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-{"ba6e5443-d6c5-5620-916d-366e3adb48bc":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"After Harun al-Rashid’s death in 192 / 809 the government returned to Baghdad, but the city of al-Raqqa remained important, being in a strategic position on the doorstep of the Byzantine Empire. It became the governor’s seat for the region of al-Jazira – between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in northeastern Syria and northwestern Iraq. During the time of Caliph a-Mu‘tasim – the builder of the city of Samarra in Iraq – al-Raqqa witnessed a new era of restoration and construction, with architecture that was very much influenced by the architectural and decorative schemes of Samarra. Al-Raqqa’s own glass and ceramics industries also flourished during this period, influenced by contemporary ceramics produced in Damascus and various cities of Iraq.","quote":"*‘**Al-Raqqa’s own glass and ceramics industries also flourished during this period.’*"},"b3513528-5861-5dfd-a473-0f15c92c8f94":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"In ceramics, geometric motifs are often derived from the simplification of naturalistic plant motifs that have become increasingly schematised and geometric over time. This abstraction process can easily be seen in certain plates and bowls with radial geometric plant decoration. The forms develop from originally naturalistic motifs (such as a flower with rounded petals) to reach the absolute simplicity of radial lines that form triangular sections.","quote":"*‘Naturalistic motifs are increasingly schematised to reach absolute simplicity.’*"},"c5fe097b-ce23-566c-9ba9-78fa3ca5eb00":{"title":"Syria","description":"The wealthy families of Damascus, inspired by the grandeur of the Ottoman capital Istanbul, itself inspired by Europe, renovated their homes in the Ottoman fashion. For example, Beit Nizam's heavily gilded interiors and mirrors reflect a taste for the European Baroque, while Beit Baroudi's large wall paintings feature the international cityscapes of Mecca and Medina, Istanbul on the Bosphorus, Paris's Place de la Concorde and the tributaries of Venice. Steamships and locomotives appear in the paintings with the words 'Sham Sheriff' – 'Honourable Syria' indicating the train's final destination. The term 'Honourable Syria' comes from the city's role as the gathering place for pilgrims and is, therefore, symbolic of the beautiful marriage between East and West, representing integration and preservation of the cultural heritage.","quote":"‘The wealthy families of Damascus, inspired by the grandeur of the Ottoman capital Istanbul itself inspired by Europe, renovated their homes in the Ottoman fashion.’"},"804d4535-4e46-51c6-8a4c-6dcc2261f2d1":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life"},"ed71c8d2-a286-5d34-ad28-4352240ff03d":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"The Mudejar craftsmen took on all manner of woodwork, from ceilings to furniture. They were known for their skill in *carpintería de lo blanco* (structural woodwork), leaving some of the most genuine creations in Spanish art: wooden ceilings and doors made of square-cut, ornately decorated wood that is constructed and decorated on the basis of a geometric pattern. Mudejar mastery in this field can be seen in the perfect combinations of decoration and structure.","quote":"**'Mudéjar mastery in this field can be seen in the perfect combinations of decoration and structure.'*  \n*"},"c7857f3a-7319-5558-b576-1a12a5980546":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Few dynasties built as profusely as the Mamluks. Sultans and princess were avid patrons of architecture and, as a result, few cities in the world match the historical architectural wealth found in the Mamluk capital of Cairo.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Mamluks is primarily built of stone and predominant in the two major regions under their control: Egypt and Greater Syria. Wood is used for elements such as doors, panels and *mihrab*s, as well as for the lattice window screens known as *mashrabiyyas.* Domes are commonly built of stone. Stucco is used for decorative elements.  \n  \nThe four-*iwan* plan, which was introduced earlier to the architecture of Egypt and Syria by the Zangids and Ayyubids, emerged as the most common plan for the religious buildings of the Mamluks, including mosques and *madrasas*, as well as the numerous structures that combined both. These *madrasas* and mosques often include a domed mausoleum for the building's patron.  \n  \nThe minaret in the Mamluk tradition often has different sections along the component parts of its shaft, resulting in an arrangement referred to as the three-tiered minaret. This minaret would have a square base, followed by an octagonal shaft, which in turn would be proceeded by a circular shaft, the upper part of which might be colonnaded. Balconies resting on *muqarnas* vaults may separate these sections from each other. Other minaret sections such as fully octagonal ones are also common.  \n  \nMamluk buildings are generally not symmetrical, instead they tend to emphasise the use of balance over symmetry in their overall composition. The alignment of the building with the different directions of the street and the *qibla* is emphasised, and this results in a rich variety of entry sequences to buildings that mark dramatic changes in axis. The buildings are monumental in scale, especially those located in Cairo.  \n  \nDome shapes in Mamluk architecture often have a cylindrical drum and a pointed profile. Initially, squinches, and later pendentives in many cases consisting of *muqarnas* units, are used as the transitional zone for the dome. In earlier examples, wood is used for these transitional elements, but stone later prevails. Both round and pointed arches are used, but pointed ones are more prevalent, especially in later Mamluk architecture.  \n  \nThe Mamluks used calligraphy extensively. Also, the *ablaq* technique, which was introduced during the late Ayyubid period, becomes widespread and even characteristic of Mamluk architecture. The use of stone *muqarnas* is ubiquitous, the most elaborate examples articulate the half-domes located over entry portals. Even column capitals sometimes consist of *muqarnas* units. Dome exteriors are often decorated with carved stone, revealing ribbed, zigzag and intricate star-shaped, as well as arabesque patterns. Façade recesses, into which windows are placed, are usually crowned with rows of *muqarnas* units. Coloured-glass and stucco grills are common for window openings, and inlaid marble is frequently used for surface decoration.  \n  \nThe Mamluks were ardent builders of military architecture. They carried out numerous renovations and expansions of previous Crusader and Ayyubid fortresses. Also, since they ruled an empire that accumulated considerable wealth from the transit of goods through its territories, they constructed numerous buildings that served the purposes of commerce.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Mamluks was very cosmopolitan in nature. Cairo was an important international political and commercial centre, and it attracted artisans from various regions. Mamluk architecture consequently incorporates influences from al-Andalus, North Africa, Crusader, Central Asia, and Persia."},"96e50aab-a868-5824-b376-8cdd7e37d384":{"title":"Figurative Art","description":"‘Human figures, animals and birds are found on Islamic art and architecture from its earliest beginnings and appear continually across all media and in different periods and regions.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nManal BASYOUNI, Aqaba  \nGhazi BISHEH Amman  \nJens KRÖGER, Berlin  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nMohammad NAJJAR, Amman  \nSamarah WOROUD, Irbid  \n  \nCoordination  \nGhada AL-YOUSEF, Amman  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Human figures, animals and birds are found on Islamic art and architecture from its earliest beginnings and appear continually across all media and in different periods and regions. Although not predominant in Islamic art, the figurative, in contrast to art of the Late Antiquity which preceded it, appears in a wide variety of forms (paintings, relief works, and sculptures in the round) and in a wide variety of media such as stone, mosaic, stucco, ivory, glass, ceramics, metal, wood, textiles, leather and paper.  \nThe figurative in Islamic art addressed a broad range of subject matter, from the religious (the Prophet’s mystical journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra’*) and His ascension to heaven (*Mi’raj*), to the secular (courtly scenes of music-making, banqueting and hunting). Unlike Christian art, Islamic figurative art was not made to serve religious purposes. Although Islamic art seems to have minimised the significance of figurative visual symbols in its artistic vocabulary in fact, contrary to popular belief, there was no prohibition in the Qur'an against it. Representations of humans and animals were only prohibited in religious buildings, such as mosques.  \nIn its formative period, Islamic figurative art brought together the diverse influences and prototypes of, for example, the Classical, Late Antique, Byzantine, and Sassanian styles. Later, other artistic traditions were subsumed, such as those from Central Asia, India, China and Europe. This resulted in the rich syntheses of diverse traditions that once practiced became uniquely Islamic in character in spite of their dissimilar origins.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/figural/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/20/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":12}}},"a63d73d1-ce20-5a6f-9699-40bef46f5a8e":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"Muslim women used jewellery throughout their lives: as children, they wore prophylactic jewellery to protect them against the evil eye; once they were engaged they would be given family jewels by their parents, along with a dowry. Marriage was a further opportunity for women to amass jewellery. The groom would give his bride jewellery as a gift, so that on the day of her wedding the bride would appear in the place of honour with her most beautiful adornments.  \nThis, and other jewellery acquired subsequently, constituted a woman's inalienable property.","quote":"*A woman's inalienable property*"},"566203f6-e2ac-5a67-8b5e-89d63a01d16e":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Influential Muslim women engaged in charity work and patronised good causes. As Islamic law clearly stipulated their rights in terms of income and inheritance, many could do so on the basis of generous funds allocated for their personal use. They played a vital role in consolidating Islamic society by promoting support and solidarity between the various social classes. Many commissioned mosques and other public buildings for posterity. Thus, in Morocco, the Fihri sisters built both the Qarawiyin Mosque and the Andalusian Mosque in Fez during the 3rd / 9th century. In Turkey, Nilüfer Hatun, the mother of Murad I, had a religious structure built in Iznik in 789 / 1388, while Sultan Abdülaziz’s mother built the Pertevniyal Mosque Complex in Istanbul in 1288 / 1871, including a shrine, fountain, school and library.","quote":"*‘Influential Muslim women engaged in charity work and patronised good causes.’*"},"7f42af49-7560-50da-88eb-23e32df201f3":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"Although the main focus of Islamic pilgrimage is centred on the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia, Palestine and Jerusalem in particular, has always been a key destination for Muslim pilgrims. Indeed, Jerusalem (al-Quds) is considered the third Holiest City in Islam. Allah himself blessed the city in the Qur'an and appointed her as the first *qibla* of Islam, meaning that it was Jerusalem, and not Mecca, that served as the spiritual as well as geographical focus for Muslims' prayers during the early years of Islam.","quote":"*'Palestine, and Jerusalem in particular, has always been a key destination for Muslim pilgrims.'*"},"fad5c96e-5e8e-5b67-81cc-5c34e034bb09":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"On a more practical level, Muslim women were also engaged in various crafts. An important activity was the production of pottery for everyday domestic use. The base of a Mamluk ceramic dish from Fustat in Egypt was inscribed with ‘amal Khadija’ (‘made by Khadija’). Rug- and carpet-weaving was another traditional female activity, with knowledge and expertise handed down through the generations from mother to daughter. Finally, embroidery played an important part in the lives of Muslim women. Many hours were spent by the females in the family to embellish textiles for domestic and, crucially, commercial purposes.","quote":"*‘Muslim women were engaged in various crafts such as pottery and rug- and carpet-weaving.’*"},"c8537387-383b-5275-8627-e7e6711be5ec":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"Under Saladin’s influence, the patronage of monuments and artefacts flourished. Numerous building projects were sponsored by him, including renovations at key religious sites such as the Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.","quote":"‘*Under Saladin’s influence, the patronage of monuments and artefacts flourished.’*"},"57abcad0-a4a6-59e5-ab3f-6bbbc8cfa027":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The mosque is the main religious building in Islam. Built on a square or rectangular plan, it consists essentially of three parts: prayer room, courtyard and minaret.  \nThe prayer room is divided into naves that are sometimes parallel or, more commonly, perpendicular to the *qibla* wall which faces Mecca, identified in turn by the *mihrab* niche that is often framed by a horseshoe arch and occasionally ornately decorated.  \nThese features initially appeared in the Great Mosque of Córdoba and became fully established in Almohad mosques.","quote":"*Great mosques and local mosques*"},"5fece024-c74e-561d-b95d-491951907de9":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life"},"e2009245-e11e-522b-9c3a-48771cd25259":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"The Holy Land was a place of pilgrimage both for Muslims and Christians. Muslims would stop-off there on their way to Mecca on their foremost pilgrimage (*hajj*); they would visit the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem before continuing to Mecca. For Christian pilgrims the Holy Land was the end goal, with Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron as the most important destinations.","quote":"*‘The Holy Land was a place of pilgrimage for both Muslims and Christians.’*"},"a04edab2-8889-509d-8f02-71d9be653c47":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"Fatimid princesses endowed palaces and religious institutions throughout the realm. In Cairo we know that a hall in the Western Palace was designated to Sitt al-Mulk, the sister of Caliph al-Hakim, and that it was lined with carved wooden panelling embellished with scenes of court life and hunting. Sayyida Ulam al-Ameriyya, the wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. 495–524 / 1101–30) constructed an ornamental shrine for the venerated Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of the Imam ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph (*Rashidun).* It was decorated with *kufic* calligraphy commemorating her patronage. The shrine was furnished with a magnificent wooden pulpit constructed out of qaru and Indian teak.","quote":"*‘Fatimid princesses endowed palaces and religious institutions throughout the realm.’*"},"b6146a5e-8a97-5fec-bf52-891c57ea0891":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"After the dawn of Islam, and throughout the subsequent centuries, Arabic calligraphy developed into numerous schools that varied in type. Among the most important and widespread are the *kufic*, *naskhi* and *thuluth* scripts. While *kufic* was the earliest of the three, suitable for calligraphic works, it was not appropriate for utilitarian tasks. This led to the development of the *naskhi* script, which was widely used in the practical fields of daily civic life.","quote":"*‘Among the most important and widespread calligraphic scripts are the* kufic*,* naskhi *and* thuluth *types.’*"},"1621eaac-22de-5ea2-a831-558356a3e6df":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers"},"40ddc7cc-dac9-5a21-9c8d-53bd6111238c":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Many of the objects that furnished the palaces would have been received as gifts from other rulers or nobles. The exchange of gifts strengthened relations between neighbouring territories and rival rulers. The Artuqids – Turkmen from Asia Minor – established themselves in Diyarbakir in Northern Jazira in the late 5th / 11th century. During the course of the 6th / 12th century they became increasingly independent, minting their own currency and forging ties with nearby rulers by sending them gifts.","quote":"*‘The exchange of gifts strengthened relations between neighbouring territories and rival rulers.’*"},"aa7dbfdb-56bd-59fa-98ce-c5b08de806c5":{"title":"Kufic Script"},"2fa2a75e-bc46-5e82-b436-df6b6e337b65":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"It is not until the Abbasid period that a distinct type and style of ceramic ware emerged that can be distinguished technically as ‘Islamic’. The first clear departure from pre-Islamic designs becomes evident from the middle of the 3rd / 9th century in the course of designing vessels to emulate Chinese porcelains. New methods of manufacture and innovative decorative and glazing techniques, combined with a new range of shapes and decorative motifs that had not previously been seen on the market, produced a whole range of ceramics that met the demands of local tastes and satisfied the desire for the Chinese style. The motifs employed during this period include palmettes and stylised-leaf motifs, and calligraphic scripts.","quote":"*‘A whole range of ceramics now met the demands of local tastes and satisfied the desire for the Chinese style.’*"},"b4082e27-2852-5968-8ae5-6d5eb32f370a":{"title":"Managing Prosperity"},"43615e87-18d1-5224-8dc6-625f716cafe7":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"*Kufic* script is considered to be the most widely used calligraphic style in the Islamic world, practiced in Spain in the West, to Uzbekistan in the East. It is considered to be the earliest Arabic script, dominating calligraphy during the first two centuries of Islam. It was eventually superseded by other styles, including *naskhi* and *Maghrebi*, although none of these new styles reached the imperial level held by *kufic* script.","quote":"*‘*Kufic *script is considered to be one of the most widespread styles of Arabic calligraphy across the Islamic world.’*"},"a54056db-53e8-5044-b4c1-ab40a258ab5b":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"While sunlight passed through the stained-glass windows in which there were dozens of colourful flowers and which illuminated the mosque interior, hanging glass oil-lamps decorated with imperial symbols and verses from the Qur’an added to the effect. Prayer rugs and carpets, whose designs were drawn-up in the palace atelier, were remarkable for the similarity of their patterns to those on the tiles decorating the walls. Qur’an stands, wooden boxes where the Qur’an was kept, and *minbar*s were other items where Islam and the place of prayer met on the artistic level.","quote":"*‘Qur’an stands, wooden boxes and* minbars *were where Islam and the place of prayer met on the artistic level.’*"},"bc3059aa-db7e-5ab4-ae05-77999d031552":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"From the 2nd / 8th century, the Umayyad caliphate increasingly directed its attention to the East as a reaction to a series of unsuccessful attempts to conquer Constantinople. This shift led to a closer identification with Iran, an identification reflected in the art and architecture but above all in court ceremonials.  \nAn elaborate ceremonial of receptions and audiences evolved, which emphasised the separation of the ruler from his subjects. The surviving Umayyad palaces with their extensive decoration in various media, as well as literary sources from the period, permit us to form an idea about the court ceremonials and pastimes of the ruling elite.","quote":"*‘An elaborate ceremonial of receptions and audiences evolved.’*"},"ca4e1fb9-a323-523f-bcbb-6c6de8cefb05":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"Many of the artists within the palace ateliers were called *nakkaş*, or designer. The designs were used in various ways across all the arts ranging from books, calligraphy, carpets, tiles, ceramics, woodwork and stonework; thus uniformity of designs and motifs was attained in different materials such as metal, wood and stone.  \nDesigns were also used outside the palace, such as in the tile ateliers of İznik, and in the carpet-weaving workshops of Uşak; the goods were then sold within the empire or exported.","quote":"*‘The designs were used in various ways across all the arts ranging from books to stonework.’*"},"c2dbf4ef-9ab1-5dca-9ef4-37ca6225e91e":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"Umayyad palaces, known as ‘desert castles’ such as the palace at Minya, have received widespread interest. The location of some of these monuments on extensive and well-irrigated land suggests also that they were centres of agricultural enterprise. Some researchers have also suggested that they were built to maintain close contact with the local Arab tribes, who were strong supporters of the Umayyad Dynasty.","quote":"*‘Umayyad palaces, known as ‘desert castles’ have received widespread interest.’*"},"1aa59d36-2ef4-55a4-9987-3abbfd0f309c":{"title":"Syria"},"7fc6e76a-c529-5929-9940-9de5218a34cb":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"The virtual preclusion of human and animal representations in the religious context was systematic and deliberate, but in all other spheres both real and mythical animals held an important place in Islamic art. Birds and horned animals, dragons and griffons are predominant, while beasts of burden, animals of the land, appear only occasionally, often reflecting local popular culture.","quote":"*‘Both real and mythical animals held an important place in Islamic art.’*"},"afba56c6-390e-5231-9951-6321bf20581e":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools"},"0be5386c-7187-5f14-a5c9-e9d7972aaa20":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Local artisans profited enormously both from the workshops set up by Crusaders to enable the renovation and restoration programmes to continue, and by the influx of European artefacts into the Levant. Cultural exchange between the new Frankish inhabitants of the kingdom and its urban and rural Muslim communities continued despite the ongoing warfare.","quote":"*‘Local artisans profited enormously from the workshops set up by Crusaders.’*"},"beaed359-49db-5b82-b5ab-00d242347b19":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"Once a week a visit to the bathhouse (*hammam*) provided the women of an extended household or neighbourhood with an opportunity for a get-together when they would pamper themselves and exchange the latest news. Even matchmaking took place and the dower discussed at the *hammam*. *Hammam*s were designed so that bathers were able to move gradually from hot areas to cooler ones. Many such complexes had painted or frescoed interior walls that showed scenes from daily life and other motifs, contributing to the bather’s rejuvenation of spirit and sense of well being.","quote":"*‘Even matchmaking took place and the dower discussed at the hammam.’*"},"d7c23444-3d3f-5267-ac39-29110a7751ab":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem"},"2aca10e0-7f13-5d99-b5ac-513f7ea5b271":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Numerous Muslim immigrants seeking religious knowledge and piety, not to mention *jihad* (holy war), were attracted to Syria, particularly Aleppo and Damascus. The Salihiyya quarter in Damascus, for example, was a nucleus of anti-Crusader propaganda and the residence of the Banu Qudama, religious scholars of Palestinian origin who played a crucial role in Saladin’s victory over the Crusaders in the decisive Battle of Hattin (583 / 1187).","quote":"*‘The Salihiyya quarter in Damascus was a nucleus of anti-Crusader propaganda.’*"},"0d96fdda-709f-55ff-974d-36ce25e67b8e":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate"},"093d3b04-a322-5303-baa3-da0aa80dad8f":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul"},"da493358-92ba-5a20-8866-fa30fb03bfb2":{"title":"The Abbasids","description":"‘Islamic art and architecture benefited greatly from the wide variety of regional Abbasid cultures and their different ethnic and social groups.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The Abbasid Dynasty rose to power in AH 656 / AD 750, and established the court in Baghdad. Abbasid rule stretched from Central Asia in the east, to Tunisia in the west, and lasted some 508 years. The reign was distinguished by their encouragement of equality between different ethnic and social groups that made up society; due to the vastness of their empire, they established regional governorates to oversee order and stability. In the Mediterranean region, the Aghlabids governed Tunisia, and the Tulunids governed Egypt, on behalf of the Abbasids.  \nThe Golden age of the Abbasids was between the 3rd and 4th / 9th and 10th centuries, during which time the Middle East and North Africa witnessed a major shift from a largely agricultural economy to one driven by trade. This led to new wealth that narrowed the social gap between Arab and non-Arab communities giving rise to further developments in many crafts, especially glass, pottery and weaving. These goods were exported worldwide to places such as China and Sub-Saharan Africa.  \nThe seeking of formal knowledge was encouraged by the state. Many schools were established in Baghdad and the provinces. The art of book translation thrived and led to the preservation of many key Greek, Persian and Indian works which were translated into Arabic. Significant contributions were made in the fields of science, mathematics, medicine and philosophy.  \nThe decline of the Abbasids began during the 5th / 11th century, when parts of the empire began to break away or became autonomous regions. The Fatimids (297–567 / 909–1171) set up a rival dynasty in Egypt; and Tughrul Beg – one of the Abbasid’s Turkic officers – took personal control of Baghdad, the Abbasid seat, in 447 / 1055. There were several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish Abbasid suzerainty, but the final blow came when the Mongols swept through the Middle East and conquered Baghdad in 656 / 1258.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_abbasids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/13/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":2}}},"5462090c-84a2-599b-95ad-c52278086f8c":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"Sometimes the entire day was spent at the *hammam*, enjoying the benefits of a massage or a hot steam-bath. Women would share expertise in cosmetics and skin care, such as the application of make-up and the concoction of scented moisturising creams mixed with powdered mineral salts or alum. They would share recipes or suppliers’ names for aromatic essences and perfumes, made from animal sources such as ambergris, or from flowers or plants. The Persian traveller Nassir Khusraw on a visit to Egypt during the Fatimid period noted that traders in violets, narcissuses, irises and lilies sold their products to perfume factories. Great care was extended in grooming hair, and elaborate combs survive which are often found to carry witty inscriptions, such as ‘I will not style other than a beauty’s hair’.","quote":"*‘Sometimes the entire day was spent at the* hammam*, enjoying the benefits of a massage or a hot steam-bath.’*"},"51fbd90e-6be2-5b7d-985d-95a359d424a3":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"The two Mamluk sultans that led the greatest number of victorious campaigns against the Crusader States were al-Zahir Baybars (658–76 / 1260–77) and al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun (678–89 / 1279–90). Following their successes, the Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 689–93 / 1290–93) led the victorious campaign at Acre in 690 / 1291, signalling the end of the Crusades.","quote":"*‘Al-Ashraf led the victorious campaign at Acre, signalling the end of the Crusades.’*"},"017e4b3b-5dc4-5b40-a034-7dbccb14bb54":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Following the Battle of Manzikert in 463 / 1071, Anatolia saw the rise of a new political, religious and social formation next to the centuries-old Byzantine Empire. This was the Turks, who had started their journey from the Steppes of Asia, founded the Great Seljuq Empire in Iran, and then settled in Anatolia.","quote":"*‘Following the Battle of Manzikert, Anatolia saw a new political, religious and social formation.’*"},"37af7457-871b-5f72-898f-77f35e43c973":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Cities in Syria, Palestine and Egypt all underwent a revival of Sunni Islam under the Atabeg and Ayyubid dynasties. Both dynasties undertook the restoration of the Great Umayyad Mosque after it suffered two catastrophic fires, and sponsored hundreds of other religious institutions, including mosques, oratories, *madrasa*s, *khanqah*s, and shrines. Contemporary historians recorded a total of 242 mosques in Damascus alone.","quote":"*‘Contemporary historians recorded a total of 242 mosques in Damascus alone.’*"},"faf029c1-2130-55ac-8ebd-77f3acfeea29":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"In the late Ayyubid period (mid- AH 7th / AD 13th century), pilgrims from Egypt and North Africa began to use the land routes. It is said that Sultana Shajar al-Durr, the widow of the last Ayyubid ruler of Egypt, decreed in 645 / 1247 that she should travel overland in fulfilment of her religious duty of pilgrimage. As a result she is regarded as the first to inaugurate the *Hajj* route overland. From the period of the Mamluk sultan al-Zahir Baybars, this became the official pilgrimage route, Baybars having dispatched a state-sponsored *Hajj* caravan with the specially commissioned *kiswa* (a cover) for the *Ka'ba* along with the key. The *Hajj* caravan set off from Suez and proceeded to Aqaba where it met up with *Hajj* caravans arriving from Bilad al-Sham.","quote":"'*In the late Ayyubid period, pilgrims from Egypt and North Africa began to use the land routes.'*"},"75d461b2-226f-594c-ab20-e9b5b2e58ad5":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"The Anatolian Seljuq authority collapsed as a result of the Mongol invasions. The Anatolian emirates established in their wake, continued the artistic approach of the Seljuqs; then one of the emirates, the Ottomans, developed a new artistic style based on Seljuq art.","quote":"*‘The Anatolian Emirates developed a new artistic approach based on the Seljuqs.’*"},"227f3bb2-60fb-58e2-b42c-bcec823faca6":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"On special occasions the Fatimid caliphs would select the most ornate *tiraz* textiles or robes-of-honour to reward dignitaries and courtiers. The prime minister for instance would receive 30 complete outfits, which he was free to distribute among his staff. Others were given to high-ranking guests of the court or – at celebrations or anniversaries – even to members of the public at large. *Tiraz* costumes varied in type and style depending on the rank of their recipients. Gilded silks were for princely dignitaries, and there was a variety of silks for government staff.","quote":"*‘Fatimid caliphs would select the most ornate* tiraz *textiles to reward dignitaries and courtiers.’*"},"119e81e9-24c1-5c11-8732-14582e47e370":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"In North Africa the sophisticated and highly educated women of the Zirid (Sanhaja Berber) dynasty emulated their royal counterparts in Egypt. During the 5th / 11th century a Zirid princess added a mosque to the *ribat* (fortified enclosure) in Monastir; it became known as the Mosque of al-Sayyida in recognition of her work. In the library at Kairouan, there are a number of Qur’an manuscripts commissioned by Zirid princesses intended for use at the Great Mosque, among them Umm Milal’s Qur’an and that of Umm al-‘Ilu, the sister of the Zirid prince al-Mu‘izz. A third manuscript was presented by Fatima, governess to the prince Badis Bin al-Mansur.","quote":"*‘The sophisticated and highly educated women of the Zirid dynasty emulated their royal counterparts in Egypt.’*"},"8328accb-dce9-5333-9598-eb8502278b59":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"The policy of integrating migrating Turkish tribes into newly captured areas was not used in those regions where the population was mainly Arab, but a society did form where the ruling class was Turkish. In time local officials and soldiers became integrated into local life, some even married local women, giving rise to a new class, *Kuloğlu*, especially in the Maghreb. In these, the farthest lands of the empire, the influence of al-Andalus was quite remarkable.","quote":"*‘In these, the farthest lands of the empire, the influence of al-Andalus was quite remarkable.’*"},"f70d4425-5bc1-5d34-bbc8-8c1e22ee9757":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The establishment of the *tiraz* workshop, a royal atelier for the production of precious artefacts and fabrics near the Royal Palace, was an important vehicle for the spread of figurative repertoires and manufacturing techniques in Islamic culture.","quote":"*'The* tiraz *workshop* *was an important vehicle for the spread of figurative repertoires.'*"},"7458975b-fc3b-5c26-8fde-fb0c9b93214e":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia"},"c667dbde-a90a-50a0-a246-daedc5e094da":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"Ibn Jubayr (539–613 / 1145–1217), a Muslim from Valencia in Spain, wrote an account of his travels to the Middle East. He describes in detail the Great Mosque in Damascus and other shrines in and near the city. When leaving Damascus in September of 580 / 1184 with a caravan of merchants heading for the old city of Acre (Akko) in Israel he writes: ‘One of the strangest things in the world is that Muslim caravans go forth to Frankish lands, while Frankish captives enter Muslim lands.’","quote":"*‘“… Muslim caravans go forth to Frankish lands, while Frankish captives enter Muslim lands.’”*"},"ca354990-79c2-5bab-83fc-460c8bcc911e":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"After General Jawhar had conquered Egypt for the caliph al-Mu‘izz in 358 / 969, a new capital al-Qahira (‘The Victorious’) was built, enclosed by a city wall with eight gates. Typically, the caliph’s imposing palatial complex, known as *al-Sharqi* or the Eastern Palace, lay at the very heart of the new capital, Cairo, and covered more than 17 acres, one-fifth of the entire city. Later, the so-called Western Palace was built opposite, and a public square was laid out between the two. Little remains or is known of these palaces, but historical sources mention that there were burial areas for Fatimid royals within the complex, a fact that would have enhanced the air of sanctity surrounding the caliphate. Fatimid-inspired palaces sprang up as far afield as Sicily, and continued to inspire royal architecture there until well after the Norman conquest.","quote":"*‘A new capital al-Qahira was built, enclosed by a city wall with eight gates.’*"},"1a1a6170-d33d-5774-bbd8-19cce2b88392":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The relocation of the *minbar* to Hebron gave the city a special devotional significance, attracting Muslims, Christians and Jews. The visitors brought patronage, endowments and donations in generous quantities, although their beneficence was targeted not only at the mosque and shrine but also at the city itself. The glass mosque lamp, brass candlesticks and pages from the Qur’an shown in this exhibition are fine examples of their patronage.","quote":"*‘Visitors brought with them patronage, endowments and donations in generous quantities.’*"},"dfe11212-0dd1-5b88-8c67-bc7d735d4c2c":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"A significant number of Islamic ceramics are decorated with extremely simple geometric motifs or with schematised plant motifs that appear to be geometric figures. In all cases, the motifs are chosen and designed in advance to fit the shape of the recipient and to enhance its form. For this reason, radial arrangements are preferred for open-form vessels such as bowls, dishes and plates, while horizontal lines are generally used for closed-form vessels such as vases, cups and jugs.","quote":"*‘The motifs are chosen and designed in advance to fit the shape of the recipient.’*"},"134ba250-63fa-595c-a880-46d56bae5a59":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*"},"9d1ba52c-7e9b-5e9d-9ef2-729fa7e30e96":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"The Aghlabids built several architectural landmarks in Kairouan, Monastir, Sousse and Tunis. Ifriqiya became the main link for trade between the East and West, and between al-Andalus and the Sudan. Ifriqiya’s agricultural and other industries, such as textile weaving and ceramics, prospered. The downfall of the Aghlabids was due mainly to the frivolity and profligacy which dominated the rule of Ziyadat Allah III (290–6 / 903–9), which prompted the people of Ifriqiya to withdraw their support, and led in turn to the fall of Ifriqiya – with no resistance – to the Fatimids.","quote":"*‘**Ifriqiya became the main link for trade between the East and West, and between al-Andalus and the Sudan.’*"},"c891e7d0-4fed-5c58-96cf-57ac94c648f4":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Muslim merchants frequently travelled in the same caravans as those on pilgrimage, stopping for the night at *caravanserais*, or *khans*, most commonly built on trade routes, and within the main cities. Both provided shelter, food and water for travellers and their animals. Once in a city, the travellers would have found markets (*suq*s), selling an impressive range of goods such as silk, perfume, jewellery, gold, spices, glassware, metalwork and ceramic vessels. The *suq* in Aleppo, for example, contained a *khan*, a *hammam* and a mosque ensuring that all the travellers’ needs were met.","quote":"*‘The travellers found* suqs *selling an impressive range of goods such as silk, perfume, jewellery and gold.’*"},"ecc4b251-5132-548b-b9cd-828061e0469f":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"While Islam was the main religion of the empire, large Catholic and Orthodox Christian communities, particularly the Coptic Church in Egypt, contributed to its spiritual and cultural fabric, as did various Jewish groups. Both religious minorities were protected by directives in the Holy Qur’an and enjoyed a largely peaceful co-existence alongside their Muslim co-nationalists. The Egyptian Copts made some of the most significant contributions to the economic, cultural and artistic vibrancy of the Mamluk era. Their traditional expertise was concentrated in architecture and the textile, pottery and woodworking industries.","quote":"*‘Religious minorities were protected by directives in the Holy Qur’an.’*"},"8ba9ac70-d9d1-566c-a0f5-e8b951a601fd":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"Throughout the Fatimid provinces, mosque interiors and furnishings were richly endowed and decorated with elegant religious inscriptions and intricate arabesque ornamentation. Royal patronage ensured the highest standards of craftsmanship, and that the dynasty’s religious and ideological convictions were expressed through artistic means.","quote":"*'Royal patronage ensured that the dynasty's religious and ideological convictions were expressed through artistic means*.*'*"},"f4035718-d69a-5c0e-b8cf-7d6e57c6114f":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity","description":"The influence of Islamic artistic culture as adopted by the Normans was still evident in a series of exquisite objects produced in the following (13th) century, including several refined ivory pieces.","quote":"*'The influence of Islamic artistic culture was still evident in objects produced in the following century.'*"},"9925ba99-2ee6-5c86-a78c-af21daac6624":{"title":"Turkey"},"8c63340a-4f5b-5eea-b058-3a168de8b461":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"A popular and religious form of Mudéjar art existed alongside the aristocratic and civic version, which is evident in the places of worship used by the people, such as parish churches, convents and monasteries. The religious Mudéjar style brought about the combination of Islamic decorative and structural elements with Romanesque and Gothic styles, examples of which include the use of brick instead of stone as a building material, and wooden instead of vaulted ceilings. Along with these and other general features, the Mudéjar style threw up regional differences determined by the fact that different regions were conquered at different times by the Christian kings.","quote":"*The Mudejar style in Castile and Leon: 'brick Romanesque'.*"},"8fc8d244-2d43-5bf9-99f7-fd9e84dcf3eb":{"title":"Jordan","description":"The history of Jordan during the Ottoman period is concentrated on three main subjects: administration, Hajj forts or citadels and pilgrimage stations and the Hijaz Railway system.  \nThe administrative system of Jordan, specifically during the second phase of Ottoman rule (1864–1918), consisted of two main geographical districts: Ajlun and Irbid in the north and Salt, Kerak, Ma'an and Tafileh in the south. All of these districts came under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria who was the highest administrative authority of Bilad al Sham. In 1878, the Ottomans introduced Circassian emigrants to Arab lands, and these settlers established new villages and cities influenced by the different cultures that had settled in Jordan.","quote":"‘The history of Jordan during the Ottoman period is concentrated on three main subjects: administration, Hajj forts or citadels and pilgrimage stations and the Hijaz Railway system.’"},"fc6af4b9-28ef-546f-9551-69c5530a82db":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"Chess was played widely at court, although al-Hakim bi Amrillah (r. 386–411 / 996–1021) banned the game in 403 / 1012. Astronomy and astrology were popular pastimes. Astrological charts were drawn up and caliphs like, for instance, al-Mu‘izz and al-Hakim engaged in astrology.  \nBeyond the various private pastimes, the court was exceptionally extravagant when celebrating religious and civic festivals. Processions were elaborate affairs used to display Fatimid might and propagate Isma‘ili theology. Keenly anticipated annual banquets and gift-presentation ceremonies were held for civil servants, army generals, the judiciary and the religious establishment.","quote":"*‘The court was exceptionally extravagant when celebrating religious and civic festivals.’*"},"710d70c6-b797-5eef-a871-46a1465067fa":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"The Mamluks of the Ayyubid sultan Najm al-Din (637–47 / 1240–9) were trained in and stationed at barracks based at Roda Island on the river Nile. The Arabic word for a large river is *al-bahr* and this elite corps was, therefore, known as al-Bahriyya. After the death of the sultan one of the senior commanders, Baybars I al-Bunduqdari (r. 658–76 / 1260–77), turned the resulting power-vacuum to the Bahri Mamluks’ advantage and, after expelling the Mongols in 658 / 1260, emerged as the first great Mamluk sultan of an expanding empire. Bahri Mamluks now ruled until 784 / 1382, when they in turn had to yield power to another Mamluk faction, known as al-Burjiyya, named after the tower (*al-burj*) within the Citadel of Cairo that housed them.","quote":"*‘One of the Mamluk's senior commanders, Baybars, emerged as the first great Mamluk sultan.’*"},"a4a1d940-8c79-56af-9276-3b8d7e1c6911":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"It is helpful to consider Ottoman art outside the capital on a geographical basis. While Anatolia showed more features of Turkish origin, farther south a synthesis developed against the rich background of the region. The non-Muslim minorities also made important contributions. As a result of the architectural and artistic programme of the Ottoman Palace, the cultural heritage of the Middle East – the art of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids, Fatimids and Mamluks – was mixed together with Ottoman features.","quote":"*‘The art of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids, Fatimids and Mamluks was mixed together with Ottoman features.’*"},"df28fd23-6a70-55b8-9302-7d8b3b1968ac":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"Charity foundations called *imarethane*s were built by the rich to serve food to the poor. The food was cooked in big cauldrons and served in large bowls called *imaret*s. For the people who were not able to come to *imaret*, food was sent in lunch boxes, mess-kits, or perhaps some other vessel.  \nIn general the people consumed flat bread baked on a convex metal plate over an open fire, or in *tandoor* ovens. They would begin eating with the right hand, calling the name of God, and finish with a prayer of thanksgiving. On a textile laid out on the floor a tray would be placed on a wooden stand. A family would eat with wooden spoons sitting around the tray.","quote":"*‘Charity foundations called imarethanes were built by the rich to serve food to the poor.’*"},"ee5d09b5-f282-551a-ad6c-510a7a1d4b9d":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer"},"80b0b3fa-f2d0-572d-870a-09008ef28789":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"During the caliphate of ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. 65–86 / 685–705), a policy of administrative and political centralisation was initiated. A standard Arabic coinage was developed to replace the Arab-Byzantine and Arab-Sassanian types which had been used up to this time.","quote":"*'A standard Arabic coinage was developed to replace the Byzantine and Sassanian types.'*"},"41c7e2cf-4070-53bb-8c03-b4f530b8336b":{"title":"Objects","description":"Fatimid art is in large part a luxury art; the Fatimid treasury was full of exquisitely crafted objects in the finest possible materials. Numerous examples of virtuoso carving in rock-crystal survive. Items of jewellery and surviving textile fragments also remind us of the opulence of the Fatimid court. Qur'an manuscripts were treated just as elaborately, as seen in the rare copy known as the Blue Qur'an because it was written in gold on indigo-dyed parchment.  \n  \nUnlike Abbasid art, much Fatimid art is representational. The technique of lustre-painted ceramics, an Abbasid invention, was adopted and developed further by Fatimid potters. Carved ivory objects with scenes of pastimes like hunting affording a fascinating view into the life of the Fatimid upper class."},"23c5c103-e3d9-5951-b584-74137065c95f":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"Mosques as sacred places of Islam maintained their characteristics throughout the centuries both in terms of their architecture and in the various elements of the interior architectural space and decoration.  \nThe ‘God’ in Islam has no concrete form and, according to tradition, the depiction of living beings in a mosque is not appropriate. When the practice of prayer is added to these concepts, the Qur’an, which consists of the words of God and his teachings, inspired the artist in the decoration and furnishings for the interior of the sacred place.","quote":"*‘According to tradition the depiction of living beings in a mosque is not appropriate.’*"},"955c7ce6-0ff9-5519-9478-5130c4e3d1c8":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Washing and drinking are essential for most living things. For Muslims it is a requirement of the faith that they carry out ritual ablutions before prayer. As a result, basins are provided at mosques, and some of these are decorated with vegetal ornament and inscriptions. Similarly, for pilgrims to remain hydrated during their long voyages, a personal water canteen, made of pottery, was one of the few possessions commonly carried by most pilgrims.","quote":"*‘A water canteen was one of the few possessions commonly carried by most pilgrims.’*"},"252b7a7e-7c1d-559c-8738-0be280a6547c":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"Animals appeared more frequently in the art and architecture of the Umayyad period, especially in mosaics and frescoes, not just in palaces but also in the churches of local Christians. In the later period, ivory jewellery boxes of various shapes and sizes were made in Spain (AD late 10th–early 11th century) their surfaces covered with carvings that illustrated typical themes of pleasure and court life, including hunting scenes. The carved wooden panels of the Fatimid period in Egypt contain a number of animal themes. The facades of some buildings in Anatolia, and the towers of the Ayyubid–Mamluk periods in Egypt, were often decorated with naturalistic and heraldic-style animal motifs.","quote":"*‘Ivory jewellery boxes covered with carving that illustrated typical themes of court life and pleasure.’*"},"5c573dd8-51de-5a6c-9717-09f9aa851b0e":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"*Sabil*s were often constructed adjacent to mosques and were supported by *waqf*s, or charitable endowments. In Cairo, once a year when the River Nile was in flood, the water was transported from the river to the sabil, and carried in animal skins on the backs of camels or mules. The water was then brought to a stone basin on the ground-floor from which the attendant scooped cupfuls for all those who were thirsty. In some *sabil*s the water from the cistern fed a fountain which emptied into a basin.","quote":"*‘Once a year when the River Nile was in flood, the water was transported in animal skins on the backs of camels or mules to the cisterns.’*"},"e402578d-fdef-5abf-8357-26ca4fc3ddd5":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"Calligraphy was applied to a variety of surfaces including stone, plaster, wood and ceramic tiles. It was very popular on stonework in Turkey, Syria, Egypt and Tunisia.  Exceptional examples of it on woodwork can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","quote":"*‘Calligraphy was applied to a variety of surfaces including stone, plaster, wood and ceramic tiles.’*"},"a919029f-a759-5c31-89dc-8db0585bcd4c":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"In later periods although the human form is still present, it does not occur with the same frequency as it had done in the art of the Umayyad period. During the Abbasid (132–750 / 923–1517), Fatimid, and in the periods following, figurative art was manifest primarily in manuscript illustrations and ceramics, where a broad variety of subjects both religious and secular, were addressed. Religious themes include the Prophet’s mystical journey and His Ascension. Secular subjects include scenes from daily life and expressions of the ruler’s splendour.","quote":"*‘During later periods, figurative art manifested primarily in manuscript illustrations and ceramics.’*"},"028edd35-2131-5178-a3ea-7b1699bc9592":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"The founding of a cemetery was something that was usually done by rulers or their families. It was seen as a pious act that was pleasing to God. Although cemeteries were sometimes surrounded by a low wall, they were more commonly not enclosed. Graves were not arranged in an orderly fashion and were not necessarily marked with headstones as commemorative features such as these depended on the social standing and wealth of the deceased.","quote":"*Headstones, a status symbol*"},"198c176f-a670-5331-b416-a7ecc59e7ceb":{"title":"The Decorative Arts"},"6cd83239-a26e-5c98-bcfb-6a0737411c89":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"Textiles were a vital part of the Ottoman economy, particularly since the Ottoman domains included substantial portions of the ancient silk-trade route. Their importance only increased as their value was appreciated in Europe and elsewhere. Among the most eminent woven goods exported by the Ottomans were carpets whose beautiful designs and outstanding quality made them popular with the wealthy classes of Europe. Evidence of this can be seen in European paintings contemporary to the classical Ottoman period. Artists such as Hans Holbein and Lorenzo Lotto depicted wealthy or noble individuals (including King Henry VIII of England) surrounded by symbols of prosperity and luxury, including carpets with distinctly Ottoman designs. Such carpets are now known as ‘Holbein’ and ‘Lotto’ carpets.","quote":"*‘Among the most eminent woven goods exported by the Ottomans were carpets.’*"},"ab8c2fe1-9836-5c36-9b9a-179e2f8b07fb":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Geometric designs dominate architectural decoration above all other patterns. The linear and repetitive character of geometric ornamentation made it easy for craftsmen to faithfully reproduce complicated compositions, thus ensuring their continuity and formal similarity over time and in different lands. Moreover, the great variety of geometric motifs and the possibility of adapting them to materials as diverse as tile, plaster, brick and wood encouraged their use throughout buildings in floors, skirting boards, walls, cornices and ceilings.","quote":"*‘The repetitive character made it easy for craftsmen to faithfully reproduce complicated compositions.’*"},"79a58714-659c-5509-a4f9-b9359b2829ae":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture"},"e3075285-c16a-5607-8854-92c2e7fc9d89":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"In 254 / 868, Ahmad Ibn Tulun (r. 254–270 / 868–84), a 33 year-old Turkish soldier of the Abbasid army in Samarra, Iraq, was sent to Egypt as deputy governor with an army of some 100,000 men. Egypt was suffering from a number of political and economic difficulties caused by political unrest and the continuous drain of its resources after the death of Harun al-Rashid in 193 / 809. Ibn Tulun succeeded in stabilising the region, ensuring the flow of revenue again. Once he was promoted to Governor of Egypt in 256 / 870, however, he began to hold back the revenue, re-investing it in agricultural reforms and industry. He renovated the Nilometer, built the district of al-Qata’i‘– following the model of Samarra – to accommodate his army and government, and built a mosque in his name in the city centre.","quote":"*‘Ibn Tulun began to hold back revenue, re-investing it in agricultural reforms and industry.’*"},"8fb7d82f-7aa1-51a8-a1b6-61a100dee9f6":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power"},"9faade38-b220-5c24-8c3c-705dc77ce345":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"Garments often had to be fastened and secured. Affluent women could afford fine gold and silver hooks and buckles that were functional and decorative at the same time.  \nJewellery accessories were widely used to further enhance the impact of the costume, and women of all backgrounds were proud to show off their finery at public events, not only as symbols of beauty but also of their wealth. Indeed, jewellery items were accumulated as assets that could be converted into money when needed. Some jewellery designs incorporate verses from the Qur’an, prayers or protective talismans to ward off the ‘evil eye’.","quote":"*‘Jewellery accessories were widely used to further enhance the impact of the costume.’*"},"4758f9be-3439-5cc6-9e79-2fab9819236d":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Sicily fell under some form of direct Muslim control (initially the Aghlabids, and later the Fatimids) for over two centuries before being overtaken by the Normans in the mid-5th / mid-11th century. Although a number of structures built by the Muslims survive from that period, these structures were so heavily modified through rebuilding and remodelling under the Normans that they lost much of their original character.  \n  \nInterestingly, an architectural tradition with clear and strong influences from the Islamic world came into being under the Normans. Siculo-Norman architecture blends Romanesque, Byzantine and Muslim features, and consequently creates combinations of Romanesque austerity with more sumptuous features from the Islamic and Byzantine traditions. Muslim influences came primarily from pre-existing local Sicilian Muslim traditions as well as from Fatimid Egypt, although influences have also been traced to other regions of the Muslim world, including North Africa and even Persia.  \n  \nThe materials used in Siculo-Norman architecture are mixed. Stone, brick and wood are used for both structural and decorative purposes. Mosaics, showing Byzantine influences, are very common. Arabic inscriptions are also found in a number of Norman structures. The use of *muqarnas* is widespread, and in some cases it is painted with figurative representations."