the life-sustaining properties of water. In the Qur'an, the Arabic term for water (al-maʾ) appears approximately 63 times, underscoring its importance in creation, sustenance and divine mercy.  \n  \nThis work exemplifies the spiritual depth and meticulous craftsmanship that characterises Islamic calligraphic and decorative traditions."},"dd084451-a673-5a08-9e5c-1511b897833e/3ba657eb-425c-51d7-9fe0-cf506fe257b8":{"contextual_description":"This Ottoman album features works by Shaikh Hamdullah, including Qur'an texts, poetry and prophetic traditions (hadith). Each page is mounted on marbled paper and the designs are created with the ebru technique, a traditional Turkish art known for its flowing, water-like patterns. Ebru involves sprinkling and shaping pigments on a viscous water surface before transferring the design to paper. The resulting backgrounds are unique, fluid and enhance each calligraphic composition."}}