},"7e1dd92e-fca9-5d89-aaaf-7b9903fb14af":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"In the hierarchy of society within the Mamluk sultanate, the Mamluks themselves formed the elite who lived quite separately from the urban and rural populations. Contemporary society was astonishingly heterogeneous ethnically, religiously and even linguistically. In addition to the Mamluks, themselves of foreign, largely Turkish or Caucasian origin, Egypt accommodated significant communities of indigenous Egyptians and Arabs, Armenians, Syrians and Greeks. Sadly, comparatively little is known about the ordinary people of the Mamluk Empire, as the historical sources of the period tend to concentrate on the achievements of Mamluk sultans and their elite.","quote":"*‘Contemporary society was astonishingly heterogeneous ethnically, religiously and even linguistically.’*"},"2fe5e6b3-990f-5e76-b1ab-ce3415d4b7a3":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Ayyubid period was a period of great political ferment, yet it witnessed some of the finest creations of Medieval Islamic art. Local rulers sponsored various foundations which they furnished with fine works of art, from *minbar*s to ablution basins; even door knockers were crafted with the utmost skill. Technically, this was an age of high achievement, as craftsmen mastered arts such as elegant glasswares, often decorated with enamel. Ceramics, too, continued to develop in several styles, including lustre decoration and a technique local to Syria known as *laqabi* ware. Ayyubid potters even imitated the *mina'i* ceramics of contemporary Iran. Perhaps the most striking creations of the Ayyubid period are objects of inlaid metalwork, a technique of Iranian origin which had rapidly spread throughout the Islamic world. Brass and bronze inlaid with silver, gold and other metals were used to give a wide variety of objects the appearance of precious metal without violating religious strictures against its use. Wares such as basins and incense burners were made in this way. Inlaid wares were often decorated with figurative imagery, the scenes ranging from hunters on horseback to ladies at their toilet."},"28ed3f37-70c7-5e87-9d40-6eef902eb3ee":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites Along the Way"},"0e91bb3e-a45f-5595-9dcf-c2ad2c8547a9":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"The obligation to provide fresh water to the urban population led to the development of a distinctive public monument: the water fountain, or *sabil*. *Sabils* – of which a number were built by the Mamluks (r. 648–92 / 1250–1517) in Cairo and Jerusalem – consisted of an underground cistern and a chamber with window grilles facing onto the street at ground level. An attendant hired to distribute water in cups sat behind the grille and handed the water out to passers-by. The *sabil-kuttab* had a similar fountain arrangement, with the addition of a covered first-floor gallery which served as a children’s elementary school (*kuttab*).","quote":"*‘An attendant hired to distribute water in cups sat behind the grille and handed the water out.’*"},"0d399303-e091-5249-87cf-68e9ac89a080":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"In 1130, the newly crowned King of Sicily, Ruggero II, began to commission courtly art in which Islamic and Byzantine influences were added to the existing Romanic-Norman elements of local art and architecture. This process was compounded by Ruggero II's successful campaigns in the coastal territories of North Africa and the Byzantine Balkan Peninsula, with their consequent forced appropriation of workers. This gave rise to a recognisable form of royal art and architecture that made it possible to identify secular and religious works commissioned by the crown.","quote":"*'Ruggero II commissioned courtly art in which Islamic and Byzantine influences were added to existing Romanic-Norman elements.'*"},"60261853-a266-5a82-958e-d10b6269bdca":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"The urban residences were more suited to the Muslim sense of intimacy than rural ones. With their open, porticoed courtyards furnished with a pool or a well, the family had space to gather and spend time together. The courtyard was surrounded by living rooms and sleeping annexes, the kitchen and the latrines, the latter of which would have been placed directly over cesspools or, more commonly, equipped with pipes to carry waste to cesspools in the street.","quote":"*Townhouses, the intimacy of private life.*"},"4c42f69a-1a67-5fc7-9eb0-b5ed2c633802":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life"},"66042ec5-c370-5352-acd8-d82b98d67a73":{"title":"Court Life","description":"In Enderun, there were kiosks and coastal palaces. At the entrance was the Arz Odası (audience hall), where the sultans welcomed ambassadors, *viziers* and other high-ranking officials.  \nThe *harem* was a sacred and private place and entry was not permitted by anyone but the staff. It was under the control of the sultan’s mother, or Valide Sultan. She lived there along with the sultan’s children, his favourites, and his concubines (called *ikbal* and *odalisque*). Although they all lived in material luxury none of them were allowed to sit next to the sultan or go out of the palace without his permission.","quote":"*‘The* harem *was a sacred and private place and entry was not permitted by anyone but the staff.’*"},"4d695d55-b515-5453-b09f-f1d34f603388":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty"},"09bdd05c-c517-5715-b216-1c3b6562ce92":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Literal representations of the Garden of Paradise are rare. One example is the astonishing mosaic cycle applied around the courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, dating to the AH 2nd / AD 8th century. It shows an idealised landscape with a sinuous river and an array of palaces and sophisticated buildings. That this pictorial cycle is indeed based on Qur'anic descriptions is confirmed by the survival of a statement by one of the mosaicists involved: 'In the mosaics we represented what we found in the Qur'an with regard to trees and palaces of Paradise. And when a worker had executed a tree in a particularly fine manner the Caliph 'Umar would give him 30 *dirham*s as a reward.'","quote":"‘… we represented what we found in the Qur'an with regard to trees and palaces of Paradise …’"},"56bd5cf1-6fad-5681-8cba-49c4ca097bbe":{"title":"Objects","description":"Art produced by Muslim craftsmen in Christian Spain is known as Mudéjar art. Despite the political and religious pressures of the Christian *Reconquista*, Muslim craftsmen remained highly valued for their great skills and Christian clients in Spain and abroad often turned to them for the decoration of secular as well as religious works.  \n  \nMudéjar art is known for its striking lustre ceramics, which include *albarello*s and dishes bearing the coats of arms of European patrons. Mudéjar woodwork was also popular both as furniture and as church decoration."},"6cde84c3-7f28-5ff8-88ec-3cf31d5516fb":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"Beyond Jerusalem, it is within Palestine that perhaps the largest number of sites revered by Muslims can be found. Many of these are related to prophets and personalities honoured not only by Muslims, but by Jews and Christians as well such as, most notably, the Haram al-Ibrahimi (Sanctuary of Abraham) who was patriarch of the prophets and the first Muslim, as well as places associated with Jesus Christ who is an important and highly respected prophet in Islamic belief.","quote":"*'It is within Palestine that perhaps the largest number of sites revered by Muslims can be found.'*"},"1968b4ad-376a-5733-96cc-b0a0f079ea39":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths","description":"Palestine and Jerusalem in particular, has been the focus of religious pilgrimage for thousands of years. To adherents of Judaism, Jerusalem is God's city and the revered site of His Temple. All Jewish prayers face towards Jerusalem, and to this day the city lies at the heart of Jewish religious, spiritual and scholarly life. Christians, encouraged by their Church Fathers, have undertaken the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land since at least the 4th century AD to pay homage to the sites associated with the Life of Jesus Christ. According to the Christian tradition Jerusalem was where Jesus lived, preached and healed the sick. It was here that He held the Last Supper, was arrested, tried and crucified. To this day the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the area in the city where Jesus is believed to have been buried and from where He ascended to heaven.","quote":"*'Palestine and Jerusalem have been the focus of religious pilgrimage for thousands of years.'*"},"52ba552e-fa0a-5682-9bec-459980b75df8":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"The Qur'an says: 'And proclaim to mankind *al-Hajj*. They will come to you on foot and on every lean mount; they will come from every deep and distant mountain highway. (XXII: 27–8)' Every year Muslim pilgrims converge on Mecca from all corners of the Muslim world. The upkeep of the pilgrimage routes, the rest stations, reservoirs and watchtowers, were the responsibility of the local Muslim governors or rulers.","quote":"*'Every year Muslim pilgrims converge on Mecca from all corners of the Muslim world.'*"},"d691a9e4-feba-58bc-947e-a2528e1d9adb":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule","description":"In light of the new socio-religious situation, traditions of the Christian communities underwent some changes. It was a known fact that in the religious context Islam prohibited the presence of representational imagery. Under these circumstances Christian communities deliberately defaced human and animal forms in existing churches by replacing them with a cross or some other geometric or floral motif. In some cases the design was scrambled and re-assembled. The defacement of mosaic pavements was done with the utmost care and the churches continued to be used, indicating that the iconoclasm was executed by the church or at least under its direct supervision.","quote":"*‘It was known that in the religious context Islam prohibited the presence of representational imagery.’*"},"d4324e40-dd9c-55ae-bca3-245862dcd559":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′"},"a83b5614-7afc-5fae-8115-5fbbcede5144":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"At about the same time, the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil (r. 232–47 / 847–61), ordered the construction of another ingenious structure on the Nile: the Nilometer. This structure was used to measure the level of seasonal flooding, which in turn enabled the agricultural authorities to predict and then calculate the quantity of seasonal harvests expected and the taxes that were due for them. The Nilometer also helped the population of the Nile  Valley to plan for food shortages and rationing in periods of drought, thereby ensuring that both the wealth and the health of the nation were well managed and preserved.","quote":"*‘The Nilometer helped the population of the Nile Valley to plan for food shortages and rationing in periods of drought.’*"},"2402e680-efca-5518-8365-20a53e16a37c":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"The health and wealth of society depends to a large extent on good management of resources, such as food and water, and efficient government. Many engineering solutions were devised by the Abbasids to maintain and improve their agricultural systems and water resources, while medical advances helped to improve the health of the population. In Kairouan, for example, in 248 / 862, the Aghlabids built a series of water reservoirs designed mainly to collect rainwater from the nearby valleys. Their ingenuity lay in the fact that they devised the means to collect water, purify and store it, and then make it available to the inhabitants of the city, herdsmen of the area and caravans passing by: all free of charge.","quote":"*‘**The Aghlabids in Kairouan built water reservoirs designed to collect rainwater from the nearby valleys.’*"},"11f82e3d-c59a-5f69-a3bc-b5b190e3aaa1":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Equalling and occasionally outdoing the pageantry and refinement of the Eastern courts, the monarchs of the Muslim West surrounded themselves with high-ranking, trusted individuals who, like the sovereigns themselves, were players in the courtly ceremonies befitting their greatness, sovereignty and desire to inspire awe in the people.  \nThe chosen few would accompany the sovereign in his public duties, attending official dinners and receptions and assisting with the tasks of government. They were part of the royal entourage when the king travelled, contributing to the admiration he inspired.","quote":"*The military entourage*"},"b2dfb887-c592-5972-be84-da52442aac78":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"This is a story about an Islamic *minbar* (pulpit) that was rescued from the Crusaders. The *minbar* was made originally for the *maqam* (shrine) of the great Muslim martyr al-Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, in Ashqelon. Like the *mihrab* (the prayer niche), the *minbar* is a focal point of the mosque but unlike the *mihrab* the *minbar* is usually mobile. With the exception of copies of the Qur’an, the *minbar* is, therefore, the only removable object in a mosque that carries profound spiritual value.","quote":"*‘This is a story about an Islamic* minbar *that was rescued from the marching Crusaders.’*"},"c120081f-2000-5d9f-bbc8-dc8089955a17":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education"},"14f245e5-7d33-5938-9186-f7e967ae327b":{"title":"The Ottomans"},"6a3348dc-029d-59c2-af77-31ec3a3dfe2f":{"title":"Court Life"},"a787ec88-bc49-5171-bf60-265ba0253dd4":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy"},"7b2c2d23-dc2f-50d9-92cf-f23ca9c8f4ce":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Glassware became one of the most renowned achievements of Mamluk art, with the mosque lamp forming a significant part of glassware production. Mamluk Egypt became renowned for the production and export of textiles such as woven silks and printed cottons. Pottery workshops generated a vibrant and attractive range of quality wares, some specifically designed to imitate Chinese celadon and blue-and-white wares, and woodworkers enhanced architectural fittings, furnishings and even cenotaphs with intricately carved, and inlaid geometric-star designs.","quote":"*‘Mamluk Egypt was renowned for textiles such as woven silks and printed cottons.’*"},"343a2d67-cc5d-51cf-b046-7beee7e64193":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"Copies of the Qur’an were produced in many different sizes and for different uses. Some were destined for use in mosques and *madrasa*s, while others were carried about with individuals for benediction and protection. Patronage and commissions for the transcription and decoration of Qur’an manuscripts was considered an honourable religious act for those who could afford it. The patronage system was widespread throughout the Islamic world, and patrons would present such copies to mosques, shrines and schools on special occasions. To complement their function as religious or educational institutions, most of these buildings were also adorned with excerpts from the Qur’an seen on stonework, on tiles, textiles and on the furniture.","quote":"‘*Patrons would present copies of the Qur’an to mosques, shrines and schools on special occasions.*’"},"7dc9303d-b5b2-5fef-b408-8178d88f89d2":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"In the Muslim household women were responsible for the cooking and childcare. They would store water in large jugs, drawing from them as and when they needed. Oil and grain were also stored in such containers, and smaller ones were used for preserved fish, meat and fruit. They used milk to make dairy products, prepared meals using traditional recipes and cooked on charcoal stoves. Food was often served on tableware, especially at family parties, a chance for women to show off their culinary expertise.","quote":"*Domestic life: women as homemakers.*"},"217482b1-7626-531f-8ca9-51c2f680fe3d":{"title":"The Mamluks","description":"‘Originally the military slaves of Muslim rulers, the Mamluks built an empire that excelled as one of the greatest powers of Islam for some 300 years.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nYousef NATSHEH, Jerusalem  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"For nearly 300 years the Mamluk sultanate was one of the great powers of Islam. The Arabic word *mamluk* means ‘owned’, and in the context of Arab history denotes a foreign military slave acquired as an elite fighter answerable only to the sultan himself. Most Mamluks were Turks and Circassians from the Caucasus who converted to Islam, and they were trained to excel in the art of war. In AH 648 / AD 1250 a power vacuum among their Arab overlords enabled the Mamluks to establish their own rule. From now on the Mamluks began to build an empire that extended from Egypt, Palestine and Syria, to the Holy Cities of the Hijaz, over which they ruled supreme until 922 / 1517.  \nThe early years saw constant threats from foreign enemies, but the Mamluks succeeded in expelling both the Mongols, after a decisive defeat at 'Ayn Jalut in Palestine in 658 / 1260, and the Crusaders in 690 / 1291.  \nFirst and foremost, the Mamluks were champions of Islam. They revived the Caliphal seat in Cairo in 659 / 1261 after the first seat in Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 656 / 1258. They launched an unprecedented building programme of splendid mosques and religious endowments (*waqf*s) throughout the empire, each one a magnet attracting intellectual and scientific, as well as religious, endeavour.  \nInternationally, the Mamluk sultanate built strong ties with other Muslim powers including those in the Far East, Byzantium, France, Castile, Sicily, Genoa and Venice. Cairo became the hub of world trade. Exotic goods and artefacts from the East and West were bought and sold in her specialised markets (*suq*s), the vitality of which inspired local artisans.  \nEventually, Mamluk supremacy began to decline due both to the Europeans’ discovery of new trade routes around the Cape of Good Hope, and the expansion of Ottoman power, which finally terminated Mamluk rule in the early 10th / 16th century.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_mamluks/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/17/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":5}}},"00c4ec24-eae3-5f50-b012-fca1d0fc4b8b":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume"},"0227731c-df1e-5f3e-8a97-45ca3e10bf2a":{"title":"Discover Islamic Art","description":"Discover Islamic Art"},"a1627728-24d7-5242-9f95-1b065c869096":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"The Fatimids enjoyed the outdoor life, keeping well-maintained gardens and orchards. Visitors were invited to walk in the grounds to enjoy the decorative fountains and sounds of running water. Some royal residences had menageries that accommodated a variety of exotic animals and birds. Beyond the palace gates, royal and upper-class society pursued a variety of sports including hunting and horsemanship. Birds, hares and gazelles were pursued for sport using birds of prey, dogs and horses. Polo, mace-striking and spear-throwing were other favourite sports.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids enjoyed the outdoor life, keeping well-maintained gardens and orchards.’*"},"a52fece5-e533-5203-bd90-001ae174dfca":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture"},"746b43e3-b5fd-5bfd-8ecf-f3e9560860b0":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"The space within palatial enclosures was distributed hierarchically, depending on whether it was public or private. Private spaces included the royal residence, located in the most central and inaccessible part of the enclosure, designed also to accommodate the sovereign's extended family. It was split into residential units arranged around courtyards with porticos that gave access to the private rooms. These always included a main room with adjacent bedrooms, all richly furnished and decorated for receiving the most intimate of guests and holding private parties.","quote":"*The private areas of the palace.*"},"e6ad56f0-f7ef-58c5-8cd7-b611edb41a00":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Following his capture of Damascus in 547 / 1154, Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi united Syria and many of the cities became political, economic and cultural centres each with its own thriving court life. The Atabegs and Ayyubids were dedicated patrons of architecture, restoring city walls and citadels, commissioning new *madrasa*s, *bimaristan*s, *hammam*s, *suq*s (markets) and mosques. Palaces were furnished with sumptuous carpets, fine metalwork and glass vessels.","quote":"‘Palaces were filled with sumptuous carpets, fine metalwork and glass vessels.’"},"7f51c07a-1225-5789-b81c-1f76126498a2":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"As a whole, palaces were the real place of representation where power was exercised, with the sovereign publicly imparting justice or receiving administrators or ambassadors according to strict protocol. They consisted of sumptuous monumental spaces where state business was carried out in large, richly appointed rooms around garden courtyards. These spaces were accessed via long and complex routes, not just to improve security, but also to symbolise the inaccessibility of power.","quote":"*Palaces, the real seats of power.*"},"e227dc1b-85f9-5719-a57f-69b159c22d02":{"title":"Court Life","description":"There was no central court in Syria and Northern Iraq during the 4th–6th / 10th–12th centuries, rather a plethora of smaller courts co-existed with complex political alliances. The rulers often began as *atabegs* appointed by the Seljuqs of Iran (r. 429–590 / 1038–1194), but they soon established courts of their own. They built their palaces within citadels to protect them from the constant threat of the Crusaders, the best surviving example of which is the palace within Aleppo Citadel.","quote":"‘A plethora of smaller courts co-existed, with complex political alliances.’"},"18c44ba9-f8fa-5fdd-99a2-a8b6f034044a":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Trees with sweet-scented blossoms and plentiful ripe fruit play a central role in literary depictions of the Islamic Paradise. The palm tree occupies a special place. One tradition describes it as man's aunt, created out of the clay left after God's creation of Adam. According to another, the Prophet Muhammad associated the palm tree with Paradise. Reference is also made to the pomegranate tree and the mystical tuba tree, a Cyprus-like tree-of-life, placed at the heart of Paradise.","quote":"*‘Trees with sweet-scented blossoms and plentiful ripe fruit play a special role.’*"},"caca8135-e85b-5bcb-8988-35e33bc14f08":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Ayyubids and Atabeg Zangids incorporates a number of transitional features that connect it to late Fatimid and early Mamluk architecture, and therefore provides a level of continuity with both traditions.  \n  \nIn terms of building materials, stone is widely used in these architectural traditions since it is commonly available in the regions under Zangid and Ayyubid rule, Greater Syria and Egypt, and these architectural traditions do in fact provide some very high-quality stonework. Brick and stucco are more common in eastern Syria.  \n  \nThe arrangement to reconcile the different directions of the street and the *qibla* developed during the late Fatimid period becomes more commonplace during the Ayyubid period. Moreover, the broken-axis plan, developed earlier in the Fatimid Aqmar Mosque and used to connect the street to the interior of the structure in order to achieve the transition between the two directions, becomes more intricate.  \n  \nA variety of minaret shapes appear during this period. Some consist of a square section, others of a circular one, while others feature a combination of a square section at the lower part of the shaft, and an octagonal or circular one at the top.  \n  \nThe use of the *muqarnas* is commonplace during the period, especially for vaulting, and features some of the earliest surviving examples of stone *muqarnas* compositions. Also, the use of the *ablaq* technique for facades (rows of stone in alternating colours) appears towards the end of the Ayyubid period. The technique is later used extensively by the Mamluks.  \n  \nThe Ayyubids left an impressive tradition of military architecture, built primarily in response to their struggle with the Crusaders. In fact, a number of fortresses built originally by the Crusaders were later taken over by the Ayyubids, who carried out considerable renovation and expansion on them. The fortresses of the Ayyubids were larger than those of preceding periods and they had thicker walls. They included features such as double and bent entrances, arrow slits that reached to the floor, the use of machicoulis, and gates decorated with talismanic figures such as snakes, dragons and lions. Another important development of the Ayyubid period is that the rulers of the time placed their residential palaces inside their citadels.  \n  \nThe *madrasa* emerged as an important component of the architectural heritage of the Zangids and Ayyubids. In fact, one of the earliest surviving examples of a *madrasa* anywhere in the Islamic world is a Zangid monument. The development of the *madrasa* was closely connected to supporting the teaching of Sunni Islam, in which the Zangids and Ayyubids were actively engaged. In plan, Ayyubid *madrasas* generally consist of a courtyard surrounded by two to four *iwans* (a vaulted space that is walled on three sides and open to a courtyard on the fourth), as well as smaller cells consisting of living units for the *madrasa*'s students and teachers. With time, the four-*iwan* plan became predominant. The Ayyubids also introduced a combination of mausoleum and *madrasa* towards the end of their rule. This combination was used extensively by the Mamluks after them."},"5143a580-5e9d-5338-aa83-89eaf0f30e05":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"In places where there were no Muslim palaces to occupy, the Christian kings and noblemen erected new palaces in their image. The King of Castile, Pedro I, is the best example of the Christian aristocracy's taste for Islamicised ways of life and the settings for them. The palaces at Tordesillas and Astudillo reflect the king's desire to build them in the style of contemporary Nasrid buildings, which may have been achieved with the help of craftsmen sent from Granada by his friend King Muhammad V.","quote":"*New Mudéjar palaces*"},"e2c12e55-44f5-5291-ad8b-8fa7958dbad2":{"title":"Artistic Introduction","description":"It is a challenging task to describe in words the visual features that differentiate a certain artistic tradition. There are no universal rules that fully apply to a given tradition since the visual features of that tradition will include considerable diversity based on changes in time and place. For every rule put forward, there will be exceptions. Still, the overall guidelines provided below will help readers to begin to visually identify the various traditions of Islamic architecture in the Mediterranean region. In developing these guidelines, an attempt has been made to identify features characteristic of each tradition including commonly used materials, forms and planning arrangements, building types, decorative motifs and techniques, as well as influences from other traditions.","extra":{"credits":"This General Introduction is prepared by:  \nMohammad Al-Asad (Monuments)  \nBarry Wood (Objects)","subtitle":"Islamic Art in the Mediterranean"}},"664da959-c73e-5c6a-8641-060470f0010e":{"title":"Mudéjar Art","description":"Mudéjar art arose from a set of historical circumstances unique to the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The most noteworthy aspect of Mudéjar art is its singularity. It cannot be compared to any other artistic style, whether Islamic or Christian, as it arose from a set of historical circumstances that were unique to the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages.  \nEffectively, when the Christian kings re-conquered the lands of al-Andalus, they had some difficulty repopulating immediately, and consequently they allowed Muslims to stay in the newly conquered territories, retaining their religion, language and system of laws. These Mudéjars, Muslims in Christian lands, joined the new society, worked for its elite and contributed Islamic customs and art, whose colours, exoticism, luxury and refinement fascinated Christian kings and noblemen.  \nMudéjar art is easily recognisable by the perfect integration of the materials used (brick, plaster, wood and ceramic), the specific techniques used to work them and the decorative motifs taken from Islamic aesthetics. Mudéjar art should be seen as the survival of Islamic art in Christian society, although this interpretation is only valid from a formal point of view as the Islamic decorative and structural forms in Mudéjar art express the thoughts and values of Christian and not Islamic culture.  \nElements of Islamic art combined perfectly with the Western artistic tradition to create a new form which differed depending on whether the combination was based on Romanesque, Gothic or Renaissance art. As a result, strictly speaking, Mudéjar art did not belong to either the Islamic or Christian artistic traditions. A link between two cultures, Mudéjar art became the artistic expression of a complex society in which Jews, Christians and Muslims lived side by side. This makes it a unique phenomenon in the history of art.  \nThe Mudéjar style declined during the AH 10th / AD 16th century and finally disappeared with the expulsion of the *Morisco*s in 1017 / 1609. Nonetheless, Mudéjar culture continued to satisfy the taste for a sort of 'Baroque style' until the advent of Baroque itself.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/mudejar_art/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/26/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":17}}},"120cbd81-d9a2-540e-a178-dc11c283fc2d":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women"},"4a1c6f21-6004-562f-a51b-159ea077a327":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"Taking the deceased to their final resting place is a simple and unceremonious affair in the Muslim West. Muslim cemeteries are found outside towns, but near enough to enable friends and relatives to visit. Family graves are often visited before Friday prayers and verses from the Qur'an are read. The only exception is for members of the royal family who are buried within the palace complex. In all cases, the dead are buried face up on their right side facing Mecca.","quote":"*Funerary spaces: necropolises.*"},"646ebdd8-a486-5d6b-8cd6-0d16de835996":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Another contemporary historian and traveller, al-Hurawy (d. 611 / 1215) recalls seeing the Crusader metal grille around the rock: ‘I saw this rock at the time of the Franks; it was north of this dome [of the Aqsa Mosque] and was surrounded by an iron fence like a house is. The height of this iron fence which encloses the rock is two fathoms’.","quote":"“‘*The height of this iron fence which encloses the rock is two fathoms.’”*"},"282bf248-cb40-5b24-9d50-166d75b8a10e":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade"},"f9582527-5e66-53ac-b264-520c2d4cf28b":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics"},"7bb30298-992c-56ba-a331-b96f90384fbb":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity","description":"Paradoxically, it was the Christian kingdom of the Normans that left Sicily with some of the most valuable examples of Islamic art to be found in the Mediterranean basin, albeit with the addition of classical, Byzantine and Iranian elements. Instead of seeking to antagonise its predecessors, the new dynasty consciously assimilated Islamic culture and customs, looking to the contemporary Muslim world for the refined culture that it could offer. Contact between the cultures was not limited to Muslims who had remained on the island, but most notably extended to the relationship between the Norman court and the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo, which is evident from diplomatic and commercial relations and even in the exchange of gifts, such as those between Caliph al-Hafiz (r. 1131–49) and Ruggero II. It is highly likely that some of the craftsmen employed in the royal Norman workshops came from Egypt.","quote":"*'It was the Normans that left Sicily with some of the most valuable examples of Islamic art.'*"},"7692a7a1-79fd-59fc-afcb-e772f94cb93c":{"title":"Crusader Art"},"5ff53527-c223-5816-b616-a7a036304f06":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"The minimalist, angular *kufic* script was the first style of Arabic calligraphy to appear on monuments. It then developed in the 5th / 11th century to become foliated and to include floral ornamentation on the tips of the letters, such as seen on the *m**aqsura* (the space reserved for the caliph or *imam)* in the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Although *kufic* script – with its horizontal and vertical lines – perfectly complemented a number of architectural features in buildings, especially pillars and supports, from the 6th / 12th century monuments were also decorated with other styles of Arabic calligraphy such as the more lenient *naskhi* script, as seen on the Khanqah (hostel) of Sultan Baybars in Egypt.","quote":"*‘Minimalist, angular* kufic *script was the first style of Arabic calligraphy to appear on monuments.’*"},"67d05c74-9479-5504-9b95-28708620c776":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"In Syria, Damascus shone as the second most important political, artistic and intellectual centre in the Mamluk sultanate; a veritable hub of religious discourse and scientific advancement. Many seminal books on medicine, geography and other natural sciences were copied and illustrated in its noteworthy *madrasa*s and institutes of higher education.","quote":"*‘Damascus* *shone as the second most important political, artistic and intellectual centre in the Mamluk sultanate.’*"},"57d4f9c5-7846-5502-a124-d07a4d4ecfee":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Travel was perilous during the Middle Ages and most of the trade and pilgrimage routes between the Mediterranean, Central Asia and Arabia were extremely dangerous. As the Frankish Crusaders attacked, these routes became even more unstable. Castles and citadels were built at strategic points, such as those at Karak and Shawbak in Jordan. Despite the political antagonism, Muslims and Franks traded with each other, crossing each others’ territories and imposing taxes on each other.","quote":"*‘Despite the political antagonism, Muslims and Franks traded with each other.’*"},"9eda6137-9ad8-5a22-8512-44e4bf96b330":{"title":"The Umayyads"},"24dccfe7-0ad7-552e-aa3d-ebae78f613d0":{"title":"Court Life","description":"The Topkapı Palace was the governmental centre and residence of the imperial family. It was founded on an area of the Istanbul peninsula which commands views of the Golden Horn on one side, and the Bosphorus Strait and the Sea of Marmara, on the other. It is a complex of buildings in three parts (*birun*, *enderun* and *harem*) situated within large gardens.  \nThe *birun* is between the first gate, Bab-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate), and the third gate, Babü’s-Saade (Gate of Felicity). The first courtyard accommodated the service buildings, the imperial mint, military barracks, ministries and other governmental offices. The second courtyard was called Alay Meydanı and housed the Divan-ı Hümayun – also called ‘Under the Dome’ – the treasury, the kitchens, stables and the entrance to the *harem*.  \nCeremonies, for instance enthronement, the royal hearing in case of emergencies known as Alay Divanı (Assembly on Foot) and the celebration of feasts, were made in front of the Gate of Felicity. The sultan’s throne was also placed near the Gate; and the Holy Flag (Sancak-ı Şerif), the very symbol of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph, was raised here when it was taken out of the Pavilion of the Holy Mantel on ceremonial occasions.","quote":"*‘The Topkapı Palace was the governmental centre and residence of the imperial family.’*"},"fb7529af-c345-5f7f-84b9-097ce4ffba20":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles"},"e0fad146-3560-5ca0-86d7-06707053fbef":{"title":"Pilgrimage","description":"'Pilgrimage is perhaps the most emotionally profound element in the religious practice of Jews, Christians and Muslims, leading believers to the Holy Sites and spiritual fulfilment.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nYousef NATSHEH, Jerusalem  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Pilgrimage is a fundamental element in the religious practice of the three monotheistic religions: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.  \nIn Islam, pilgrimage (*al-Hajj*), is a religious duty that forms the fifth and final pillar of Islam, the others being: the Profession of the Faith (*Shahada*: 'there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah'; the five daily prayers; *zakat* or almsgiving; and fasting during the Islamic month of Ramadan. The Qur'an describes the *Hajj* and instructs: 'And *Hajj* to the *Ka'ba* is a duty that mankind owes to Allah.' (III: 97), while the Prophet's Traditions (*Sunna*) further elaborate on the details. Consequently, every Muslim, who is physically able and who has the necessary resources must perform the *Hajj* at least once in a lifetime. According to Muslim belief the sanctuary (*Haram;* that is the Holy Precinct at Mecca) was originally built by Abraham and his son Isma'il (also known as Ishmael), both of whom were venerated prior to Islam, just as they were following its emergence.  \nWhen the faith of Islam emerged, religious pilgrimage came to be practiced with clearly defined rituals specified in the Qur'an and in the *Sunna*. The Islamic pilgrimage with its complex rituals takes place in the two Islamic months of *Dhu al-Qa'ada* and *Dhu al-Hijja*. The pilgrimage begins with adopting a state of purity by abandoning ordinary clothes and adopting *ihram*, a uniform outfit of two white un-sewn pieces of cloth, worn by all men, rich or poor (for women the garments are sewn). For the duration of the *Hajj* period the believer must remain pure, both spiritually and physically. In the *Haram* at Mecca, pilgrims walk around the Holy *Ka'ba* seven times (*Tawaf*) before performing *al-Sa'yi*, a ritual walk between two hills within the mosque complex known as *al-Safaa* and *al–Marwah*. On the ninth day of *Dhu al-Hijja* pilgrims assemble on Mount Arafat to pray and ask Allah for forgiveness. The *Hajj* culminates in *Eid al-Adha* (the Feast of Sacrifice) on the tenth day of *Dhu al-Hijja*, the most important Muslim festival. The *Hajj* is the greatest experience in a Muslim's lifetime and affords believers the possibility to ask for forgiveness of their sins and return to their lives renewed and purified.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/pilgrimage/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/29/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":8}}},"50e6c016-c07c-59ca-a932-af7736a9bcd6":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Fatimids combines elements from the architecture of Syria, Iraq and Iran in Asia to the east, with elements from North Africa to the west. It is primarily stone-built architecture. In Cairo, the city that the Fatimids established as their capital in 358 / 969, they sometimes re-used stone from Pharonic monuments, as well as column capitals and shafts from classical architecture. Brick is used as a structural material, but is usually sheathed in a carved decorative layer of stone or stucco. Carved wood is used for elements such as doors, panels and ceiling beams.  \n  \nThe Fatimid period maintained the traditional hypostyle-mosque planning arrangement. However, the minaret, which evolved as a standard architectural element in Abbasid religious architecture, is used only infrequently in Fatimid architecture. The architecture of the Fatimids also provides one of the first known examples of religious Islamic architecture anywhere to align the façade of the mosque with the street. Thus it reconciles the different directions of the adjacent street and the *qibla* by use of a triangular-plan section, which includes a broken entry axis connecting the street to the prayer hall.  \n  \nThe keel-shaped arch emerges as a common feature in Fatimid architecture, and the dome sometimes incorporates a keel-shaped profile. The Fatimid dome usually rests on squinches or a series of niches, which allows for the transition from the square base of the domed space to the circular outline of the dome.  \n  \nFoliated *kufic* calligraphy is used widely in building inscriptions. Fluted decoration is common for arches and domes. Windows are often placed within façade recesses. Arabesque, vegetal and geometric patterns, which are executed in marble, stucco, stone or wood, are common and, in earlier examples of Fatimid art and architecture at least, show the influence of Abbasid models as they emerged in Iraq, and also under the Aghlabids in Tunisia and the Tulunids in Egypt."},"1abd2666-7a05-5c9a-8f4d-991a0fac4643":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Accounts in Ibn Jubayr’s *Travels* and in Usamah Ibn Munqidh’s *Memoirs*, present the perspective of the Muslim community. The writer, diplomat and politician Usamah (487–583 / 1095–1188), who lived at Shayzar Castle, was personally acquainted with Nur al-Din and Saladin, as well as their Frankish opponents. He describes a visit to Jerusalem: ‘When I used to enter the Aqsa Mosque, which was occupied by the Templars, who were my friends, the Templars would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I might pray in it.’ One day as Usamah stood to pray a Frank interrupted his prayers and forced him to pray towards the east. Usamah’s Templar friends repelled the Frank and apologised to him saying ‘“This is a stranger who has only recently arrived from the land of the Franks and he has never before seen anyone praying except eastward.”’","quote":"*‘“The Templars would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I might pray in it.’*”"},"fc7c939a-850e-5462-8ba3-c2aa03ed101f":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer"},"d0f2de47-bb3f-5401-adda-d70b0bdc2f1c":{"title":"Animal Representation"},"c1e27de3-f47f-5dbf-a939-9b3c100f2f30":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"For the Umayyads architectural patronage was a demonstration of the power of the new faith in general and their own dynasty in particular. Umayyad patronage included major religious buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, and the Great Mosque of Damascus.  \nThe mosque as an architectural type unique to Islam was created during the pre-Umayyad period on the basis of the House of the Prophet in Medina. The Umayyads contributed new features that in time became characteristic components of every mosque: the *minaret* (symbolic of the presence of Islam and from which the call to prayer is made); the *mihrab* (to symbolise the presence of the Prophet) and the *maqsura* (an enclosed space reserved for the *imam*, the leader of prayers, or caliph) next to the *mihrab*.","quote":"‘Architectural patronage was a demonstration of the power of the new faith.’"},"7ca8b514-16be-5930-b8ed-1c96b7324e76":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Muslim women generously provided patronage for the interior enhancement of religious buildings; in the supply of elegant Qur’ans and other high-quality mosque furnishings. One of the most admirable is the intricate, inlaid-teak prayer niche for the shrine of Sayyida Ruqayya, the patron of which was the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah in 527 / 1133. There are a number of Qur’anic manuscripts commissioned by Zirid princesses that were intended for use in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, among them Umm Milal’s Qur’an and that of Umm al-‘Ilu, the sister of the Zirid prince al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis. A third manuscript was presented by Fatima, governess to the prince Badis Bin al-Mansur.","quote":"*‘Muslim women generously provided patronage for the interior enhancement of religious buildings.’*"},"2fd1d033-a4f2-567f-b9d5-a05f8479663e":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an"},"f049cf8d-e79d-5896-ac15-489e32164b03":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"The Mudéjar style evident in Toledo shows the influence of the Castilian Mudéjar style in its blind, brick arcades, alongside elements of Almohad and European Gothic art, which are also influential in Mudéjar art in Extremadura. Its defining traits include walls constructed of alternating brick and masonry, façades with friezes of interlinked arches, apertures with framed horseshoe arches, and brick-built bell towers erected on top of masonry cubes sited away from the church as if they were minarets.","quote":"*Mudéjar art in Toledo: the elegance of the brick Gothic style.*"},"42f06353-5ef7-51e7-934c-e5dc0f69f7b4":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"The town of Byzantium, chosen as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine, continued to develop as Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. In addition to its strategic location, the city attracted attention worldwide due to its fascinating monuments, including the Church of Hagia Sophia. Constantinople resisted several sieges by the Muslim Arabs, but suffered greatly during the Fourth Crusade. After centuries of resistance to invasion, the city was finally conquered by Sultan Mehmed II in 857 / 1453. When the Ottomans conquered the Mamluks in 923 / 1517 and took the title of caliph, their capital became the centre of the Islamic world and was known by the names: Konstantiniyye, Asitane, Dersaadet and Istanbul.  Istanbul was the Ottoman capital until 1922; for 400 years each sultan had adorned the city with new monuments and updated the infrastructure.","quote":"*‘For 400 years each sultan had adorned Istanbul with new monuments and updated the infrastructure.’*"},"1b29b6a7-7dc6-567b-aaf0-cbfc9c64fc07":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"Saladin’s prominence grew during the struggle for Egypt while Nur al-Din was still alive. After Nur al-Din’s death in 569 / 1174, Saladin spent 10 years fighting fellow Muslims and consolidating his army. Having unified Syria and Egypt, and following his capture of Aleppo in 579 / 1183, Saladin focussed on expelling the Franks. His first major victory against them was at the Battle of Hittin in 583 / 1187. This opened the way to advance with his army towards Jerusalem, which he captured later that year.","quote":"*‘Having unified Syria and Egypt, Saladin focussed on expelling the Franks.’*"},"fde9c1e2-a19a-570e-98f7-a4cd5e14c12e":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"Literary sources indicate that there were two types of audience: public (*majlis al-\\`amm*) and private (*khass*), the latter restricted to the closest aides and counsellors. During the audience the caliph or his representative would sit on an elevated throne (*sarir*), while the audience would be seated according to rank. Some buildings, like Qusayr \\`Amra, Khirbet al-Mafjar near Jericho, and Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in Syria, have extensive iconographic programs showing musicians, dancers and female gift-bearers, pastimes that became an integral part of Umayyad court life.","quote":"*‘During the audience the caliph or his representative would sit on an elevated throne.’*"},"6e7d4f2d-b957-51ff-b7ba-274922d1bffb":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"One of the most attractive groups of Mudéjar ceramics consists of dishes and braziers, the surfaces of which were completely decorated with geometric and epigraphic patterns, egg-and-dart motifs and curved triangles repeated over and over again, creating a feeling of movement. The originality of the composition, of western origin, is found in the unity of the whole, which is arranged around an imposing central bulge. These dishes, with a boss and egg-and-dart motifs in relief, were produced by casting and were more luxury than practical items.","quote":"*'These dishes, with a boss and egg-and-dart motifs in relief, were luxury items.'*"},"17b8ce1b-11e8-500c-ba13-dd3af722e3b4":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"The Mamluk sultan also acted as commander-in-chief of his armies and was a major player in the realm of international diplomacy. The sultan’s authority and glory was expressed in elaborate ceremonials, magnificent courtly surroundings and privileged pastimes, such as falconry and hunting.","quote":"*‘The Sultan’s authority was expressed in ceremonials and magnificent courtly surroundings.’*"},"527ffe44-a653-52d5-b537-96b6f979648a":{"title":"Syria","description":"During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire needed to meet the challenge of an increasingly powerful, prosperous and industrial Europe. Traditional *madrasa*s and mosques were no longer considered sufficient as educational institution for a modern society. Madrasa Jaqmaqiyya, for example, was transformed into a new kind of civil prep school called Maktab Rushdiyya. It taught Ottoman and European history, literary and official writing, and a variety of languages including French, Ottoman and Persian, but neither the Arabic language nor Arab history was on offer.  \nBy the early 20th century, these reforms began to backfire as Christian minorities and non-Turkish Muslim majorities called for individuation and free expression rather than unity and obedience. In Damascus, Maktab Anbar became a new educational centre and a focal point for Arab political awakening.","quote":"‘During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire needed to meet the challenge of an increasingly powerful, prosperous and industrial Europe.’"},"071e3e6e-8e36-5c3c-8643-17ee9ac60138":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"The Ottoman Empire was a centralised state run by officials who were specially educated at the court. This system had a profound affect on Ottoman art by providing a uniform decorative style throughout the vast Ottoman lands. The architects and craftsmen who ornamented the Topkapı Palace, and who also worked in Istanbul and in the rest of the empire, were under the control of the Imperial Head Architect.  \nArtist’s workshops (ateliers) were first established in Edirne then, following the conquest of Istanbul, were set up in the Topkapı Palace. But the systematic organisation of craftsmen began in the early 9th / 15th century. Sometimes craftsmen from the guilds in Istanbul, or an artisan from another part of the empire, would opt to work within a particular workshop on invitation.","quote":"*‘The centralised system provided a uniform decorative style throughout the vast Ottoman lands.’*"},"0e4ca3d5-ad07-5906-884a-7b4b89c83f5c":{"title":"Egypt"},"982c8126-411c-56dc-8e82-defe108e4e2e":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"The beauty and craftsmanship of Islamic art has been appreciated in the West for centuries. In the Middle Ages, for example, textiles and decorative arts from the Middle East were prized additions to the treasuries of churches. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the world economic system, the products of the flourishing Ottoman crafts industries created demand worldwide. As a result, much of the Ottoman art that has come down to us today was originally produced for export. The image of the Ottoman Empire as a land of wealth and luxury derives largely from such artworks obtained through a network of bazaars and *han*s.","quote":"‘*The products of the flourishing Ottoman crafts industries created demand worldwide*.’"},"8d1948a8-5d3f-58f4-be9a-e443a4b2078b":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"The scientific knowledge developed by the Muslims was considered the most advanced in the world. The conquest of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires and access to their libraries allowed Muslims to make translations and take on all of the knowledge of classical and Eastern antiquity recorded in the literature, and from there to develop all areas of their own knowledge, including religious studies, the basis of all scientific learning.","quote":"*Madrasas: centres of higher learning*"},"19908cb0-74da-580e-b6b3-2b320477903e":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"Due to the vast size of the Abbasid Empire and the presence of several rival Islamic powers on the doorstep in 184 / 800 the Abbasids established the Aghlabid principality in North Africa to deal with the Umayyads in al-Andalus and the Idrisids in Morocco. The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 170–93 / 786–809) gave Ifriqiya (Tunisia) to Ibrahim Ibn al-Aghlab as a hereditary principality to rule. The Aghlabids became the vassals of the Abbasids in Ifriqiya between the years 184 / 800 and 296 / 909. They rebuilt several cities and constructed many military fortifications along the Ifriqiyan coast to rebuke the Byzantines who had conquered Sicily several centuries before. They also organised civic affairs and developed communication routes between North Africa and the Middle East.","quote":"**‘Caliph Harun Al-Rashid gave Ifriqiya to Ibrahim Ibn al-Aghlab as a hereditary principality to rule.’*  \n*"},"c6bda72b-5fc2-5242-a86c-73e57fb7f25b":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"In addition to central North Africa, Malta, Sicily and southern Italy became part of the Aghlabid domain. They considered themselves as vassals of the Abbasids, although with great autonomy, and they maintained their links with Baghdad – the Abbasid capital – with many commercial and scientific convoys despatched and received, including one that brought back the lustre tiles used to decorate the *mihrab* (prayer niche) of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. In return for Aghlabid loyalty, the Abbasid Caliph al-Musta‘in (r. 248–52 / 862–66) ordered the construction of the dome above the *mihrab* in the Great Mosque of Zaytuna.","quote":"*‘The Aghlabids conducted themselves in the image of their patrons – the Abbasid caliphs.’*"},"01b9c0b5-6a02-5be0-aa1a-2dead40ce2ff":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Alongside the tulip, the carnation was another flower employed to poetically recall Divine beauty and evoke spiritual contemplation. Consequently, it, too, occurs frequently in Islamic and particularly Ottoman art. Not all flowers and plants, however, had their origins within the cultural context of the Islamic world. The image of the vine stock abundant in grapes and with the associations of fertility and eternal life, represent a survival from Hellenistic times, while the lotus, an Eastern symbol of spiritual purity, was introduced to Islamic art by the Mongols in the 7th / 13th century.","quote":"*‘Not all flowers and plants had their origins within the cultural context of the Islamic world.’*"},"fc555000-73aa-597e-83a9-aecade079247":{"title":"Defence","description":"Fortifications in the Muslim West were erected for two reasons: to defend borders and to consolidate power over conquered lands that were continually threatened by internal conflicts. Construction of defensive structures was initially sporadic and designed to suppress rebellious local populations. More complex defensive systems were subsequently developed throughout the West under Almohad rule, and were later adapted to counter new attacking strategies that employed catapults, battering rams and assault towers.","quote":"*The establishment of a defensive system.*"},"91a64bcb-07fa-5fe8-a772-1643e67fe98b":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Because water is scarce in desert regions, and thus valuable, the implements with which people drink and wash are often ornately decorated. In wealthy households – such as that of a Mamluk governor of Qus in Upper Egypt – water would have been poured over guest’s hands from inlaid metal ewers and into basins for washing before and after meals. Often, Mamluk inlaid-metal basins are decorated with a whorl of fish on the inside base so that when the basin is filled with water, the fish appear to be swimming. Likewise, fish are among the motifs found in Mamluk green-glazed pottery which imitates Chinese celadon wares.","quote":"*‘Water is scarce in desert regions, and thus valuable.’*"},"196db830-546b-584c-a36c-48974bbb7a0a":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"With the caliphate based in Cairo, Muslim rulers from all over the Islamic world looked to Egypt for legitimisation of their reign. Throughout the empire, energetic Mamluk sultans like Baybars I, Qalawun, Nasr al-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun, Hassan and Qaytbay, initiated the building of splendid mosques and religious institutions, and commissioned magnificent Qur’an manuscripts and mosque furnishings to grace their interiors.","quote":"*‘Mamluk sultans initiated the building of splendid mosques and religious institutions.’*"},"89e7d33e-fcb7-5aa7-9d7f-b32dc0373d7c":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"There are examples of religious institutions keeping holy objects from other religions, sometimes because of their historical value, occasionally because they could be reused and often simply because of their material value. This phenomenon tells us more about the varied culture and heritage of the Muslim West.","quote":"*Religious institutions as custodians of property*"},"6a1bdb93-67a9-5fa8-b419-7479fb504783":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"In the early years of Islam, *kufic* became the main calligraphic style employed for copying the Qur’an, it was used on coins and on architectural inscriptions. The *kufic* style went through several phases of development, from flat and stiff in shape – from which ‘*muhaqqaq*’ script was developed – to a more lenient phase, which subsequently led to the *thuluth*, *Maghrebi*, and *riqa’a* scripts. The various types of *kufic* script were gradually standardised, making it almost impossible to identify and attribute an inscription to a particular region by looking at the calligraphy alone.","quote":"*‘In the early years of Islam,* kufic *script became the main style of calligraphy employed to copy the Qur’an.’*"},"9829971b-8342-5ad0-adce-e00bc28b63c2":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Muslim culture has always expressed a profound love for plants and flowers, and gardens were carefully cultivated. Many plants were chosen not only for their beauty or health-enhancing properties but also for their religious or poetic significance. As miracles of nature, they were yet another sign of the creative and life-giving powers of Allah. Their flowering and dying away every year invited contemplation of the human condition and Islam's promise of resurrection and eternal life in Paradise for all true believers.","quote":"*‘Individual plants and flowers were often chosen for their religious or poetic significance.’*"},"c847fdb4-fe99-5430-96ad-f2a1a1bedc31":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"A new type of stele appeared under the Almoravids, first in al-Andalus and then in the Maghreb. This type was characterised by a carved decorative horseshoe arch supported on columns as a symbolic representation of the *mihrab*. A funerary inscription would appear within the arch, which in the example seen here (as in others), is limited to the name, lineage and titles of the deceased, the date of death, the profession of faith (*Shahada*), verses from the Qur'an and religious invocations.","quote":"*Decorative headstones*"},"22ad153f-423c-5508-a362-937e5100efd8":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"The success of the cavalry came about from intense practice and good quality equipment. The soldiers trained in a hippodrome (*maydan*) where they carried out gruelling drills and took part in competitive sports including polo and javelin- or mace-throwing. In battle the Turkish soldiers employed a combination of tactics, using archery from a distance, and the lance or sword at closer range. Both Arab and Turkish warriors were adept with the lance, able to strike an enemy at close range while travelling at full speed. Swords were cherished weapons often identified by their place of origin and the suppleness or hardness of the metal employed. Shields were usually circular for Muslim soldiers, but kite-shaped shields were popular among the Muslim, Byzantine and Frankish military.","quote":"*‘Swords were identified by their place of origin and the suppleness or hardness of the metal.’*"},"5374f1d7-28b8-5e64-8bb8-d12ba84fb6a1":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection"},"ca03bc94-3139-59a8-a6bb-af5e1368a210":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"Considering the sacred nature of the book, illuminators took great care in the decoration of the first (*fatiha*) and last (*khatima*) pages, the whole of which was often illuminated. The beginning of a verse (*sura*) was often marked with a cartouche, and pages would sometimes be framed with more or less elaborate geometric patterns. The date and place of manufacture, and occasionally the recipient, would normally be indicated on the colophon.","quote":"*‘Illuminators took great care in the decoration of the first* (*fatiha*) *and last pages* (*khatima*)*.’*"},"2c60ed37-eb2d-5736-98a0-24252466e0a4":{"title":"Western Influence in Ottoman Lands","description":"From the 19th century on, the Ottoman Empire began to adopt a centralised system of government for the sake of modernisation.","extra":{"credits":"Western Influence in Ottoman Lands  \n  \nCurators & authors  \nMohamed ABBAS, Cairo  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \n  \nCoordination  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nFor Arabic, English, French and Turkish:  \nPlease refer to [General Credits](https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/mwnf_credit.php)  \nGerman: Merve Tolaman (translation); Eva Schubert (editor)  \nItalian: Lavinia Amenduni  \nPortuguese: Geisa Cristina Santos Carneiro Williams (translation); Cristina Correia (editor)  \nSpanish: Arantza Morales  \nSwedish: Lisa Lindström","intro_text":"The Ottoman Empire embraced not only what we know today as the Republic of Turkey but also a much wider geographic area comprising peoples of multi-ethnic origins, speaking a number of languages and from a diversity of religions. Within this variety, it was inevitable that Western influences should appear at different times and in a number of ways during the 18th and 19th centuries during a time that is known today as the Westernisation period of the Ottoman Empire.  \nUp until the 19th century, the empire consisted of provinces ruled by *beglerbegs* and *sanjaqs* ruled by *sanjaqbegs*, appointed by the Sultans.  \nWithin this system, local communities, religious groups and *waqf*s facilitated some of the empire's business, which led to a synthesis of the Ottoman taste fused with local features in both the art and architecture. From the 19th century on, the Ottoman Empire began to adopt a centralised system of government for the sake of modernisation. Within the new centralised system, a tighter control over the provinces came about with construction of public and governmental buildings undertaken directly by the empire. In this way, whilst the first concretely Western-influenced architectural samples had already been erected in Istanbul and Anatolia in the 18th century, influences began to be seen from 19th century on in other regions. Another important factor of Western influence, which brought about some other substantial changes in the empire, was the improvement in direct relations between the major cities of the empire and Europe.  \nDuring the period of Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor who established an autonomous state in Egypt for a while, a strong political and commercial relationship with Europe was established in the region. This relationship was strongly reflected in Istanbul seen in the influences brought by the Egyptian elite who resided there during the summertime. Although the western area of North Africa comprised three provinces: Trablusgarb (today known as Libya), Tunisia and Algeria, all of which regions had governors sent by Istanbul, the real authorities of those regions were the local rulers called *deys* who were known throughout Europe through direct contact. The change in the administrative and social system of the region helped to establish and accelerate the spread of Western culture within the Ottoman Empire.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/western_influence/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/42/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":18}}},"55b7928a-e3bd-5865-b4c6-975a8167121f":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Often the notion of the paradisiacal Tree-of-Life is alluded to in Islamic art without depicting a specific type of tree. Stylised images do, however, always evoke lushness, a profusion of shade-giving leafy branches and fertility. Sometimes, the image of the tree is replaced by a luxurious vase that holds an exuberant, colourful bouquet of flowers. This motif goes back to pre-Islamic, Hellenistic notions of the Font-of-Life. It recalls both expensive flower displays in the arcades of Islamic garden pavilions, and the floral delights in the Garden of Paradise.","quote":"*‘Images of the paradisiacal Tree-of-Life evoke lushness, a profusion of shade-giving leafy branches and fertility.’*"},"6780505e-c91f-5e51-8a78-74d186fc4a0b":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"The adoption in less fertile areas of irrigation and farming techniques based on a knowledge of the ancient world, along with other hydraulic engineering projects of Iranian origin (such as the impressive network of *qanat*), were some of the more remarkable aspects of land organisation during the period of Islamic rule.","quote":"*'Farming and irrigation techniques were some of the more remarkable aspects of land organisation.'*"},"be3643d7-c50e-574a-9d16-2e5d7e04d722":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"The total prohibition of figurative representation in the Qur'an meant that only abstract motifs or 'illuminations', particularly geometrical ones, were used as decoration. This decorative work attracted a range of different artistic specialists, such as bookbinders, calligraphers and illuminators, and ended up spreading to other disciplines, such as weaving, metalwork, carpentry, monumental inscriptions and architectural decoration.  \nThe most common format used for Qur'ans was a vertical rectangle, although square and horizontal examples were made.","quote":"*‘The work of decorating the Qur’a attracted bookbinders, calligraphers and illuminators.’*"},"8c88e6e2-52cb-52db-ae22-4a2afe00294d":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"Inscriptions were also used as a decorative element in textiles, particularly *kufic* script on account of its rectilinear, angular and geometric forms. It tended to appear on fabrics in bands, although it could also be adapted to fit the different shapes formed by geometric motifs. Conversely, the spaces formed by the letters were sometimes decorated with geometric designs. Inscriptions on fabrics could indicate its place of manufacture, praise Allah or the sovereign, or reproduce Qur'anic verses and talismanic inscriptions or formulas.","quote":"*‘Inscriptions tended to appear on fabrics in bands.’*"},"da37f448-7c1f-5fc6-ac49-a3a689b3f87a":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"According to one scholar, the recurring themes of dancing females, hunting and music-making were not simply frivolous activities, but were reflections of royal pleasures and pastimes. These were enacted in what is called *majlis al-lahu* (a place used for ceremonial entertainment) in which the life of the prince was expressed through his association with hunting, banqueting and amusements such as dancing and singing, all of which were common at the Sassanian court, and served to glorify the prince and underline his greatness.","quote":"*‘The life of the prince was expressed through his association with hunting, banqueting and amusement.’*"},"39c2b16b-ece0-532b-b8a3-a71ce6678645":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"The sultans’ patronage of holy sites, the remit of which included places such as Jerusalem, showed itself in renovations, maintenance, restorations and donations. However, since in Arabia decisions over the holy sites rested with the local rulers, permission to build or to carry out works privileged the donor. In this respect, Ottoman commitment to the holy sites also signified their assertion of sovereignty over these cities.","quote":"*‘Ottoman commitment to holy sites signified their assertion of sovereignty over these cities.’*"},"01a3e026-0ee5-5a3c-ada4-056b1dbede4c":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"The aristocracy as a whole was attracted to the comfort and luxury of Muslim palaces, prompting them to build and decorate their homes in the new fashion, which had become a symbol of a certain social standing. Admiration of the lifestyle encouraged many to copy the typical Andalusian residence, covering walls with tall, tiled skirting boards, making more extensive use of wooden ceilings and decorating plasterwork with geometric, plant and epigraphic motifs typical of Islamic art, combined with coats of arms and inscriptions in Gothic script. Preference for this style also extended to other types of civic buildings such as universities.","quote":"*Mudéjar civic buildings*"},"6df85d25-d81f-566f-8e8a-02540066a550":{"title":"Turkey","description":"The process of change brought about by Westernisation can be considered in relation to the personalities of the sultans of the period, and accepted as a phenomenon parallel to their various cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking. As a result, Tanzimat Firman (1839) was declared bringing acceptance of Western principles and administrative organisation as it was applied to the Ottoman system.","quote":"‘...Tanzimat Firman (1839) was declared bringing acceptance of Western principles and administrative organisation as it was applied to the Ottoman system.’"},"72236f27-2ff3-5d56-a623-02606a2fa355":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity"},"ef4d7209-5b0a-59f3-aef9-3982ae097af6":{"title":"Art outside the Capital"},"8d71ce09-ebae-530f-ab2a-0c71746f1822":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest"},"aaf61a39-17ed-561e-8fc6-7e7f983d5ddd":{"title":"Egypt","description":"The economic, political and cultural degeneration that took place throughout the Ottoman lands during this period may have been the underlying cause of the Westernisation trend that was aimed at reform, and which was based on the adaptation of some features and elements of Islamic art alongside the prevailing European influences in all fields of art. The Westernised elements of buildings and palaces offered a magnificence and opulence cherished by the Ottoman sultans and kings, and this style prevailed over the Islamic elements such as *muqarnas*, geometric, vegetal and epigraphic motifs.","quote":"‘The Westernised elements of buildings and palaces offered a magnificence and opulence cherished by the Ottoman sultans and kings... ’"},"6f47a9bf-47af-5ba5-80f4-3405332e6bed":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"At the helm of the Mamluk institution was the sultan, himself a Mamluk, whose skills had marked him out for leadership among his peers. Every Mamluk sultan, irrespective of his individual ambitions, activities and interests, had certain overriding responsibilities inherent to his office. Most immediately, he was the supreme champion and defender of Sunni (Orthodox) Islam, protector of the Holy Cities and sites within the empire and guardian of the Islamic Caliphate, which thanks to Mamluk intervention was re-established in Cairo in 659 / 1261, after Baghdad had fallen to the Mongols three years earlier.","quote":"*‘The Mamluk Sultan was supreme champion of Islam, commander-in-chief, statesman and patron of the arts.’*"},"a558466d-1411-5f51-bb99-70959fe5d70a":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The decoration used on textiles, fabrics and rugs is dominated by plain bands, zigzags and boxes, with figurative representations such as heraldic animals, appearing at an early stage. Although these representations are schematic and flat, it is nonetheless possible to identify the ancient images from which they originate. The prevailing colours are different shades of blue, yellow and red, and gold and silver wire was often used to create stunning contrasts.  \nThe principal innovation in rug-making was the use of figurative representations so schematic that they became almost completely unrecognisable. The decorative field was often divided into polygonal medallions.","quote":"*‘Figurative representations such as heraldic animals were often used.’*"},"cd32f260-a216-5142-ba1e-9c46b541a116":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"After the Fatimid rise to power, the caliph al-Mahdi founded the capital, al-Mahdiyya, in 308 / 914, adopting an innovative town plan that reflected the centrality of the Shi‘ite caliph according to the Fatimid world view, a view that thenceforth affected the appearance of all Fatimid cities. The mosque, once at the very heart of urban living, gave way to the splendidly decorated, multi-storey palace of the caliph who was both political leader and spiritual figurehead of the Fatimid dynasty; it was he who now occupied the very heart of the city, his palace placed at the centre of the *kasbah* (citadel) and overlooking the main mosque near the city walls.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids adopted an innovative town plan that reflected the centrality of the Shi‘ite caliph.’*"},"cca743b1-59ef-5ca4-9e68-aacc9793e3f9":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"In the early 2nd / first half of the 8th century, the Umayyads dotted the Syrian steppes with luxurious, lavishly decorated palaces. It is these, rather than the urban palaces that provide us with an insight into Islamic art in its formative stages.","quote":"*‘Luxurious palaces decorated with coloured mosaics, fresco paintings, carved stucco and marble veneer.’*"},"8b555882-9559-52d8-ae93-cfbbd27f9bfe":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court"},"74c72f22-8df4-5152-a841-ae72115354c3":{"title":"Egypt","description":"Ottoman interest in European art, especially the Baroque and Rococo, began in the 17th century. Ottoman sultans were keen to introduce European elements into the decorative and minor arts and into architectural edifices, such as mosques and palaces. Adoption of the Western style increased in Egypt and elsewhere during the 18th and 19th centuries, as the Ottomans tended to commission European architects, builders and decorators whose constructions and the ornamentation of them was splendidly inspired by the Baroque and Rococo, and which are characterised by spiral and curving lines rather than straight edges. Protruding cornices formed of acanthus leaves replaced the Islamic *muqarnas* in some mosques, palaces and *sabil*s (water fountains). The known principles of Baroque and Rococo came into practice in Egypt, which was at that time one of the provinces under the Ottoman Empire. The French Expedition to Egypt in 1798–1801 contributed further to the diffusion of European influences evident mainly in the capital city of Cairo.","quote":"‘The known principles of Baroque and Rococo came into practice in Egypt, which was at that time one of the provinces under the Ottoman Empire. ’"},"27a7074c-9378-500f-b1ed-4b1612e2a219":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Some flowers were particularly popular and are represented repeatedly in the arts of the Muslim world. A particular favourite was the rose. In popular Islamic tradition the rose was created from a drop of sweat which the Prophet Muhammad lost during his miraculous night journey to Paradise. It also symbolises the unity of Allah, its petals the Muslim *Umma*, or community. Others see the rose as a symbol of the Prophet at the heart of all believers. Its thorns remind us of the difficulties Muslims have to overcome in their quest for God. Its scent anticipates those of the paradisiacal rose gardens to come.","quote":"*‘Some flowers were particularly popular; a particular favourite was the rose.’*"},"5ae1c986-c80f-5678-ba60-13ff1b19d638":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"As a result of the Prophet's wishes it became a tradition for Muslim pilgrims to visit Jerusalem after the yearly *Hajj* in order that they might receive additional blessings (*Baraka*). Of course such sanctity ensured that Jerusalem received the care and attention from many Muslim benefactors over the centuries. Caliphs, sultans and *amir*s contributed to the well-being of the city and endowed many charitable foundations in the hopes of rewards and forgiveness in the afterlife.","quote":"*'Jerusalem received the care and attention from many Muslim benefactors over the centuries.'*"},"7d659fcb-96c1-59dd-8424-245eaf39b9cd":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"The two branches of a single artistic style: the Almoravid and Almohad, was based on religious zeal. Originating in the Maghreb, on reaching al-Andalus it unified artistic expression on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. Initially quite austere, the influence of existing Andalusian artistic influences helped to make it more elaborate.","quote":"*Almoravids and Almohads: Maghrebi-Andalusian art.*"},"7b34bf1e-80fc-5383-9afd-d561a9cf1a76":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Umayyad architecture represents the birth of the first Islamic architectural tradition, one that adapted features from preceding vocabularies, including those of the Sassanians and Byzantium, to the needs and aspirations of the young Islamic state.  \n  \nThe Umayyads used stone extensively in their architecture as this material abounds in Greater Syria, where most of their surviving buildings are located. Brick is also used frequently, often in combination with stone. Mosaic is used widely as a surface cover for both floors and walls. Stucco is used as a decorative-surface sheathing material, and becomes particularly widespread during the later Umayyad period. Wood is used as a construction material, primarily for roofs and domes, and also as a decorative material for elements such as doors and panels. Re-used Roman and Byzantine elements, such as column shafts and capitals, are commonly incorporated into Umayyad buildings.  \n  \nThe hypostyle mosque, which in its basic form may be traced back to the House and Mosque of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina, and which was the primary mosque type during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, provides the prototype planning arrangement for Umayyad mosques, and continues to predominate in a number of later Islamic architectural traditions. This mosque type usually consists of a columned hall in which the columns may be multiplied along an orthogonal grid, and has an adjacent courtyard surrounded by a colonnade. In some cases, the hypostyle arrangement is combined with a central nave leading to the *mihrab*, thus showing connection with the Byzantine church basilica plan. The minaret, *mihrab*, and *minbar* make their first appearance in the religious architecture of the period, with the minaret usually having a square section. A relatively small dome also appears over the area in front of the *mihrab.* The arch in Umayyad architecture is primarily round in shape, although the pointed arch, which becomes predominant in later periods, makes a limited appearance.  \n  \nUmayyad palaces are often built around a central courtyard, and the larger palaces have a series of living units surrounding the courtyard. In turn, these are arranged around smaller courtyards. In addition to living units, a number of palaces include a mosque and a bath complex.  \n  \nNatural and stylised vegetal as well as geometric decorative motifs are common in the religious architecture of the Umayyads, and are executed in various materials, including mosaic, stucco, and stone. Representations of buildings and pastoral scenes are also found in religious architecture. Secular buildings include painted and sculpted representations of living creatures, both human and animal. Most importantly, Umayyad architecture introduces the use of calligraphy, including Qur'anic verses and dedicatory phrases, as an integral part of the decorative programme. This becomes a prominent feature in almost all later architectural traditions of the Islamic world.  \n  \nElements such as the hypostyle-mosque plan provide continuity with pre-Umayyad early Islamic traditions. Otherwise, Umayyad architecture shows influences from Byzantine models, especially during the early Umayyad period. This is evident in the incorporation of stone, mosaic decoration and motifs of classical derivation. During the later Umayyad period, Sassanian models from Iran become increasingly widespread, as evident in the use of brick as a construction and decorative material and in the use of stucco decoration."},"84a22b47-284c-5dd3-8bd8-63874c62d17e":{"title":"Court Life","description":"As well as showing-off their wealth, courtiers also lived an elegant and protocol-led life that included customs such as exchanging lavish gifts with intimate acquaintances, ambassadors and dignitaries from abroad. Symbols of the sovereign's power, such gifts were sometimes used to great effect as propaganda tools, as is evident from the dedications and royal icons that decorate them.  \nThe court's demand for luxury items resulted in the creation of royal workshops and the development of trade in luxury goods in towns.","quote":"*Ivory receptacles were gifts of exceptional value.*"},"7fdb8cb0-22ea-566f-a81b-259013b7d4a3":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life"},"0b479143-91f2-528d-88e6-5a5d5ad84169":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"At the court in Cairo the caliph’s wardrobe and his personal *tiraz* items were cared for by female staff. Scented flowers from the palace garden would be used to perfume his clothes. A second palatial wardrobe catered for the general court. Complete *tiraz* garments and other contemporary outfits are rare, but many extant fragments indicate that these textiles were of linen or silk, often embroidered with silk, and in an array of colours. Further clues about the appearance of *tiraz* items and contemporary dress in general, come from Fatimid wood and ivory carvings and ceramics, which show male and female figures feasting, hunting or making music in outfits that include turbans, shawls and belted tunics, many embellished with *tiraz* bands.","quote":"*‘Complete* tiraz *garments are rare, but fragments indicate they came in an array of colours.’*"},"3dacef6f-9661-56d6-bef1-ed4eac1076a0":{"title":"Water Management","description":"Knowledge of land irrigation allowed Arab rulers to expand their jurisdiction to the Mediterranean. The upkeep of cisterns in *caravanserai*s was essential for travellers, merchants and pilgrims, and canals were carved through the desert to irrigate the land. Mechanical constructions were built along the rivers, and wells were exploited to help distribute the water further a field.","quote":"*‘The upkeep of cisterns in* caravanserais *was essential for travellers, merchants and pilgrims.’*"},"500b667f-8d91-5d1a-9be3-3d41d2538920":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"Because the power of the word is respected in Islamic culture, whether verbal or transcribed, recitation and writing have been given a lot of attention both in Arabic-speaking and non-Arabic-speaking Islamic societies. This has encouraged an appreciation of calligraphy – meaning literally ‘beautiful writing’ – and in turn promoted the application of the art onto a variety of media, both for religious and secular use. Calligraphy appears on architecture, books, coinage and metal wares, official documents and *tiraz* textiles, ceramics, wood, ivory, stone and glass, and nearly every other kind of media one can think of.","quote":"*‘Calligraphy appears on* *nearly every kind of media one can think of.’*"},"647c6643-4c92-5053-a855-7bc6c0f2444a":{"title":"Arabic Calligraphy","description":"‘God said to the Prophet: *“Recite, your Lord is the most bountiful one who by the pen taught man what he did not know.”’* (Qur’an, 96: 2–5).","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"As the word both verbal and written is at the heart of Islamic civilisation, so Arabic calligraphy is at the heart of Islamic Art. Islam started with the Divine Revelation of God’s words to the Prophet Muhammad (AD 571–632), which formed the Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book. And from the very beginning, the Prophet and his followers encouraged the Muslim community to master reading and writing. Caliph ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab – the second caliph after the Prophet’s death in AH 11 / AD 632 – used to say: ‘The best script is the clearest, and clear script is the best’, while Imam ‘Ali, the fourth caliph, used to say: ‘Good scripting increases the clarity of truth’. This attention to the perfection of writing encouraged excellence in the field of calligraphy.  \nAfter the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the first caliphs engaged in collecting and preserving all the Qur’anic Revelations into one definitive book. Scribes were employed for the task, and as the Islamic State expanded beyond Arabia, it became important to supply the regions with definitive and approved copies of the Qur’an. Accuracy in copying the text was paramount; much attention was paid to the quality of the production, to ensure longevity. Attention to these needs and the subsequent introduction of papermaking technology to the Middle East led to the development of manuscript production all over the Islamic world.  \nThe Arabisation of the political and administrative systems of the expanding Islamic Empire during the reign of the Umayyad caliph ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan (r. 65–86 / 685–707) had an important influence on the development of Arabic calligraphy. Beyond the Arabic-speaking world, several Islamic regions and peoples began using the Arabic alphabet to write their languages. Persian and Turkish, and later on Urdu, all adapted Arabic calligraphic styles of scripting to their needs and artistic tastes.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/arabic_calligraphy/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/19/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":11}}},"94a60eaa-c709-51fa-b5cd-f7f16a0f40a8":{"title":"Tunisia"},"4bc22fb3-22f6-5931-bd3d-965aeb5ee21f":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"As the Abbasids became preoccupied with revolts in southern Iraq and further east, their attention to what was going on in Egypt grew less focused, and Ibn Tulun became increasingly autonomous, striking his own coinage and expanding his territory to include Syria and Palestine. When the Abbasids tried to rein him in, he banned praying for the Abbasid caliph at Friday prayers and removed the caliph’s name from the *tiraz* textiles. However, this period of independence and control over the region gave Egypt a certain stability and prosperity. Many poets, scientists and artisans gravitated to Fustat. After Ibn Tulun’s death (270 / 884) his son, two grandsons and brother succeeded him before the Abbasids were able to regain control of Egypt in 292 / 905.","quote":"*‘However, this period of independence and control over the region gave Egypt a certain stability and prosperity.’*"},"e5a16576-99a6-59e3-b60e-463525d95dd9":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine"},"4a887d81-bba5-56d2-aa88-42a28d04c83a":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"Arabic calligraphy was applied to a wide range of media, including parchment and paper. Calligraphers prepared their own ink compounds and cut their own reed pens. The inscriptions included many topics. Although calligraphy was a profession, private citizens practiced it too, regardless of social background. In Islamic societies calligraphic works by famous masters were not treated lightly, but were collected and preserved as cultural treasures.","quote":"*‘Calligraphers prepared their own ink compounds and cut their own reed pens.’*"},"47d7f8f6-10ef-57a4-b7b8-cfe315a78fb3":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"The western areas of the Levant, which played a key role during the Crusader period, are peppered with castles of which those at Karak and Shawbak are fine examples. Castles repeatedly changed hands between the Crusaders and Muslims, and following their success at the Battle of Hittin, Saladin’s soldiers took a number of Frankish citadels, including the aforementioned Karak and Shawbak. Saladin’s Ayyubid successors made additions to these castles, as did the Mamluks, later, during the 7th / 13th and 8th / 14th centuries. Both Frankish and Muslim builders contributed to the fortifications, making it difficult to ascertain who was responsible for which architectural feature. However, it is clear that the Franks brought new military technology to the Levant, and that, in turn, they would have learned about some of the techniques used in Islamic structures.","quote":"*‘Castles repeatedly changed hands between the Crusaders and Muslims.’*"},"1964c1f9-3ac7-51b6-9255-f573134a4db0":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Mamluks built on the technical and stylistic achievements of their Ayyubid predecessors to develop a highly individual, recognisable style of their own. The Mamluk style places great emphasis on abstract geometrical patterns and bold calligraphic inscriptions. The former can be seen, for example, on the furnishings made for the numerous religious foundations endowed by the staunchly orthodox Mamluks. Geometric decoration was also popular for decorating Qur'anic manuscripts. Fine calligraphy was another major aspect of Mamluk art. It appeared not only in manuscripts, but also came to be used as a primary adornment for objects in all media. In particular, Mamluk metalwork is notable for its bold inscriptions, which enliven objects including candlesticks, basins and personal objects like perfume sprinklers. The inscriptions usually feature formulaic praise of the sultan or of the object's (often anonymous) patron.  \n  \nIn addition to metalwork, one of the most well-known genres of Mamluk art is enamelled glass. One particularly famous Mamluk glass form is the wide-bodied lamp with a flaring mouth. This type is often referred to as a mosque lamp, although it was used in other buildings as well. Mosque lamps, like other Mamluk art forms, frequently display their patron's blazon, the symbol of a Mamluk officer's rank; thus the cup-bearer to the sultan would use a cup as his blazon, while the arms-bearer used a sword."},"f8ba8b16-3482-51fa-a0f4-ba6003540b9d":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"Having gained independence from the Eastern caliphate, the concentration of political and religious power vested in the new sovereigns brought with it the desire to emulate their Eastern counterparts by building luxurious palace complexes. Almost all rulers made use of this exclusive attribute and built centres of power for themselves or for their governors.  \nPalatial complexes were traditionally located outside the city as spectacular walled 'palace cities', or at the highest point within the city itself, separated from it by a wall. These 'palace citadels' were used to control the town's population and to defend the vital mechanisms of power.","quote":"*The palace complex, a walled enclosure.*"},"3ef8c668-699a-5cd8-80dc-b34b51eb0c56":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"The twin Syrian cities of al-Raqqa and al-Rafiqa lie on the banks of the Euphrates on a strategic trade, postal and pilgrimage route that links the eastern and western parts of the Abbasid Empire. Although Raqqa’s history goes back to prehistoric times, it acquired importance in the early Abbasid period when in 154 / 770–1 the caliph Abu Ja‘far al-Mansur (r. 136–58 / 754–75) passed through it and fell in love with its location and pleasant air. He decided to build adjacent to it a fortified palace-city which he named al-Rafiqa. From then on al-Rafiqa (al-Raqqa) became the summer resort of the Abbasid court of Baghdad, as well as a refuge during periods of political unrest.","quote":"*‘**Al-Rafiqa (al-Raqqa)* *became the summer resort of the Abbasid court of Baghdad.’*"},"d3c09fd8-614a-5317-a73b-07bb96f5d57c":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land"},"38f5d49f-e4cd-5dbc-9056-b930d8d46019":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The *minbar* arrived in its prestigious new home at the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron, the resting place of several biblical prophets, including Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Due to its association with the Prophet Abraham the mosque is also sacred to Muslims, for according to the Islamic faith Abraham is the father of all the prophets in whose footsteps the Prophet Muhammad was encouraged to follow.","quote":"*‘**The minbar arrived in its prestigious new home at the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.’*"},"5d8d84b8-9df4-5581-af50-feecdace83f5":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"The Arab period in Sicily survived for a considerable time in the form of domestic and social customs, as well as in the use of places linked to rituals and practices dating back to the time the island was under Islamic rule. The survival, mainly in smaller towns, of fragments of urban fabric that are similar to examples found in North Africa, despite the differences between their respective architectural contexts, bear witness to the legacy of the Islamic presence on the island's urban landscape.","quote":"*'The Arab period in Sicily survived for a considerable time in the form of social customs.'*"},"9da4357e-97c6-5bd4-aadd-f2077c7eccf0":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Under the leadership of the Atabegs and Ayyubids, cities in Syria and Jazira became important political, economic and cultural centres. Soldiers, scholars, traders and craftsmen were all attracted to the region making it a vibrant social hub for Arabs, Persians, Turks and Kurds. This resulted in a rich multi-ethnic and multi-lingual society.","quote":"*‘Soldiers, scholars, traders and craftsmen were all attracted to the region.’*"},"343819d8-e720-529d-a3f2-a9d6277501c0":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"Animal representation occurred across artistic media: mosaics, painting and sculpture, and on architecture. Although animal motifs appeared in a wide variety of materials they are very common on stone, pottery, metal, wood and ivory. Both domestic and wild animals such as bulls, horses, trotting camels, gazelles, onagers, deer, doves, eagles, storks, snakes, rabbits, monkeys, cats and lions are present. Mythical animals like harpies, unicorns, Pegasus and griffons were derived from traditional Greco-Roman themes.","quote":"*‘Mythical animals like harpies, unicorns, Pegasus and griffons were derived from traditional Greco-Roman themes.’*"},"dfd16be7-b25b-5454-8dba-80cf0cda47b8":{"title":"Water Management","description":"In order to withstand the aridity of the region it was crucial to devise ways of channelling naturally occurring springs and collecting rainwater for later usage. This was particularly important along the pilgrimage routes, at the *khan*s, *caravanserai*s and *wikala*s along the route, and it was the duty of the Muslim governor to ensure a water supply was available, and that travel to sacred destinations was safe.","quote":"*‘It was crucial to devise ways of channelling naturally occurring springs and collecting rainwater.’*"},"94130d65-0910-5b0b-a913-78dfa23191b4":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths"},"61bd4ed5-85c4-5ab9-88e8-0e600ef3d9cd":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"The Mudéjar population brought its technical expertise, most of which dated back to Antiquity, to the Christian society accommodating it. The importance of the professions undertaken by Mudéjars made them significant players in the economic development of the kingdoms on the peninsula, and this ensured that they left a mark on the regulations governing the trades and professions which date from this time. The Mudéjars excelled in the professions relating to construction, especially bricklaying and plasterwork. Once a building's foundations were laid, bricklayers would erect the basic structure before the plasterers applied a finish to the walls. Mudéjars were also skilled carpenters, metalworkers, potters and weavers.","quote":"*'The Mudéjar population brought its technical expertise to the Christian society accommodating it.'*"},"79e2b8e9-7cfa-5332-82b0-542b14234df5":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes"},"eddac8a0-9c6b-5866-bceb-4f157fa5a04a":{"title":"War and Horsemanship"},"81a769fe-d87f-5009-a3e9-568e47eae420":{"title":"Mosque and Palace"},"e26df9ee-c3ec-50ad-8f99-5e7f98714dba":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"Sultan Mehmed II, who earned the title *Fatih* (‘The Conqueror’) by winning over Konstantinopolis, powerfully influenced its development. He initiated redevelopment, built up the population, and encouraged trade. The Topkapı Palace, bazaars (*han*s) and waterways initiated by Mehmed II, were developed still further by later sultans. The Ottomans crowned ‘the city built on seven hills’ with architectural complexes and adorned her streets with fountains. Many new commercial, civic, and military buildings were built in order to meet the needs of a growing society.","quote":"*‘The Ottomans crowned “the city built on seven hills” with architectural complexes and adorned her streets with fountains.’*"},"3a33eeec-8d4a-5425-b4d3-875f171e5011":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Water was boiled for cooking or other uses in large, metal tripod cauldrons or in smaller metal-footed containers. If a stew or soup was being prepared in a cauldron, it was transferred for serving and eating into metal or glazed-ceramic bowls. Drinking-water was consumed from glass goblets with carved, moulded, enamelled or gilded decoration. Additionally, unglazed pottery jugs with openwork filters in the neck provided cool, clean water; the porous material of the jug filtered the water inside and by allowing the air to circulate kept the contents cool.","quote":"*‘Unglazed pottery jugs with openwork filters in their necks provided cool, clean water.’*"},"25920ee3-8f72-5764-8504-8c11dfeff2db":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The Qur’an’s layout follows a fixed system of markings that indicate chapter titles and verse numbers. While in more elaborate copies of the Qur’an these markings are lavishly designed, in simpler less expensive versions, they are plainly marked. Gilding and other pigments were used generously in decorating title pages, chapter headings and verse-markings. Qur’anic manuscripts were copied in a variety of Arabic calligraphic scripts including *kufic*, *naskhi* and *thuluth*. Multi-volume Qur’ans were divided into two, four or 30 parts, following an established convention. These multi-volume sets are bound in high-quality covers and encased in beautifully made boxes or chests. Special bookstands were made to hold Qur’ans in an open position to aid both recitation and display.","quote":"*‘Multi-volume Qur’ans were divided into two, four or 30 parts, following an established convention.’*"},"bc7fb8be-cdce-5445-b548-ff8fbfd12324":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"Research into and knowledge of theoretical and applied sciences was actively encouraged in the Muslim West, with the latter disciplines during the time of the caliphate of Córdoba notably including medicine, surgery, pharmacopoeia and veterinary science, and producing some exceptional individuals, such as Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Baytar, both of whom wrote encyclopaedias.","quote":"Applied sciences"},"aa67e1af-35cc-5e7a-99e2-d1870c0b4ca7":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Despite the increasingly successful efforts of the Ayyubid dynasty (564–658 / 1169–1260) to expel the Frankish Crusaders from the Levant, they did not fully achieve this aim. After another 50 years of struggle, it was the Mamluks from Egypt who succeeded, finally, in driving the Franks from the Holy Land and the Syrian coast.","quote":"*‘It was the Mamluks from Egypt who succeeded, finally, in driving the Franks from the Holy Land’.*"},"00b6ace6-eff0-5009-bd24-4fff9d4b4807":{"title":"Objects","description":"Ottoman art is characterised by a strong emphasis on floral motifs which almost completely displaced the venerable Islamic tradition of abstract geometric patterns. This can be seen in what is perhaps the most renowned of Ottoman arts, ceramics. Beginning with a restricted blue-and-white palette and motifs rooted in Chinese art, potters in the Ottoman town of Iznik developed their own distinctive aesthetic of recognisable flowers (primarily tulips, rosebuds, hyacinths and carnations) strewn casually about the object's surface. In typical Islamic fashion, this floral aesthetic was applied across all media. It was especially prominent in textiles, for example, and is seen in silk kaftans made for princes as well as cotton embroideries made for everyday use by the people.  \n  \nMuch Ottoman art is courtly in origin. Objects were made to add an air of superlative luxury to the lives of those in the palace, from palace officials to the sultan himself. The palace ateliers also pursued the arts of the book, producing fine Qur'ans as well as illustrated manuscripts with both secular and religious subjects. Calligraphy had particularly high prestige under the Ottomans.  \n  \nOttoman art was not, of course, limited to court production, nor to Istanbul. Damascus was an important ceramic production centre, where a palette quite different from that of Iznik was used. Similarly, the Anatolian town of Kütahya saw the rise of its own ceramic tradition after the one in Iznik had declined. Further from the imperial capital, local idioms flourished in the outlying Ottoman provinces."},"b1e5cc51-1bae-53e9-9ca7-b41d062600ac":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Anatolian Seljuq architectural decoration uses mainly tile, stone, wood and plaster. Due to the influence of Islam, floral and geometric decoration and inscriptions were preferred for the decoration of religious buildings, but there is also an intensive use of the figure, especially in palaces. This world of human, animal and talismanic-mystic creatures is the result of good observation and vivid imagination; its presence challenges the belief that the representation of figures was prohibited in Islamic art.","quote":"*‘This world of human, animal and talismanic-mystic creatures is the result of good observation and vivid imagination.’*"},"906067fa-11f7-54b0-a094-74a0bbde97ff":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"As the seat of the caliphate, Cairo took the lead in Islamic teaching and intellectual endeavour. Its religious institutions, al-Azhar University and the Sultan Hassan Complex foremost among them, received generous *waqf*s from the sultans and senior officials, to support both Sunni religious studies and the sciences, particularly medicine. Thus, the exemplary Bimaristan (hospital) of Sultan Qalawun in Cairo, built in 683 / 1284, provided teaching facilities for a diversity of subjects such as surgery and ophthalmology, in addition to the provision of 100 beds for the sick, a comprehensive library and a pharmacy.","quote":"*‘The Bimaristan of Sultan Qalawun taught a diversity of subjects such as surgery and ophthalmology.’*"},"ecdac084-8c2d-5ed0-b7b0-f96e5e40a7a1":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"The coins produced by the palace mints, and the mints in the towns upon which royal privilege was bestowed, gave sovereigns control over the production of money they needed to pay the army and civil servants who allowed the state to function.  \nCoinage was one of the sovereign's most obvious symbols of power, as the quality and purity of the noble metal used was a good indicator of their economic and political power.","quote":"*The mint: economic control and symbol of power.*"},"ab61d1b6-fc37-59e8-a3b2-262f917d2f6e":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"There is ample evidence of the presence of Jews and Christians in Muslim lands, from Tunisia to the Portuguese Algarve, although this cohabitation was more common in the towns than it was in the countryside on account of the commercial opportunities to be found there. In some instances, Christian communities even held some degree of power or sufficient economic strength to commission fine works of art. The Jewish communities found in the Muslim West before the arrival of Islam lived in their own districts alongside Muslims throughout the different dynasties, working as administrators or craftsmen and participating in social and economic life.","quote":"*Christians and Jews in Muslim lands*"},"502462bc-e227-5ed9-b9ed-e3c4625d085e":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"In the Fatimid period the minor arts reached new heights in terms of both quality and quantity. Highly skilled artisans and craftsmen produced sophisticated artefacts in an array of media to meet the specifications of a diverse clientele from both the royal court and the cities.  \nThe most exquisite objects were reserved for the Fatimid court. Princes and courtiers vied to possess vessels carved from highly prized, imported rock-crystal. Glass was also popular, and Fatimid patronage enabled the industry in Fustat to apply the highest technological standards to blowing, moulding, cutting and embossing their wares.","quote":"*‘In the Fatimid period the minor arts reached new heights in terms of both quality and quantity.’*"},"7200b864-706c-5b6f-b1a4-7bcfad4e72c5":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"Calligraphic inscriptions on architecture had two main roles: in the religious context, to assert the authority of Islam and, in the political arena, to help establish a new state according to the ethos of the prevailing religious school. From the 3rd / 9th century, the use of architectural inscriptions spread across the Islamic world where they were used to complement the building’s function. Qur’anic verses, prayers in praise of God, as well as construction dates and patronage inscriptions appeared on mosques and other religious buildings for posterity and perhaps for pious and/or political reasons. On civic buildings, the date of construction and other details about the architect and artisans involved in construction may well appear, but the inscriptions referring to a particular caliph, ruler or wealthy benefactor’s patronage often take on particular importance because they seek to actively demonstrate the patron’s power and benevolence. A variety of calligraphic styles were developed for purely aesthetic reasons too, which became a particular feature of Arabic calligraphy. Nevertheless, the legibility of inscriptions has always been as important as their aesthetic value.","quote":"*‘A variety of calligraphic styles were developed for purely aesthetic reasons too.’*"},"00a9f1ac-ad56-56fb-b46c-95f05a196c8c":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style"},"8b2c362e-437e-54a1-8dd6-250b89aa0eb5":{"title":"Explore Islamic Art Collections","description":"Explore Islamic Art Collections"},"e89dae11-6238-53a2-838c-8433b2388478":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics"},"f78b948c-3d4a-57bd-8aa5-5da02d955c9a":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"Fatimid wood-carving is characterised by an intricate high-relief technique and the vibrancy of its often figurative scenes executed in a variety of indigenous and imported woods. Occasionally the finished panels were painted, varnished and treated so that they were fire retardant. On occasion, wooden doors were also covered with decorated copper sheets. Ivories and other types of bone were also carved and used as inlays on a variety of products.  \nThe material wealth of the Fatimid era was also apparent in the coinage. Fatimid gold *dinar*s, silver *dirham*s and copper *fils*es were widely traded. The accuracy of these coins was measured by glass weights that were embossed with the relevant denomination and the name of the ruler.","quote":"*‘The material wealth of the Fatimid era was also apparent in the coinage.’*"},"07659934-a88a-585a-8ef8-22be0a77afbe":{"title":"Syria","description":"Western influences marked the physical appearance of the city as well. Islamic cities had always distinguished between private and public spaces; the private being the residence and the public designated for work – the *suq* – or for worship – the mosque. Now, however, residences had larger windows, even on the exterior walls, and sometimes a terrace, as in Mashfa al-Ghuraba. The adoption of the public square, created to flaunt emblems of statehood that developed in Europe, is evident in Marjeh Square, located outside the old city walls of Damascus, and which became the modern city centre, marked by a large central pillar.  \nThe Hijaz Railway station is one of the most beautiful buildings in Damascus today. It was paid-for by a wealthy Damascene, and designed by a Spanish architect who had an eye for Andalusian art. German workers, who originally brought the railway industry to the Ottomans as part of their political alliance, probably constructed the railway system.","quote":"‘Western influences marked the physical appearance of the city as well.’"},"1ec4779d-2e05-51bf-b099-64943deec02c":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"Calligraphers endeavoured to decorate the *kufic* characters with ornamental designs, accumulating an entire range of decorative motifs. With time, the ornamental decoration became more elaborate and complicated, and by the beginning of the 4th / 10th century, *kufic* characters had stems and leafs growing out of them creating an elaborate network of vegetation known as foliated *kufic* script.","quote":"*‘**Kufic characters had stems and leafs growing out of them creating an elaborate network of vegetation.’*"},"ce66627b-ff4a-54f2-8878-1023a2f1743f":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"In this formative phase one cannot speak strictly of a full-blown Islamic art as it is the juxtaposition and innovative combination of various decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions that produced such striking results and made them appear different. The eclectic art of this early period is different from that which developed in later centuries; it lacks the predilection for abstract and infinite designs which became characteristic of later Islamic art. Islamic Art in this early phase might be considered as a continuation of Late Antique art of the AD 4th–6th centuries.","quote":"*‘The juxtaposition and combination of decorative styles drawn from different artistic traditions.’*"},"32488c74-a58c-5fa9-b361-a3daf955e17a":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"The remarkably rapid Arab-Muslim conquests removed the political barriers between Iran and Mesopotamia on the one hand, and the Mediterranean world on the other. In this way an opportunity arose to mix the resources of two distinct civilisations. The establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty in Syria, a province that had been thoroughly Hellenised over the previous millennium, meant that the predominant artistic influences were classical or, more precisely, classical transformed under the influence of an orientalised provincial tradition.","quote":"*‘An opportunity arose to mix the resources of two distinct civilisations.’*"},"b47b44b8-f4c5-57ff-b813-46c5b0f3fb22":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The courtyard outside the prayer room is an open, porticoed space that is accessed directly from the street. Believers ready themselves for prayer by purifying their bodies by means of ritual ablutions, just as they purify their souls with prayer. Like the prayer room, the courtyard is also used as a meeting place by the community.","quote":"*The courtyard*"},"607ac3c1-0180-5845-a8cc-ed6170965418":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Merchants and travellers were responsible for the dissemination of artistic ideas as well as the distribution of commodities, facilitating the transmission of designs and techniques for ceramics, metalwork, glass and textiles from one urban centre to another. The lustre technique was adopted in 6th- / 12th-century Syria, probably brought by potters emigrating from Fatimid Egypt although, ultimately, the technique originated in 3rd- / 9th-century Iraq. Similarly Persian craftsmen from Khurasan, fleeing from the Mongol invasions of the 7th / 13th century, brought their expertise in inlaid metalwork to Mosul in Northern  Iraq. The trade routes also facilitated the transmission of Chinese motifs, techniques and styles.","quote":"*‘**Merchants and travellers carried with them artistic ideas as well as commodities.’*"},"ca0dc59b-60b3-560e-8e70-93208a08246a":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"In the Muslim West during the Middle Ages, it was customary for the groom to give the bride a wedding gift consisting of jewellery, clothes and cosmetics so that she could present herself appropriately for the marriage celebrations, which would last for several days. The bride's father would also lend her jewellery to wear in public which she returned to him after the wedding was over.  \nThe wedding would begin with the women of the family visiting the bride, who would have had her hair and clothes prepared especially for the occasion. The bride would wear as much jewellery as the economic position of her groom and her family would allow. She would receive the congratulations of her visitors impassively seated on a throne or positioned in the place of honour.","quote":"*Wedding gifts*"},"aaa18cdd-a5f0-52cf-9e64-9676401e300e":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"Hospitals *(bimaristan*s) were important centres for scientific learning. The voyager from al-Andalus, Ibn Jubayr, was amply impressed by the newly built Bimaristan Nur al-Din, which he noted was both a treatment centre and medical school equipped with a comprehensive library; he also describes ‘the ticking water clock’ he saw at the Umayyad Mosque. Abu al-Fadl Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim al-Harithi, known as al-Muhandis, or ‘the Geometer’, was a resident doctor at the hospital as well as being a multi-talented polymath. It was he who designed the geometric woodcarving on the door of the *bimaristan* and he also repaired the mechanical clock at the Umayyad Mosque.","quote":"*‘Bimaristan Nur al-Din was a treatment centre and medical school equipped with a comprehensive library.’*"},"75215c23-1bf5-590c-8e80-8ff32da4e273":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"Horses were essential for travel during this period, and were also indispensable on the battlefield. Most of the prized military horses came from Central Asia, brought by fierce Turkish warriors whose expertise as horse-riders was crucial to the success of Nur al-Din and Saladin’s armies. A renowned tactic of the Turks was to charge towards the enemy turning around at the last moment, and shooting an arrow as they sped away. Combined with their speed and equestrian agility, this tactic gave them a huge advantage against the Franks during the Crusades.","quote":"*‘Most of the prized military horses came from Central Asia, brought by fierce Turkish warriors.’*"},"d0420e12-6207-5772-b8f0-9c22f7f604c4":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Artisans drew readily on the many influences available to them from the East and the West. Most remarkable was the evolution of Qur’an production. The collaboration between calligraphers, illuminators and bookbinders created outstandingly splendid manuscripts worthy of the religious aspirations of the Mamluk sultanate. Spectacular, often intricately inlaid metalwork was made for the domestic and export markets, with some items commissioned by individual foreign clients.","quote":"*‘Artisans drew readily on the influences available to them from the East and the West.’*"},"1935df49-d16b-562f-8737-07f9354ede4c":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts"},"9bff6ece-d3d2-5f2a-b7cc-fb1f33c3e113":{"title":"Official Patronage"},"968db63b-b20a-5f2d-94c5-02edf7fd6fea":{"title":"Table Culture"},"5739384e-e163-5d92-a390-a28d4233a917":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"The *Ka'ba* is the *qibla* (direction of prayer) of Islam. It is also at the heart of the *Hajj* and everyone who visits the *Haram* at Mecca has to circumvent the *Ka'ba* seven times as part of the prescribed pilgrimage ritual. The *Ka'ba* has many names in the Islamic tradition, among them: *al-Masjid al-Haram* (The Sacred Mosque, referring to the mosque within the precinct of the *Ka'ba*) and *al-Bayt al-Atiq* (the Ancient House). The *Ka'ba* is an almost square structure: 9.29 m on its north side, 12.15 m on its west, 10.25 m on its south side, and 11.88 m on its east side. It is 15 m high and has only one access door on the east face that is 2 m above ground level.","quote":"*'The* Ka'ba *is the* qibla *of Islam.'*"},"12656ec4-68b3-5425-9a1d-71e4735a5c19":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Ceilings were also embellished with geometric motifs, often multicoloured and gilded, which has been interpreted as a representation of the vault of heaven. This can be seen clearly in the *muqarnas* vaults in which the interlacing develops from a central star to occupy the entire area available.","quote":"*‘This has been interpreted as a representation of the vault of heaven.’*"},"12faaae8-0400-53bd-ba84-f5e66e0027ef":{"title":"Echoes of Paradise: the Garden and Flora in Islamic Art","description":"In Islamic civilisation the garden and the vegetation in it has always had particular significance as both recall the Beauty of God's creation and *al-janna*: Islamic Paradise.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nSule AKSOY, Istanbul  \nSevinç GÖK, Izmir  \nAlev ÖZAY, Istanbul  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \nSevgi KUTLUAY, Istanbul  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nSeracettin SAHIN, Istanbul  \nCihat SOYHAN, Istanbul  \nGönül TEKELI, Istanbul  \nInci TURKOGLU, Istanbul  \nFriederike VOIGT, Stockholm/Berlin  \nBarry WOOD, London  \nwith the contribution of:  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS  \n  \nCoordination  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Throughout the history of Islamic civilisation, the concept of the garden and the vegetation in it has had particular significance in Muslim thought: of course, this is partly due to the arid landscapes in which most Muslims live. Surrounded by forbidding deserts and assailed by hot climates, Muslims have always appreciated the soothing impact of flowing water, the occasional greenery of isolated oases or indeed the colourful vegetation of artificially created walled gardens, maintained with carefully calculated water technology. The pleasure gardens of rulers and the wealthy elite were a coveted luxury, but they had a spiritual dimension too, as they were often designed to echo the lush and refreshing vegetation of *al-janna*: Islamic Paradise. Many descriptions in the Qur'an and in Islamic literature elaborate on its layout, its flowers, plants and trees. Given this preoccupation of Muslim thought with paradisiacal visions, it is not surprising that the concept of the garden with its rich flora has always been a central theme in Muslim cultures and, indeed, in their arts. Throughout the Muslim world, from Spain to India, rulers and the elite invested in luxurious gardens at the heart of their palace complexes and as an integral part of ceremonial royal life. Indeed, the way royal gardens were used often reflected the paradisiacal realities described in the Qur'an. Many gardens even had names to highlight their paradisiacal symbolism. Both in architecture and in art the wondrous vegetation of Paradise is often alluded to. Mosques, *madrasa*s and royal mausolea were regularly placed in a garden setting reminiscent of Paradise and artistically enhanced by references to luxurious flower gardens. In the decorative arts references can be found both to gardens as a whole and to individual plants and flowers, the latter often chosen – beyond their beauty or practical use – for their religious or poetic significance. When flowers are not depicted in naturalistic form, intricate arabesque designs formed by overall symmetrical patterns of undulating stalks and split-leaves or split-palmettes invited reflection of the cosmic process of creation and the Divine Unity that underlies the infinite diversity of the material world.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/floral/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/28/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":13}}},"0be6d6e8-2fed-5e4f-b410-0a54ef0ed999":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"The sciences were taught alongside religious and linguistic studies, and the sophisticated decorative metalwork on scientific tools attests to the development of the scientific disciplines. Astrolabes and celestial globes were crucial for accurate readings of the constellations. The practice of geomancy made use of especially designed instruments to predict the future. The brilliant mechanical engineer Abu al-‘Izz Ismail al-Jazari, was sponsored by the Artuqid court at Diyarbakir in 603 / 1206 to write an illustrated book on hydraulic and mechanical engineering.","quote":"*‘**Decorative metalwork on scientific tools attests to the development of the scientific disciplines.’*"},"68eb0582-4a1d-5233-92af-cfac47f86d57":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone"},"cc1b1d0f-11e9-5198-addd-247752f7c5b8":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"There are two distinct features of Ottoman mosques, which were generally designed by the imperial architects pertaining to a particular architectural philosophy of the single space, single dome, where everybody prays equally. The dome symbolises the eternal universe, and the *mihrab* the presence of the Prophet as leader of the prayers. In order that these two concepts are more distinctive, to underline and to make use of Islamic aesthetics, verses from the Qur’an were written on the dome and on its drum, and the *mihrab* was richly decorated. The walls were embellished with tiles, or painted with geometric designs symbolising the eternity of God and / or with floral designs resembling the Gardens of Paradise.","quote":"*‘The dome symbolises the eternal universe and the* mihrab *the presence of the Prophet as leader of the prayers.’*"},"4525acaf-2e58-57ae-aa47-33e20171397d":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing"},"ea3faf2c-86c3-553a-b331-7ddd3ee15aec":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"In the Muslim West settlements were constructed either as fortified villages or towns, with both types of habitat sharing specific features derived from the clever adaptation of building materials and techniques to hot, dry environments.  \nThe Town had a complex structure consisting of the town centre indicated by the great mosque, a citadel or governor's residence, a *suq* or market along the main street from which side streets would run, public baths (*hammam*), inns (*funduq*) and small workshops. The residential area was located within the town walls, while the suburbs lay outside the walls where farms were situated, where livestock markets were held and from where some craftsmen operated.","quote":"*Muslim towns: a labyrinth of streets.*"},"bedfc26e-1599-5d90-867d-794002406ce7":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria"},"b1f3d679-a18b-5258-af5f-524e8530cb84":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court"},"a0cc97a9-d2a3-5089-88c2-b997f283e950":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"Table culture in the Ottoman Palace had unique status. Almost every dish had a different chef: head of soup (*çorbacıbaşı*), head of helva (*helvacıbaşı*) and so on. At banquets and Ramadan dinners (*iftar*), cushions were laid out on a textile that covered the floor. In the middle of the cushions a copper, silver or gilded-metal tray was placed upon which were put spoons of turtle-shell, coral, ivory or bone. The dishes followed a traditional order: the first dish was soup served in individual bowls; a main dish of red meat or chicken would follow that was served in very large metal vessels with lids (to keep the food warm), known as *kuşhane*. The main dish was accompanied by drinks and sweets such as *zerde*, *baklava* and *helva* were served as the last course.","quote":"*‘Almost every dish had a different chef: head of soup, head of helva and so on.’*"},"fa309a83-49c5-5883-9ee9-a69be57780e6":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"The spread of Islam through the Mediterranean did not mean the creation of a uniform religious society or the expulsion of native inhabitants. Indeed, Christians and Jews were permitted to maintain their religious beliefs on the condition that they paid a levy.  \nEconomic activity, especially trade, and cultural exchanges helped to bring different individuals and communities together.  \nThus followers of the three monotheistic religions, known in the Qur'an the 'people of the book' (*ahl al-kitab*), coexisted in the towns and villages of the Muslim West promoting mutual material and intellectual enrichment.","quote":"*The three religions*"},"9d1c91d5-e536-5351-9c97-8a1d1755f2dd":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"Calligraphers were formally trained under distinguished masters of the profession. Many of them were enrolled in the service of the court and at the civic offices of the government. Some civic officials became famous calligraphers, for instance Ibn Muqlah, who was an Abbasid *vizier*. He defined the rules of perfect script in a manual, which became the main work of reference for subsequent calligraphers.","quote":"‘Some civic officials became famous calligraphers, for instance Ibn Muqlah, who was an Abbasid *vizier*.’"},"754c7cda-4d25-5730-9b40-d05583d87eb1":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"Training began with learning how to read, write and recite the Qur'an, as well as studying the *Hadiths* or words of the Prophet. As books were rare, knowledge was traditionally committed to memory and communicated by word of mouth. For this reason, the ability to write was considered important and valuable as it allowed knowledge and religion to be passed to subsequent generations.","quote":"*Religious teaching, the copyists of the Qur'an*"},"4ac9ddb5-21d0-552f-aabe-4b88c6672977":{"title":"Defence"},"83fcd46d-b7fd-5e22-8abd-08f76c9613a8":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"From the 6th / 12th century onwards the city of Fez in Morocco was supplied with water by public fountains, called *sikaya.* The form of these fountains has been consistent over the centuries. In a recessed broken arch set in a wall and covered in *zellij*, or glazed ceramic tiles, the water issues from spigots into a basin.","quote":"*‘The city of Fez in Morocco was supplied with water by public fountains, called sikaya.’*"},"39f632d5-77b2-5774-9593-b679b7db8455":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"In addition to textiles, Ottoman ceramics were extremely popular on the export market. The rise of the ceramics industry in Iznik, so central to the history of art in Turkey, also created a powerful response in Europe. Iznik ceramics became so popular in European markets, in fact, that at one point the Sultan wrote an angry edict berating the potters of Iznik for producing wares for foreign consumers and not the Imperial palace!","quote":"*‘In addition to textiles, Ottoman ceramics were extremely popular on the export market.’*"},"9f0c366a-10e7-53d5-91e8-2d8a35ffc22a":{"title":"Geometric Decoration","description":"‘Muslim artists did not ‘invent’ geometric decoration but they developed it to its full potential.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nLakhdar DRIAS, Argel  \nNaima ELKHATIB-BOUJIBAR, Casablanca  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nKamal LAKHDAR, Rabat  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMohamed MEZZINE, Fez  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Geometry is a predominant decorative theme in Muslim art, usually dominating other ornamental motifs. Geometric decoration appears both in architecture and in the applied arts: ceramics, textiles and in the arts of the book. Regardless of material, scale and technique, the motifs used are practically always the same.  \nMuslim artists did not ‘invent’ geometric decoration, but they developed it to its full potential. The achievements of the Muslim world in geometric decoration were made possible to some extent by the interest that mathematical studies, such as Pythagorean mathematics, generated in Islam.  \nThis is evident in the geometric knot, inherited from pre-Islamic decoration, which was developed into complex combinations of intertwining ribbons or knot-work. Starting from the circle, an extraordinary variety of figures were generated (squares, diamonds or rhombuses, hexagons, octagons, stars with six-, eight-, ten-, twelve- and more points) by applying the principles of symmetrical repetition, multiplication or subdivision on any material and any scale.  \nThe wealth of colours and the skill used to combine different tones help the compositions to stand out, creating the illusion of several different planes. Three-dimensional effects were used to enrich compositions, either through the repetition of motifs (such as *sebka* a pattern created from a network of diamond shapes), contrasting textures or the widespread use of *muqarnas* (known as *muqarbas* in North Africa) a three-dimensional geometric stalactite-like decoration.  \n  \nGeometric motifs, occasionally based on abstractions from the natural world, also have a symbolic meaning in keeping with the function of the object or building.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/geometric/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/21/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":14}}},"362960e9-cc01-5941-9e3e-f9dfc311b3b5":{"title":"Defence","description":"Solid walls used as a defensive system were only vulnerable to assaults and undermining. They originally included small openings through which weapons could be fired, although these subsequently had to be enlarged to accommodate cannons. Tall towers flanked walled sections to defend against assaults, and a range of devices were used to hinder attackers: isolated *albarrana* towers standing outside (but connected to) the walls, a barbican wall running parallel to the main wall, but thinner and lower than it, a ditch between the two, and finally a gateway protected by towers which, from the 5th/11th century, included a dogleg entrance that forced attackers to make a right-angled turn.","quote":"*Walls, a defensive system in themselves.*"},"3b822b91-75f5-5142-bd3c-29b08ccd26ec":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"The power of the sultan, or of the regional rulers, was often proclaimed quite openly and obviously in visual form. Architecture was most useful towards this end; a grandiose building, dominating the neighbourhood or (even better) the city skyline, makes a bold statement of power. On a smaller scale, the power of the ruler could be announced explicitly in written form, such as by including his name or title in the decoration of a building or even a manuscript. The imperial *tughra* is perhaps the most memorable example of this aspect of the visual language of power.","quote":"*‘The power of the sultan was often proclaimed quite openly and obviously in visual form.’*"},"6f2f66f9-0684-5348-a89e-04c0ea5914a2":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"The visual language of power need not be overt. Art has been used in ingeniously subtle ways to communicate a sense of the powerful. Elaborate architectural decoration, for example, by surrounding the viewer with a dazzling array of exquisite ornament, creates an aesthetic ambience reflective of the power of the patron. Such decoration need not fill a large building; it can bestow the grandeur of empire on even a tent. Spectacular displays of craftsmanship, too, form part of this visual language. When the sultan or his officials wore precious garments bedecked with elaborately worked ornament, whether actual symbols of rank (such as aigrettes) or simply useful accoutrements (like the links of a belt), the display of the wealth and skill at their disposal implicitly proclaimed their power.","quote":"*‘Such decoration need not fill a large building; it can bestow the grandeur of empire on even a tent.’*"},"27407462-38d1-5483-a239-bfa506cb4830":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"The Abbasids supported and patronised medical research and medical practitioners. Great developments in medicine were achieved:  books on a variety of medical subjects were written and translated; medical experiments were conducted and documented and a number of medical instruments were designed to deal with a variety of procedures.","quote":"*‘The Abbasids supported and patronised medical research and medical practitioners.’*"},"74e405d2-4d5c-563a-85b7-bcbf5812982e":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"As the Abbasid Empire expanded from Afghanistan to Algeria, regional ceramics industries were influenced by techniques, designs and motifs from other parts of the empire, adding to the variety of designs, decorations and styles available locally. While luxury ceramics in the eastern regions of the empire were riotous in polychrome and monochrome, equivalent wares in North Africa – particularly in Ifriqiya – were more sober. Besides the lustre ceramics, monochrome or polychrome glazed-relief pieces and glazed wares with inscriptions, were widespread. Utilitarian ware generally speaking tended to be unglazed and simply and sparsely decorated. Nonetheless, all seem to share qualities typically Islamic.","quote":"*‘Regional ceramics industries were influenced by techniques, designs and motifs from other parts of the empire.’*"},"1dabd926-5ac6-53c1-b262-d5570beba088":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Throughout the Muslim world, the façades of important buildings were covered with *muqarnas* (known as *muqarbas* in North Africa) a three-dimensional geometric stalactite-like decoration, or with geometric patterns carved into the stone. The intention was to leave no spaces undecorated (*horror vacui*).  \nFrom the Almohad era onwards, the façades of *minaret*s in North Africa and al-Andalus were decorated first with single or intertwined lobed arches that, when repeated and superimposed, resulted in a pattern known as *sebka* that was created from a network of rhombuses and resembled openwork tapestry.","quote":"*‘The intention was to leave no spaces undecorated* (horror vacui)*.’*"},"2446085b-ecb4-555b-8c7a-83f7c0b63dda":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Muslim West is marked by considerable continuity that extends over a significant geographic expanse (the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and a wide chronological span that dates back to the founding of the Umayyad Emirate in Spain during the second quarter of the 2nd / mid-8th century, and later included the rule of various dynasties such as the Idrisids, 'Abd al-Wadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Marinids, Hafsids, Sa'dians and 'Alawids.  \n  \nThe architecture of this area uses a variety of materials. Brick is predominant as a building material and is used for both structural and decorative purposes. Stone is also used, primarily as a sheathing material, and often in combination with brick. Stucco decoration is used extensively. Wood is employed widely for elements such as ceiling beams, gabled roofs, doors and decorative panels. Glazed tiles featuring geometric patterns provide a common surface-sheathing material for floors and walls, although austere white-washed walls are also widespread.  \n  \nThe hypostyle mosque continues to be the primary mosque type in the area, with the aisles usually arranged in a perpendicular order to the *qibla* wall. The horseshoe arch, which emerged as a common architectural element in Aghlabid architecture, is predominant. Also, as in the architecture of the Aghlabids, minarets have a square section, which contrasts with the more slender minarets with circular and octagonal sections that develop in parts of the Islamic world located further east. Minarets in the Muslim West are often decorated with an applied layer of interlaced brick or stucco decorative patterns, as well as *muqarnas* friezes.  \n  \nThe structures of the region usually feature domes that are concealed under pitched roofs, which commonly have blue-green coloured baked-clay roofing tiles. Ribbing is used frequently for domes and, in addition to its structural role, is used to create decorative patterns articulating the dome's interior surface. Some dome interiors are fully covered by *muqarnas* units.  \n  \nThe *muqarnas*, usually made of wood or gypsum, is used extensively, not only to articulate vaulted areas, but also as an overall decorative element. Interlaced decorative surfaces, executed in gypsum or brick, are widespread. Also common are paired arches separated by a column, as well as interlaced and poly-lobed arches. In addition, the use of calligraphy and vegetal motifs prevail. In the early architecture of the region, as in other Islamic architectural traditions, the re-use of building components such as column capitals and shafts belonging to the pre-Islamic period is widespread."},"4abfb8e7-e61b-559d-9eb7-684a9ac667bc":{"title":"Court Life","description":"In the middle of the 19th century, under Western influence, the Ottoman sultans moved to Dolmabahçe Palace, then to Yıldız Palace, and spent their summers in Beylerbeyi Palace. All were built along the Bosphorus in the Western style. The Bosphorus palaces became the new dynastic residences and centres for official ceremonies and receptions.","quote":"*‘The Bosphorus palaces became the new dynastic residences.’*"},"b57ef26f-345f-5d0d-8e89-3f02ef5a1f29":{"title":"Jordan","description":"In Jordan the Western artistic characteristics of the Ottoman period are mainly represented in naturalistic scenes that were not previously part of the visual language known to the Ottomans. These scenes were painted by European artists who brought with them new artistic elements that they skillfully integrated with the artistic works they implemented in Jordan. Also during this period the utilization of Western coins with human figurative motifs was frequently used, more than the Ottoman coins. People preferred Western artifacts, in particular the coins, which they used as adornments, specifically for necklaces, chin-chains and veils. They also decorated their houses, churches and buildings with fresco paintings created by western artists. Some of these buildings later became museums and many of the churches are still in use today, while others continue to be the homes of private owners whom conserve and restore them.  \nEven after the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Jordanians still appreciated Western and Ottoman coins and women still wore gold pendants and bracelets adorned with the coins of King George V and Sultan Muhammad Rashad V that had been gifts to them as dowries. This heritage still exists at the Folkloric Museum and some still belong to the successors of these old families.","quote":"‘In Jordan the Western artistic characteristics of the Ottoman period are mainly represented in naturalistic scenes that were not previously part of the visual language known to the Ottomans.’"},"a09c8ed7-01f3-5c9b-bd21-96a1d81c4678":{"title":"Women","description":"‘Islam assigns women an integral position in society; Muslim women have always actively contributed to the cultures in which they live be it in the home, professionally, as patrons of charitable causes, or in the arts.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Islam assigns women an integral position in society. Their rights, duties and status are explored in the Qur’an, and legislated for in the Shari‘a – the Islamic law. In the Islamic period, women actively embraced and practiced their faith. There has never been and nor is there today, however, a uniform approach by which to interpret and implement the Islamic system across the Muslim world and its civilisations; every society within Islam has adapted its system according to its local cultural heritage and, therefore, there is no standard prototype for Islamic civilisation, and not one prototype for the condition of women within Islamic society. Indeed, the complexity of the diverse cultural and patriarchal legacies with which Muslim women have had to deal – some of them pre-Islamic – and the multitude of their tasks within the societies they live mean that they have faced a continuous struggle for a better life within a just society.  \nThroughout the ages many Muslim women have become role-models for other Muslim Women most importantly Sayyida Khadija bint Muhammad al-Khurasani, first wife of the Prophet Muhammad, an independent and powerful businesswoman and a key supporter of the Prophet in his mission. Others have included Sayyida al-Manubiya, an acclaimed mystic writer in medieval Tunisia. Maryam bint ‘Abd al-Rahman, a leading judge in early AH 8th- / AD 14th-century Palestine with her own lexicon of interpretations of al-Hadith (‘Sayings of the Prophet’). A key figure in the 19th century is Huda Sha’rawi, a pioneer and leader for women’s rights in Arab and Muslim society.  \nHistorians recorded the public work associated with upper-class women and their relationship to the ruling classes, while surviving buildings and luxury artefacts attest to their patronage and influence. On the other hand, due to the bias of historical recording and the uneven survival of artefacts, our knowledge of ordinary Muslim women is sparse. Some glimpses, however, can be derived from the crafts in which they were engaged, such as weaving, embroidery and pottery; and by studying official records that relate to the courts, marriage, divorce, or matters of female inheritance.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/women/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/23/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":9}}},"adc7d88a-073e-571d-ad07-7d7f35682e7e":{"title":"Travelling and Trading"},"5f7953a9-49d7-5d9f-be1c-93cbec183abd":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"Hammadid art was a contemporary of Andalusian *ta'ifa* art and shared a number of decorative motifs, although the techniques used differed between the two. The combination of Andalusian influences and the early appearance of what are clearly Eastern elements, is evidence of the Maghreb's role as a bridge between East and West.","quote":"*Zirids and Hammadids: a bridge between East and West.*"},"feb15667-99f8-5b55-8c0b-bcda36247b11":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Along with the dynamic revival of Islamic institutions, Christian churches and monasteries experienced a renaissance of their own. New cycles of wall paintings were commissioned, the like of which had not been witnessed in Syria since the frescoes of the Umayyad period. Deir Mar Yakub (Monastery of St Jacob) and Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi (Monastery of St Moses the Ethiopian) survive as excellent examples of medieval Christian art and Syrian monasticism.","quote":"*‘Christian churches and monasteries experienced a renaissance of their own.’*"},"1dc8b986-92dc-5a75-b544-000419ab6111":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"A wide variety of tombstones appeared at different times and in different places reflecting regional differences: the *cipo* appeared in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in the 3rd / 9th century, although they have also been found in Andalusia around Toledo; the *maqabriyya* was used in Andalusian and Maghrebi cemeteries from the time of the Almoravids; and circular steles were common from the 8th / 14th century in towns with large ceramic industries, such as Malaga, Granada and Murcia.","quote":"*Tombstones, geographical and social differences.*"},"9246e5d1-d625-54a9-a9cb-348e8099b248":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"Geometric compositions were sometimes combined with plant motifs. Such motifs, although subordinated to the general composition, helped to enrich the geometric decoration, to emphasise key points of the design, or simply to fill the background or spaces left by the geometric pattern.","quote":"*‘Plant motifs were used to enrich the geometric composition.’*"},"0aeb920c-d823-5de4-81b9-061257cef978":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Out of the two Mamluk Sultans discussed here, Qalawun was probably the most prolific instigator of architectural projects. The scale of his complex in Cairo, which marks a new phase in Mamluk architecture, is truly imposing, comprising a *madrasa*, mausoleum (*qubba*) and hospital (*bimaristan*). The *bimaristan* was built following Qalawun’s experience in the Bimaristan Nur al-Din, a hospital in Damascus. So impressed was he by the treatment he received, that he vowed that if he recovered to take the throne he would build a similar one in Cairo. Soon after his reign began in 682 / 1283 he initiated the project. The *bimaristan* was unusual for its time being dedicated to Muslims of both sexes and from any social position.","quote":"*‘Qalawun was probably the most prolific instigator of architectural projects.’*"},"01b4539f-223c-58e3-970b-86b098e2e493":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"For as long as people have held power, they have looked for ways in which to demonstrate it to both those under its sway and to those outside it. In particular, art and architecture have often been used to create a ‘visual language’ through which to proclaim power. Such visual proclamations have taken many forms over the centuries; sometimes they are quite overt and unmistakable, while at other times they are more subtle and implicit. The art and architecture of the Ottoman period includes an instructive range of examples by which the power of the sultan and of the Ottoman state was manifest in a visual form.","quote":"*‘For as long as people have held power, they have looked for ways in which to demonstrate it.’*"},"b82e552a-e3da-5171-bbda-751d4602d53f":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Both sultans, Baybars and Qalawun, were enthusiastic patrons of both luxury objects and architecture, which they had built in Syria and in the Holy Land, and not only in the capital Cairo. For example, Baybars restored fortresses in Palestine and Syria, but his interests did not lie solely in military architecture; he also built a large Congregational Mosque in Cairo – the earliest surviving royal Mamluk mosque in the city. He died in Damascus Citadel (d. 676 / 1277) and was buried in a mausoleum (qubba) north of the Umayyad Mosque. The qubba is part of a school that was already dedicated to him, the Madrasa al-Zahiriyya.","quote":"*‘Sultans Baybars and Qalawun were enthusiastic patrons of luxury objects and architecture.’*"},"6428106b-9d8e-590a-bc5c-8be1ac54d645":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"An important ingredient in the application of eye make-up was kohl, made from a variety of sources including burnt frankincense, almond shells or Safflower plants. Believed to have medicinal benefits, kohl was also considered a powerful protection against the ‘evil eye’ and was kept in small decorative containers containing an applicator stick.","quote":"*‘Kohl was made from a variety of sources including burnt frankincense, almond shells or Safflower plants.’*"},"28a4f0eb-efb2-5cc2-9dd7-f885f3220f85":{"title":"Objects","description":"Thanks to its geographical separation from the central Islamic lands, the art of the Muslim West underwent its own distinct stylistic evolution. The first mature style of Western Islamic art arose under the Umayyad Caliphs of Spain, who commissioned luxury objects in precious materials. The inheritance of classical Antiquity still apparent in Spanish Umayyad art gave way, under the puritanical Almoravids and their successors the Almohads, to an austerely beautiful aesthetic in which decoration ranged from minimalistic to elaborately geometric. Subsequent dynasties, such as the Marinids in Morocco, were more drawn to opulent effects, made in expensive materials such as cedarwood. Islamic art in Spain had its final flowering under the Nasrid Dynasty in Granada, who continued to commission luxury objects as well as establishing a tradition of lustre ceramics that would continue in Mudéjar art. After the fall of the Nasrids, Western Islamic art continued in the Maghreb, where traditions like the unique *Maghrebi* script and geometric ornament provided inspiration for centuries."},"95694260-7655-5184-a4d8-7c24d7fd8562":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"For the first 70 years of their rule the Muslims made no attempt to introduce a new, Arabic-speaking administrative system for the whole of the dominion, rather each province continued in the tradition of the previous regime. In Syria the language of the revenue department was Greek, while its administration was still in the hands of local Christians. In the fiscal administration, however, the Arabs introduced an innovative system according to which all fully fledged members of the new polity were entitled to regular stipends (‘ata’); a system that was financed by the taxes of the local populous. The main taxes were land tax (kharaj), a fixed rate in kind or money and the poll tax (jizya), which was imposed on every mature non-Muslim and means tested according to income. Priests, monks, and the disabled were exempt from paying jizya.","quote":"‘Each province continued in the tradition of the previous regime.’"},"66a1b849-44f7-56db-b90b-8414c7492a80":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks"},"390eb15a-b775-5e38-b060-b98bf5313187":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"Religious Mudéjar art in Aragon is noteworthy for the profuse decoration on the outside of buildings and towers created by multiple geometric arrangements in exposed brick (interlinked mixtilinear arches, networks of rhombuses and herringbone patterned bands) and the use of multicoloured tiles. Inside, the wooden ceilings created a feeling of space, making rooms more comfortable and warmer. An especially noteworthy example of this is the enormous collar-beam (*armadura de par y nudillo*) ceiling of Teruel Cathedral.","quote":"*Mudéjar art in Aragon: an abundance of decoration.*"},"e69dcd7a-5d1d-5edb-ae45-6bb6e2a8c847":{"title":"The Mamluk System"},"0c57154a-3d32-5f59-919a-c9bcab6d8ac5":{"title":"Jordan","description":"The Ottomans changed the Hajj route (Darb al-Hajj al-Sham) which follows the mountains east of Wadi Araba, known as the King's Highway, to a new route which lay along the edge of the desert, known as Darb al-Bint after the daughter of Sultan Salim I, who had complained of bandits on the King's Highway. A series of forts and pilgrimage stations were built along this new route to protect pilgrims and provide them with water, food and merchandise.  \nThe Hijaz Railway was one of the most important achievements during the Ottoman period, completed in 1908 during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hameed II. The main purpose of the Hijaz railroad was to transport pilgrims from Damascus to Medina in Saudi Arabia through Jordan. The system was severely damaged during the First World War, but some sections are still functioning, for example Damascus to Amman and Amman to Qatraneh.","quote":"‘The Hijaz Railway was one of the most important achievements during the Ottoman period... ’"},"dc1ba8a3-fd25-52de-bd11-66f5e8ee0fdc":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists"},"30f650c4-28b8-51fa-9fb7-44613c3096bf":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Since the Qur’an stresses the importance of personal hygiene, public baths (*hammam*s) have traditionally played a key role in the social and religious life of Muslims. Although these structures owe some debt to Roman and Late Antique baths, the emphasis from Umayyad times onwards was more on the hot rooms than on the *frigidarium* favoured by the Romans. The *hammam* ordinarily contains a changing room, which is an unheated room, a warm intermediate room, and a steam room.","quote":"*‘The hammam played a key role in the social and religious life of Muslims.’*"},"a68e0dec-446e-5c8a-bf2e-1f05f0f0e7fb":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"The tendency in Islamic art to decorate interior spaces and building façades was complemented in the art of al-Andalus and the Maghreb by the systematic use of the arch and the capital as decorative motifs.  \nAlthough the horseshoe arch was the most typical of the available decorative devices, craftsmen created new styles of arches and combined them in different ways. The same was true of capitals, with craftsmen changing the proportions and embellishing the foliage seen on the Romano-Byzantine models to create their own style.  \nThe starting point for this new architecture was the Great Mosque of Córdoba.","quote":"*From Emirate to ta'ifa* art*:* *simple beginnings and elaborate heights.*"},"f79e2e2d-2bd9-536c-96fc-75712b9b3f2b":{"title":"Defence","description":"Land was defended by castles and *ribats*, fortresses manned by warrior monks, and which were fortified enclosures surrounding a tower with strong walls. They were placed at strategic locations to provide a good lookout point over the surrounding area. They were used both to garrison the troops who patrolled and protected borders, paths, valleys, ports and mountain passes, and as a place of refuge for the population in times of peril.","quote":"*Castles: defending the land.*"},"87981465-ac17-588c-98d9-d4f2d4298bdc":{"title":"The Normans in Sicily","description":"'The Arabs left the Norman kingdom of Sicily a cultural heritage and civilisation whose Greek, Latin and Byzantine roots helped to sow the first seeds of the Italian Renaissance.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nRita BERNINI, Rome  \nPier Paolo RACIOPPI, Rome  \nEttore SESSA, Palermo  \nPaola TORRE, Rome  \n  \nCoordination  \nIrene SALERNO, Rome  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Occupied from AD 827 by the armies of the *amir* of Kairouan, Sicily was part of the Islamic world until 1061, although some staunch pockets of Greco-Byzantine resistance in the east of the island managed to hold out until 965.  \nDespite limited immigration from North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, Egypt and the Middle East, the social structures of Islam were established and spread quickly. During these two centuries of Arabic presence, Qur'anic law guaranteed profession of the Christian faith, although not without discrimination.  \nIn 1061 the Normans, led by the Altavilla family, landed on the island from their bases in Southern Italy. In 1094, Roger I (Ruggero d'Altavilla, r. 1098–1101) established the County of Sicily, which was inherited by his son Roger II (Ruggero II d'Altavilla, r. 1112 as count; king 1130–54). His successors William I (Guglielmo I, r. 1154–66) and William II (Guglielmo II, r. 1171–89) continued his aggressive policy towards Muslims, Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire before the succession of the Swabian dynasty in 1194.  \nJust as they had during the period of Arab rule, the Christian and Muslim communities existed side by side, ensuring the survival of social rituals and customs from the Islamic period, evident in particular in the new Christian dynasty's re-use of sites and buildings valued by the previous rulers.  \nThis cultural continuity was reinforced by ongoing political relations between the Normans and the Islamic world. One of the most emblematic expressions of these relations was the marked desire of the Norman dynasty, once the Kingdom of Sicily had been established, to reshape Sicilian art using models derived from Islamic art, which were consciously added to existing, modest Siculo-Arabian and Byzantine forms in art and architecture.  \nThe result was a proactive syncretism that made Siculo-Norman art one of the most original in medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/siculo_norman/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/25/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":16}}},"e8deea6c-fc86-5de4-91d5-28b3549d5260":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"Through the ages there is evidence of Muslim women participating in professional life such as Zayn al-Khuzan, the female manager of the Fatimid Caliph’s wardrobe and its 30-strong female staff. Some women became writers or poets, others physicians, or some experts in religious law and jurisprudence, teaching and interpreting religious doctrines. Several women are recorded as famous calligraphers, including Hafsa, a wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the daughter of Caliph ‘Umar Bin al-Khattab. Fatima al-Baghdadia is another female calligrapher whose style was of such a high standard that it was compared to that of Ibn Hilal, a highly acclaimed calligrapher. In the case of the Prophet’s first wife, Sayyida al-Khadija, some of her calligraphic work still survives, attesting to her great skill.","quote":"*‘Some women became writers or poets, others physicians, or some experts in religious law and jurisprudence.’*"},"cb0785ef-fb33-5e76-b51b-81652da4bdfc":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"The Islamic hero of heroes, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r, 531–89 / 1137–93), changed the tide for the defeated Arabs and victorious Crusaders when he recaptured Jerusalem. The era of Saladin is considered to be one of the brightest moments in Arab history, when the fading Abbasid Caliphate saw a brief revival under the patronage of their Ayyubid governors.","quote":"‘*The era of Saladin is considered one of the brightest moments in Arab history’.*"},"46837ac7-e216-535c-9487-5198e7fe98f9":{"title":"Syria","description":"The yearly ceremony of the *hajj* involved arduous preparation of the pilgrim caravans for a long and potentially dangerous journey through the desert on camelback. The procession out of Damascus was, therefore, a crucial moment to ensure security and to gain visibility for good governance. The Mahmal al-Hajj headed the procession carrying emblems of the Ottoman caliph, where a Westernised decorative language can be discerned filtering into a local decorative repertoire.  \nSuch cultural and artistic innovations became ubiquitous by the early 14th/20th century. Qur'anic manuscripts painted with gold and enamel show a new sense of shading and colour. However, the identity of Damascus as a holy city remained predominant, irrespective of political and stylistic changes.","quote":"‘However, the identity of Damascus as a holy city remained predominant, irrespective of political and stylistic changes.’"},"4bed6c71-af16-5a48-8fbf-46d35ab606ed":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The importance given to the proper reading and verbal recitation of the Qur’an prompted the addition of supplements that included explanatory notes on the meaning of particular verses and guidelines for their proper recitation. These notes were either written within the outer margins of the page or added as a supplement at the end of the volume. While appropriate extracts from the Qur’an were combined with selected prayers and prophetic quotes from the *Hadith* (‘Sayings of the Prophet’), and published in separate books and pamphlets for use in prayers and supplications, verses referring to Old Testament prophets appeared in highly decorated and illustrated story books that were dedicated to individual prophets.","quote":"*‘Verses referring to Old Testament prophets appeared in books dedicated to individual prophets.’*"},"ceab8d7c-6e1d-5d61-81c7-078ad66f0bd3":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Another example of luxury objects being employed to ease diplomatic relations is at the court of Badr al-Din Lu’lu’, an Armenian convert to Islam. He was a Zangid *vizier*, and then an independent ruler of Mosul in Northern Iraq from 615–57 / 1218–59. Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ took a great interest in inlaid metalwork. A number of brass vessels inlaid with gold and silver and bearing his name survive. These valuable vessels were probably used as a replacement for gold and the fact that Lu’lu’ has included his name on them is testimony to their function as ambassadorial gifts.","quote":"*‘Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ took a great interest in inlaid metalwork.’*"},"6f026780-ce1b-55d2-b48b-2d177c9ca628":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"From early on in the Islamic world, calligraphic inscriptions were applied to a variety of architecture: religious, military, civic and private. Arabic calligraphy was one of the main characteristics by which to distinguish architecture of the Islamic period. The earliest surviving building that displays this element is the 1st- / 7th-century Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","quote":"*‘**Arabic calligraphy was one of the main characteristics that distinguished architecture of the Islamic period.’*"},"007e0513-1d25-5486-a970-7a75408f9d61":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"Coats of arms, which although not initially the exclusive trappings of the nobility subsequently became closely associated with it, reached their apogee in the 9th / 15th and 10th / 16th centuries, as can be seen from their widespread use and application to a range of objects, including commissioned ceramic items. The cartouche bearing Christian inscriptions, a device closely related to heraldry, also appears in Mudéjar ceramics.","quote":"*'The need to adapt to their customers' changing tastes forced Mudéjar potters to revise their repertoire.'*"},"7b8e8ebb-749c-5252-9649-7f18a8830f7b":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"The first Mudéjar ceramics were direct copies of Nasrid ceramics, to such an extent that it is difficult to determine the origin of certain pieces. The techniques (gilded ceramic with cobalt blue), decoration (palms, stalks, palmettes and shoots) and the forms of Nasrid pieces were all copied. Although the Nasrid pieces were usually unique, luxury and exclusive items, the Mudéjar copies were produced for a much wider clientele. Later, the need to adapt to their customers' changing tastes forced Mudéjar potters to revise their repertoire of forms, to incorporate Gothic and Renaissance elements, and to adopt Christian iconography.","quote":"*'The techniques, decoration and the forms of Nasrid pieces were all copied.'*"},"073b795d-65c6-5d5e-9265-134b960cca53":{"title":"Court Life","description":"The ceremony of dining and the manner of the diners themselves became increasingly refined under the influence of Baghdad. Food that was once shared from a common receptacle was now placed on several dishes served according to a strict protocol. Menus were enriched with new and varied recipes with flavours and smells intended to delight. After-dinner entertainment included music and dancers, all within an ornate palatial setting, thus ensuring that all the senses were enchanted.","quote":"*The ceremony of dining*"},"06c733a5-e1b4-5be1-ae58-c5968680a73a":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"Caliph Harun al-Rashid, grandson of al-Mansur, moved his court to al-Raqqa between 180 and 192 / 796 and 809, during a period of political unrest in Baghdad and southern Iraq. Al-Rashid extended the fortifications and created a whole new suburb of palaces to the north of al-Raqqa. These palaces accommodated his household and those of a number of officials who came to reside with him. The link with Baghdad and the eastern lands was maintained using a sophisticated mail system. Al-Rashid’s sons and future caliphs all spent much of their youth at al-Raqqa.","quote":"*‘**These palaces accommodated his household and those of a number of officials who came to reside with him.’*"},"e1608033-ab95-5c07-ac56-54849a33a39b":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths","description":"In the 1st / 7th century Jerusalem and the Holy Land came under Muslim sovereignty. To Muslims also the two places were sacred, and in the centuries to come, despite often troubled times politically, adherents of all three faiths continued to undertake pilgrimages to the Holy Sites in the area many of which were revered by all three religions. Successive Muslim rulers, Caliph 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) and Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin, r. 564–89 / 1169–93) most famous among them, devoted themselves to protecting the pilgrimage routes, providing generously for the upkeep of the holy sites and facilitating access for all – Muslims and non-Muslims alike – a sacred duty imparted by the Qur'an itself, which respects Jews and Christians as 'People of the Book' (*'ahl al-kitab'*).","quote":"*'The Qur'an respects Jews and Christians as “People of the Book”* (“ahl al-kitab”)*.'*"},"adc2c82c-8dbe-5321-9ab3-9fea14b4167f":{"title":"Turkey","description":"Although a relationship of many centuries had existed between the Ottomans and the West through wars or trade going back to the middle ages, Westernisation of Ottoman taste came to the empire much later.  \nThe zenith of the Ottoman Empire, which occurred in the 16th century, did not last long. The weaknesses that occurred in the administrative system, together with erosion of the military and financial bodies, resulted in the empire's loss of territories from the late 17th century. Attempts were made at regaining the empire's once mighty power seen in the importation of measures from the West's administrative and technical infrastructure, a borrowing that was also reflected in Ottoman society and art. Closer cultural and diplomatic relations established with the West, reinforced with the perception of the Ottoman Empire as a market, led to new developments in both the social structure of the society and its art. Thus, the introduction of Western elements into the Ottoman artistic repertoire in the 18th and 19th centuries is known as the Westernisation period.","quote":"‘Although a relationship of many centuries had existed between the Ottomans and the West through wars or trade going back to the middle ages, Westernisation of Ottoman taste came to the empire much later.’"},"a5133a30-c9e7-5c30-b1d4-bf5b16ad8f8d":{"title":"Objects","description":"Abbasid art marks the beginning of a distinctly Islamic style of decoration. The vocabulary adopted from late Antique art gave way to broader influences and a spirit of experimentation. The example of imported Chinese porcelain, for example, spurred the development of Abbasid ceramics. Some wares openly copied contemporary Tang splashware, while others featured austere geometric forms. A development of vital importance for Islamic ceramics was the rise of the lustre technique, which probably began on glass but was most famously used to make potted wares glitter like precious metal. Other Abbasid arts included luxury textiles, known to have been a major industry of the period, but surviving in only a few examples. The Abbasid period also witnessed the first canonisation of styles of the Arabic script and, by extension, the development of beautifully written and ornamented Qur'an manuscripts.  \n  \nThe term “Abbasid” refers to the far-flung empire of the caliphate, but some regions were governed by vassals under whose patronage important works of art were produced, such as the Qur'ans made in North Africa. The Tulunids of Egypt were fond of exquisitely carved or inlaid wood – a luxury material in a desert climate."},"ca738840-bcc5-5148-8748-e3bb31ec2983":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art"},"6ff61f8d-0983-5aa2-8637-2151608072f9":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"The popular and religious Mudéjar style in Portugal is distinctive, as certain decorative elements, such as crenellations and pinnacles, were incorporated into Gothic-style structures alongside exposed collar-beam ceilings decorated with vivid, multicoloured interlaced stars and crosses, or flat *alfarje* ceilings in the upper choirs decorated with wheels of eight- and sixteen-pointed stars.","quote":"*The Mudéjar style in Portugal*"},"35beb34a-375b-5bd2-98d3-523a97e96b21":{"title":"The Fatimids","description":"‘They dreamed of building a Shi‘ite caliphate at the heart of the Islamic world; the Fatimids ruled an empire famed as much for its political administration as it was for its artistic splendour.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The assassination of Caliph ′Ali in the Iraqi city of Kufa and of Imam Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet, at Karbala, gave rise to Shi‘ism. The movement claimed its right to the caliphate based on its leaders’ descent from Muhammad. Fiercely attacked by the Umayyads and Abbasids, Shi‘ism nevertheless continued to spread throughout the Muslim world and soon reached North Africa. It was here that the Shi‘ite Muslims, led by Abu ‘Abdallah al-Shi‘i, decided to establish themselves with a view to conquering the Islamic caliphate.  \nThe Fatimid caliphate was effectively born at Raqqada in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), and from there the movement succeeded in overthrowing the local Aghlabid dynasty in AH 297 / AD 909. The first Fatimid capital was al-Mahdiyya, the urban and architectural fabric of which carried their mark. Under the enlightened rule of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu‘izz li-Din Allah (r. 341–63 / 953–75) the realm became remarkably prosperous, and the economic conditions provided a favourable climate in which to attempt the conquest of the caliphate. As part of his plan to achieve this objective he dispatched General Jawhar to conquer Egypt, which had suffered much under Tulunid rule. In 357 / 969 al-Mu‘izz entered Egypt victorious, delegating the rule of North Africa to his Zirid vassals. The Zirids saw the opportunity to become independent and renounce Shi‘ism in favour of Sunni Islam, a move that was punished by the Fatimids, who promptly deployed the barbarian Bedouin tribe, the Banu Hilal, to devastate their lands. Fatimid power now shifted to Egypt and in 357 / 969 al-Mu‘izz founded a new capital, Cairo. Based on an ever-expanding empire, a brilliant civilisation evolved, rivalling that of the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Umayyads in Spain. Urbanism, the sciences, art and literature reached new heights. However, these achievements were not to last: the arrival of the Crusaders, economic decline and major epidemics all contributed to the fall of this brilliant dynasty, which was eventually extinguished at the hands of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) in 567 / 1171.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/fatimids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/16/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":3}}},"bb6637ac-a866-515d-b9a2-3869310f0ad7":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"Inscriptions vary in subject and include a wide variety of calligraphic styles. They may refer to patrons and their accomplishments or recite verses from the Qur’an, protective prayers, blessings, poetic verses and proverbs. The latter inscriptions are usually chosen to complement the function of the object, such as the use of the Qur’anic verse ‘God, Light of the World’ (24: 35) on mosque lamps, or the use of poetic verses that praise the work of the pen, seen on pen cases or writing boxes. Protective prayers and invocations of blessings are expected to actively contribute to the function of a vessel. Words such as ‘*baraka’* acknowledge and invoke God’s generosity, and the owner’s good luck. The same sentiments are evoked when using one of God’s Ninety-Nine Names on an object, where its presence would protect the object and its contents from harm or loss.","quote":"*‘Inscriptions are usually chosen to complement the function of the object.’*"},"d03f0704-42d3-54b3-8b3b-d1ee5a970a2c":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt"},"06f8adf1-80a7-5ad3-930e-d74a24929bf9":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"In addition to the ceramic plates produced in İznik, copper and gilded ones were also used. It was inevitable that imported Chinese porcelains would be utilised at table, but the change brought about by the adoption of the Western lifestyle in the 19th century, brought an end to traditional table culture at the Topkapı Palace with the introduction of tables and chairs, European porcelains and silver cutlery.","quote":"*‘In addition to the ceramic plates produced in İznik, copper and gilded ones were also used.’*"},"8aaef163-92d1-584e-b208-20da9b7fd02e":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"A variety of calligraphic styles flourished at different periods, influenced by the social composition of the regions. In the western provinces – North Africa and al-Andalus – the ‘*Maghrebi*’ style of Arabic script was developed, influenced by North Africa’s Berber heritage. While in multicultural Sicily, the Normans produced multilingual inscriptions that included Arabic, to document and commemorate a variety of events.","quote":"*‘**In the western provinces – North Africa and al-Andalus – the* \"Maghrebi\" *style of Arabic script was developed.’*"},"0619d09f-5563-54e4-a733-b1fda9508dda":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The *minbar* under discussion is more significant than most because it is associated with the Shi’ite martyr Imam al-Husayn, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. When the Crusaders marched to Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa) in 548 / 1143, devout Muslims took their chance to rescue both the severed head of al-Husayn and the *minbar* itself, which they smuggled successfully into Hebron and placed in the Ibrahimi Mosque. Tradition has it that the severed head of al-Husayn was taken to Cairo*.*","quote":"‘*They smuggled the* minbar *successfully into Hebron and placed it in the Ibrahimi Mosque.’*"},"d1cd70ed-eba3-5102-ad3f-35f48ba86542":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Having established political uniformity in Anatolia, the Seljuq sultans increased their building activities and developed trade. Having secured the routes, they lived in luxury palaces built with the aim of living in an Earthly Paradise. A Turkish-Islamic state, the Anatolian Seljuqs developed an artistic style rooted in the heritage of the many civilisations of Asia and Anatolia, and inspired by contemporary as well as Byzantine culture. During their rule, from the second half of the 5th / 11th to the early 8th / 14th centuries the Anatolian Seljuqs built monuments to suit their religious beliefs as well as their social aspirations. These included mosques, *türbes* (tombs), *madrasa*s (religious schools), *hammam*s (bathhouses), *hans* (*caravanserai*), and bridges.","quote":"*‘They developed an artistic style rooted in the heritage of the many civilisations of Asia and Anatolia.’*"},"29034c7a-8823-5847-9fb2-ed236e6ef371":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"The application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique that first appeared in glasswork before becoming, famously, applied to pottery. In Egypt the technique used on glass was an innovation known since at least the 2nd / 8th century.  \nIndeed, lustre pottery – due to Fatimid patronage of migrant potters – soon marked the high-point of ceramic production in Egypt, which also included other types of glazed pottery. The workshops of some master potters known to us, include the School of the Muslim and the School of Sa’ad.  \nAnother flourishing industry was devoted to metalwork. Artisans specialised in the production of three-dimensional animals and birds, cast- and beaten-metal vessels, scientific instruments such as astrolabes and surgical tools.","quote":"*‘The application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique.’*"},"cbc12111-8c44-55d6-b676-b86eda25e6a1":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"European furniture was adopted even more readily, and it became common to see four-poster beds with gilt plasterwork, heavily gilded mirrors and consoles, Venetian lamps, and Italian or French velvet and silk alongside traditional Hispano-Maghrebian furniture, although this new trend never supplanted the old style. New imports also included carpets *(zarbia)* from Anatolia, carved wedding chests, low tables and boxes with expensive inlays from Turkey.  \nFurniture, women's wear, jewellery, etc. all underwent the same changes. Wall coverings, hangings, bed linen and divans, like clothing in general, were richly endowed with Levantine embroidery.","quote":"‘Furniture, women's wear, jewellery, etc. all underwent the same changes.’"},"54f705a7-f6cc-5d60-88a2-8e1edc57ef20":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"Literacy levels were high and the patronage of colleges competitive. Scholars – ‘*ulama*’ – from Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, al-Andalus, the Maghreb and Egypt poured into the *madrasa*s, finding refuge in Damascus and a fertile teaching ground. Under *waqf* agreements (endowments) scholars were given grants, salaries and somewhere to live. Good students were awarded an *ijaza* (certificate) by their tutors. The process of apprenticeship is often illustrated on the frontispieces of scientific and philosophical manuscripts.","quote":"*‘Apprenticeship is often illustrated on the frontispieces of scientific and philosophical manuscripts.’*"},"ebe1e957-e9a6-5900-a103-902e5fee4e8f":{"title":"Water Management"},"699bcf48-10b7-5156-85dc-0aff994af0da":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"Like other empires, the Ottomans took their artistic taste to newly captured lands alongside their administrative and political systems. Through the ateliers established in the palace, the Ottomans dominated the artistic approach in the provinces over a vast geographical area. But another reality is that the farther you go from the capital, the more local colours you find despite the dominance of the palace ateliers.  \nImitating the refined taste of the capital was what the Ottomans did with art in the provinces as well. Ottoman taste was reflected in works commissioned either directly by the palace or by the governors ruling the provinces in the name of the sultan. The work of local benefactors was in reasonable competition with the capital, but still distinguished works of art were accomplished.","quote":"*‘The farther from the capital, the more local colours you find despite the dominance of the palace ateliers.’*"},"b554b571-d0e5-5750-8458-758d1d2857a2":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"At court, the sultan was surrounded by an inner circle of senior retainers, each one with a specific responsibility, such as cup-bearer, treasurer or major-domo. These senior Mamluks were meant to support their sultan loyally in all his religious, political and military objectives, but often partook in factional infighting and power struggles against their ruler.  \nOn a more positive note they vied to emulate the sultan’s activities as a patron of art and architecture. As the children of Mamluks were not allowed to inherit their fathers’ rank and privileges, the endowment (*waqf*) of religious foundations was a popular means to provide security and income for their families.","quote":"*‘Mamluk retainers vied to emulate the sultan’s activities as a patron of art and architecture.’*"},"dc90a515-7d31-50e6-bb8f-6de8b231efd4":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"Egypt was directly ruled by the Abbasids between 132 and 358 / 750 and 969. Its agricultural and commercial activities provided valuable revenues, and its location acted as a gate to North Africa. A governor supported by an army and an administrative elite, was appointed to manage Egypt. Fustat – on the eastern bank of the River Nile and south of Cairo – was the main commercial capital. The city still had a majority population of Coptic Christians and the Mosque of ‘Amr Ibn al-‘As was the main place of worship for Muslims. The governor and his army occupied the ‘Asakir district adjacent to Fustat.","quote":"*‘Fustat – on the eastern bank of the Nile and south of Cairo – was the main commercial capital.’*"},"396874d9-40a1-5d19-9b40-a8c4225d8397":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"Egypt was the assembly point for pilgrims from North and Central  Africa. They arrived in Alexandria and proceeded to Cairo, where they embarked at Fustat and sailed 640 km up the River Nile to the city of Qus, in the South. Camels then carried them to 'Ayzaab, one of the most important Red Sea Ports. From there sailing boats ferried them across to Arabia. The crossing was hazardous: many ships sank and a number of pilgrims drowned.","quote":"*'Egypt was the assembly point for pilgrims from North and Central Africa.'*"},"31839947-b81e-578b-b011-e2319540abf1":{"title":"Jordan"},"9e30bc38-26f6-5892-9b38-6c81101cb0d5":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"Islam enjoins both men and women to dress modestly. Muslim women are expected to cover their heads and wear long-sleeve garments that reach from the neck to the ankle. Beyond these general conventions observed by all, Muslim female costume has always varied greatly from culture to culture and from period to period in terms of textiles, design, layering of garments, the style of headdress and accessories. Social class and ethnic background have also played a role in a woman’s appearance.","quote":"*‘Islam enjoins both men and women to dress modestly and women are expected to cover their heads.’*"},"98c2e587-fe2e-561f-800d-0429b0889c72":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Interior walls were clad with panels and friezes with geometric patterns in relief that would originally have been coloured, as if they were fine fabrics.  \nThis type of decoration appears in *muqarnas* in the West and in the East and was used on window cornices and arches. It is made up of interconnected prismatic parts of different shapes.  \nFinally, geometric calligraphic decoration in *kufic* script adorns the friezes of religious and civil buildings.","quote":"*‘Interior walls were clad with panels and friezes, as if they were fine fabrics..’*"},"ceba53e2-8d26-5b58-86d1-788c47e11fd6":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures"},"1fe29955-194b-5f40-833a-ae7bf2b5e383":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"Under Mamluk Rule, Egypt, Palestine and Syria enjoyed a tremendous economic, cultural, intellectual and artistic revival that was centred primarily in the urban centres of Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem. Cairo, the Mamluk capital, was celebrated as the ‘Metropolis of the Universe’ and the ‘Garden of the World’. It was the largest metropolitan centre in the world at the time, and one of the wealthiest cities in the Near  East, providing a centre for intellectuals, scholars, scientists, artisans and traders.","quote":"*‘Cairo, the Mamluk capital, was celebrated as the “Metropolis of the Universe”.’*"},"5a338511-2ac0-5415-a85c-90120546219d":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"Indeed, from the late 17th century, public and private buildings began to include innovations in their architecture, decoration and ornamentation. The first elements of the Baroque style began to emerge, and local earthenware, stucco and sculpted wood traditions were abandoned in favour of Italian or Rococo decoration executed by foreign craftsmen.  \nSumptuous houses were built in the most beautiful districts of the *medina* along with nearby country houses set in surrounding gardens.  \nOrnamentation differed from one palace to another, but the fascination for Carrara marble and imported ceramics became widespread during the 18th and 19th centuries: grand marble stairways, Italian painted wooden ceilings, Neapolitan tiles, Husaynid stuccowork and floral paining. Internal doors and window shutters were made of Italian sculpted panels.","quote":"‘Sumptuous houses were built in the most beautiful districts of the *medina* along with nearby country houses set in surrounding gardens.’"},"e7b309d4-f6ec-5a3c-85a4-64bb13cff1d3":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"There is very little material evidence of the period of Islamic rule in Sicily, this term being understood to cover both the time the entire island was governed by the Kalbid *amir*s (who were Fatimid subjects) and the Norman conquest, during which a few areas remained in the hands of the Muslims for a limited time. In architecture, this evidence often consists of masonry remains of mosques and fortresses, usually incorporated into later structures.","quote":"'*There is very little material evidence of Islamic rule in Sicily, consisting mainly of masonry remains.'*"},"8319f75e-c88b-5e0d-87d1-baa20d291ec5":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*"},"a1f710c0-f3ac-5a24-a8f4-4bfadf1b55e4":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients"},"7e85c07a-48f2-5fc5-b04e-c0bb4eaed801":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land"},"6a6bebaa-7157-585a-a0a4-10139e43213c":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity","description":"The arabesque is certainly the most popular alternative to naturalistic floral compositions. Formed from a combination of stalks, scrolls, leaves and palmettes that grow from each other and develop in an endless, symmetrical arrangement, the arabesque became universally popular in Islamic art from the 5th / 11th century. The arabesque's adaptability and versatility lends itself to the decoration of artefacts and architectural structures alike, inviting contemplation of the unfathomable interconnections and interdependencies of God.","quote":"*‘The arabesque is certainly the most popular alternative to naturalistic floral compositions.’*"},"cffb5dbb-cdd6-5c87-9301-6dc14bb279d8":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Damascus’s role as a starting point for the yearly pilgrimage, or *hajj,* adds to the city’s religious character. During the Ayyubid period, a suburb known as al-Maydan grew around the *hajj* road and became an important centre for the production of religious art. Islamic religious art in the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods is most eloquently expressed in mosque architecture and illuminated Qur’ans. Masonry and woodwork on *minarets,* *mihrabs*, *maqsuras* and *minbars* exemplify this pre-eminence.","quote":"*‘Islamic religious art is most eloquently expressed in mosque architecture.’*"},"21173928-d7cb-5f28-9f20-0a8f069336e7":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"There was also a northern pilgrimage route for those travelling to Mecca from Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Both contingents then proceeded to the vicinity of ancient 'Aylat (today the village of er-Rumeil) and from there to Jedda and Medina. Many Muslim rulers helped to maintain the route, among them Sayyida Zubayda, the wife of Caliph Harun al-Rashid; whose section, which she also provided with excellent facilities, was known as 'Zubayda's Way'.","quote":"*There was also a northern pilgrimage route for those travelling to Mecca from Turkey.'*"},"e80da55d-a24c-5ad5-8bdc-c203bda24973":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"Traditionally, the *Ka'ba* is covered by a dark, elaborately decorated *kiswa* (cover), a tradition that was started by a king of Himyar in Southern Arabia two centuries before the hegira. Initially, the *kiswa* was donated by the Prophet Muhammad and the caliphs; later it was Egypt that dispatched the *kiswa* every year, decorated with gold-thread panels containing Qur'anic phrases and prayers referring to the *Hajj* and its importance. Sent at the same time were an elaborate pair of curtains to cover the doors of the *Ka'ba*, and a pouch containing the key to the *Ka'ba* made from silver-inlaid brass and enhanced with religious quotes. The sending-off ceremony involved a big celebration in the capital, Cairo. The *kiswa* began its journey via the citadel forecourt accompanied by knights and officials, drums and fanfares and flanked by a huge crowd of ordinary citizens.","quote":"*'Traditionally, the* Ka'ba *is covered by a dark, elaborately decorated* kiswa*.'*"},"573c3733-80fc-5e4c-b0cc-4de48d4bc466":{"title":"The Zangids and Ayyubids"},"5f07058e-e943-529b-9aad-26510494cbe8":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"The apogee of gilded ceramic from Manises coincides with the predominance of zoomorphic themes: deer, waders, bulls and small birds were placed at the centre of the composition, a decorative innovation that broke from the Hispano-Muslim tradition. With the decline of the Manises kilns, the pigments went from a pale-gold to a coppery or chocolaty tone, and the variety in decoration became more limited. The imaginary 'pardalot' bird, with its body scored with lines to imitate plumage, became the most popular theme.","quote":"*With the decline of the Manises kilns, the pigments went from a pale-gold to a coppery tone.'*"},"a33e8d0d-78bb-5e1f-bf96-8cdd1b65b6f8":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Throughout their rule, the Mamluks maintained close diplomatic ties with all the major European powers, Castile, Sicily, the Italian Republics and Byzantium among them, as well as with the Mongols and the Far East. At the highest level, the exchange of luxurious diplomatic gifts produced in Egypt and Syria underpinned and consolidated political ties. At the same time, international relations were also propagated through large-scale trade.","quote":"*‘Diplomatic gifts produced in Egypt and Syria underpinned and consolidated political ties.’*"},"48a86896-7c77-5f66-a1d9-8df0111a6e0c":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"Most important, however, he was highly trained in the art of war, archery and horsemanship. Indeed, in many ways the training of Mamluks can be compared to that of contemporary European knights. Regular tournaments were held with competitive games such as polo (*jawkan*) designed to refine the Mamluks’ equerry skills. Once their training was complete the Mamluk was set free and given a set of weapons and a horse. Now they were free to embark on military careers that enabled the most skilled among them to rise through the ranks to serve as senior commanders, provincial governors, the sultan’s retainers, or indeed as sultans themselves.","quote":"*‘In many ways the training of Mamluks can be compared to that of contemporary European knights.’*"},"9f7848ae-c4b1-5425-8491-708ef71e028d":{"title":"Water Management","description":"While the systems constructed by the Romans were gainfully re-used over the ages, the contribution of Islamic civilisation in water management is also important. The large-scale Arab immigration and population increase led to the growth of a new landholding class who invested in agricultural production. Thus, the heritage of Roman techniques in water management was further developed under the Islamic dynasties, as can be seen by the construction of many water-management systems, including subterranean canals, regular canals, aqueducts, cisterns, dams, rain reservoirs and waterwheels (*noria*).","quote":"*‘The heritage of Roman techniques in water management was further developed under the Islamic dynasties.’*"},"17ddd4ae-d694-5a72-955a-060b61ef530c":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"In reverence to their descent from Fatima al-Zahra', the daughter of the Prophet and wife of Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, the Fatimids accorded the royal princesses a life of luxury and responsibility, entrusting them important roles in public and political life. This attitude affected generally the treatment of women in contemporary society. Many women of the court held important political posts, and the sister of Caliph al-Hakim bi Amrillah, Sitt al-Mulk, even governed Egypt for four years in place of her infant brother. Many Fatimid women of rank managed their own wealth and were active in commercial business, owning ships that transported goods far and wide. Lavish lifestyles attested to their personal wealth: one princess by the name of ‘Abda left so many chests filled with gems, jewellery and treasures that 14 kg of wax was needed to seal them and 30 reams of paper to list their contents.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids accorded the royal princesses a life of luxury and responsibility.’*"},"119ab24b-479f-5ff2-b732-0ff4c64e08e5":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"Everyday and funerary objects such as terracotta jars with funerary inscriptions, some of which are similar to certain North African pieces, whether produced by craftsmen based on the island or imported from North Africa or the Muslim areas of the Iberian peninsula, bear witness to the long-lasting relationships between different Mediterranean regions that managed to bridge the divide between two opposing worlds until well into the 14th century.","quote":"*'Everyday objects are evidence of the long-lasting relations between different Mediterranean regions.'*"},"544d24b1-a4c5-568d-8a3b-dd38d938afe5":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"*Kufic* script originated in Kufa, Iraq, during the first decades of the AH 1st / AD 7th century. It developed from the *hijazi* script, which was itself influenced by the *Syriac*. *Syriac* script, in turn, was born from the meeting of the two cultural types and was attributable to the migration of a number of Iraqi Christian scholars to Kufa in the first half of the 1st / 7th century. Kufa’s strong political and military position helped the *kufic* style to spread and gave it its name. The presence of a large number of Muslim scholars, reciters of the Qur’an and of the *Hadith*s helped to spread the *kufic* style beyond the city, and also aided its development both stylistically and aesthetically.","quote":"*‘Kufa’s strong political and military position helped the* kufic *style to spread and gave it its name.’*"},"97f0d7d4-686c-530b-b13e-3459e7fb2772":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"Fatimid Egypt was famous for its luxury textile production and in particular the so-called *dar al-tiraz* textile workshops in Damietta, Dabiq, Tanis, Alexandria and Shata. The Persian word *tiraz* denotes an embroidered decorative band, attached near the edge of a fabric or a garment, that included blessings and – in the Fatimid period – the name of the ruling caliph or high-ranking patron. Each *tiraz* workshop had a designated manager to oversee the production, packing and transportation of the textiles, in particular those destined for the caliph himself. The status of this individual was very high; he commanded an impressive salary and was honoured with a welcoming procession and reception whenever he visited Cairo.","quote":"*'Fatimid Egypt was famous for its so-called* dar al-tiraz *textile workshops.'*"},"9275ed46-c379-591c-b8f5-c59e0879225f":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"The custom of inscribing the name and titles of the patron and bestowing on him blessings is a personal statement by the patron to commemorate his patronage, especially when the items concerned are being presented to public institutions such as mosques and *madrasa*s. Objects were sometimes transported for long distances to reach their intended destinations and had, therefore, the potential to inspire local practitioners. Some artisans, on the other hand, used calligraphy for purely decorative reasons, creating illegible inscriptions that were not meant to be read at all.","quote":"*‘Some artisans used calligraphy purely decoratively, thereby creating illegible inscriptions.’*"},"c3c3c6a9-356a-5b3d-b18a-805d7175e3fa":{"title":"Administrative Reforms"},"ab86e7ab-a2af-55b0-bd1d-acb09915baa1":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"The Fatimid dynasty made great efforts to construct, furnish and maintain mosques in order to disseminate their Shi‘ite beliefs. Whether at Mahdiyya, or in their splendid capital Cairo – with imposing complexes like the mosques of al-Azhar and al-Aqmar – or in regions as far a field as Sicily, Fatimid mosques were designed to shine, like beacons, of Shi‘ite propaganda. Architecturally the Fatimid mosque is distinct: a protruding entrance reminiscent of Roman ‘victory arches’; a carved, stone dome, and a facade with inscriptions (Shi‘ite in content) written in kufic script, but most notable of all, is the absence of a minaret.","quote":"*‘Fatimid mosques were designed to shine, like beacons, of Shi‘ite propaganda.’*"},"ee7a2a3a-731e-564b-b6f7-1f7eb1934418":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"Jerusalem is the Holy city of Judaism, Christianity and of Islam. The city thrived under the Mamluks, who promoted its status as the prime destination for pilgrims, religious scholars and scientists by initiating grandiose architectural projects. Indeed, Jerusalem became such a popular destination for intellectual exchange, mystic introspection and interfaith debate that the number of generously endowed *madrasa*s and other study centres, staffed by some of the most learned intellectuals of the day, increased to over 100.","quote":"*‘The Mamluks promoted the city as the destination for pilgrims, religious scholars and scientists.’*"},"6ca7f36b-6ff1-5be2-b8a1-162095f62272":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The religious architecture of the Norman court can be seen in a number of churches that were built around existing structures from the Islamic period.","quote":"*'Some royal Norman churches were built on the remains of Islamic sites.'*"},"94fec78e-a38a-50eb-964d-7cb6963f9585":{"title":"Turkey","description":"Ottoman admiration for Western art, architecture and urbanism led to the birth of a new taste in the Tulip Period (1718–30). Increasingly during the following decades, Baroque and Rococo features were introduced to the Ottoman style, thus the Empire, Neo-Classical and Eclectic styles became quite common in the 19th century.","quote":"‘Ottoman admiration for Western art, architecture and urbanism led to the birth of a new taste in the Tulip Period (1718–30).’"},"46dc88ff-bfef-555f-911d-3ced9ca58efa":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"After the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 923 / 1517, the local rulers of Mecca offered Sultan Selim I supreme power over Arabia for political and economic reasons. Consequently, the two most important Muslim cities, Mecca and Medina – and with them the holiest places of Islam – became part of the Ottoman Empire, and the sultans took the title of Caliph. Thus, for about 400 years the Ottoman sultans paid particular attention to giving their generous support to the holy sites.","quote":"*‘For about 400 years the sultans paid particular attention to giving their generous support to the holy sites.’*"},"93c54687-ed57-54c6-8dc9-82032411c77b":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book"},"622bc6c4-0521-53bd-80a6-0fa7a314fc9b":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book, is God’s words revealed orally to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic between hegira 610 and 632. It was collected and assembled into one volume by his companions and the early caliphs, especially the third caliph, ‘Uthman Ibn ‘Affan (23–35 / 644–56), in whose time the texts were organised into the Book as we know it today. The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters (*sura*) and 6,236 verses (*ayat*).","quote":"*‘The Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book, is God’s words revealed orally to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic.’*"},"11b19208-0f2c-5176-9948-5d121532b39a":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Women also championed the building of *ribat*s (religious fortifications) and *khanqah*s, (dervish convents), first as a refuge for religious warriors but later used as places of worship and accommodation for the poor.  \nEducation was another sphere where women were active as patrons, exemplified by the elaborate educational complex in Cairo, Madrasa of Umm Sultan Sha‘ban, built by the mother of the Mamluk Sultan Sha‘ban. Others provided schools (*kuttab*s*, madrasa*s) to further the education of girls. Yet other charitable work included the patronage of hospitals (*bimaristan*s) such as that adjoining the Great Mosque of Divriği, commissioned by Turan Melik who lived in the 7th / 13th century, and that constructed by order of Aziza Othmana, who lived in the 11th / 17th century.","quote":"*‘Women also championed the construction of* ribat*s and* khanqah*s,* madrasa*s, and* bimaristan*s.’*"},"1dbcce8a-f15c-5124-8ef3-103e38fe1b4e":{"title":"Science and knowledge","description":"Muslim rulers continuously worked to ensure their people were supplied with water, a task to which they applied the scientific knowledge available at the time. The most robust installations used to supply water have survived, such as dykes, aqueducts and *noria*s (waterwheels).","quote":"Hydraulic science and technology"},"d0091937-ae75-5b53-b750-fd43ae2c25e5":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery"},"30947cee-0ac0-51a6-a6b7-4918f5ceb559":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Abbasids presents what may be referred to as the first 'Classical' moment in the evolution of Islamic architecture, one that was centred in the political and cultural capital of the Abbasid state, Baghdad (and by extension the adjacent royal suburb of Samarra). The Abbasid architecture of Baghdad was dominated by the use of brick as a construction material. Stucco is also widely used as a sheathing material. Stone was used in areas of the Abbasid state where it was a predominant or at least common building material, as in Tulunid Egypt and Aghlabid Tunisia, the two main Abbasid-era traditions represented in this project. Wood is also used, though more sparingly, for elements such as the *minbar*, doors and in the building's beams.  \n  \nThe hypostyle-mosque plan continues to be the primary mosque plan. The minaret, *minbar* and *mihrab* become standard features in mosques. The relatively small dome located over the area in front of the *mihrab*, which first emerged during the Umayyad period, becomes a widespread element. In the case of Aghlabid architecture, a second dome is also sometimes constructed, opposite the first dome, at the entrance leading from the courtyard to the prayer hall. Another development dating to the Abbasid period is the appearance of the *ziyada*, the open space that surrounds the mosque and separates it from the surrounding urban fabric.  \n  \nThe uniquely Islamic architectural element of the *muqarnas* makes its first appearance during the Abbasid period, probably in Baghdad. The first examples have been dated to the late AH 3rd / AD late 9th–early 10th centuries, and it spread throughout the central Islamic lands during the 5th / 11th century. The pointed arch becomes a predominant feature during the Abbasid period, and the horseshoe arch emerges as a common element in the architecture of the Aghlabids. In terms of building types, the appearance of funerary architecture in Islamic architectural traditions dates to the Abbasid period. Initially these consisted of a single space covered by a dome.  \n  \nThe primary decorative motifs of the period were stylised vegetal motifs as well as geometric patterns which were often executed in stucco. The 'arabesque' or repeated, interlaced stylised vegetal motif also comes into being during this period. Inscriptions continue to play an integral role in the articulation of architecture.  \n  \nThe earlier examples of Abbasid architecture show clear Sassanian influences from Iran. However, the architecture of Aghlabid Tunisia shows a higher level of continuity with Umayyad traditions. Examples of this include the use of minarets with square sections, and the re-use of Roman and Byzantine building components, such as column shafts and capitals. By the early 3rd / mid-10th century, especially with the emergence of what is referred to as the 'Samarra style', the architecture of the Abbasids could be described as self-referential, evolving through an internal process that relied primarily on Muslim prototypes rather than styles imported from other traditions."},"ee2aaf47-9aaa-5955-b4b2-c1f9cacab9fc":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"Despite their piety, life at the Fatimid court and that of their vassals – the Zirids in North Africa and the Kalbids in Sicily – was not short of entertainment, provided by poets, singers, and dancers. In North  Africa, the Fatimids welcomed local poets such as the Ifriqiyans (Tunisians) Ibn Hani and al-Ladi. Later, in Cairo, the court hosted poets from all over the Islamic world. A number of caliphs also composed poetry which was sometimes performed publicly. Musical entertainment drew on the Eastern tradition and borrowed elements from the Andalusian repertoire; it was performed by male and female musicians on instruments such as reed flutes, lutes and dulcimers. Singers, many of whom had mastered both an instrument and verse, sang poetry exploring love and chivalry. Male and female dancers performed eloquently; the popular ‘handkerchief’ dance appears on many relief carvings.","quote":"*‘Despite their piety, life at the Fatimid court was not short of entertainment.’*"},"4d22c9f5-70ed-5031-b70e-7aa555a8fa7a":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"Islamic art adapted and stylised the human figure of pre-Islamic art without hesitation. Human figurative motifs are found on the surface decoration of both artefacts and monuments (the exception being as a general rule mosques) as part of woven or applied patterns, in sculptural forms, on coins, and in manuscript illustrations. Religious figures such as prophets and angels were drawn from the Byzantine tradition, and mythical themes such as harpies (female-headed birds) were drawn from antiquity, other figurative forms were created through the customisation of well-established, culturally familiar, visual forms.","quote":"*‘Islamic art adapted and stylised the human figure of pre-Islamic art without hesitation.’*"},"93d8ebf1-31d8-5e89-966d-89b3cb0abebd":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule"},"473cc292-7a45-5f73-b92a-f3b7db5501f4":{"title":"Mudéjar Art"},"0f9828f8-dd3a-5969-ba97-2fc083ca3fe9":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"Many Muslim women have made history as accomplished musicians and dancers at the highest level; several were engaged as court performers and were generously rewarded. Thus we know of Nasab, whose skill in drumming was such that the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir bi Allah gave her a plot of land in Cairo, which subsequently grew into a neighbourhood known after her as al-Tabalah – The Drummer. One female musician, the lute player, Itifaq, even succeeded in marrying the Mamluk ruler al-Malik al-Muzaffar Haji bin Qalawun. When she came to perform, he spread silk fabrics on the floor for her to tread on, and after she had finished, he gave her four jewels and six pearls, worth 4,000 *dinar*s.","quote":"*‘Many Muslim women have made history as accomplished musicians and dancers at the highest level.’*"},"5cef1f76-07da-5ce0-a8f7-d678e155d371":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule","description":"The conquest of the Middle-Eastern region that arches across the northern part of the Syrian Desert and extends to the Nile Valley encompassing the Tigris and Euphrates rivers – in modern times known as the Fertile Crescent – was undertaken in the name of Islam. The period of Umayyad rule that followed brought fewer changes for the Christian population than is popularly thought, for while Muslim communities were concentrated in the cities and in newly established towns as a military elite, the Christians continued to live in small towns and in the countryside and were not excluded from government posts.  \nChristian communities remained prosperous and artisans continued to produce numerous artefacts such as lamps, for both religious and secular use; Christian imagery appears on many of them.  \nFew churches went out of use. The three-aisled basilica church was the most commonly seen and, as might be expected, churches in towns were usually more sumptuous than those in rural areas. Many churches of the era are famous for their beautiful floor mosaics.","quote":"*‘Christian communities remained prosperous and artisans continued to produce numerous artefacts.’*"},"1d025879-0f4e-58f5-9d96-55b7af6f72a3":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word"},"543aaa57-6637-5f92-ac7d-d3ff9c19f682":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"Nasrid art in al-Andalus, and Marinid, Ziyanid and Hafsid art in the Maghreb represent the highpoint of the decorative wealth found in Western Muslim art. Their interrelations give rise to a uniform style (with highly significant examples such as that at the Alhambra in Granada and the ‘Attarin Madrasa in Fez) which became a model for Western Islamic art.","quote":"*Merinids and Nasrids: a model for Western Islamic art.*"},"39470669-f271-52b5-9ea9-ee88e042362a":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"In Islamic culture, houses and palaces were designed to ensure privacy for women, shielding them from the intrusion and inconvenience of strangers. Within this exclusively private sphere, women were free to go about their domestic business, see to their family commitments, socialise with other female members of the extended household, relatives or friends and look after their own needs and affairs. Women had the right to their own property and the dowry, including jewellery, which they had received from their groom when they married, remained theirs even in the case of a divorce.  In the context of the royal court, women lived lavishly with all material comforts provided, within palace quarters exclusive to them.","quote":"*‘In Islamic culture houses and palaces were designed to ensure privacy for women.’*"},"9a19b122-d3e1-53c0-ac5f-37070f41c095":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Umayyad arts, like Umayyad architecture, can be seen as a continuation of the traditions that came before, with a gradual imposition of a unique Islamic identity on the forms inherited from the late Antique world. This process was reflected, for example, in Umayyad coinage: the first coins struck for the Umayyad caliphs that simply copied Byzantine or Sassanian models, soon gave way to the use of strictly aniconic, textual designs.  \n  \nA remarkable aspect of Umayyad art is its adoption of figurative themes from late Antiquity. Thus at the Umayyad palace of Mushatta we find a sculpture of a lion, and at al-Fudayn a brazier was discovered which features erotic scenes taken from the Dionysus myth. Some objects are quite eclectic, combining a variety of motifs from late Roman, Byzantine and Sassanian art in new and ingenious ways.  \n  \nOf particular importance for the formation of Islamic art in the Umayyad period was the aesthetic of stylised vegetation which had been increasingly popular in the late Antique world. Designs incorporating endlessly scrolling tendrils sprouting leaves and flowers provided the new civilisation with an ideal decorative scheme, one which avoided potential theological objections to figurative representation while also evoking the verdancy of Paradise. Its flexibility meant that it could be applied to all shapes and sizes, from large wooden panels to small ivory boxes."},"68239d8d-9472-53ee-9876-51e1be828f05":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"Mudéjar potters brought to Medieval Europe the latest advances in glazing technology, with simple lead or transparent glazes, tin or opaque-white glazes, and finally lustre glazes, which sealed the ceramic and afforded it the beauty desired. Ceramics were produced throughout the peninsula, but the glazed and painted ceramics from the potteries of Paterna and Teruel and the gilded ceramics from Manises were the most keenly sought after and commonly exported.","quote":"*'Mudéjar potters mastered the art of glazing and brought it to Medieval Europe.'*"},"9d838b06-c754-52b5-b005-6c418fbd4fdc":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"Jewellery was appreciated among both Muslim men and women, and was used by men to decorate their clothes and turbans, at times even imitating certain feminine customs such as wearing earrings. Nonetheless, it was women who made the most extensive use of jewellery, most wearing personal adornments, regardless of their social position. According to the Nasrid writer, Ibn al-Khatib, there was such rivalry between the women of Granada in the art of adorning themselves with clothes and jewels that: '[…] unhappily, today's finery, cosmetics and ostentation, and the passion for rich fabric and jewels, have led to licentiousness'.","quote":"*A sign of social position and prestige.*"},"24e11f60-92ed-5fc9-959e-e0aa49482ffe":{"title":"Human Representation"},"4c126e80-2567-5abd-9191-3d40f380e81f":{"title":"Al-Franj: the Crusaders in the Levant","description":"‘The Middle East did not witness a similar period  \nof direct interaction with the West until the  \n20th century.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors (British Museum should be added)  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nKhader SALAMEH, Jerusalem  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Between AH 487 / AD 1095 and 538 / 1144, 14 Latin Crusader campaigns targeted many parts of the Islamic Mediterranean coast: nine crusades to the Holy Land, two to Byzantium, two to Egypt, and one to Tunisia. Baldwin of Boulogne conquered Edessa and established the first Crusader State in al-Raha in 491 / 1098. Over the next 200 years many Latin states were won and lost in the area.  \nThe European Crusaders were known as ‘al-Franj’ – the Franks. Although Frankish Crusader history began with a terrible massacre in Jerusalem in 492 / 1099, two centuries later, the Franks who settled there had changed and adapted to living in the Middle East among Muslims.  \nBefore the Crusades Arab-European contact in the eastern Mediterranean was minimal, and information concerning each other was scant and influenced by negative religious perceptions. The Crusader period, although violent, brought about a degree of religious tolerance and encouraged a certain amount of cultural exchange. The Middle East did not witness a similar period of direct interaction with the West until the 20th century. The beauty of the Dome of the Rock overwhelmed the invaders and by virtue of this contact, the Latin Crusaders formed a more favourable impression of the Islamic Orient, which was reflected in the literature of the period.  \nIslamic religious buildings were converted to churches and Christian institutions. In Jerusalem both the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque were converted into churches, with the latter also accommodating Crusader knights. In Hebron, the original ceiling of the Ibrahimi Mosque was replaced with one in the Romanesque style. The influences stretched beyond architecture, however, to include fashion and cuisine as well as religious customs and popular culture. By the end of the 7th / 13th century the Ayyubids and Mamluks had expelled the Crusaders, and many buildings, such as churches were converted or reverted back to mosques. This process enriched the general aesthetic of the region and led to a harmonious combination of the Latin style with Islamic art.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/crusader/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/24/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":15}}},"144150df-f28d-5d4f-8acc-353e17527739":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"During the Crusader period the Levant was divided up into a number of rival city states. Some of these were Crusader principalities, while local rulers governed others. This meant that travel and pilgrimage to and through the Holy Land was hazardous even in times of peace and particularly dangerous during the Crusader period. Despite these difficulties there were plenty of resolute travellers determined to reach the Holy Land.","quote":"*‘Travel and pilgrimage to and through the Holy Land was hazardous even in times of peace.’*"},"5838d42d-f446-52f1-8928-5f1d6b6140a6":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions"},"9b603cf4-3d1b-5d98-b644-0c415a7c2a10":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites"},"82d1ab69-c61e-55a9-920a-bf67ddfb6bda":{"title":"The Muslim West","description":"'Despite being an integral part of Islamic civilisation, the Muslim West, from the Atlantic to the Straits of Sicily, has always retained its individuality.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nLakhdar DRIAS, Argel  \nNaima ELKHATIB-BOUJIBAR, Casablanca  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nKamal LAKHDAR, Rabat  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMohamed MEZZINE, Fez  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"With their westward expansion from the Middle East, the Muslims invaded territories in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), Algeria and Morocco (which they called *al-Maghreb)*, and Spain and Portugal (*al-Andalus*). Islamicisation was a complex process in these lands based on the evolution of existing urban traditions and leading in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century to resurgence in the construction of new towns and cities. With the exception of sporadic conflicts, the Arabs and the native populations of the countries they invaded managed to co-exist peacefully, as did the different religious communities (Jews, Christians and Muslims), a situation made possible by trade and religious tolerance.  \nInitially subjects of the Damascus caliphate, the Western emirates became gradually more independent and were eventually succeeded by local dynasties (Idrisids, Umayyads of al-Andalus, Zirids, Hammadids, Almohads, and so on) that, in their attempts to establish themselves, they would emulate the Eastern caliphs by building their own palaces, exercising and demonstrating their power visually and culturally, and closely defending and controlling their territories.  \nDespite being an integral part of Islamic civilisation, the Muslim West, from the Atlantic to the Straits of Sicily, has always retained its individuality, which is particularly evident in the architectural and decorative innovations taken from the Eastern tradition and developed in al-Andalus and the Maghreb to create an artistic style peculiar to this corner of the Muslim world. Today, the Muslim West displays its cultural heritage in the way of life there; in the cuisine, the gestures, sounds and expressions of the people.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/muslim_west/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/27/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":7}}},"55222856-3011-566b-aae5-57b726cf2d41":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The techniques used to decorate fabrics, in this case embroidery, encouraged the use both of geometric motifs and of other motifs represented geometrically. Simple designs using stars, rhombuses, squares or bands were used to decorate fabrics, clothes and headdresses.","quote":"*‘Stars, rhomboids, squares or bands were used to decorate fabrics, clothes and headdresses.’*"},"d3086523-5bfd-58be-92ce-ac1f8ca548d7":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"Human representation in Islamic art occurred in different artistic media: mosaics, painting, and sculpture. Besides portraiture, the viewer is entertained by illustrative pictorial representations of various pastimes such as hunting, battle-scenes, dancing, music-making, poetry-reading, nude or half-clad women, games and acrobats, gift-bearing and scenes of working life. The precise ‘meaning’ of the imagery may be understood in different and sometimes even conflicting ways, often making the motivation for the subject matter unclear. Although most of the images may be generally interpreted as depictions of luxurious living; pleasures of the court and the symbolism of wealth and power, some of the visuals can be understood also as precise references to concrete historical or social events. Moreover, the details seen in some hunting scenes display scenes of a specifically local nature.","quote":"*‘The details seen in some hunting scenes display scenes of a specifically local nature.’*"},"506ae4e4-634a-525e-8b8e-dc798aafe087":{"title":"Turkey","description":"These new features actually did not have any direct effect on the plans of monuments but brought a remarkable change in their decoration. Western decorative elements were also applied to many areas of the crafts, altering the traditional decorative repertoire that had dominated Ottoman art. The new taste, which began in Istanbul directed by the workshops of the palace, found its way to Anatolia almost contemporaneously.","quote":"‘The new taste, which began in Istanbul directed by the workshops of the palace, found its way to Anatolia almost contemporaneously.’"},"b5239e1f-1ae6-5f79-9b09-016f7be99ee0":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"There were two main caravan routes for Muslims on pilgrimage to Mecca: the Egyptian route, which included Muslims journeying from Sub-Saharan and North Africa, and the Syrian, used by pilgrims travelling from the Eastern Provinces. The Syrian caravan often had to change course and move further east to avoid the Holy Land, due to the disruptions caused by the Crusades.","quote":"‘*There were two main caravan routes for Muslims on pilgrimage to Mecca*.’"},"1b7b04e6-d4cb-5a10-a0bf-8f61b4de570f":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art"},"036e868a-be9f-5e20-a301-fbf277420082":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"The remarkable prowess of the Mamluk sultanate relied on an intricate hierarchical structure of military slaves with the Mamluk sultan at its helm. Mamluks were purchased, received as gifts or taken as prisoners of war. Initially, most were Turks, Kurds or Mongols, joined by Circassians and Georgians from the 8th / 14th century onwards. Every new Mamluk recruit was put through a complete medical examination to ensure his fitness for service. Once accepted, he learned about Islam and was taught basic Arabic; he was expected to have an unquestioning loyalty to his sultan.","quote":"*‘Mamluks were purchased, received as gifts or taken as prisoners of war.’*"},"bea69b13-6fa2-574b-aa7f-147e96a211c7":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"From the coin reform on, all Umayyad coinage was of a standardised weight and design: purely epigraphic, with an inscription giving the date and a religious formula. These measures served to introduce a unity which hitherto had been lacking.","quote":"‘From the coin reform on, all Umayyad coinage was of a standard weight and design.’"},"635d4cb2-5c7e-5d27-bd41-43032dd5262b":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"Since Antiquity, Tunisia, a small country standing at the crossroads of Mediterranean civilisations, has been a meeting point between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, Africa and Europe. At the dawn of the modern era, the old Hafsid Ifriqiya, by then an Ottoman province, opened up to the Ottoman East and the European West.  \n  \n**Exchange and interference**  \nIn the Tunisia of the *dey*s and then the *bey*s, the country's new Turkish rulers took to building mosques, *madrasas, zawiyas,* palaces, barracks, public fountains, aqueducts and ramparts, particularly in the capital, thus ensuring that their name would live on.  \nEuropean trading houses flocked to Tunis, the secure capital of the Regency, establishing themselves there under the protection of the peace treaties signed by the Sultan of Istanbul.  \nThis period saw the rise of a strong penchant for all things European, initially among the princes, court dignitaries and other powerful individuals within the regime. In addition to making contact with the Europeans based in Tunis, some of them travelled to Europe: Bey Ahmed, for example, was received by Louis-Philippe of France with all the ceremony of a royal visit in 1846. The missions to Istanbul led to the discovery of the most exquisite luxury goods available and had a profound effect on Tunisian art and architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries.","quote":"‘At the dawn of the modern era, the old Hafsid Ifriqiya, by then an Ottoman province, opened up to the Ottoman East and the European West. ’"},"0f404f1e-3645-5bfa-870f-1b45825073f7":{"title":"The Umayyads","description":"‘Umayyad art is a combination of decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions.’","extra":{"credits":"Manal BASYOUNI, Aqaba  \nGhazi BISHEH Amman  \nJens KRÖGER, Berlin  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nMohammad NAJJAR, Amman  \nSamarah WOROUD, Irbid  \n  \nCoordination  \nGhada AL-YOUSEF, Amman  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The Umayyad Dynasty was founded by the caliph Mu‘awiya I bin Abi Sufyan in AH 41 / AD 661 and remained in power until overthrown by the Abbasids in 132 / 750. When Mu‘awiya came to power, he chose Damascus as the capital of the Muslim Empire. This decision had far-reaching consequences for Umayyad art as the predominant artistic influence in Damascus at that time was classical. Elements of Sassanian and Byzantine as well as Coptic art were also influential in the development of Islamic art under Umayyad rule, thus Umayyad art is an innovative combination of various decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions in order to provide solutions for numerous new aims.  \nUmayyad architecture is a major witness of the dynasty, with numerous buildings still extant. Extensive municipal architectural programmes were undertaken, in addition to those constructions that were built by order of the Umayyad royal family. Both the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus appear to have been built as symbols of Umayyad power and victory, and these buildings still give an impression of the grandeur of the dynasty’s architecture. In addition, the remarkable palatial buildings formerly known as ‘desert castles’ continue to fascinate us for the window they provide into Umayyad court life and ceremonials.  \nThese and other Umayyad buildings were extensively and lavishly decorated. Both palaces and baths were adorned with figurative floor mosaics and frescoes on the walls. Other architectural motifs included skilful stone- and stucco carvings of animals and beasts, stylised floral motifs, and diverse abstract patterns. The minor arts also flourished, and surviving examples suggest that metalwork and woodwork reached a high level of achievement.  \nUmayyad art, with its striking and vibrant eclecticism, can be considered a continuation of Late Antique art, for when the Abbasid Dynasty came to power so began a new phase in the development of Islamic art.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_umayyads/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/10/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":1}}},"3e98d267-1ed6-58c4-84e5-e601b73d8d09":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Another popular flower, particularly in Ottoman Turkey, was the tulip. Known as *lale* among the Turks and Persians alike, this versatile elegant flower was cultivated with great passion in Ottoman times. In the 18th century, under Sultan Ahmed III the love of tulips became frenzied: extortionately expensive festivals were organised which nearly bankrupted the Ottoman Empire. Its beauty was also celebrated in religious poetry. Here, the tulip symbolised a martyr for the faith and the mystical, self-denying lover.","quote":"*‘Another popular flower, particularly in Ottoman Turkey, was the tulip.’*"},"985ee9aa-03b0-5c47-b575-bf5cdd263b4b":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"With an expanding population and an awareness of how valuable was good urban planning, the Abbasids built a number of towns and cities where special attention was given to communications and transport routes. While the Aghlabid rulers of Ifriqiya built Raqqada – a town some 8 km from Kairouan – to house their palaces, parks and gardens; further east in Abbasid Syria, new housing developments were developed in Kharab Sayyar – a fortified town on the main route between al-Raqqa and Mosul in Iraq.","quote":"*‘They built towns and cities where special attention was given to communications and transport routes.’*"},"ed29c746-606e-5ae8-95a5-8870ae170839":{"title":"Egypt","description":"When Mohammad Ali became *Wali* of Egypt in 1805, he introduced the basis for the new Egyptian Renaissance, some features of which modernisation became evident in the Westernisation of the fine and decorative arts, crafts and architecture. This modernisation period culminated in Muhammad Ali's sons, who came into power in Egypt after him, inviting numerous European architects and artisans to construct and decorate a number of palaces in Egypt in the European style. They were encouraged to use architectural and decorative elements in the fashionable Baroque and Rococo styles. This is evident in Abdeen Palace, the sabils of Muhammad 'Ali at Nahaseen and Umm Abbas in Saliba Street and in buildings spread over other Egyptian cities, but most noticeable in Cairo. The Islamic Art Museum in Cairo hosts a large number of ceramics, marble pieces and manuscripts clearly displaying Westernised decorative elements characterised by curved lines, acanthus leaves and flowers and coronas in high relief.","quote":"‘When Mohammad Ali became *Wali* of Egypt in 1805, he introduced the basis for the new Egyptian Renaissance... ’"},"aa042c08-6f7c-5f9d-b7df-e0e92304f71d":{"title":"Exporting Luxury"},"07323655-399a-5f20-bd33-36fbfca525bd":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"Mudéjar aristocratic art was created by the kings and their entourage of noblemen in an attempt to imitate the Islamic palaces whose magnificence they had witnessed on ambassadorial business. As the Christian kings conquered the towns of al-Andalus, the sumptuous living rooms, gardens and bedrooms of the Andalusian palaces became royal residences and the backdrop for aristocratic life, a deliberate expression of dominance over the enemy and admiration for its art. At this same time, the new palaces copied the use of plaster- and brickwork, the sophisticated interior decoration and the harmonious arrangements of courtyards and gardens. The Aljafería Palace, Royal Citadel and the Sintra Palace are good examples of the re-use of Andalusian palaces by Christian kings.","quote":"**Andalusian palaces for Christian kings*  \n*"},"221eaf00-cefe-5da4-b4e5-b0ff24d5d9a0":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity","description":"When flowers are not depicted naturalistically in Islamic art, they are often used in more or less fantastic arrangements intended to enhance the surface of a building or an artefact to their best advantage. Such floral compositions are often so intricate that they completely distract the eye from the physical characteristics of the object they decorate or, indeed, obscure them. Buildings and artefacts may appear as if draped with carved, painted or applied floral arrangements. Primarily decorative, such floral schemes still offer spiritual minds the opportunity to contemplate the eternal complexity of the Universe, which emanates and culminates in its Creator, Allah.","quote":"*‘When flowers are not depicted naturalistically they are often used in fantastic arrangements.’*"},"929519b4-bcdf-5831-adb9-06ef4ef80b6b":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"The Mamluk cities of Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem had numerous purpose-built markets or trading centres (*caravanserai*s; known variously as *suq*s, *khan*s and *wikala*s). Their purpose was to receive commercial caravans and accommodate securely the exotic goods of the merchants and tradesmen who came to them from far and wide. The international diversity of the products available in the *wikala*s, pottery and textiles among the goods, inspired local artisans. Stimulated by Mamluk patronage, and practised in royal ateliers as well as urban bazaars throughout Egypt and Syria, the decorative arts reached new heights of craftsmanship and design.","quote":"*‘Stimulated by Mamluk patronage, the decorative arts reached new heights of craftsmanship and design.’*"},"d08a7344-9af5-5da5-ae9d-7b8557412652":{"title":"Siculo-Norman Art"},"2a50f5ca-9045-5344-9508-e2af5f610c4c":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"Istanbul, which grew dense within the city walls for the first three centuries of Ottoman rule, gained a new look from the early 18th century. Architectural activity along the Golden Horn and the shores of the Bosphorus (Istanbul) expressed the late-Ottoman desire to imitate the West. Istanbul was invaded as a consequence of the Ottoman defeat in World War I, and during the Turkish National War of Independence Ankara became the new capital. Istanbul is still the biggest and the most magnificent city of the Republic  of Turkey.","quote":"*‘Istanbul is still the biggest and the most magnificent city of the Republic of Turkey.’*"},"23700a6e-8a42-57ca-8d10-fa47337ec6cc":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"Geometric decoration was combined particularly well with *kufic* script, whose angular, rectilinear calligraphic style with clear vertical and horizontal lines afforded it a certain aesthetic value. These features made it particularly suitable for decorating the body of ceramic recipients, in either horizontal bands or radial compositions.","quote":"*‘Geometric decoration was combined particularly well with* kufic *script that afforded a certain aesthetic value.’*"},"2d7ae23a-a5ce-5e8f-8d9b-d2c05d03e0a9":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art"},"edcbed04-061f-5f7b-b80d-402678ff5d1e":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"When the Crusaders captured the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding area in 492 / 1099 they established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the third and largest Frankish state of the eastern Mediterranean region. Its first king was Godfrey of Bouillon who called himself ‘Defender of the Holy Sepulchre’. The Crusader rulers offered their patronage to both Islamic and Christian holy sites, supporting generously the Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, just as they did Christian monuments in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Several architectural features and objects from this period are extant.","quote":"*‘The Crusader rulers offered their patronage to both Islamic and Christian holy sites.’*"},"d81c8cbb-bdf6-53de-8363-0663b937e7d4":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"Syria was one of the main battlegrounds during the Crusader period, and witnessed the construction of many Muslim citadels and Frankish castles. Saladin (d. 589 / 1193) ­– the most famous Muslim hero of the Crusader era – was buried in Damascus. His successful campaigns saw the conquest of some 50 Crusader positions, including Chateau de Saone which he besieged in 584 / 1188. Now known as Qal‘at Salah al-Din, or Saladin Castle, this is one of the finest examples of a castle from the period extant.","quote":"*‘Saladin – the most famous Muslim hero of the crusader era – was buried in Damascus.’*"},"e50ffc2b-cdda-5f5f-8dc2-131a6e74a0c9":{"title":"Court Life","description":"As sartorial fashion and trends in palace decoration changed under the influence of Eastern artists and merchants, silk became the natural and preferred choice for the court. At first the production of silk was permitted only in the royal workshops, where it reached a level of quality and beauty that was as highly esteemed as the silks produced by the Eastern workshops, and often given as diplomatic gifts by sovereigns.","quote":"*Silk: a royal fabric*"},"a9ff8542-78ea-5d01-b60a-684f30ac221a":{"title":"Artintro Page 15","description":"Crusader art includes works in the style of contemporary European art, made for use in the Holy Land. It also includes works that more clearly reflect the influence of local norms."},"02d41fd6-5af1-5310-8a5a-d24ddc6e6fcc":{"title":"Virtual Exhibitions","description":"Curated virtual exhibitions exploring themes, monuments, and objects from the Islamic art collection."},"d88bfba8-7354-548e-ac28-2c053b370b71":{"title":"The Abbasids and their Vassals"},"3cf62f2a-9021-5aef-ac0a-0cc131185bcf":{"title":"Science and Knowledge"},"4eb28cf3-17bc-505f-8083-bec0c0308552":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"The construction of 100 new *madrasa*s in Damascus reflected the desire of the Atabeg and Ayyubid dynasties to change and educate society. Both male and female members of the Turkish and Kurdish elite sponsored the *madrasa*s and participated in nourishing the rich educational atmosphere within them. In his *History of Damascus*, the historian Ibn ‘Asakir (d. 571 / 1176) expressed gratitude for his teachers, counting 80 women among them.","quote":"*‘Both male and female members of the Turkish and Kurdish elite sponsored the* madrasas*.’*"},"b16c75fd-58ed-5aaa-b553-978b13694e35":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"Calligraphy was led by the palace calligraphers (*hattats*) who, with their distinguished place in society, were highly respected by the sultans and allowed to view, read and study the most valuable manuscripts in the palace library. Interest and respect for calligraphy never waned throughout the centuries, and despite the corruption seen in other branches of the fine and decorative arts, the art of calligraphy continued to develop and adapt to the taste of different periods.  \nIn the 19th century the Ottoman sultans, preferring a different lifestyle, moved to the Western-style Dolmabahçe and Yıldız Palaces. The end of life in Topkapı Palace saw a change in the sultans’ aesthetic taste and thus the palace workshops came to an end, and the ties between the palace and artistic practice were loosened.","quote":"*‘With their distinguished place in society, the court calligraphers were highly respected by the sultans.’*"},"378d3dd4-999d-5a88-a676-e838eaee7c35":{"title":"The Muslim West"},"a2d6b201-caf9-5fdf-9be7-286d4b763f71":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"Extensive building programmes were undertaken for the benefit of the community as well as for the ruling elite. Cities such as Amman had a palatial complex, a mosque, a marketplace and a water reservoir, and thus served the government and the administration of the country in addition to the needs of the community. Vitally important infrastructure such as dams, cisterns and water reservoirs were constructed and bridges were erected.  \nArchitectural patronage was taken a step further; entire cities and towns were constructed, for instance palatial and administrative complexes in Jerusalem and Amman (Jordan), where the palace and the Congregational Mosque were both given a central position and built side by side.","quote":"‘Building programmes were undertaken for the benefit of the community as well for the ruling elite.’"},"1f253e35-617d-59f9-b7ff-8a13540d58a7":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Mudéjar architecture, the tradition created in the Iberian Peninsula by Muslim craftsmen living under Christian rule and working for Christian and also for Jewish patrons, shares considerable formal features with the architecture of the Muslim West. It is primarily an architecture where brick is used for both structural and decorative purposes. It incorporates features such as the horseshoe arch, Arabic inscriptions, as well as *muqarnas* and interlaced decorative patterns, all combined with European Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance elements."},"4acd54d9-a442-5bb9-94bb-ebb55cc7040c":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"In addition to *sabils* and *sikaya*s, wells and fountains became the focus of decorative embellishment. Early medieval examples of well-coping survive from Morocco and Algeria, made from ceramic with a stamped decoration of stylised vegetation. While large stone basins are often associated with the provision of water for humans, *waqf* documents show that some were intended for use by animals. Palatial fountains set in public and private gardens, as found in the Western Islamic world and elsewhere, exhibit decorative fountainheads of lions, deer and dragons. Often, water is designed to pour from the mouths of these creatures into basins and pools which is then channelled through the gardens.","quote":"*‘Wells and domestic or palatial fountains also became the focus of decorative embellishment.’*"},"67215e86-8b87-5410-a941-05738096eb5a":{"title":"Religious Life"},"ec1aa1aa-3f58-55b4-93d0-bac5583dd403":{"title":"Defence","description":"Along with the outer walls, a town's citadel formed part of its defensive system. The fortified enclosure was located within the town, usually at its highest part and could accommodate and protect either the ruling classes, if the threat came from within the town itself, or the urban population, if the threat was external. The citadel was used by the ruling classes as a stronghold from which to put down rebellions, prepare campaigns and defend their borders.","quote":"*Citadels: the final urban stronghold.*"},"8677fa0d-83e5-5593-b69a-342224da5957":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"The fundamental purpose of astronomy was to predict the position of planets using empirical data. Muslim astronomers developed an instrument specifically to observe the height, movement and position of the stars in relation to the Earth: the astrolabe.  \nThis instrument was also used in navigation and was extremely useful for orientation and for determining latitude if the time was known; or for telling the time if the latitude was known.","quote":"*Scientific technology: the astrolabe*"},"618dce7d-8482-5ccb-b334-54c0c96e6db0":{"title":"The Ottomans","description":"From humble origins as a small emirate in Northwest Anatolia, the Ottomans rose to become one of the greatest Islamic empires in history.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nSule AKSOY, Istanbul  \nSevinç GÖK, Izmir  \nAlev ÖZAY, Istanbul  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \nSevgi KUTLUAY, Istanbul  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nSeracettin SAHIN, Istanbul  \nCihat SOYHAN, Istanbul  \nGönül TEKELI, Istanbul  \nInci TURKOGLU, Istanbul  \nFriederike VOIGT, Stockholm/Berlin  \nBarry WOOD, London  \n  \nCoordination  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"From humble origins as a small emirate in Northwest Anatolia, the Ottomans rose to become one of the greatest Islamic empires in history. For centuries they stood as a world power, the centre of the Islamic world and a serious competitor to the West.  \nThe Ottoman dynasty began as one of a number of Anatolian *beylik*s, or emirates, in the late AH 7th / AD 13th century. Gradually they overcame their neighbours to become the strongest Muslim power in the region and, when they put an end to the Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople (Istanbul) in AH 857 / AD 1453, their status as an international power was secure. Further conquests over the 9th–10th / 15th–16th centuries gave the Ottomans control over an empire spanning much of the Mediterranean, southeastern Europe, the Arabian Peninsula, and of course Anatolia.  \nThis vast empire was governed under a highly centralised system, with the centre of power in Istanbul. Supreme authority rested with the sultan, although he was constrained by Islamic law. An extensive network of local governors ensured that the imperial writ was observed throughout the Ottoman lands.  \nOttoman art was profoundly influenced by this centralised system. Although its roots were in Anatolia, and it drew inspiration from sources as disparate as the cultures the empire had subsumed, the art of the Ottomans was in very large part devised in and disseminated from the imperial-court workshops in Istanbul. This resulted in the Ottoman style being consistent over an astonishingly wide geographic area.  \nWhether decorating a palace or a mosque, adorning their own houses, or creating products for export to an eager European market, the Ottomans adhered to an aesthetic generated at the top. It was an aesthetic shaped by the Ottoman’s deep Islamic piety, as seen in the emphasis on floral elements redolent of Paradise.  \nThe Ottoman Empire ended in the wake of World War I, but its art continues to captivate us today.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_ottomans/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/18/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":6}}},"df4ffea5-fc6b-5044-8eed-f3f4baa7147e":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"The holiest place of Islam, the *Ka’ba* in Mecca, is dedicated to the direction of the canonical prayers by the Prophet Muhammad. As the centre of the faith, the *Ka’ba* is also the final destination of the pilgrimage which every Muslim tries to make at least once in a lifetime, and the Ottoman sultans were obliged to ensure that the faithful could carry out their religious duties, of which the pilgrimage is one. The prestige of the sultanate, therefore, very much depended on the safety of the pilgrimage routes, which they guaranteed mainly by payments to the Bedouins, whose territories the caravans crossed en-route to Mecca. They also took measures to protect the resting places of the pilgrims in the desert by building forts. At the beginning of the 20th century modern technical achievements improved transportation to the region with the construction of the Hijaz railway.","quote":"*‘The sultans were obliged to ensure that the faithful could carry out their religious duties, of which the pilgrimage is one.’*"},"28d9a4d3-c0f4-52e4-b504-b865ba01f483":{"title":"The Atabegs and Ayyubids","description":"‘Saladin, after whom the dynasty is named, rose to power at the end of the 6th / 12th century.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"During the AH 5th / AD 11th century, fragmentation and instability marked the Levant region (comprising Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Jordan) as the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad was challenged by the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. The Seljuqs, Turkish warriors from Central Asia, consolidated their power over the territory and brought about a new era of Islamic art and architecture while maintaining the religious authority of the Abbasid caliphate.  \nPower was secured by the *atabegs,* the military teachers of princes appointed by the Seljuqs, who gradually became independent. One such *atabeg*, Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. 569 / 1174) performed the crucial task of ejecting the Crusaders from Edessa in 541 / 1146 and, by conquering Damascus in 549 / 1154, succeeded in uniting Syria.  \nAl-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf bin Ayyub (known as Saladin, r. 564–89 / 1169–93) after whom the dynasty is named, was one of Nur al-Din’s lieutenants. He rose to power at the end of the 6th / 12th century, overthrowing the Fatimids in 566 / 1171 and the Latin hold on Jerusalem in 583 / 1187.  \nThe Atabegs and Ayyubids introduced far-reaching changes to their realm. They systematically attempted to re-educate their subjects through the formation of Islamic Sunni religious schools – *madrasa*s. They rebuilt the Great Umayyad Mosque and thoroughly refortified the citadels and city walls of Damascus, Aleppo, and various other cities, including Cairo.  \nUrban development was also profuse, producing *hammam*s (bathhouses), *bimaristan*s (hospitals), *caravanserai*s, water distribution systems and sacred structures like mosques, mausoleums, *turbe*s (tombs), and *khanqah*s (hostels). They brought from the east *madrasa*s and *bimaristan*s, educational institutions, featuring new architectural forms and decorative repertories.  \nSeljuq culture dominated Islamic art from the 5th–7th / 11th–13th centuries. Innovative artistic achievements were made in architecture, pottery, jewellery, metalwork and manuscript illumination.  \nContemporary with the early Gothic in the West and the Song Dynasty in China, the Ayyubid style was further elaborated by the Mamluks who succeeded them.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_ayyubids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/15/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":4}}},"ad8cb308-f2d0-51c1-8a74-24b337e0c430":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"Successive Muslim caliphs, and later the Mamluk sultans, were the prime protectors of the Holy cities of the Hijaz. As a result, they were responsible for all refurbishments and maintenance of the *Haram* in Mecca as well as the mosque and tomb of the Prophet in Medina. In order to finance these ongoing commitments, the Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay (r. 872–901 / 1468–96) established a *wikala* in Cairo, the income from which was dedicated to the provision of grain and other charitable donations to the needy living in the vicinity of the Holy Sites of Mecca and Medina.","quote":"*'Successive Muslim caliphs and Mamluk sultans were the prime protectors of the Holy Cities of the Hijaz.'*"},"1438dcdb-5040-5d2a-b082-cda3a58a1031":{"title":"Court Life"},"7eda07a3-0574-54d9-a9c2-bbccf25adcc1":{"title":"Water Management","description":"Expertise in science and engineering was in high demand and in limited supply but critical in order to properly gauge, assess, implement and maintain water-related technology. It was the duty of a good Muslim governor to ensure an expert was employed for the job, the chosen candidate usually knowledgeable in mathematics, physics, and geometry, astronomy (weather-forecasting and time-keeping) and, importantly, expert in landscaping.","quote":"*‘It was the duty of a good Muslim governor to ensure an expert was employed for the job.’*"},"2401b31f-6c0d-5b66-a16b-0fa24ce30cfa":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The decoration used in some fabrics resembles that seen in tiling and plasterwork used on the walls of buildings. It sometimes even shares the system used to divide the decorated area, with the epigraphic bands on the edges of the fabric corresponding to the epigraphic friezes that crown geometric plinths. This type of decoration arises from the development of interlacing, the designs of which are star-shaped, polygonal, lobed and other motifs.","quote":"*‘The decoration used in some fabrics is similar to that seen in tiling and plasterwork.’*"},"80c86561-0d18-5f9a-a5fe-bce7f608b2e2":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"In Egypt, female attire could include the *izar*, a cloth wrapped round the torso and upper thighs, and the *mi’zar*, worn around the waist over the garment. The *jubah* was a common over-garment, closed at the chest and open below at the skirt. Shirts of various lengths were made of linen or cotton, the width of their sleeves indicative of a woman’s affluence. The *shimla*, finally, was meant to cover the whole body. Other countries had different dress conventions for women with a wide choice for the body and head. Turbans as well as a variety of headdresses were worn, as were an assortment of scarves or handkerchiefs.","quote":"‘*Other countries had different dress conventions for women with a wide choice for the body and head.’*"},"1de88509-41c2-5db1-91f2-cf64dc633e29":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity"},"82eec7f2-6d4c-57c6-b028-8d6d584a67ec":{"title":"Court Life"},"17e93a55-d0d0-51b2-8c52-ae90b63b4709":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces"},"3f965ac2-093e-5fc3-93f1-16f293577988":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"The first medium for religious manuscripts was parchment, which was progressively replaced by paper for reasons of convenience and economy.  \nEqually, geometric patterns were gradually replaced by floral decoration, which was considered to be more refined. Geometric motifs, such as the ones used in the frame, became secondary elements.  \nCalligraphy was used for decoration, especially 'squared' *kufic* script which was written in all different directions.","quote":"*‘Geometric patterns were gradually replaced by floral decoration, which was considered to be more refined.’*"},"cc5c14f6-ee31-580d-97ca-0fb352da0379":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"Almost all the empire’s population, rich and poor, lived their lives from the cradle to the grave according to Islam. In their quest for Paradise they observed five daily prayers, preceded by thorough ablutions, gave charitably to the poor, fasted during the month of Ramadan and tried to visit the Holy City of Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Important legal issues were based on religious law or *Shari’a*, derived from the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad. Every activity, inclusive of eating and the observance of personal hygiene, was undertaken ‘In the Name of Allah’ and with the sole intention of carrying out His wishes and pleasing Him.","quote":"*‘Every activity, inclusive of eating and the observance of personal hygiene, was undertaken “In the Name of Allah”.’*"},"8b0e746f-e8de-560d-b25c-4bf6ebf52fe3":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons"},"9c9e8f3b-cfdb-5fd7-91cf-35e554bb6c78":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Ottoman rule extended over a period of about 700 years and, at its height, the Ottoman Empire covered a vast territory that included most of the regions adjoining the eastern and southern Mediterranean. Consequently, the character of Ottoman architecture underwent numerous changes over the course of this lengthy era. The architectural heritage of the Ottomans may be divided into three periods, beginning with the early formative phase, which extends until about the mid-9th / mid-15th century. This is followed by the classical period, which extends into the 11th / 17th century, and to which belongs most of the better-known monuments of Ottoman architecture, a number of which were designed by the great Ottoman architect Sinan. This is followed by the late period, which is characterised by more ornate decorative programs and increasing levels of Western influence. In terms of geography, the character of Ottoman architecture changes as the distance increases from the heartland of the Ottoman Empire in western Anatolia and Thrace, and concessions therefore are made to local architectural traditions for buildings constructed in the Ottoman provinces.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Ottomans, especially after the early formative period, is primarily built of stone. Ottoman architecture in fact is known for the very high quality of its masonry. Still, combinations of brick and stone are very common, and brick is used for arches, domes and vaults. Lead is used to cover domes and minaret caps, especially from the 10th / 16th century onwards. Polychrome glazed ceramic tiles, such as the renowned Iznik tiles in which white and blue dominate, are used extensively as wall coverings, and by the 10th / 16th century often replace marble as a sheathing material. Wood is used both as a structural and as a decorative material, and it is the predominant material for the houses of the Ottoman capital, Istanbul.  \n  \nA major characteristic of Ottoman mosques from the early period is the dominance of a central dome that covers a significant part of the prayer hall. With the advent of the classical Ottoman phase, this central dome increases dramatically in size and is often combined with a series of half-domes and small domes that cascade from the central dome, with the overall arrangement fitting within a pyramidal outline. A number of mosques have one, two, or four half-domes supporting the central dome. The domes in Ottoman architecture have a semi-circular flat profile. An arcaded courtyard usually flanks the prayer hall along the façade located opposite the *qibla* wall.  \n  \nLarge imperial Ottoman religious complexes usually feature a significant number of facilities, which, in addition to a mosque, may include a mausoleum for the patron, a soup-kitchen, *madrasa*, public bath, hospital and shops.  \n  \nThe Ottoman mosque is well-known for its simple, elegant pencil-shaped minaret, which is often fluted and ends in a lead-covered, elongated conical cap. Such minarets are a clear indication of Ottoman-sponsored buildings throughout the Ottoman Empire. The minarets may have anything from one to three balconies, usually resting on corbelled *muqarnas* vaults. Mosques with royal patronage have more than a single minaret, ranging from two to six.  \n  \nThe *Muqarnas* is used selectively in certain areas, such as the underside of minaret balconies or above windows and portals. Calligraphy, usually featuring the *naskhi* and *thuluth* scripts, is an integral part of the decorative programme of many buildings. Applied surface decoration in Ottoman architecture of the classical phase is more restrained than it is in the earlier Anatolian Seljuq and early Ottoman periods, as well as in the later Ottoman period.  \n  \nOttoman architecture demonstrates the influences of numerous traditions including those of the Anatolian Seljuqs and Byzantium, both of which existed in Anatolia when the Ottomans rose to power. More specifically, the Imperial Ottoman mosques of the classical period show the clear influence of the mid-6th century AD Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia."},"d56f34dd-618b-52fd-941d-524f966fe3d5":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The ability to borrow typological and figurative solicitations from Islamic and Byzantine art (with a certain openness to a wide range of different influences, including of Sassanian origin) gave the art arising from the 'politics of the image' used by the Norman kings a proactive and highly original syncretism.","quote":"*'The “politics of the image” used by the Norman kings made extensive use of Islamic artistic models.'*"},"704bcd73-2764-5ad7-bfaa-d813848254b2":{"title":"Artistic Introduction","description":"Curated introductions to the major artistic traditions of Islamic art, illustrated with monuments and objects from the collection."},"775f0070-0222-53d3-a4ee-8bfa38c6cb2f":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"Mosques are not temples or 'houses of God', and no liturgical acts are performed in them. They are a place for prayer and meditation, and a meeting place. Believers come to the mosque to perform their ritual, mandatory prayers with others, although private prayer is also practised. Believers face the *qibla* when praying, bowing when necessary and reciting verses from the Qur'an.  \nMosques are also centres for training and learning. In the weekly sermon given during Friday prayers, the *imam* discusses a specific religious theme recited from the *minbar* (pulpit) and, outside prayer times, the learned can give conferences on theological or scientific topics.","quote":"*The prayer room*"},"5ab4b2a1-83ba-5bc3-b503-f27314da8748":{"title":"The Mamluks"},"70023ae2-4372-56e7-b249-dd9a30a1f9db":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"During the early Abbasid period, the refined and luxury-loving ruler and imperial court got directly involved in sponsoring new innovations in the ceramics industry, especially the development and manufacture of lustre wares. When an earthquake damaged the Great Mosque of Kairouan in 247 / 862, the caliph Musta‘in sent 139 square, lustre-painted tiles for the renovation of the *mihrab*, and sent with them a tile-maker from Baghdad to make more tiles. He also donated money, marble panels and teak wood for a new *minbar*. In 338 / 950 the Arab geographer, Ibn Hawqal, visited Tunisia and praised the beauty of the locally made lustre ceramics, equating them to those manufactured in Iraq.","quote":"*'The caliph al- Musta'insent 139 square lustre-painted tiles for the renovation of the* mihrab.*'*"},"e0d404ea-dbc1-591a-86a5-75265066d6f0":{"title":"Water","description":"“‘… and We made out of water every living thing.'”","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"For Muslims, water is the secret of life and a blessing from God. In the Qur’an, God says *‘… and We made out of water every living thing.’* (21: 30).  \nAccording to Islamic law, it is forbidden to deprive anyone who is thirsty of water, even if the source is privately owned. According to the *Hadith* (‘Sayings of the Prophet’), Muslims are partners in water, fire and grass – naturally occurring phenomena – that belong to all. While the right to water is an entitlement of every living being, there are water-ownership rules concerning land irrigation. For example, a well-digger gets to be the first to irrigate his land, after which water may be used in the surrounding area so long as it remains sufficient. This is usually an area of 40 cubits radius, a reserved area known as the *haram*. The same word is used to designate a sacred space, particularly a mosque. *Harim*, which is a variation of the previous word, and which passed into English as ‘*harem*’, is used to designate the part of the house to which access is forbidden, particularly the women's quarters.  \nThroughout history, Muslim societies have worked on developing ways to maintain regular and sufficient water supplies. Like most societies the needs were diverse: drinking water, water for washing and ritual purification (*wudu*, *ghusl*), land irrigation and private and public facilities such as fountains, bathhouses and gardens. Because water was so central in the lives of most citizens, regardless of rank or social position, it was a source of inspiration for architects, engineers and craftsmen.  \nStretching from as far East as the borders of China, and to the West as far as the plateaus of Spain, many cultures and peoples came under the sway of Islamic civilisation, and it was the responsibility of the Muslim governor to ensure an adequate water supply for his people. Hydraulic machines were vigorously built and maintained, many of which continued to be used even after the advent of modern technology.  \nAs populations grew and cities expanded, maintaining an efficient water supply was often an arduous task, especially in the arid climate of many Islamic countries around the Mediterranean and beyond. During the Islamic period the disadvantages in climate and terrain were overcome by developing ingenious systems for water storage and transportation.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/water/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/22/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":10}}},"24c86664-167e-5ddd-abf8-40323dcb94a5":{"title":"The Fatimids"},"0051fc3a-c40c-5aa8-b485-9b66344bf6e7":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The call to prayer is performed by the *muezzin* from the minaret five times a day. It can be heard throughout the town, pervading it and marking the rhythms of life. The first call is at dawn, with subsequent calls at midday, mid-afternoon, sunset and the first hour of the night. Each call includes praises to God and Muhammad his prophet, and invites the faithful to prayers.","quote":"*The minaret*"},"ca4d15b3-1f58-5e52-8573-10d6bfc02842":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"According to the Muslim faith, on the Day of Judgment the Dome of the Rock built in Jerusalem under the Umayyads in the late 1st / 7th century, will serve as the site chosen by the Prophet Muhammad for the Resurrection of the Faithful. The Prophet named it the sacred site, as it was from here He ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*, and He repeatedly encouraged the Muslim faithful to revere and visit the Dome of the Rock alongside Mecca and Medina.","quote":"*'On the Day of Judgment the Dome of the Rock will serve as the site for the Resurrection of the Faithful.'*"},"b4a8eac2-4a9d-514f-8bcf-a4339448fd19":{"title":"Objects","description":"The art of Norman Sicily is a striking mixture of Byzantine, Fatimid and other elements, just like Siculo-Norman society itself. Islamic influence can be seen, for example, in wares which use pseudo-Arabic “calligraphy” as a decorative motif. Much Siculo-Norman art is in ivory, which was a popular material for making caskets or boxes, often with a characteristic truncated-pyramid lid. Some of these boxes are quite austere, while others are painted with lively ornament including calligraphic inscriptions, animals and human figures."}}
+{"0051fc3a-c40c-5aa8-b485-9b66344bf6e7":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The call to prayer is performed by the *muezzin* from the minaret five times a day. It can be heard throughout the town, pervading it and marking the rhythms of life. The first call is at dawn, with subsequent calls at midday, mid-afternoon, sunset and the first hour of the night. Each call includes praises to God and Muhammad his prophet, and invites the faithful to prayers.","quote":"*The minaret*"},"007e0513-1d25-5486-a970-7a75408f9d61":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"Coats of arms, which although not initially the exclusive trappings of the nobility subsequently became closely associated with it, reached their apogee in the 9th / 15th and 10th / 16th centuries, as can be seen from their widespread use and application to a range of objects, including commissioned ceramic items. The cartouche bearing Christian inscriptions, a device closely related to heraldry, also appears in Mudéjar ceramics.","quote":"*'The need to adapt to their customers' changing tastes forced Mudéjar potters to revise their repertoire.'*"},"00a9f1ac-ad56-56fb-b46c-95f05a196c8c":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style"},"00b6ace6-eff0-5009-bd24-4fff9d4b4807":{"title":"Objects","description":"Ottoman art is characterised by a strong emphasis on floral motifs which almost completely displaced the venerable Islamic tradition of abstract geometric patterns. This can be seen in what is perhaps the most renowned of Ottoman arts, ceramics. Beginning with a restricted blue-and-white palette and motifs rooted in Chinese art, potters in the Ottoman town of Iznik developed their own distinctive aesthetic of recognisable flowers (primarily tulips, rosebuds, hyacinths and carnations) strewn casually about the object's surface. In typical Islamic fashion, this floral aesthetic was applied across all media. It was especially prominent in textiles, for example, and is seen in silk kaftans made for princes as well as cotton embroideries made for everyday use by the people.  \n  \nMuch Ottoman art is courtly in origin. Objects were made to add an air of superlative luxury to the lives of those in the palace, from palace officials to the sultan himself. The palace ateliers also pursued the arts of the book, producing fine Qur'ans as well as illustrated manuscripts with both secular and religious subjects. Calligraphy had particularly high prestige under the Ottomans.  \n  \nOttoman art was not, of course, limited to court production, nor to Istanbul. Damascus was an important ceramic production centre, where a palette quite different from that of Iznik was used. Similarly, the Anatolian town of Kütahya saw the rise of its own ceramic tradition after the one in Iznik had declined. Further from the imperial capital, local idioms flourished in the outlying Ottoman provinces."},"00c4ec24-eae3-5f50-b012-fca1d0fc4b8b":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume"},"017e4b3b-5dc4-5b40-a034-7dbccb14bb54":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Following the Battle of Manzikert in 463 / 1071, Anatolia saw the rise of a new political, religious and social formation next to the centuries-old Byzantine Empire. This was the Turks, who had started their journey from the Steppes of Asia, founded the Great Seljuq Empire in Iran, and then settled in Anatolia.","quote":"*‘Following the Battle of Manzikert, Anatolia saw a new political, religious and social formation.’*"},"01a3e026-0ee5-5a3c-ada4-056b1dbede4c":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"The aristocracy as a whole was attracted to the comfort and luxury of Muslim palaces, prompting them to build and decorate their homes in the new fashion, which had become a symbol of a certain social standing. Admiration of the lifestyle encouraged many to copy the typical Andalusian residence, covering walls with tall, tiled skirting boards, making more extensive use of wooden ceilings and decorating plasterwork with geometric, plant and epigraphic motifs typical of Islamic art, combined with coats of arms and inscriptions in Gothic script. Preference for this style also extended to other types of civic buildings such as universities.","quote":"*Mudéjar civic buildings*"},"01b4539f-223c-58e3-970b-86b098e2e493":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"For as long as people have held power, they have looked for ways in which to demonstrate it to both those under its sway and to those outside it. In particular, art and architecture have often been used to create a ‘visual language’ through which to proclaim power. Such visual proclamations have taken many forms over the centuries; sometimes they are quite overt and unmistakable, while at other times they are more subtle and implicit. The art and architecture of the Ottoman period includes an instructive range of examples by which the power of the sultan and of the Ottoman state was manifest in a visual form.","quote":"*‘For as long as people have held power, they have looked for ways in which to demonstrate it.’*"},"01b9c0b5-6a02-5be0-aa1a-2dead40ce2ff":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Alongside the tulip, the carnation was another flower employed to poetically recall Divine beauty and evoke spiritual contemplation. Consequently, it, too, occurs frequently in Islamic and particularly Ottoman art. Not all flowers and plants, however, had their origins within the cultural context of the Islamic world. The image of the vine stock abundant in grapes and with the associations of fertility and eternal life, represent a survival from Hellenistic times, while the lotus, an Eastern symbol of spiritual purity, was introduced to Islamic art by the Mongols in the 7th / 13th century.","quote":"*‘Not all flowers and plants had their origins within the cultural context of the Islamic world.’*"},"0227731c-df1e-5f3e-8a97-45ca3e10bf2a":{"title":"Discover Islamic Art","description":"Discover Islamic Art"},"028edd35-2131-5178-a3ea-7b1699bc9592":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"The founding of a cemetery was something that was usually done by rulers or their families. It was seen as a pious act that was pleasing to God. Although cemeteries were sometimes surrounded by a low wall, they were more commonly not enclosed. Graves were not arranged in an orderly fashion and were not necessarily marked with headstones as commemorative features such as these depended on the social standing and wealth of the deceased.","quote":"*Headstones, a status symbol*"},"02d41fd6-5af1-5310-8a5a-d24ddc6e6fcc":{"title":"Virtual Exhibitions","description":"Curated virtual exhibitions exploring themes, monuments, and objects from the Islamic art collection."},"036e868a-be9f-5e20-a301-fbf277420082":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"The remarkable prowess of the Mamluk sultanate relied on an intricate hierarchical structure of military slaves with the Mamluk sultan at its helm. Mamluks were purchased, received as gifts or taken as prisoners of war. Initially, most were Turks, Kurds or Mongols, joined by Circassians and Georgians from the 8th / 14th century onwards. Every new Mamluk recruit was put through a complete medical examination to ensure his fitness for service. Once accepted, he learned about Islam and was taught basic Arabic; he was expected to have an unquestioning loyalty to his sultan.","quote":"*‘Mamluks were purchased, received as gifts or taken as prisoners of war.’*"},"0619d09f-5563-54e4-a733-b1fda9508dda":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The *minbar* under discussion is more significant than most because it is associated with the Shi’ite martyr Imam al-Husayn, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. When the Crusaders marched to Ashqelon (which lies roughly 50 km south of Jaffa) in 548 / 1143, devout Muslims took their chance to rescue both the severed head of al-Husayn and the *minbar* itself, which they smuggled successfully into Hebron and placed in the Ibrahimi Mosque. Tradition has it that the severed head of al-Husayn was taken to Cairo*.*","quote":"‘*They smuggled the* minbar *successfully into Hebron and placed it in the Ibrahimi Mosque.’*"},"06c733a5-e1b4-5be1-ae58-c5968680a73a":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"Caliph Harun al-Rashid, grandson of al-Mansur, moved his court to al-Raqqa between 180 and 192 / 796 and 809, during a period of political unrest in Baghdad and southern Iraq. Al-Rashid extended the fortifications and created a whole new suburb of palaces to the north of al-Raqqa. These palaces accommodated his household and those of a number of officials who came to reside with him. The link with Baghdad and the eastern lands was maintained using a sophisticated mail system. Al-Rashid’s sons and future caliphs all spent much of their youth at al-Raqqa.","quote":"*‘**These palaces accommodated his household and those of a number of officials who came to reside with him.’*"},"06f8adf1-80a7-5ad3-930e-d74a24929bf9":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"In addition to the ceramic plates produced in İznik, copper and gilded ones were also used. It was inevitable that imported Chinese porcelains would be utilised at table, but the change brought about by the adoption of the Western lifestyle in the 19th century, brought an end to traditional table culture at the Topkapı Palace with the introduction of tables and chairs, European porcelains and silver cutlery.","quote":"*‘In addition to the ceramic plates produced in İznik, copper and gilded ones were also used.’*"},"071e3e6e-8e36-5c3c-8643-17ee9ac60138":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"The Ottoman Empire was a centralised state run by officials who were specially educated at the court. This system had a profound affect on Ottoman art by providing a uniform decorative style throughout the vast Ottoman lands. The architects and craftsmen who ornamented the Topkapı Palace, and who also worked in Istanbul and in the rest of the empire, were under the control of the Imperial Head Architect.  \nArtist’s workshops (ateliers) were first established in Edirne then, following the conquest of Istanbul, were set up in the Topkapı Palace. But the systematic organisation of craftsmen began in the early 9th / 15th century. Sometimes craftsmen from the guilds in Istanbul, or an artisan from another part of the empire, would opt to work within a particular workshop on invitation.","quote":"*‘The centralised system provided a uniform decorative style throughout the vast Ottoman lands.’*"},"07323655-399a-5f20-bd33-36fbfca525bd":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"Mudéjar aristocratic art was created by the kings and their entourage of noblemen in an attempt to imitate the Islamic palaces whose magnificence they had witnessed on ambassadorial business. As the Christian kings conquered the towns of al-Andalus, the sumptuous living rooms, gardens and bedrooms of the Andalusian palaces became royal residences and the backdrop for aristocratic life, a deliberate expression of dominance over the enemy and admiration for its art. At this same time, the new palaces copied the use of plaster- and brickwork, the sophisticated interior decoration and the harmonious arrangements of courtyards and gardens. The Aljafería Palace, Royal Citadel and the Sintra Palace are good examples of the re-use of Andalusian palaces by Christian kings.","quote":"**Andalusian palaces for Christian kings*  \n*"},"073b795d-65c6-5d5e-9265-134b960cca53":{"title":"Court Life","description":"The ceremony of dining and the manner of the diners themselves became increasingly refined under the influence of Baghdad. Food that was once shared from a common receptacle was now placed on several dishes served according to a strict protocol. Menus were enriched with new and varied recipes with flavours and smells intended to delight. After-dinner entertainment included music and dancers, all within an ornate palatial setting, thus ensuring that all the senses were enchanted.","quote":"*The ceremony of dining*"},"07659934-a88a-585a-8ef8-22be0a77afbe":{"title":"Syria","description":"Western influences marked the physical appearance of the city as well. Islamic cities had always distinguished between private and public spaces; the private being the residence and the public designated for work – the *suq* – or for worship – the mosque. Now, however, residences had larger windows, even on the exterior walls, and sometimes a terrace, as in Mashfa al-Ghuraba. The adoption of the public square, created to flaunt emblems of statehood that developed in Europe, is evident in Marjeh Square, located outside the old city walls of Damascus, and which became the modern city centre, marked by a large central pillar.  \nThe Hijaz Railway station is one of the most beautiful buildings in Damascus today. It was paid-for by a wealthy Damascene, and designed by a Spanish architect who had an eye for Andalusian art. German workers, who originally brought the railway industry to the Ottomans as part of their political alliance, probably constructed the railway system.","quote":"‘Western influences marked the physical appearance of the city as well.’"},"093d3b04-a322-5303-baa3-da0aa80dad8f":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul"},"09bdd05c-c517-5715-b216-1c3b6562ce92":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Literal representations of the Garden of Paradise are rare. One example is the astonishing mosaic cycle applied around the courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, dating to the AH 2nd / AD 8th century. It shows an idealised landscape with a sinuous river and an array of palaces and sophisticated buildings. That this pictorial cycle is indeed based on Qur'anic descriptions is confirmed by the survival of a statement by one of the mosaicists involved: 'In the mosaics we represented what we found in the Qur'an with regard to trees and palaces of Paradise. And when a worker had executed a tree in a particularly fine manner the Caliph 'Umar would give him 30 *dirham*s as a reward.'","quote":"‘… we represented what we found in the Qur'an with regard to trees and palaces of Paradise …’"},"0aeb920c-d823-5de4-81b9-061257cef978":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Out of the two Mamluk Sultans discussed here, Qalawun was probably the most prolific instigator of architectural projects. The scale of his complex in Cairo, which marks a new phase in Mamluk architecture, is truly imposing, comprising a *madrasa*, mausoleum (*qubba*) and hospital (*bimaristan*). The *bimaristan* was built following Qalawun’s experience in the Bimaristan Nur al-Din, a hospital in Damascus. So impressed was he by the treatment he received, that he vowed that if he recovered to take the throne he would build a similar one in Cairo. Soon after his reign began in 682 / 1283 he initiated the project. The *bimaristan* was unusual for its time being dedicated to Muslims of both sexes and from any social position.","quote":"*‘Qalawun was probably the most prolific instigator of architectural projects.’*"},"0b479143-91f2-528d-88e6-5a5d5ad84169":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"At the court in Cairo the caliph’s wardrobe and his personal *tiraz* items were cared for by female staff. Scented flowers from the palace garden would be used to perfume his clothes. A second palatial wardrobe catered for the general court. Complete *tiraz* garments and other contemporary outfits are rare, but many extant fragments indicate that these textiles were of linen or silk, often embroidered with silk, and in an array of colours. Further clues about the appearance of *tiraz* items and contemporary dress in general, come from Fatimid wood and ivory carvings and ceramics, which show male and female figures feasting, hunting or making music in outfits that include turbans, shawls and belted tunics, many embellished with *tiraz* bands.","quote":"*‘Complete* tiraz *garments are rare, but fragments indicate they came in an array of colours.’*"},"0be5386c-7187-5f14-a5c9-e9d7972aaa20":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Local artisans profited enormously both from the workshops set up by Crusaders to enable the renovation and restoration programmes to continue, and by the influx of European artefacts into the Levant. Cultural exchange between the new Frankish inhabitants of the kingdom and its urban and rural Muslim communities continued despite the ongoing warfare.","quote":"*‘Local artisans profited enormously from the workshops set up by Crusaders.’*"},"0be6d6e8-2fed-5e4f-b410-0a54ef0ed999":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"The sciences were taught alongside religious and linguistic studies, and the sophisticated decorative metalwork on scientific tools attests to the development of the scientific disciplines. Astrolabes and celestial globes were crucial for accurate readings of the constellations. The practice of geomancy made use of especially designed instruments to predict the future. The brilliant mechanical engineer Abu al-‘Izz Ismail al-Jazari, was sponsored by the Artuqid court at Diyarbakir in 603 / 1206 to write an illustrated book on hydraulic and mechanical engineering.","quote":"*‘**Decorative metalwork on scientific tools attests to the development of the scientific disciplines.’*"},"0c57154a-3d32-5f59-919a-c9bcab6d8ac5":{"title":"Jordan","description":"The Ottomans changed the Hajj route (Darb al-Hajj al-Sham) which follows the mountains east of Wadi Araba, known as the King's Highway, to a new route which lay along the edge of the desert, known as Darb al-Bint after the daughter of Sultan Salim I, who had complained of bandits on the King's Highway. A series of forts and pilgrimage stations were built along this new route to protect pilgrims and provide them with water, food and merchandise.  \nThe Hijaz Railway was one of the most important achievements during the Ottoman period, completed in 1908 during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hameed II. The main purpose of the Hijaz railroad was to transport pilgrims from Damascus to Medina in Saudi Arabia through Jordan. The system was severely damaged during the First World War, but some sections are still functioning, for example Damascus to Amman and Amman to Qatraneh.","quote":"‘The Hijaz Railway was one of the most important achievements during the Ottoman period... ’"},"0d399303-e091-5249-87cf-68e9ac89a080":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"In 1130, the newly crowned King of Sicily, Ruggero II, began to commission courtly art in which Islamic and Byzantine influences were added to the existing Romanic-Norman elements of local art and architecture. This process was compounded by Ruggero II's successful campaigns in the coastal territories of North Africa and the Byzantine Balkan Peninsula, with their consequent forced appropriation of workers. This gave rise to a recognisable form of royal art and architecture that made it possible to identify secular and religious works commissioned by the crown.","quote":"*'Ruggero II commissioned courtly art in which Islamic and Byzantine influences were added to existing Romanic-Norman elements.'*"},"0d96fdda-709f-55ff-974d-36ce25e67b8e":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate"},"0e4ca3d5-ad07-5906-884a-7b4b89c83f5c":{"title":"Egypt"},"0e91bb3e-a45f-5595-9dcf-c2ad2c8547a9":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"The obligation to provide fresh water to the urban population led to the development of a distinctive public monument: the water fountain, or *sabil*. *Sabils* – of which a number were built by the Mamluks (r. 648–92 / 1250–1517) in Cairo and Jerusalem – consisted of an underground cistern and a chamber with window grilles facing onto the street at ground level. An attendant hired to distribute water in cups sat behind the grille and handed the water out to passers-by. The *sabil-kuttab* had a similar fountain arrangement, with the addition of a covered first-floor gallery which served as a children’s elementary school (*kuttab*).","quote":"*‘An attendant hired to distribute water in cups sat behind the grille and handed the water out.’*"},"0f404f1e-3645-5bfa-870f-1b45825073f7":{"title":"The Umayyads","description":"‘Umayyad art is a combination of decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions.’","extra":{"credits":"Manal BASYOUNI, Aqaba  \nGhazi BISHEH Amman  \nJens KRÖGER, Berlin  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nMohammad NAJJAR, Amman  \nSamarah WOROUD, Irbid  \n  \nCoordination  \nGhada AL-YOUSEF, Amman  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The Umayyad Dynasty was founded by the caliph Mu‘awiya I bin Abi Sufyan in AH 41 / AD 661 and remained in power until overthrown by the Abbasids in 132 / 750. When Mu‘awiya came to power, he chose Damascus as the capital of the Muslim Empire. This decision had far-reaching consequences for Umayyad art as the predominant artistic influence in Damascus at that time was classical. Elements of Sassanian and Byzantine as well as Coptic art were also influential in the development of Islamic art under Umayyad rule, thus Umayyad art is an innovative combination of various decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions in order to provide solutions for numerous new aims.  \nUmayyad architecture is a major witness of the dynasty, with numerous buildings still extant. Extensive municipal architectural programmes were undertaken, in addition to those constructions that were built by order of the Umayyad royal family. Both the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus appear to have been built as symbols of Umayyad power and victory, and these buildings still give an impression of the grandeur of the dynasty’s architecture. In addition, the remarkable palatial buildings formerly known as ‘desert castles’ continue to fascinate us for the window they provide into Umayyad court life and ceremonials.  \nThese and other Umayyad buildings were extensively and lavishly decorated. Both palaces and baths were adorned with figurative floor mosaics and frescoes on the walls. Other architectural motifs included skilful stone- and stucco carvings of animals and beasts, stylised floral motifs, and diverse abstract patterns. The minor arts also flourished, and surviving examples suggest that metalwork and woodwork reached a high level of achievement.  \nUmayyad art, with its striking and vibrant eclecticism, can be considered a continuation of Late Antique art, for when the Abbasid Dynasty came to power so began a new phase in the development of Islamic art.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_umayyads/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/10/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":1}}},"0f9828f8-dd3a-5969-ba97-2fc083ca3fe9":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"Many Muslim women have made history as accomplished musicians and dancers at the highest level; several were engaged as court performers and were generously rewarded. Thus we know of Nasab, whose skill in drumming was such that the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir bi Allah gave her a plot of land in Cairo, which subsequently grew into a neighbourhood known after her as al-Tabalah – The Drummer. One female musician, the lute player, Itifaq, even succeeded in marrying the Mamluk ruler al-Malik al-Muzaffar Haji bin Qalawun. When she came to perform, he spread silk fabrics on the floor for her to tread on, and after she had finished, he gave her four jewels and six pearls, worth 4,000 *dinar*s.","quote":"*‘Many Muslim women have made history as accomplished musicians and dancers at the highest level.’*"},"119ab24b-479f-5ff2-b732-0ff4c64e08e5":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"Everyday and funerary objects such as terracotta jars with funerary inscriptions, some of which are similar to certain North African pieces, whether produced by craftsmen based on the island or imported from North Africa or the Muslim areas of the Iberian peninsula, bear witness to the long-lasting relationships between different Mediterranean regions that managed to bridge the divide between two opposing worlds until well into the 14th century.","quote":"*'Everyday objects are evidence of the long-lasting relations between different Mediterranean regions.'*"},"119e81e9-24c1-5c11-8732-14582e47e370":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"In North Africa the sophisticated and highly educated women of the Zirid (Sanhaja Berber) dynasty emulated their royal counterparts in Egypt. During the 5th / 11th century a Zirid princess added a mosque to the *ribat* (fortified enclosure) in Monastir; it became known as the Mosque of al-Sayyida in recognition of her work. In the library at Kairouan, there are a number of Qur’an manuscripts commissioned by Zirid princesses intended for use at the Great Mosque, among them Umm Milal’s Qur’an and that of Umm al-‘Ilu, the sister of the Zirid prince al-Mu‘izz. A third manuscript was presented by Fatima, governess to the prince Badis Bin al-Mansur.","quote":"*‘The sophisticated and highly educated women of the Zirid dynasty emulated their royal counterparts in Egypt.’*"},"11b19208-0f2c-5176-9948-5d121532b39a":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Women also championed the building of *ribat*s (religious fortifications) and *khanqah*s, (dervish convents), first as a refuge for religious warriors but later used as places of worship and accommodation for the poor.  \nEducation was another sphere where women were active as patrons, exemplified by the elaborate educational complex in Cairo, Madrasa of Umm Sultan Sha‘ban, built by the mother of the Mamluk Sultan Sha‘ban. Others provided schools (*kuttab*s*, madrasa*s) to further the education of girls. Yet other charitable work included the patronage of hospitals (*bimaristan*s) such as that adjoining the Great Mosque of Divriği, commissioned by Turan Melik who lived in the 7th / 13th century, and that constructed by order of Aziza Othmana, who lived in the 11th / 17th century.","quote":"*‘Women also championed the construction of* ribat*s and* khanqah*s,* madrasa*s, and* bimaristan*s.’*"},"11f82e3d-c59a-5f69-a3bc-b5b190e3aaa1":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Equalling and occasionally outdoing the pageantry and refinement of the Eastern courts, the monarchs of the Muslim West surrounded themselves with high-ranking, trusted individuals who, like the sovereigns themselves, were players in the courtly ceremonies befitting their greatness, sovereignty and desire to inspire awe in the people.  \nThe chosen few would accompany the sovereign in his public duties, attending official dinners and receptions and assisting with the tasks of government. They were part of the royal entourage when the king travelled, contributing to the admiration he inspired.","quote":"*The military entourage*"},"120cbd81-d9a2-540e-a178-dc11c283fc2d":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women"},"12656ec4-68b3-5425-9a1d-71e4735a5c19":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Ceilings were also embellished with geometric motifs, often multicoloured and gilded, which has been interpreted as a representation of the vault of heaven. This can be seen clearly in the *muqarnas* vaults in which the interlacing develops from a central star to occupy the entire area available.","quote":"*‘This has been interpreted as a representation of the vault of heaven.’*"},"12faaae8-0400-53bd-ba84-f5e66e0027ef":{"title":"Echoes of Paradise: the Garden and Flora in Islamic Art","description":"In Islamic civilisation the garden and the vegetation in it has always had particular significance as both recall the Beauty of God's creation and *al-janna*: Islamic Paradise.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nSule AKSOY, Istanbul  \nSevinç GÖK, Izmir  \nAlev ÖZAY, Istanbul  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \nSevgi KUTLUAY, Istanbul  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nSeracettin SAHIN, Istanbul  \nCihat SOYHAN, Istanbul  \nGönül TEKELI, Istanbul  \nInci TURKOGLU, Istanbul  \nFriederike VOIGT, Stockholm/Berlin  \nBarry WOOD, London  \nwith the contribution of:  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS  \n  \nCoordination  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Throughout the history of Islamic civilisation, the concept of the garden and the vegetation in it has had particular significance in Muslim thought: of course, this is partly due to the arid landscapes in which most Muslims live. Surrounded by forbidding deserts and assailed by hot climates, Muslims have always appreciated the soothing impact of flowing water, the occasional greenery of isolated oases or indeed the colourful vegetation of artificially created walled gardens, maintained with carefully calculated water technology. The pleasure gardens of rulers and the wealthy elite were a coveted luxury, but they had a spiritual dimension too, as they were often designed to echo the lush and refreshing vegetation of *al-janna*: Islamic Paradise. Many descriptions in the Qur'an and in Islamic literature elaborate on its layout, its flowers, plants and trees. Given this preoccupation of Muslim thought with paradisiacal visions, it is not surprising that the concept of the garden with its rich flora has always been a central theme in Muslim cultures and, indeed, in their arts. Throughout the Muslim world, from Spain to India, rulers and the elite invested in luxurious gardens at the heart of their palace complexes and as an integral part of ceremonial royal life. Indeed, the way royal gardens were used often reflected the paradisiacal realities described in the Qur'an. Many gardens even had names to highlight their paradisiacal symbolism. Both in architecture and in art the wondrous vegetation of Paradise is often alluded to. Mosques, *madrasa*s and royal mausolea were regularly placed in a garden setting reminiscent of Paradise and artistically enhanced by references to luxurious flower gardens. In the decorative arts references can be found both to gardens as a whole and to individual plants and flowers, the latter often chosen – beyond their beauty or practical use – for their religious or poetic significance. When flowers are not depicted in naturalistic form, intricate arabesque designs formed by overall symmetrical patterns of undulating stalks and split-leaves or split-palmettes invited reflection of the cosmic process of creation and the Divine Unity that underlies the infinite diversity of the material world.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/floral/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/28/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":13}}},"134ba250-63fa-595c-a880-46d56bae5a59":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*"},"1438dcdb-5040-5d2a-b082-cda3a58a1031":{"title":"Court Life"},"144150df-f28d-5d4f-8acc-353e17527739":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"During the Crusader period the Levant was divided up into a number of rival city states. Some of these were Crusader principalities, while local rulers governed others. This meant that travel and pilgrimage to and through the Holy Land was hazardous even in times of peace and particularly dangerous during the Crusader period. Despite these difficulties there were plenty of resolute travellers determined to reach the Holy Land.","quote":"*‘Travel and pilgrimage to and through the Holy Land was hazardous even in times of peace.’*"},"14f245e5-7d33-5938-9186-f7e967ae327b":{"title":"The Ottomans"},"1621eaac-22de-5ea2-a831-558356a3e6df":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers"},"17b8ce1b-11e8-500c-ba13-dd3af722e3b4":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"The Mamluk sultan also acted as commander-in-chief of his armies and was a major player in the realm of international diplomacy. The sultan’s authority and glory was expressed in elaborate ceremonials, magnificent courtly surroundings and privileged pastimes, such as falconry and hunting.","quote":"*‘The Sultan’s authority was expressed in ceremonials and magnificent courtly surroundings.’*"},"17ddd4ae-d694-5a72-955a-060b61ef530c":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"In reverence to their descent from Fatima al-Zahra', the daughter of the Prophet and wife of Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, the Fatimids accorded the royal princesses a life of luxury and responsibility, entrusting them important roles in public and political life. This attitude affected generally the treatment of women in contemporary society. Many women of the court held important political posts, and the sister of Caliph al-Hakim bi Amrillah, Sitt al-Mulk, even governed Egypt for four years in place of her infant brother. Many Fatimid women of rank managed their own wealth and were active in commercial business, owning ships that transported goods far and wide. Lavish lifestyles attested to their personal wealth: one princess by the name of ‘Abda left so many chests filled with gems, jewellery and treasures that 14 kg of wax was needed to seal them and 30 reams of paper to list their contents.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids accorded the royal princesses a life of luxury and responsibility.’*"},"17e93a55-d0d0-51b2-8c52-ae90b63b4709":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces"},"18c44ba9-f8fa-5fdd-99a2-a8b6f034044a":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Trees with sweet-scented blossoms and plentiful ripe fruit play a central role in literary depictions of the Islamic Paradise. The palm tree occupies a special place. One tradition describes it as man's aunt, created out of the clay left after God's creation of Adam. According to another, the Prophet Muhammad associated the palm tree with Paradise. Reference is also made to the pomegranate tree and the mystical tuba tree, a Cyprus-like tree-of-life, placed at the heart of Paradise.","quote":"*‘Trees with sweet-scented blossoms and plentiful ripe fruit play a special role.’*"},"1935df49-d16b-562f-8737-07f9354ede4c":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts"},"1964c1f9-3ac7-51b6-9255-f573134a4db0":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Mamluks built on the technical and stylistic achievements of their Ayyubid predecessors to develop a highly individual, recognisable style of their own. The Mamluk style places great emphasis on abstract geometrical patterns and bold calligraphic inscriptions. The former can be seen, for example, on the furnishings made for the numerous religious foundations endowed by the staunchly orthodox Mamluks. Geometric decoration was also popular for decorating Qur'anic manuscripts. Fine calligraphy was another major aspect of Mamluk art. It appeared not only in manuscripts, but also came to be used as a primary adornment for objects in all media. In particular, Mamluk metalwork is notable for its bold inscriptions, which enliven objects including candlesticks, basins and personal objects like perfume sprinklers. The inscriptions usually feature formulaic praise of the sultan or of the object's (often anonymous) patron.  \n  \nIn addition to metalwork, one of the most well-known genres of Mamluk art is enamelled glass. One particularly famous Mamluk glass form is the wide-bodied lamp with a flaring mouth. This type is often referred to as a mosque lamp, although it was used in other buildings as well. Mosque lamps, like other Mamluk art forms, frequently display their patron's blazon, the symbol of a Mamluk officer's rank; thus the cup-bearer to the sultan would use a cup as his blazon, while the arms-bearer used a sword."},"1968b4ad-376a-5733-96cc-b0a0f079ea39":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths","description":"Palestine and Jerusalem in particular, has been the focus of religious pilgrimage for thousands of years. To adherents of Judaism, Jerusalem is God's city and the revered site of His Temple. All Jewish prayers face towards Jerusalem, and to this day the city lies at the heart of Jewish religious, spiritual and scholarly life. Christians, encouraged by their Church Fathers, have undertaken the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land since at least the 4th century AD to pay homage to the sites associated with the Life of Jesus Christ. According to the Christian tradition Jerusalem was where Jesus lived, preached and healed the sick. It was here that He held the Last Supper, was arrested, tried and crucified. To this day the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the area in the city where Jesus is believed to have been buried and from where He ascended to heaven.","quote":"*'Palestine and Jerusalem have been the focus of religious pilgrimage for thousands of years.'*"},"196db830-546b-584c-a36c-48974bbb7a0a":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"With the caliphate based in Cairo, Muslim rulers from all over the Islamic world looked to Egypt for legitimisation of their reign. Throughout the empire, energetic Mamluk sultans like Baybars I, Qalawun, Nasr al-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun, Hassan and Qaytbay, initiated the building of splendid mosques and religious institutions, and commissioned magnificent Qur’an manuscripts and mosque furnishings to grace their interiors.","quote":"*‘Mamluk sultans initiated the building of splendid mosques and religious institutions.’*"},"198c176f-a670-5331-b416-a7ecc59e7ceb":{"title":"The Decorative Arts"},"19908cb0-74da-580e-b6b3-2b320477903e":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"Due to the vast size of the Abbasid Empire and the presence of several rival Islamic powers on the doorstep in 184 / 800 the Abbasids established the Aghlabid principality in North Africa to deal with the Umayyads in al-Andalus and the Idrisids in Morocco. The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 170–93 / 786–809) gave Ifriqiya (Tunisia) to Ibrahim Ibn al-Aghlab as a hereditary principality to rule. The Aghlabids became the vassals of the Abbasids in Ifriqiya between the years 184 / 800 and 296 / 909. They rebuilt several cities and constructed many military fortifications along the Ifriqiyan coast to rebuke the Byzantines who had conquered Sicily several centuries before. They also organised civic affairs and developed communication routes between North Africa and the Middle East.","quote":"**‘Caliph Harun Al-Rashid gave Ifriqiya to Ibrahim Ibn al-Aghlab as a hereditary principality to rule.’*  \n*"},"1a1a6170-d33d-5774-bbd8-19cce2b88392":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The relocation of the *minbar* to Hebron gave the city a special devotional significance, attracting Muslims, Christians and Jews. The visitors brought patronage, endowments and donations in generous quantities, although their beneficence was targeted not only at the mosque and shrine but also at the city itself. The glass mosque lamp, brass candlesticks and pages from the Qur’an shown in this exhibition are fine examples of their patronage.","quote":"*‘Visitors brought with them patronage, endowments and donations in generous quantities.’*"},"1aa59d36-2ef4-55a4-9987-3abbfd0f309c":{"title":"Syria"},"1abd2666-7a05-5c9a-8f4d-991a0fac4643":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Accounts in Ibn Jubayr’s *Travels* and in Usamah Ibn Munqidh’s *Memoirs*, present the perspective of the Muslim community. The writer, diplomat and politician Usamah (487–583 / 1095–1188), who lived at Shayzar Castle, was personally acquainted with Nur al-Din and Saladin, as well as their Frankish opponents. He describes a visit to Jerusalem: ‘When I used to enter the Aqsa Mosque, which was occupied by the Templars, who were my friends, the Templars would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I might pray in it.’ One day as Usamah stood to pray a Frank interrupted his prayers and forced him to pray towards the east. Usamah’s Templar friends repelled the Frank and apologised to him saying ‘“This is a stranger who has only recently arrived from the land of the Franks and he has never before seen anyone praying except eastward.”’","quote":"*‘“The Templars would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I might pray in it.’*”"},"1b29b6a7-7dc6-567b-aaf0-cbfc9c64fc07":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"Saladin’s prominence grew during the struggle for Egypt while Nur al-Din was still alive. After Nur al-Din’s death in 569 / 1174, Saladin spent 10 years fighting fellow Muslims and consolidating his army. Having unified Syria and Egypt, and following his capture of Aleppo in 579 / 1183, Saladin focussed on expelling the Franks. His first major victory against them was at the Battle of Hittin in 583 / 1187. This opened the way to advance with his army towards Jerusalem, which he captured later that year.","quote":"*‘Having unified Syria and Egypt, Saladin focussed on expelling the Franks.’*"},"1b7b04e6-d4cb-5a10-a0bf-8f61b4de570f":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art"},"1d025879-0f4e-58f5-9d96-55b7af6f72a3":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word"},"1dabd926-5ac6-53c1-b262-d5570beba088":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Throughout the Muslim world, the façades of important buildings were covered with *muqarnas* (known as *muqarbas* in North Africa) a three-dimensional geometric stalactite-like decoration, or with geometric patterns carved into the stone. The intention was to leave no spaces undecorated (*horror vacui*).  \nFrom the Almohad era onwards, the façades of *minaret*s in North Africa and al-Andalus were decorated first with single or intertwined lobed arches that, when repeated and superimposed, resulted in a pattern known as *sebka* that was created from a network of rhombuses and resembled openwork tapestry.","quote":"*‘The intention was to leave no spaces undecorated* (horror vacui)*.’*"},"1dbcce8a-f15c-5124-8ef3-103e38fe1b4e":{"title":"Science and knowledge","description":"Muslim rulers continuously worked to ensure their people were supplied with water, a task to which they applied the scientific knowledge available at the time. The most robust installations used to supply water have survived, such as dykes, aqueducts and *noria*s (waterwheels).","quote":"Hydraulic science and technology"},"1dc8b986-92dc-5a75-b544-000419ab6111":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"A wide variety of tombstones appeared at different times and in different places reflecting regional differences: the *cipo* appeared in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in the 3rd / 9th century, although they have also been found in Andalusia around Toledo; the *maqabriyya* was used in Andalusian and Maghrebi cemeteries from the time of the Almoravids; and circular steles were common from the 8th / 14th century in towns with large ceramic industries, such as Malaga, Granada and Murcia.","quote":"*Tombstones, geographical and social differences.*"},"1de88509-41c2-5db1-91f2-cf64dc633e29":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity"},"1ec4779d-2e05-51bf-b099-64943deec02c":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"Calligraphers endeavoured to decorate the *kufic* characters with ornamental designs, accumulating an entire range of decorative motifs. With time, the ornamental decoration became more elaborate and complicated, and by the beginning of the 4th / 10th century, *kufic* characters had stems and leafs growing out of them creating an elaborate network of vegetation known as foliated *kufic* script.","quote":"*‘**Kufic characters had stems and leafs growing out of them creating an elaborate network of vegetation.’*"},"1f253e35-617d-59f9-b7ff-8a13540d58a7":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Mudéjar architecture, the tradition created in the Iberian Peninsula by Muslim craftsmen living under Christian rule and working for Christian and also for Jewish patrons, shares considerable formal features with the architecture of the Muslim West. It is primarily an architecture where brick is used for both structural and decorative purposes. It incorporates features such as the horseshoe arch, Arabic inscriptions, as well as *muqarnas* and interlaced decorative patterns, all combined with European Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance elements."},"1fe29955-194b-5f40-833a-ae7bf2b5e383":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"Under Mamluk Rule, Egypt, Palestine and Syria enjoyed a tremendous economic, cultural, intellectual and artistic revival that was centred primarily in the urban centres of Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem. Cairo, the Mamluk capital, was celebrated as the ‘Metropolis of the Universe’ and the ‘Garden of the World’. It was the largest metropolitan centre in the world at the time, and one of the wealthiest cities in the Near  East, providing a centre for intellectuals, scholars, scientists, artisans and traders.","quote":"*‘Cairo, the Mamluk capital, was celebrated as the “Metropolis of the Universe”.’*"},"21173928-d7cb-5f28-9f20-0a8f069336e7":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"There was also a northern pilgrimage route for those travelling to Mecca from Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Both contingents then proceeded to the vicinity of ancient 'Aylat (today the village of er-Rumeil) and from there to Jedda and Medina. Many Muslim rulers helped to maintain the route, among them Sayyida Zubayda, the wife of Caliph Harun al-Rashid; whose section, which she also provided with excellent facilities, was known as 'Zubayda's Way'.","quote":"*There was also a northern pilgrimage route for those travelling to Mecca from Turkey.'*"},"217482b1-7626-531f-8ca9-51c2f680fe3d":{"title":"The Mamluks","description":"‘Originally the military slaves of Muslim rulers, the Mamluks built an empire that excelled as one of the greatest powers of Islam for some 300 years.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nYousef NATSHEH, Jerusalem  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"For nearly 300 years the Mamluk sultanate was one of the great powers of Islam. The Arabic word *mamluk* means ‘owned’, and in the context of Arab history denotes a foreign military slave acquired as an elite fighter answerable only to the sultan himself. Most Mamluks were Turks and Circassians from the Caucasus who converted to Islam, and they were trained to excel in the art of war. In AH 648 / AD 1250 a power vacuum among their Arab overlords enabled the Mamluks to establish their own rule. From now on the Mamluks began to build an empire that extended from Egypt, Palestine and Syria, to the Holy Cities of the Hijaz, over which they ruled supreme until 922 / 1517.  \nThe early years saw constant threats from foreign enemies, but the Mamluks succeeded in expelling both the Mongols, after a decisive defeat at 'Ayn Jalut in Palestine in 658 / 1260, and the Crusaders in 690 / 1291.  \nFirst and foremost, the Mamluks were champions of Islam. They revived the Caliphal seat in Cairo in 659 / 1261 after the first seat in Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 656 / 1258. They launched an unprecedented building programme of splendid mosques and religious endowments (*waqf*s) throughout the empire, each one a magnet attracting intellectual and scientific, as well as religious, endeavour.  \nInternationally, the Mamluk sultanate built strong ties with other Muslim powers including those in the Far East, Byzantium, France, Castile, Sicily, Genoa and Venice. Cairo became the hub of world trade. Exotic goods and artefacts from the East and West were bought and sold in her specialised markets (*suq*s), the vitality of which inspired local artisans.  \nEventually, Mamluk supremacy began to decline due both to the Europeans’ discovery of new trade routes around the Cape of Good Hope, and the expansion of Ottoman power, which finally terminated Mamluk rule in the early 10th / 16th century.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_mamluks/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/17/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":5}}},"221eaf00-cefe-5da4-b4e5-b0ff24d5d9a0":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity","description":"When flowers are not depicted naturalistically in Islamic art, they are often used in more or less fantastic arrangements intended to enhance the surface of a building or an artefact to their best advantage. Such floral compositions are often so intricate that they completely distract the eye from the physical characteristics of the object they decorate or, indeed, obscure them. Buildings and artefacts may appear as if draped with carved, painted or applied floral arrangements. Primarily decorative, such floral schemes still offer spiritual minds the opportunity to contemplate the eternal complexity of the Universe, which emanates and culminates in its Creator, Allah.","quote":"*‘When flowers are not depicted naturalistically they are often used in fantastic arrangements.’*"},"227f3bb2-60fb-58e2-b42c-bcec823faca6":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"On special occasions the Fatimid caliphs would select the most ornate *tiraz* textiles or robes-of-honour to reward dignitaries and courtiers. The prime minister for instance would receive 30 complete outfits, which he was free to distribute among his staff. Others were given to high-ranking guests of the court or – at celebrations or anniversaries – even to members of the public at large. *Tiraz* costumes varied in type and style depending on the rank of their recipients. Gilded silks were for princely dignitaries, and there was a variety of silks for government staff.","quote":"*‘Fatimid caliphs would select the most ornate* tiraz *textiles to reward dignitaries and courtiers.’*"},"22ad153f-423c-5508-a362-937e5100efd8":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"The success of the cavalry came about from intense practice and good quality equipment. The soldiers trained in a hippodrome (*maydan*) where they carried out gruelling drills and took part in competitive sports including polo and javelin- or mace-throwing. In battle the Turkish soldiers employed a combination of tactics, using archery from a distance, and the lance or sword at closer range. Both Arab and Turkish warriors were adept with the lance, able to strike an enemy at close range while travelling at full speed. Swords were cherished weapons often identified by their place of origin and the suppleness or hardness of the metal employed. Shields were usually circular for Muslim soldiers, but kite-shaped shields were popular among the Muslim, Byzantine and Frankish military.","quote":"*‘Swords were identified by their place of origin and the suppleness or hardness of the metal.’*"},"23700a6e-8a42-57ca-8d10-fa47337ec6cc":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"Geometric decoration was combined particularly well with *kufic* script, whose angular, rectilinear calligraphic style with clear vertical and horizontal lines afforded it a certain aesthetic value. These features made it particularly suitable for decorating the body of ceramic recipients, in either horizontal bands or radial compositions.","quote":"*‘Geometric decoration was combined particularly well with* kufic *script that afforded a certain aesthetic value.’*"},"23c5c103-e3d9-5951-b584-74137065c95f":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"Mosques as sacred places of Islam maintained their characteristics throughout the centuries both in terms of their architecture and in the various elements of the interior architectural space and decoration.  \nThe ‘God’ in Islam has no concrete form and, according to tradition, the depiction of living beings in a mosque is not appropriate. When the practice of prayer is added to these concepts, the Qur’an, which consists of the words of God and his teachings, inspired the artist in the decoration and furnishings for the interior of the sacred place.","quote":"*‘According to tradition the depiction of living beings in a mosque is not appropriate.’*"},"2401b31f-6c0d-5b66-a16b-0fa24ce30cfa":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The decoration used in some fabrics resembles that seen in tiling and plasterwork used on the walls of buildings. It sometimes even shares the system used to divide the decorated area, with the epigraphic bands on the edges of the fabric corresponding to the epigraphic friezes that crown geometric plinths. This type of decoration arises from the development of interlacing, the designs of which are star-shaped, polygonal, lobed and other motifs.","quote":"*‘The decoration used in some fabrics is similar to that seen in tiling and plasterwork.’*"},"2402e680-efca-5518-8365-20a53e16a37c":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"The health and wealth of society depends to a large extent on good management of resources, such as food and water, and efficient government. Many engineering solutions were devised by the Abbasids to maintain and improve their agricultural systems and water resources, while medical advances helped to improve the health of the population. In Kairouan, for example, in 248 / 862, the Aghlabids built a series of water reservoirs designed mainly to collect rainwater from the nearby valleys. Their ingenuity lay in the fact that they devised the means to collect water, purify and store it, and then make it available to the inhabitants of the city, herdsmen of the area and caravans passing by: all free of charge.","quote":"*‘**The Aghlabids in Kairouan built water reservoirs designed to collect rainwater from the nearby valleys.’*"},"2446085b-ecb4-555b-8c7a-83f7c0b63dda":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Muslim West is marked by considerable continuity that extends over a significant geographic expanse (the Iberian Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and a wide chronological span that dates back to the founding of the Umayyad Emirate in Spain during the second quarter of the 2nd / mid-8th century, and later included the rule of various dynasties such as the Idrisids, 'Abd al-Wadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Marinids, Hafsids, Sa'dians and 'Alawids.  \n  \nThe architecture of this area uses a variety of materials. Brick is predominant as a building material and is used for both structural and decorative purposes. Stone is also used, primarily as a sheathing material, and often in combination with brick. Stucco decoration is used extensively. Wood is employed widely for elements such as ceiling beams, gabled roofs, doors and decorative panels. Glazed tiles featuring geometric patterns provide a common surface-sheathing material for floors and walls, although austere white-washed walls are also widespread.  \n  \nThe hypostyle mosque continues to be the primary mosque type in the area, with the aisles usually arranged in a perpendicular order to the *qibla* wall. The horseshoe arch, which emerged as a common architectural element in Aghlabid architecture, is predominant. Also, as in the architecture of the Aghlabids, minarets have a square section, which contrasts with the more slender minarets with circular and octagonal sections that develop in parts of the Islamic world located further east. Minarets in the Muslim West are often decorated with an applied layer of interlaced brick or stucco decorative patterns, as well as *muqarnas* friezes.  \n  \nThe structures of the region usually feature domes that are concealed under pitched roofs, which commonly have blue-green coloured baked-clay roofing tiles. Ribbing is used frequently for domes and, in addition to its structural role, is used to create decorative patterns articulating the dome's interior surface. Some dome interiors are fully covered by *muqarnas* units.  \n  \nThe *muqarnas*, usually made of wood or gypsum, is used extensively, not only to articulate vaulted areas, but also as an overall decorative element. Interlaced decorative surfaces, executed in gypsum or brick, are widespread. Also common are paired arches separated by a column, as well as interlaced and poly-lobed arches. In addition, the use of calligraphy and vegetal motifs prevail. In the early architecture of the region, as in other Islamic architectural traditions, the re-use of building components such as column capitals and shafts belonging to the pre-Islamic period is widespread."},"24c86664-167e-5ddd-abf8-40323dcb94a5":{"title":"The Fatimids"},"24dccfe7-0ad7-552e-aa3d-ebae78f613d0":{"title":"Court Life","description":"The Topkapı Palace was the governmental centre and residence of the imperial family. It was founded on an area of the Istanbul peninsula which commands views of the Golden Horn on one side, and the Bosphorus Strait and the Sea of Marmara, on the other. It is a complex of buildings in three parts (*birun*, *enderun* and *harem*) situated within large gardens.  \nThe *birun* is between the first gate, Bab-ı Hümayun (Imperial Gate), and the third gate, Babü’s-Saade (Gate of Felicity). The first courtyard accommodated the service buildings, the imperial mint, military barracks, ministries and other governmental offices. The second courtyard was called Alay Meydanı and housed the Divan-ı Hümayun – also called ‘Under the Dome’ – the treasury, the kitchens, stables and the entrance to the *harem*.  \nCeremonies, for instance enthronement, the royal hearing in case of emergencies known as Alay Divanı (Assembly on Foot) and the celebration of feasts, were made in front of the Gate of Felicity. The sultan’s throne was also placed near the Gate; and the Holy Flag (Sancak-ı Şerif), the very symbol of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph, was raised here when it was taken out of the Pavilion of the Holy Mantel on ceremonial occasions.","quote":"*‘The Topkapı Palace was the governmental centre and residence of the imperial family.’*"},"24e11f60-92ed-5fc9-959e-e0aa49482ffe":{"title":"Human Representation"},"252b7a7e-7c1d-559c-8738-0be280a6547c":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"Animals appeared more frequently in the art and architecture of the Umayyad period, especially in mosaics and frescoes, not just in palaces but also in the churches of local Christians. In the later period, ivory jewellery boxes of various shapes and sizes were made in Spain (AD late 10th–early 11th century) their surfaces covered with carvings that illustrated typical themes of pleasure and court life, including hunting scenes. The carved wooden panels of the Fatimid period in Egypt contain a number of animal themes. The facades of some buildings in Anatolia, and the towers of the Ayyubid–Mamluk periods in Egypt, were often decorated with naturalistic and heraldic-style animal motifs.","quote":"*‘Ivory jewellery boxes covered with carving that illustrated typical themes of court life and pleasure.’*"},"25920ee3-8f72-5764-8504-8c11dfeff2db":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The Qur’an’s layout follows a fixed system of markings that indicate chapter titles and verse numbers. While in more elaborate copies of the Qur’an these markings are lavishly designed, in simpler less expensive versions, they are plainly marked. Gilding and other pigments were used generously in decorating title pages, chapter headings and verse-markings. Qur’anic manuscripts were copied in a variety of Arabic calligraphic scripts including *kufic*, *naskhi* and *thuluth*. Multi-volume Qur’ans were divided into two, four or 30 parts, following an established convention. These multi-volume sets are bound in high-quality covers and encased in beautifully made boxes or chests. Special bookstands were made to hold Qur’ans in an open position to aid both recitation and display.","quote":"*‘Multi-volume Qur’ans were divided into two, four or 30 parts, following an established convention.’*"},"27407462-38d1-5483-a239-bfa506cb4830":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"The Abbasids supported and patronised medical research and medical practitioners. Great developments in medicine were achieved:  books on a variety of medical subjects were written and translated; medical experiments were conducted and documented and a number of medical instruments were designed to deal with a variety of procedures.","quote":"*‘The Abbasids supported and patronised medical research and medical practitioners.’*"},"27a7074c-9378-500f-b1ed-4b1612e2a219":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Some flowers were particularly popular and are represented repeatedly in the arts of the Muslim world. A particular favourite was the rose. In popular Islamic tradition the rose was created from a drop of sweat which the Prophet Muhammad lost during his miraculous night journey to Paradise. It also symbolises the unity of Allah, its petals the Muslim *Umma*, or community. Others see the rose as a symbol of the Prophet at the heart of all believers. Its thorns remind us of the difficulties Muslims have to overcome in their quest for God. Its scent anticipates those of the paradisiacal rose gardens to come.","quote":"*‘Some flowers were particularly popular; a particular favourite was the rose.’*"},"282bf248-cb40-5b24-9d50-166d75b8a10e":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade"},"28a4f0eb-efb2-5cc2-9dd7-f885f3220f85":{"title":"Objects","description":"Thanks to its geographical separation from the central Islamic lands, the art of the Muslim West underwent its own distinct stylistic evolution. The first mature style of Western Islamic art arose under the Umayyad Caliphs of Spain, who commissioned luxury objects in precious materials. The inheritance of classical Antiquity still apparent in Spanish Umayyad art gave way, under the puritanical Almoravids and their successors the Almohads, to an austerely beautiful aesthetic in which decoration ranged from minimalistic to elaborately geometric. Subsequent dynasties, such as the Marinids in Morocco, were more drawn to opulent effects, made in expensive materials such as cedarwood. Islamic art in Spain had its final flowering under the Nasrid Dynasty in Granada, who continued to commission luxury objects as well as establishing a tradition of lustre ceramics that would continue in Mudéjar art. After the fall of the Nasrids, Western Islamic art continued in the Maghreb, where traditions like the unique *Maghrebi* script and geometric ornament provided inspiration for centuries."},"28d9a4d3-c0f4-52e4-b504-b865ba01f483":{"title":"The Atabegs and Ayyubids","description":"‘Saladin, after whom the dynasty is named, rose to power at the end of the 6th / 12th century.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"During the AH 5th / AD 11th century, fragmentation and instability marked the Levant region (comprising Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Jordan) as the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad was challenged by the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. The Seljuqs, Turkish warriors from Central Asia, consolidated their power over the territory and brought about a new era of Islamic art and architecture while maintaining the religious authority of the Abbasid caliphate.  \nPower was secured by the *atabegs,* the military teachers of princes appointed by the Seljuqs, who gradually became independent. One such *atabeg*, Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi (d. 569 / 1174) performed the crucial task of ejecting the Crusaders from Edessa in 541 / 1146 and, by conquering Damascus in 549 / 1154, succeeded in uniting Syria.  \nAl-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf bin Ayyub (known as Saladin, r. 564–89 / 1169–93) after whom the dynasty is named, was one of Nur al-Din’s lieutenants. He rose to power at the end of the 6th / 12th century, overthrowing the Fatimids in 566 / 1171 and the Latin hold on Jerusalem in 583 / 1187.  \nThe Atabegs and Ayyubids introduced far-reaching changes to their realm. They systematically attempted to re-educate their subjects through the formation of Islamic Sunni religious schools – *madrasa*s. They rebuilt the Great Umayyad Mosque and thoroughly refortified the citadels and city walls of Damascus, Aleppo, and various other cities, including Cairo.  \nUrban development was also profuse, producing *hammam*s (bathhouses), *bimaristan*s (hospitals), *caravanserai*s, water distribution systems and sacred structures like mosques, mausoleums, *turbe*s (tombs), and *khanqah*s (hostels). They brought from the east *madrasa*s and *bimaristan*s, educational institutions, featuring new architectural forms and decorative repertories.  \nSeljuq culture dominated Islamic art from the 5th–7th / 11th–13th centuries. Innovative artistic achievements were made in architecture, pottery, jewellery, metalwork and manuscript illumination.  \nContemporary with the early Gothic in the West and the Song Dynasty in China, the Ayyubid style was further elaborated by the Mamluks who succeeded them.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_ayyubids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/15/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":4}}},"28ed3f37-70c7-5e87-9d40-6eef902eb3ee":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites Along the Way"},"29034c7a-8823-5847-9fb2-ed236e6ef371":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"The application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique that first appeared in glasswork before becoming, famously, applied to pottery. In Egypt the technique used on glass was an innovation known since at least the 2nd / 8th century.  \nIndeed, lustre pottery – due to Fatimid patronage of migrant potters – soon marked the high-point of ceramic production in Egypt, which also included other types of glazed pottery. The workshops of some master potters known to us, include the School of the Muslim and the School of Sa’ad.  \nAnother flourishing industry was devoted to metalwork. Artisans specialised in the production of three-dimensional animals and birds, cast- and beaten-metal vessels, scientific instruments such as astrolabes and surgical tools.","quote":"*‘The application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique.’*"},"2a50f5ca-9045-5344-9508-e2af5f610c4c":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"Istanbul, which grew dense within the city walls for the first three centuries of Ottoman rule, gained a new look from the early 18th century. Architectural activity along the Golden Horn and the shores of the Bosphorus (Istanbul) expressed the late-Ottoman desire to imitate the West. Istanbul was invaded as a consequence of the Ottoman defeat in World War I, and during the Turkish National War of Independence Ankara became the new capital. Istanbul is still the biggest and the most magnificent city of the Republic  of Turkey.","quote":"*‘Istanbul is still the biggest and the most magnificent city of the Republic of Turkey.’*"},"2aca10e0-7f13-5d99-b5ac-513f7ea5b271":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Numerous Muslim immigrants seeking religious knowledge and piety, not to mention *jihad* (holy war), were attracted to Syria, particularly Aleppo and Damascus. The Salihiyya quarter in Damascus, for example, was a nucleus of anti-Crusader propaganda and the residence of the Banu Qudama, religious scholars of Palestinian origin who played a crucial role in Saladin’s victory over the Crusaders in the decisive Battle of Hattin (583 / 1187).","quote":"*‘The Salihiyya quarter in Damascus was a nucleus of anti-Crusader propaganda.’*"},"2c60ed37-eb2d-5736-98a0-24252466e0a4":{"title":"Western Influence in Ottoman Lands","description":"From the 19th century on, the Ottoman Empire began to adopt a centralised system of government for the sake of modernisation.","extra":{"credits":"Western Influence in Ottoman Lands  \n  \nCurators & authors  \nMohamed ABBAS, Cairo  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \n  \nCoordination  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nFor Arabic, English, French and Turkish:  \nPlease refer to [General Credits](https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/mwnf_credit.php)  \nGerman: Merve Tolaman (translation); Eva Schubert (editor)  \nItalian: Lavinia Amenduni  \nPortuguese: Geisa Cristina Santos Carneiro Williams (translation); Cristina Correia (editor)  \nSpanish: Arantza Morales  \nSwedish: Lisa Lindström","intro_text":"The Ottoman Empire embraced not only what we know today as the Republic of Turkey but also a much wider geographic area comprising peoples of multi-ethnic origins, speaking a number of languages and from a diversity of religions. Within this variety, it was inevitable that Western influences should appear at different times and in a number of ways during the 18th and 19th centuries during a time that is known today as the Westernisation period of the Ottoman Empire.  \nUp until the 19th century, the empire consisted of provinces ruled by *beglerbegs* and *sanjaqs* ruled by *sanjaqbegs*, appointed by the Sultans.  \nWithin this system, local communities, religious groups and *waqf*s facilitated some of the empire's business, which led to a synthesis of the Ottoman taste fused with local features in both the art and architecture. From the 19th century on, the Ottoman Empire began to adopt a centralised system of government for the sake of modernisation. Within the new centralised system, a tighter control over the provinces came about with construction of public and governmental buildings undertaken directly by the empire. In this way, whilst the first concretely Western-influenced architectural samples had already been erected in Istanbul and Anatolia in the 18th century, influences began to be seen from 19th century on in other regions. Another important factor of Western influence, which brought about some other substantial changes in the empire, was the improvement in direct relations between the major cities of the empire and Europe.  \nDuring the period of Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor who established an autonomous state in Egypt for a while, a strong political and commercial relationship with Europe was established in the region. This relationship was strongly reflected in Istanbul seen in the influences brought by the Egyptian elite who resided there during the summertime. Although the western area of North Africa comprised three provinces: Trablusgarb (today known as Libya), Tunisia and Algeria, all of which regions had governors sent by Istanbul, the real authorities of those regions were the local rulers called *deys* who were known throughout Europe through direct contact. The change in the administrative and social system of the region helped to establish and accelerate the spread of Western culture within the Ottoman Empire.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/western_influence/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/42/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":18}}},"2d7ae23a-a5ce-5e8f-8d9b-d2c05d03e0a9":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art"},"2fa2a75e-bc46-5e82-b436-df6b6e337b65":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"It is not until the Abbasid period that a distinct type and style of ceramic ware emerged that can be distinguished technically as ‘Islamic’. The first clear departure from pre-Islamic designs becomes evident from the middle of the 3rd / 9th century in the course of designing vessels to emulate Chinese porcelains. New methods of manufacture and innovative decorative and glazing techniques, combined with a new range of shapes and decorative motifs that had not previously been seen on the market, produced a whole range of ceramics that met the demands of local tastes and satisfied the desire for the Chinese style. The motifs employed during this period include palmettes and stylised-leaf motifs, and calligraphic scripts.","quote":"*‘A whole range of ceramics now met the demands of local tastes and satisfied the desire for the Chinese style.’*"},"2fd1d033-a4f2-567f-b9d5-a05f8479663e":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an"},"2fe5e6b3-990f-5e76-b1ab-ce3415d4b7a3":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Ayyubid period was a period of great political ferment, yet it witnessed some of the finest creations of Medieval Islamic art. Local rulers sponsored various foundations which they furnished with fine works of art, from *minbar*s to ablution basins; even door knockers were crafted with the utmost skill. Technically, this was an age of high achievement, as craftsmen mastered arts such as elegant glasswares, often decorated with enamel. Ceramics, too, continued to develop in several styles, including lustre decoration and a technique local to Syria known as *laqabi* ware. Ayyubid potters even imitated the *mina'i* ceramics of contemporary Iran. Perhaps the most striking creations of the Ayyubid period are objects of inlaid metalwork, a technique of Iranian origin which had rapidly spread throughout the Islamic world. Brass and bronze inlaid with silver, gold and other metals were used to give a wide variety of objects the appearance of precious metal without violating religious strictures against its use. Wares such as basins and incense burners were made in this way. Inlaid wares were often decorated with figurative imagery, the scenes ranging from hunters on horseback to ladies at their toilet."},"30947cee-0ac0-51a6-a6b7-4918f5ceb559":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Abbasids presents what may be referred to as the first 'Classical' moment in the evolution of Islamic architecture, one that was centred in the political and cultural capital of the Abbasid state, Baghdad (and by extension the adjacent royal suburb of Samarra). The Abbasid architecture of Baghdad was dominated by the use of brick as a construction material. Stucco is also widely used as a sheathing material. Stone was used in areas of the Abbasid state where it was a predominant or at least common building material, as in Tulunid Egypt and Aghlabid Tunisia, the two main Abbasid-era traditions represented in this project. Wood is also used, though more sparingly, for elements such as the *minbar*, doors and in the building's beams.  \n  \nThe hypostyle-mosque plan continues to be the primary mosque plan. The minaret, *minbar* and *mihrab* become standard features in mosques. The relatively small dome located over the area in front of the *mihrab*, which first emerged during the Umayyad period, becomes a widespread element. In the case of Aghlabid architecture, a second dome is also sometimes constructed, opposite the first dome, at the entrance leading from the courtyard to the prayer hall. Another development dating to the Abbasid period is the appearance of the *ziyada*, the open space that surrounds the mosque and separates it from the surrounding urban fabric.  \n  \nThe uniquely Islamic architectural element of the *muqarnas* makes its first appearance during the Abbasid period, probably in Baghdad. The first examples have been dated to the late AH 3rd / AD late 9th–early 10th centuries, and it spread throughout the central Islamic lands during the 5th / 11th century. The pointed arch becomes a predominant feature during the Abbasid period, and the horseshoe arch emerges as a common element in the architecture of the Aghlabids. In terms of building types, the appearance of funerary architecture in Islamic architectural traditions dates to the Abbasid period. Initially these consisted of a single space covered by a dome.  \n  \nThe primary decorative motifs of the period were stylised vegetal motifs as well as geometric patterns which were often executed in stucco. The 'arabesque' or repeated, interlaced stylised vegetal motif also comes into being during this period. Inscriptions continue to play an integral role in the articulation of architecture.  \n  \nThe earlier examples of Abbasid architecture show clear Sassanian influences from Iran. However, the architecture of Aghlabid Tunisia shows a higher level of continuity with Umayyad traditions. Examples of this include the use of minarets with square sections, and the re-use of Roman and Byzantine building components, such as column shafts and capitals. By the early 3rd / mid-10th century, especially with the emergence of what is referred to as the 'Samarra style', the architecture of the Abbasids could be described as self-referential, evolving through an internal process that relied primarily on Muslim prototypes rather than styles imported from other traditions."},"30f650c4-28b8-51fa-9fb7-44613c3096bf":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Since the Qur’an stresses the importance of personal hygiene, public baths (*hammam*s) have traditionally played a key role in the social and religious life of Muslims. Although these structures owe some debt to Roman and Late Antique baths, the emphasis from Umayyad times onwards was more on the hot rooms than on the *frigidarium* favoured by the Romans. The *hammam* ordinarily contains a changing room, which is an unheated room, a warm intermediate room, and a steam room.","quote":"*‘The hammam played a key role in the social and religious life of Muslims.’*"},"31839947-b81e-578b-b011-e2319540abf1":{"title":"Jordan"},"32488c74-a58c-5fa9-b361-a3daf955e17a":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"The remarkably rapid Arab-Muslim conquests removed the political barriers between Iran and Mesopotamia on the one hand, and the Mediterranean world on the other. In this way an opportunity arose to mix the resources of two distinct civilisations. The establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty in Syria, a province that had been thoroughly Hellenised over the previous millennium, meant that the predominant artistic influences were classical or, more precisely, classical transformed under the influence of an orientalised provincial tradition.","quote":"*‘An opportunity arose to mix the resources of two distinct civilisations.’*"},"343819d8-e720-529d-a3f2-a9d6277501c0":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"Animal representation occurred across artistic media: mosaics, painting and sculpture, and on architecture. Although animal motifs appeared in a wide variety of materials they are very common on stone, pottery, metal, wood and ivory. Both domestic and wild animals such as bulls, horses, trotting camels, gazelles, onagers, deer, doves, eagles, storks, snakes, rabbits, monkeys, cats and lions are present. Mythical animals like harpies, unicorns, Pegasus and griffons were derived from traditional Greco-Roman themes.","quote":"*‘Mythical animals like harpies, unicorns, Pegasus and griffons were derived from traditional Greco-Roman themes.’*"},"343a2d67-cc5d-51cf-b046-7beee7e64193":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"Copies of the Qur’an were produced in many different sizes and for different uses. Some were destined for use in mosques and *madrasa*s, while others were carried about with individuals for benediction and protection. Patronage and commissions for the transcription and decoration of Qur’an manuscripts was considered an honourable religious act for those who could afford it. The patronage system was widespread throughout the Islamic world, and patrons would present such copies to mosques, shrines and schools on special occasions. To complement their function as religious or educational institutions, most of these buildings were also adorned with excerpts from the Qur’an seen on stonework, on tiles, textiles and on the furniture.","quote":"‘*Patrons would present copies of the Qur’an to mosques, shrines and schools on special occasions.*’"},"35beb34a-375b-5bd2-98d3-523a97e96b21":{"title":"The Fatimids","description":"‘They dreamed of building a Shi‘ite caliphate at the heart of the Islamic world; the Fatimids ruled an empire famed as much for its political administration as it was for its artistic splendour.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The assassination of Caliph ′Ali in the Iraqi city of Kufa and of Imam Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet, at Karbala, gave rise to Shi‘ism. The movement claimed its right to the caliphate based on its leaders’ descent from Muhammad. Fiercely attacked by the Umayyads and Abbasids, Shi‘ism nevertheless continued to spread throughout the Muslim world and soon reached North Africa. It was here that the Shi‘ite Muslims, led by Abu ‘Abdallah al-Shi‘i, decided to establish themselves with a view to conquering the Islamic caliphate.  \nThe Fatimid caliphate was effectively born at Raqqada in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), and from there the movement succeeded in overthrowing the local Aghlabid dynasty in AH 297 / AD 909. The first Fatimid capital was al-Mahdiyya, the urban and architectural fabric of which carried their mark. Under the enlightened rule of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu‘izz li-Din Allah (r. 341–63 / 953–75) the realm became remarkably prosperous, and the economic conditions provided a favourable climate in which to attempt the conquest of the caliphate. As part of his plan to achieve this objective he dispatched General Jawhar to conquer Egypt, which had suffered much under Tulunid rule. In 357 / 969 al-Mu‘izz entered Egypt victorious, delegating the rule of North Africa to his Zirid vassals. The Zirids saw the opportunity to become independent and renounce Shi‘ism in favour of Sunni Islam, a move that was punished by the Fatimids, who promptly deployed the barbarian Bedouin tribe, the Banu Hilal, to devastate their lands. Fatimid power now shifted to Egypt and in 357 / 969 al-Mu‘izz founded a new capital, Cairo. Based on an ever-expanding empire, a brilliant civilisation evolved, rivalling that of the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Umayyads in Spain. Urbanism, the sciences, art and literature reached new heights. However, these achievements were not to last: the arrival of the Crusaders, economic decline and major epidemics all contributed to the fall of this brilliant dynasty, which was eventually extinguished at the hands of Salah al-Din Ayyubi (Saladin) in 567 / 1171.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/fatimids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/16/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":3}}},"362960e9-cc01-5941-9e3e-f9dfc311b3b5":{"title":"Defence","description":"Solid walls used as a defensive system were only vulnerable to assaults and undermining. They originally included small openings through which weapons could be fired, although these subsequently had to be enlarged to accommodate cannons. Tall towers flanked walled sections to defend against assaults, and a range of devices were used to hinder attackers: isolated *albarrana* towers standing outside (but connected to) the walls, a barbican wall running parallel to the main wall, but thinner and lower than it, a ditch between the two, and finally a gateway protected by towers which, from the 5th/11th century, included a dogleg entrance that forced attackers to make a right-angled turn.","quote":"*Walls, a defensive system in themselves.*"},"378d3dd4-999d-5a88-a676-e838eaee7c35":{"title":"The Muslim West"},"37af7457-871b-5f72-898f-77f35e43c973":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Cities in Syria, Palestine and Egypt all underwent a revival of Sunni Islam under the Atabeg and Ayyubid dynasties. Both dynasties undertook the restoration of the Great Umayyad Mosque after it suffered two catastrophic fires, and sponsored hundreds of other religious institutions, including mosques, oratories, *madrasa*s, *khanqah*s, and shrines. Contemporary historians recorded a total of 242 mosques in Damascus alone.","quote":"*‘Contemporary historians recorded a total of 242 mosques in Damascus alone.’*"},"38f5d49f-e4cd-5dbc-9056-b930d8d46019":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"The *minbar* arrived in its prestigious new home at the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron, the resting place of several biblical prophets, including Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Due to its association with the Prophet Abraham the mosque is also sacred to Muslims, for according to the Islamic faith Abraham is the father of all the prophets in whose footsteps the Prophet Muhammad was encouraged to follow.","quote":"*‘**The minbar arrived in its prestigious new home at the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.’*"},"390eb15a-b775-5e38-b060-b98bf5313187":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"Religious Mudéjar art in Aragon is noteworthy for the profuse decoration on the outside of buildings and towers created by multiple geometric arrangements in exposed brick (interlinked mixtilinear arches, networks of rhombuses and herringbone patterned bands) and the use of multicoloured tiles. Inside, the wooden ceilings created a feeling of space, making rooms more comfortable and warmer. An especially noteworthy example of this is the enormous collar-beam (*armadura de par y nudillo*) ceiling of Teruel Cathedral.","quote":"*Mudéjar art in Aragon: an abundance of decoration.*"},"39470669-f271-52b5-9ea9-ee88e042362a":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"In Islamic culture, houses and palaces were designed to ensure privacy for women, shielding them from the intrusion and inconvenience of strangers. Within this exclusively private sphere, women were free to go about their domestic business, see to their family commitments, socialise with other female members of the extended household, relatives or friends and look after their own needs and affairs. Women had the right to their own property and the dowry, including jewellery, which they had received from their groom when they married, remained theirs even in the case of a divorce.  In the context of the royal court, women lived lavishly with all material comforts provided, within palace quarters exclusive to them.","quote":"*‘In Islamic culture houses and palaces were designed to ensure privacy for women.’*"},"396874d9-40a1-5d19-9b40-a8c4225d8397":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"Egypt was the assembly point for pilgrims from North and Central  Africa. They arrived in Alexandria and proceeded to Cairo, where they embarked at Fustat and sailed 640 km up the River Nile to the city of Qus, in the South. Camels then carried them to 'Ayzaab, one of the most important Red Sea Ports. From there sailing boats ferried them across to Arabia. The crossing was hazardous: many ships sank and a number of pilgrims drowned.","quote":"*'Egypt was the assembly point for pilgrims from North and Central Africa.'*"},"39c2b16b-ece0-532b-b8a3-a71ce6678645":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"The sultans’ patronage of holy sites, the remit of which included places such as Jerusalem, showed itself in renovations, maintenance, restorations and donations. However, since in Arabia decisions over the holy sites rested with the local rulers, permission to build or to carry out works privileged the donor. In this respect, Ottoman commitment to the holy sites also signified their assertion of sovereignty over these cities.","quote":"*‘Ottoman commitment to holy sites signified their assertion of sovereignty over these cities.’*"},"39f632d5-77b2-5774-9593-b679b7db8455":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"In addition to textiles, Ottoman ceramics were extremely popular on the export market. The rise of the ceramics industry in Iznik, so central to the history of art in Turkey, also created a powerful response in Europe. Iznik ceramics became so popular in European markets, in fact, that at one point the Sultan wrote an angry edict berating the potters of Iznik for producing wares for foreign consumers and not the Imperial palace!","quote":"*‘In addition to textiles, Ottoman ceramics were extremely popular on the export market.’*"},"3a33eeec-8d4a-5425-b4d3-875f171e5011":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Water was boiled for cooking or other uses in large, metal tripod cauldrons or in smaller metal-footed containers. If a stew or soup was being prepared in a cauldron, it was transferred for serving and eating into metal or glazed-ceramic bowls. Drinking-water was consumed from glass goblets with carved, moulded, enamelled or gilded decoration. Additionally, unglazed pottery jugs with openwork filters in the neck provided cool, clean water; the porous material of the jug filtered the water inside and by allowing the air to circulate kept the contents cool.","quote":"*‘Unglazed pottery jugs with openwork filters in their necks provided cool, clean water.’*"},"3b822b91-75f5-5142-bd3c-29b08ccd26ec":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"The power of the sultan, or of the regional rulers, was often proclaimed quite openly and obviously in visual form. Architecture was most useful towards this end; a grandiose building, dominating the neighbourhood or (even better) the city skyline, makes a bold statement of power. On a smaller scale, the power of the ruler could be announced explicitly in written form, such as by including his name or title in the decoration of a building or even a manuscript. The imperial *tughra* is perhaps the most memorable example of this aspect of the visual language of power.","quote":"*‘The power of the sultan was often proclaimed quite openly and obviously in visual form.’*"},"3cf62f2a-9021-5aef-ac0a-0cc131185bcf":{"title":"Science and Knowledge"},"3dacef6f-9661-56d6-bef1-ed4eac1076a0":{"title":"Water Management","description":"Knowledge of land irrigation allowed Arab rulers to expand their jurisdiction to the Mediterranean. The upkeep of cisterns in *caravanserai*s was essential for travellers, merchants and pilgrims, and canals were carved through the desert to irrigate the land. Mechanical constructions were built along the rivers, and wells were exploited to help distribute the water further a field.","quote":"*‘The upkeep of cisterns in* caravanserais *was essential for travellers, merchants and pilgrims.’*"},"3e98d267-1ed6-58c4-84e5-e601b73d8d09":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Another popular flower, particularly in Ottoman Turkey, was the tulip. Known as *lale* among the Turks and Persians alike, this versatile elegant flower was cultivated with great passion in Ottoman times. In the 18th century, under Sultan Ahmed III the love of tulips became frenzied: extortionately expensive festivals were organised which nearly bankrupted the Ottoman Empire. Its beauty was also celebrated in religious poetry. Here, the tulip symbolised a martyr for the faith and the mystical, self-denying lover.","quote":"*‘Another popular flower, particularly in Ottoman Turkey, was the tulip.’*"},"3ef8c668-699a-5cd8-80dc-b34b51eb0c56":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"The twin Syrian cities of al-Raqqa and al-Rafiqa lie on the banks of the Euphrates on a strategic trade, postal and pilgrimage route that links the eastern and western parts of the Abbasid Empire. Although Raqqa’s history goes back to prehistoric times, it acquired importance in the early Abbasid period when in 154 / 770–1 the caliph Abu Ja‘far al-Mansur (r. 136–58 / 754–75) passed through it and fell in love with its location and pleasant air. He decided to build adjacent to it a fortified palace-city which he named al-Rafiqa. From then on al-Rafiqa (al-Raqqa) became the summer resort of the Abbasid court of Baghdad, as well as a refuge during periods of political unrest.","quote":"*‘**Al-Rafiqa (al-Raqqa)* *became the summer resort of the Abbasid court of Baghdad.’*"},"3f965ac2-093e-5fc3-93f1-16f293577988":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"The first medium for religious manuscripts was parchment, which was progressively replaced by paper for reasons of convenience and economy.  \nEqually, geometric patterns were gradually replaced by floral decoration, which was considered to be more refined. Geometric motifs, such as the ones used in the frame, became secondary elements.  \nCalligraphy was used for decoration, especially 'squared' *kufic* script which was written in all different directions.","quote":"*‘Geometric patterns were gradually replaced by floral decoration, which was considered to be more refined.’*"},"40ddc7cc-dac9-5a21-9c8d-53bd6111238c":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Many of the objects that furnished the palaces would have been received as gifts from other rulers or nobles. The exchange of gifts strengthened relations between neighbouring territories and rival rulers. The Artuqids – Turkmen from Asia Minor – established themselves in Diyarbakir in Northern Jazira in the late 5th / 11th century. During the course of the 6th / 12th century they became increasingly independent, minting their own currency and forging ties with nearby rulers by sending them gifts.","quote":"*‘The exchange of gifts strengthened relations between neighbouring territories and rival rulers.’*"},"41c7e2cf-4070-53bb-8c03-b4f530b8336b":{"title":"Objects","description":"Fatimid art is in large part a luxury art; the Fatimid treasury was full of exquisitely crafted objects in the finest possible materials. Numerous examples of virtuoso carving in rock-crystal survive. Items of jewellery and surviving textile fragments also remind us of the opulence of the Fatimid court. Qur'an manuscripts were treated just as elaborately, as seen in the rare copy known as the Blue Qur'an because it was written in gold on indigo-dyed parchment.  \n  \nUnlike Abbasid art, much Fatimid art is representational. The technique of lustre-painted ceramics, an Abbasid invention, was adopted and developed further by Fatimid potters. Carved ivory objects with scenes of pastimes like hunting affording a fascinating view into the life of the Fatimid upper class."},"42f06353-5ef7-51e7-934c-e5dc0f69f7b4":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"The town of Byzantium, chosen as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine, continued to develop as Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. In addition to its strategic location, the city attracted attention worldwide due to its fascinating monuments, including the Church of Hagia Sophia. Constantinople resisted several sieges by the Muslim Arabs, but suffered greatly during the Fourth Crusade. After centuries of resistance to invasion, the city was finally conquered by Sultan Mehmed II in 857 / 1453. When the Ottomans conquered the Mamluks in 923 / 1517 and took the title of caliph, their capital became the centre of the Islamic world and was known by the names: Konstantiniyye, Asitane, Dersaadet and Istanbul.  Istanbul was the Ottoman capital until 1922; for 400 years each sultan had adorned the city with new monuments and updated the infrastructure.","quote":"*‘For 400 years each sultan had adorned Istanbul with new monuments and updated the infrastructure.’*"},"43615e87-18d1-5224-8dc6-625f716cafe7":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"*Kufic* script is considered to be the most widely used calligraphic style in the Islamic world, practiced in Spain in the West, to Uzbekistan in the East. It is considered to be the earliest Arabic script, dominating calligraphy during the first two centuries of Islam. It was eventually superseded by other styles, including *naskhi* and *Maghrebi*, although none of these new styles reached the imperial level held by *kufic* script.","quote":"*‘*Kufic *script is considered to be one of the most widespread styles of Arabic calligraphy across the Islamic world.’*"},"4525acaf-2e58-57ae-aa47-33e20171397d":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing"},"46837ac7-e216-535c-9487-5198e7fe98f9":{"title":"Syria","description":"The yearly ceremony of the *hajj* involved arduous preparation of the pilgrim caravans for a long and potentially dangerous journey through the desert on camelback. The procession out of Damascus was, therefore, a crucial moment to ensure security and to gain visibility for good governance. The Mahmal al-Hajj headed the procession carrying emblems of the Ottoman caliph, where a Westernised decorative language can be discerned filtering into a local decorative repertoire.  \nSuch cultural and artistic innovations became ubiquitous by the early 14th/20th century. Qur'anic manuscripts painted with gold and enamel show a new sense of shading and colour. However, the identity of Damascus as a holy city remained predominant, irrespective of political and stylistic changes.","quote":"‘However, the identity of Damascus as a holy city remained predominant, irrespective of political and stylistic changes.’"},"46dc88ff-bfef-555f-911d-3ced9ca58efa":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"After the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 923 / 1517, the local rulers of Mecca offered Sultan Selim I supreme power over Arabia for political and economic reasons. Consequently, the two most important Muslim cities, Mecca and Medina – and with them the holiest places of Islam – became part of the Ottoman Empire, and the sultans took the title of Caliph. Thus, for about 400 years the Ottoman sultans paid particular attention to giving their generous support to the holy sites.","quote":"*‘For about 400 years the sultans paid particular attention to giving their generous support to the holy sites.’*"},"473cc292-7a45-5f73-b92a-f3b7db5501f4":{"title":"Mudéjar Art"},"4758f9be-3439-5cc6-9e79-2fab9819236d":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Sicily fell under some form of direct Muslim control (initially the Aghlabids, and later the Fatimids) for over two centuries before being overtaken by the Normans in the mid-5th / mid-11th century. Although a number of structures built by the Muslims survive from that period, these structures were so heavily modified through rebuilding and remodelling under the Normans that they lost much of their original character.  \n  \nInterestingly, an architectural tradition with clear and strong influences from the Islamic world came into being under the Normans. Siculo-Norman architecture blends Romanesque, Byzantine and Muslim features, and consequently creates combinations of Romanesque austerity with more sumptuous features from the Islamic and Byzantine traditions. Muslim influences came primarily from pre-existing local Sicilian Muslim traditions as well as from Fatimid Egypt, although influences have also been traced to other regions of the Muslim world, including North Africa and even Persia.  \n  \nThe materials used in Siculo-Norman architecture are mixed. Stone, brick and wood are used for both structural and decorative purposes. Mosaics, showing Byzantine influences, are very common. Arabic inscriptions are also found in a number of Norman structures. The use of *muqarnas* is widespread, and in some cases it is painted with figurative representations."},"47d7f8f6-10ef-57a4-b7b8-cfe315a78fb3":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"The western areas of the Levant, which played a key role during the Crusader period, are peppered with castles of which those at Karak and Shawbak are fine examples. Castles repeatedly changed hands between the Crusaders and Muslims, and following their success at the Battle of Hittin, Saladin’s soldiers took a number of Frankish citadels, including the aforementioned Karak and Shawbak. Saladin’s Ayyubid successors made additions to these castles, as did the Mamluks, later, during the 7th / 13th and 8th / 14th centuries. Both Frankish and Muslim builders contributed to the fortifications, making it difficult to ascertain who was responsible for which architectural feature. However, it is clear that the Franks brought new military technology to the Levant, and that, in turn, they would have learned about some of the techniques used in Islamic structures.","quote":"*‘Castles repeatedly changed hands between the Crusaders and Muslims.’*"},"48a86896-7c77-5f66-a1d9-8df0111a6e0c":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"Most important, however, he was highly trained in the art of war, archery and horsemanship. Indeed, in many ways the training of Mamluks can be compared to that of contemporary European knights. Regular tournaments were held with competitive games such as polo (*jawkan*) designed to refine the Mamluks’ equerry skills. Once their training was complete the Mamluk was set free and given a set of weapons and a horse. Now they were free to embark on military careers that enabled the most skilled among them to rise through the ranks to serve as senior commanders, provincial governors, the sultan’s retainers, or indeed as sultans themselves.","quote":"*‘In many ways the training of Mamluks can be compared to that of contemporary European knights.’*"},"4a1c6f21-6004-562f-a51b-159ea077a327":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"Taking the deceased to their final resting place is a simple and unceremonious affair in the Muslim West. Muslim cemeteries are found outside towns, but near enough to enable friends and relatives to visit. Family graves are often visited before Friday prayers and verses from the Qur'an are read. The only exception is for members of the royal family who are buried within the palace complex. In all cases, the dead are buried face up on their right side facing Mecca.","quote":"*Funerary spaces: necropolises.*"},"4a887d81-bba5-56d2-aa88-42a28d04c83a":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"Arabic calligraphy was applied to a wide range of media, including parchment and paper. Calligraphers prepared their own ink compounds and cut their own reed pens. The inscriptions included many topics. Although calligraphy was a profession, private citizens practiced it too, regardless of social background. In Islamic societies calligraphic works by famous masters were not treated lightly, but were collected and preserved as cultural treasures.","quote":"*‘Calligraphers prepared their own ink compounds and cut their own reed pens.’*"},"4abfb8e7-e61b-559d-9eb7-684a9ac667bc":{"title":"Court Life","description":"In the middle of the 19th century, under Western influence, the Ottoman sultans moved to Dolmabahçe Palace, then to Yıldız Palace, and spent their summers in Beylerbeyi Palace. All were built along the Bosphorus in the Western style. The Bosphorus palaces became the new dynastic residences and centres for official ceremonies and receptions.","quote":"*‘The Bosphorus palaces became the new dynastic residences.’*"},"4ac9ddb5-21d0-552f-aabe-4b88c6672977":{"title":"Defence"},"4acd54d9-a442-5bb9-94bb-ebb55cc7040c":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"In addition to *sabils* and *sikaya*s, wells and fountains became the focus of decorative embellishment. Early medieval examples of well-coping survive from Morocco and Algeria, made from ceramic with a stamped decoration of stylised vegetation. While large stone basins are often associated with the provision of water for humans, *waqf* documents show that some were intended for use by animals. Palatial fountains set in public and private gardens, as found in the Western Islamic world and elsewhere, exhibit decorative fountainheads of lions, deer and dragons. Often, water is designed to pour from the mouths of these creatures into basins and pools which is then channelled through the gardens.","quote":"*‘Wells and domestic or palatial fountains also became the focus of decorative embellishment.’*"},"4bc22fb3-22f6-5931-bd3d-965aeb5ee21f":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"As the Abbasids became preoccupied with revolts in southern Iraq and further east, their attention to what was going on in Egypt grew less focused, and Ibn Tulun became increasingly autonomous, striking his own coinage and expanding his territory to include Syria and Palestine. When the Abbasids tried to rein him in, he banned praying for the Abbasid caliph at Friday prayers and removed the caliph’s name from the *tiraz* textiles. However, this period of independence and control over the region gave Egypt a certain stability and prosperity. Many poets, scientists and artisans gravitated to Fustat. After Ibn Tulun’s death (270 / 884) his son, two grandsons and brother succeeded him before the Abbasids were able to regain control of Egypt in 292 / 905.","quote":"*‘However, this period of independence and control over the region gave Egypt a certain stability and prosperity.’*"},"4bed6c71-af16-5a48-8fbf-46d35ab606ed":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The importance given to the proper reading and verbal recitation of the Qur’an prompted the addition of supplements that included explanatory notes on the meaning of particular verses and guidelines for their proper recitation. These notes were either written within the outer margins of the page or added as a supplement at the end of the volume. While appropriate extracts from the Qur’an were combined with selected prayers and prophetic quotes from the *Hadith* (‘Sayings of the Prophet’), and published in separate books and pamphlets for use in prayers and supplications, verses referring to Old Testament prophets appeared in highly decorated and illustrated story books that were dedicated to individual prophets.","quote":"*‘Verses referring to Old Testament prophets appeared in books dedicated to individual prophets.’*"},"4c126e80-2567-5abd-9191-3d40f380e81f":{"title":"Al-Franj: the Crusaders in the Levant","description":"‘The Middle East did not witness a similar period  \nof direct interaction with the West until the  \n20th century.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors (British Museum should be added)  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nKhader SALAMEH, Jerusalem  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Between AH 487 / AD 1095 and 538 / 1144, 14 Latin Crusader campaigns targeted many parts of the Islamic Mediterranean coast: nine crusades to the Holy Land, two to Byzantium, two to Egypt, and one to Tunisia. Baldwin of Boulogne conquered Edessa and established the first Crusader State in al-Raha in 491 / 1098. Over the next 200 years many Latin states were won and lost in the area.  \nThe European Crusaders were known as ‘al-Franj’ – the Franks. Although Frankish Crusader history began with a terrible massacre in Jerusalem in 492 / 1099, two centuries later, the Franks who settled there had changed and adapted to living in the Middle East among Muslims.  \nBefore the Crusades Arab-European contact in the eastern Mediterranean was minimal, and information concerning each other was scant and influenced by negative religious perceptions. The Crusader period, although violent, brought about a degree of religious tolerance and encouraged a certain amount of cultural exchange. The Middle East did not witness a similar period of direct interaction with the West until the 20th century. The beauty of the Dome of the Rock overwhelmed the invaders and by virtue of this contact, the Latin Crusaders formed a more favourable impression of the Islamic Orient, which was reflected in the literature of the period.  \nIslamic religious buildings were converted to churches and Christian institutions. In Jerusalem both the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque were converted into churches, with the latter also accommodating Crusader knights. In Hebron, the original ceiling of the Ibrahimi Mosque was replaced with one in the Romanesque style. The influences stretched beyond architecture, however, to include fashion and cuisine as well as religious customs and popular culture. By the end of the 7th / 13th century the Ayyubids and Mamluks had expelled the Crusaders, and many buildings, such as churches were converted or reverted back to mosques. This process enriched the general aesthetic of the region and led to a harmonious combination of the Latin style with Islamic art.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/crusader/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/24/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":15}}},"4c42f69a-1a67-5fc7-9eb0-b5ed2c633802":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life"},"4d22c9f5-70ed-5031-b70e-7aa555a8fa7a":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"Islamic art adapted and stylised the human figure of pre-Islamic art without hesitation. Human figurative motifs are found on the surface decoration of both artefacts and monuments (the exception being as a general rule mosques) as part of woven or applied patterns, in sculptural forms, on coins, and in manuscript illustrations. Religious figures such as prophets and angels were drawn from the Byzantine tradition, and mythical themes such as harpies (female-headed birds) were drawn from antiquity, other figurative forms were created through the customisation of well-established, culturally familiar, visual forms.","quote":"*‘Islamic art adapted and stylised the human figure of pre-Islamic art without hesitation.’*"},"4d695d55-b515-5453-b09f-f1d34f603388":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty"},"4eb28cf3-17bc-505f-8083-bec0c0308552":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"The construction of 100 new *madrasa*s in Damascus reflected the desire of the Atabeg and Ayyubid dynasties to change and educate society. Both male and female members of the Turkish and Kurdish elite sponsored the *madrasa*s and participated in nourishing the rich educational atmosphere within them. In his *History of Damascus*, the historian Ibn ‘Asakir (d. 571 / 1176) expressed gratitude for his teachers, counting 80 women among them.","quote":"*‘Both male and female members of the Turkish and Kurdish elite sponsored the* madrasas*.’*"},"500b667f-8d91-5d1a-9be3-3d41d2538920":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"Because the power of the word is respected in Islamic culture, whether verbal or transcribed, recitation and writing have been given a lot of attention both in Arabic-speaking and non-Arabic-speaking Islamic societies. This has encouraged an appreciation of calligraphy – meaning literally ‘beautiful writing’ – and in turn promoted the application of the art onto a variety of media, both for religious and secular use. Calligraphy appears on architecture, books, coinage and metal wares, official documents and *tiraz* textiles, ceramics, wood, ivory, stone and glass, and nearly every other kind of media one can think of.","quote":"*‘Calligraphy appears on* *nearly every kind of media one can think of.’*"},"502462bc-e227-5ed9-b9ed-e3c4625d085e":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"In the Fatimid period the minor arts reached new heights in terms of both quality and quantity. Highly skilled artisans and craftsmen produced sophisticated artefacts in an array of media to meet the specifications of a diverse clientele from both the royal court and the cities.  \nThe most exquisite objects were reserved for the Fatimid court. Princes and courtiers vied to possess vessels carved from highly prized, imported rock-crystal. Glass was also popular, and Fatimid patronage enabled the industry in Fustat to apply the highest technological standards to blowing, moulding, cutting and embossing their wares.","quote":"*‘In the Fatimid period the minor arts reached new heights in terms of both quality and quantity.’*"},"506ae4e4-634a-525e-8b8e-dc798aafe087":{"title":"Turkey","description":"These new features actually did not have any direct effect on the plans of monuments but brought a remarkable change in their decoration. Western decorative elements were also applied to many areas of the crafts, altering the traditional decorative repertoire that had dominated Ottoman art. The new taste, which began in Istanbul directed by the workshops of the palace, found its way to Anatolia almost contemporaneously.","quote":"‘The new taste, which began in Istanbul directed by the workshops of the palace, found its way to Anatolia almost contemporaneously.’"},"50e6c016-c07c-59ca-a932-af7736a9bcd6":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Fatimids combines elements from the architecture of Syria, Iraq and Iran in Asia to the east, with elements from North Africa to the west. It is primarily stone-built architecture. In Cairo, the city that the Fatimids established as their capital in 358 / 969, they sometimes re-used stone from Pharonic monuments, as well as column capitals and shafts from classical architecture. Brick is used as a structural material, but is usually sheathed in a carved decorative layer of stone or stucco. Carved wood is used for elements such as doors, panels and ceiling beams.  \n  \nThe Fatimid period maintained the traditional hypostyle-mosque planning arrangement. However, the minaret, which evolved as a standard architectural element in Abbasid religious architecture, is used only infrequently in Fatimid architecture. The architecture of the Fatimids also provides one of the first known examples of religious Islamic architecture anywhere to align the façade of the mosque with the street. Thus it reconciles the different directions of the adjacent street and the *qibla* by use of a triangular-plan section, which includes a broken entry axis connecting the street to the prayer hall.  \n  \nThe keel-shaped arch emerges as a common feature in Fatimid architecture, and the dome sometimes incorporates a keel-shaped profile. The Fatimid dome usually rests on squinches or a series of niches, which allows for the transition from the square base of the domed space to the circular outline of the dome.  \n  \nFoliated *kufic* calligraphy is used widely in building inscriptions. Fluted decoration is common for arches and domes. Windows are often placed within façade recesses. Arabesque, vegetal and geometric patterns, which are executed in marble, stucco, stone or wood, are common and, in earlier examples of Fatimid art and architecture at least, show the influence of Abbasid models as they emerged in Iraq, and also under the Aghlabids in Tunisia and the Tulunids in Egypt."},"5143a580-5e9d-5338-aa83-89eaf0f30e05":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art","description":"In places where there were no Muslim palaces to occupy, the Christian kings and noblemen erected new palaces in their image. The King of Castile, Pedro I, is the best example of the Christian aristocracy's taste for Islamicised ways of life and the settings for them. The palaces at Tordesillas and Astudillo reflect the king's desire to build them in the style of contemporary Nasrid buildings, which may have been achieved with the help of craftsmen sent from Granada by his friend King Muhammad V.","quote":"*New Mudéjar palaces*"},"51fbd90e-6be2-5b7d-985d-95a359d424a3":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"The two Mamluk sultans that led the greatest number of victorious campaigns against the Crusader States were al-Zahir Baybars (658–76 / 1260–77) and al-Mansur Sayf al-Din Qalawun (678–89 / 1279–90). Following their successes, the Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 689–93 / 1290–93) led the victorious campaign at Acre in 690 / 1291, signalling the end of the Crusades.","quote":"*‘Al-Ashraf led the victorious campaign at Acre, signalling the end of the Crusades.’*"},"527ffe44-a653-52d5-b537-96b6f979648a":{"title":"Syria","description":"During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire needed to meet the challenge of an increasingly powerful, prosperous and industrial Europe. Traditional *madrasa*s and mosques were no longer considered sufficient as educational institution for a modern society. Madrasa Jaqmaqiyya, for example, was transformed into a new kind of civil prep school called Maktab Rushdiyya. It taught Ottoman and European history, literary and official writing, and a variety of languages including French, Ottoman and Persian, but neither the Arabic language nor Arab history was on offer.  \nBy the early 20th century, these reforms began to backfire as Christian minorities and non-Turkish Muslim majorities called for individuation and free expression rather than unity and obedience. In Damascus, Maktab Anbar became a new educational centre and a focal point for Arab political awakening.","quote":"‘During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire needed to meet the challenge of an increasingly powerful, prosperous and industrial Europe.’"},"52ba552e-fa0a-5682-9bec-459980b75df8":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"The Qur'an says: 'And proclaim to mankind *al-Hajj*. They will come to you on foot and on every lean mount; they will come from every deep and distant mountain highway. (XXII: 27–8)' Every year Muslim pilgrims converge on Mecca from all corners of the Muslim world. The upkeep of the pilgrimage routes, the rest stations, reservoirs and watchtowers, were the responsibility of the local Muslim governors or rulers.","quote":"*'Every year Muslim pilgrims converge on Mecca from all corners of the Muslim world.'*"},"5374f1d7-28b8-5e64-8bb8-d12ba84fb6a1":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection"},"543aaa57-6637-5f92-ac7d-d3ff9c19f682":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"Nasrid art in al-Andalus, and Marinid, Ziyanid and Hafsid art in the Maghreb represent the highpoint of the decorative wealth found in Western Muslim art. Their interrelations give rise to a uniform style (with highly significant examples such as that at the Alhambra in Granada and the ‘Attarin Madrasa in Fez) which became a model for Western Islamic art.","quote":"*Merinids and Nasrids: a model for Western Islamic art.*"},"544d24b1-a4c5-568d-8a3b-dd38d938afe5":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"*Kufic* script originated in Kufa, Iraq, during the first decades of the AH 1st / AD 7th century. It developed from the *hijazi* script, which was itself influenced by the *Syriac*. *Syriac* script, in turn, was born from the meeting of the two cultural types and was attributable to the migration of a number of Iraqi Christian scholars to Kufa in the first half of the 1st / 7th century. Kufa’s strong political and military position helped the *kufic* style to spread and gave it its name. The presence of a large number of Muslim scholars, reciters of the Qur’an and of the *Hadith*s helped to spread the *kufic* style beyond the city, and also aided its development both stylistically and aesthetically.","quote":"*‘Kufa’s strong political and military position helped the* kufic *style to spread and gave it its name.’*"},"5462090c-84a2-599b-95ad-c52278086f8c":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"Sometimes the entire day was spent at the *hammam*, enjoying the benefits of a massage or a hot steam-bath. Women would share expertise in cosmetics and skin care, such as the application of make-up and the concoction of scented moisturising creams mixed with powdered mineral salts or alum. They would share recipes or suppliers’ names for aromatic essences and perfumes, made from animal sources such as ambergris, or from flowers or plants. The Persian traveller Nassir Khusraw on a visit to Egypt during the Fatimid period noted that traders in violets, narcissuses, irises and lilies sold their products to perfume factories. Great care was extended in grooming hair, and elaborate combs survive which are often found to carry witty inscriptions, such as ‘I will not style other than a beauty’s hair’.","quote":"*‘Sometimes the entire day was spent at the* hammam*, enjoying the benefits of a massage or a hot steam-bath.’*"},"54f705a7-f6cc-5d60-88a2-8e1edc57ef20":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"Literacy levels were high and the patronage of colleges competitive. Scholars – ‘*ulama*’ – from Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, al-Andalus, the Maghreb and Egypt poured into the *madrasa*s, finding refuge in Damascus and a fertile teaching ground. Under *waqf* agreements (endowments) scholars were given grants, salaries and somewhere to live. Good students were awarded an *ijaza* (certificate) by their tutors. The process of apprenticeship is often illustrated on the frontispieces of scientific and philosophical manuscripts.","quote":"*‘Apprenticeship is often illustrated on the frontispieces of scientific and philosophical manuscripts.’*"},"55222856-3011-566b-aae5-57b726cf2d41":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The techniques used to decorate fabrics, in this case embroidery, encouraged the use both of geometric motifs and of other motifs represented geometrically. Simple designs using stars, rhombuses, squares or bands were used to decorate fabrics, clothes and headdresses.","quote":"*‘Stars, rhomboids, squares or bands were used to decorate fabrics, clothes and headdresses.’*"},"55b7928a-e3bd-5865-b4c6-975a8167121f":{"title":"Visions of the Heavenly Garden and the Tree-of-Life","description":"Often the notion of the paradisiacal Tree-of-Life is alluded to in Islamic art without depicting a specific type of tree. Stylised images do, however, always evoke lushness, a profusion of shade-giving leafy branches and fertility. Sometimes, the image of the tree is replaced by a luxurious vase that holds an exuberant, colourful bouquet of flowers. This motif goes back to pre-Islamic, Hellenistic notions of the Font-of-Life. It recalls both expensive flower displays in the arcades of Islamic garden pavilions, and the floral delights in the Garden of Paradise.","quote":"*‘Images of the paradisiacal Tree-of-Life evoke lushness, a profusion of shade-giving leafy branches and fertility.’*"},"566203f6-e2ac-5a67-8b5e-89d63a01d16e":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Influential Muslim women engaged in charity work and patronised good causes. As Islamic law clearly stipulated their rights in terms of income and inheritance, many could do so on the basis of generous funds allocated for their personal use. They played a vital role in consolidating Islamic society by promoting support and solidarity between the various social classes. Many commissioned mosques and other public buildings for posterity. Thus, in Morocco, the Fihri sisters built both the Qarawiyin Mosque and the Andalusian Mosque in Fez during the 3rd / 9th century. In Turkey, Nilüfer Hatun, the mother of Murad I, had a religious structure built in Iznik in 789 / 1388, while Sultan Abdülaziz’s mother built the Pertevniyal Mosque Complex in Istanbul in 1288 / 1871, including a shrine, fountain, school and library.","quote":"*‘Influential Muslim women engaged in charity work and patronised good causes.’*"},"56bd5cf1-6fad-5681-8cba-49c4ca097bbe":{"title":"Objects","description":"Art produced by Muslim craftsmen in Christian Spain is known as Mudéjar art. Despite the political and religious pressures of the Christian *Reconquista*, Muslim craftsmen remained highly valued for their great skills and Christian clients in Spain and abroad often turned to them for the decoration of secular as well as religious works.  \n  \nMudéjar art is known for its striking lustre ceramics, which include *albarello*s and dishes bearing the coats of arms of European patrons. Mudéjar woodwork was also popular both as furniture and as church decoration."},"5739384e-e163-5d92-a390-a28d4233a917":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"The *Ka'ba* is the *qibla* (direction of prayer) of Islam. It is also at the heart of the *Hajj* and everyone who visits the *Haram* at Mecca has to circumvent the *Ka'ba* seven times as part of the prescribed pilgrimage ritual. The *Ka'ba* has many names in the Islamic tradition, among them: *al-Masjid al-Haram* (The Sacred Mosque, referring to the mosque within the precinct of the *Ka'ba*) and *al-Bayt al-Atiq* (the Ancient House). The *Ka'ba* is an almost square structure: 9.29 m on its north side, 12.15 m on its west, 10.25 m on its south side, and 11.88 m on its east side. It is 15 m high and has only one access door on the east face that is 2 m above ground level.","quote":"*'The* Ka'ba *is the* qibla *of Islam.'*"},"573c3733-80fc-5e4c-b0cc-4de48d4bc466":{"title":"The Zangids and Ayyubids"},"57abcad0-a4a6-59e5-ab3f-6bbbc8cfa027":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The mosque is the main religious building in Islam. Built on a square or rectangular plan, it consists essentially of three parts: prayer room, courtyard and minaret.  \nThe prayer room is divided into naves that are sometimes parallel or, more commonly, perpendicular to the *qibla* wall which faces Mecca, identified in turn by the *mihrab* niche that is often framed by a horseshoe arch and occasionally ornately decorated.  \nThese features initially appeared in the Great Mosque of Córdoba and became fully established in Almohad mosques.","quote":"*Great mosques and local mosques*"},"57d4f9c5-7846-5502-a124-d07a4d4ecfee":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Travel was perilous during the Middle Ages and most of the trade and pilgrimage routes between the Mediterranean, Central Asia and Arabia were extremely dangerous. As the Frankish Crusaders attacked, these routes became even more unstable. Castles and citadels were built at strategic points, such as those at Karak and Shawbak in Jordan. Despite the political antagonism, Muslims and Franks traded with each other, crossing each others’ territories and imposing taxes on each other.","quote":"*‘Despite the political antagonism, Muslims and Franks traded with each other.’*"},"5838d42d-f446-52f1-8928-5f1d6b6140a6":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions"},"5a338511-2ac0-5415-a85c-90120546219d":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"Indeed, from the late 17th century, public and private buildings began to include innovations in their architecture, decoration and ornamentation. The first elements of the Baroque style began to emerge, and local earthenware, stucco and sculpted wood traditions were abandoned in favour of Italian or Rococo decoration executed by foreign craftsmen.  \nSumptuous houses were built in the most beautiful districts of the *medina* along with nearby country houses set in surrounding gardens.  \nOrnamentation differed from one palace to another, but the fascination for Carrara marble and imported ceramics became widespread during the 18th and 19th centuries: grand marble stairways, Italian painted wooden ceilings, Neapolitan tiles, Husaynid stuccowork and floral paining. Internal doors and window shutters were made of Italian sculpted panels.","quote":"‘Sumptuous houses were built in the most beautiful districts of the *medina* along with nearby country houses set in surrounding gardens.’"},"5ab4b2a1-83ba-5bc3-b503-f27314da8748":{"title":"The Mamluks"},"5ae1c986-c80f-5678-ba60-13ff1b19d638":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"As a result of the Prophet's wishes it became a tradition for Muslim pilgrims to visit Jerusalem after the yearly *Hajj* in order that they might receive additional blessings (*Baraka*). Of course such sanctity ensured that Jerusalem received the care and attention from many Muslim benefactors over the centuries. Caliphs, sultans and *amir*s contributed to the well-being of the city and endowed many charitable foundations in the hopes of rewards and forgiveness in the afterlife.","quote":"*'Jerusalem received the care and attention from many Muslim benefactors over the centuries.'*"},"5c573dd8-51de-5a6c-9717-09f9aa851b0e":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"*Sabil*s were often constructed adjacent to mosques and were supported by *waqf*s, or charitable endowments. In Cairo, once a year when the River Nile was in flood, the water was transported from the river to the sabil, and carried in animal skins on the backs of camels or mules. The water was then brought to a stone basin on the ground-floor from which the attendant scooped cupfuls for all those who were thirsty. In some *sabil*s the water from the cistern fed a fountain which emptied into a basin.","quote":"*‘Once a year when the River Nile was in flood, the water was transported in animal skins on the backs of camels or mules to the cisterns.’*"},"5cef1f76-07da-5ce0-a8f7-d678e155d371":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule","description":"The conquest of the Middle-Eastern region that arches across the northern part of the Syrian Desert and extends to the Nile Valley encompassing the Tigris and Euphrates rivers – in modern times known as the Fertile Crescent – was undertaken in the name of Islam. The period of Umayyad rule that followed brought fewer changes for the Christian population than is popularly thought, for while Muslim communities were concentrated in the cities and in newly established towns as a military elite, the Christians continued to live in small towns and in the countryside and were not excluded from government posts.  \nChristian communities remained prosperous and artisans continued to produce numerous artefacts such as lamps, for both religious and secular use; Christian imagery appears on many of them.  \nFew churches went out of use. The three-aisled basilica church was the most commonly seen and, as might be expected, churches in towns were usually more sumptuous than those in rural areas. Many churches of the era are famous for their beautiful floor mosaics.","quote":"*‘Christian communities remained prosperous and artisans continued to produce numerous artefacts.’*"},"5d8d84b8-9df4-5581-af50-feecdace83f5":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"The Arab period in Sicily survived for a considerable time in the form of domestic and social customs, as well as in the use of places linked to rituals and practices dating back to the time the island was under Islamic rule. The survival, mainly in smaller towns, of fragments of urban fabric that are similar to examples found in North Africa, despite the differences between their respective architectural contexts, bear witness to the legacy of the Islamic presence on the island's urban landscape.","quote":"*'The Arab period in Sicily survived for a considerable time in the form of social customs.'*"},"5f07058e-e943-529b-9aad-26510494cbe8":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"The apogee of gilded ceramic from Manises coincides with the predominance of zoomorphic themes: deer, waders, bulls and small birds were placed at the centre of the composition, a decorative innovation that broke from the Hispano-Muslim tradition. With the decline of the Manises kilns, the pigments went from a pale-gold to a coppery or chocolaty tone, and the variety in decoration became more limited. The imaginary 'pardalot' bird, with its body scored with lines to imitate plumage, became the most popular theme.","quote":"*With the decline of the Manises kilns, the pigments went from a pale-gold to a coppery tone.'*"},"5f7953a9-49d7-5d9f-be1c-93cbec183abd":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"Hammadid art was a contemporary of Andalusian *ta'ifa* art and shared a number of decorative motifs, although the techniques used differed between the two. The combination of Andalusian influences and the early appearance of what are clearly Eastern elements, is evidence of the Maghreb's role as a bridge between East and West.","quote":"*Zirids and Hammadids: a bridge between East and West.*"},"5fece024-c74e-561d-b95d-491951907de9":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life"},"5ff53527-c223-5816-b616-a7a036304f06":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"The minimalist, angular *kufic* script was the first style of Arabic calligraphy to appear on monuments. It then developed in the 5th / 11th century to become foliated and to include floral ornamentation on the tips of the letters, such as seen on the *m**aqsura* (the space reserved for the caliph or *imam)* in the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Although *kufic* script – with its horizontal and vertical lines – perfectly complemented a number of architectural features in buildings, especially pillars and supports, from the 6th / 12th century monuments were also decorated with other styles of Arabic calligraphy such as the more lenient *naskhi* script, as seen on the Khanqah (hostel) of Sultan Baybars in Egypt.","quote":"*‘Minimalist, angular* kufic *script was the first style of Arabic calligraphy to appear on monuments.’*"},"60261853-a266-5a82-958e-d10b6269bdca":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"The urban residences were more suited to the Muslim sense of intimacy than rural ones. With their open, porticoed courtyards furnished with a pool or a well, the family had space to gather and spend time together. The courtyard was surrounded by living rooms and sleeping annexes, the kitchen and the latrines, the latter of which would have been placed directly over cesspools or, more commonly, equipped with pipes to carry waste to cesspools in the street.","quote":"*Townhouses, the intimacy of private life.*"},"607ac3c1-0180-5845-a8cc-ed6170965418":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Merchants and travellers were responsible for the dissemination of artistic ideas as well as the distribution of commodities, facilitating the transmission of designs and techniques for ceramics, metalwork, glass and textiles from one urban centre to another. The lustre technique was adopted in 6th- / 12th-century Syria, probably brought by potters emigrating from Fatimid Egypt although, ultimately, the technique originated in 3rd- / 9th-century Iraq. Similarly Persian craftsmen from Khurasan, fleeing from the Mongol invasions of the 7th / 13th century, brought their expertise in inlaid metalwork to Mosul in Northern  Iraq. The trade routes also facilitated the transmission of Chinese motifs, techniques and styles.","quote":"*‘**Merchants and travellers carried with them artistic ideas as well as commodities.’*"},"618dce7d-8482-5ccb-b334-54c0c96e6db0":{"title":"The Ottomans","description":"From humble origins as a small emirate in Northwest Anatolia, the Ottomans rose to become one of the greatest Islamic empires in history.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nSule AKSOY, Istanbul  \nSevinç GÖK, Izmir  \nAlev ÖZAY, Istanbul  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \nSevgi KUTLUAY, Istanbul  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nSeracettin SAHIN, Istanbul  \nCihat SOYHAN, Istanbul  \nGönül TEKELI, Istanbul  \nInci TURKOGLU, Istanbul  \nFriederike VOIGT, Stockholm/Berlin  \nBarry WOOD, London  \n  \nCoordination  \nInci KUYULU ERSOY, Izmir  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"From humble origins as a small emirate in Northwest Anatolia, the Ottomans rose to become one of the greatest Islamic empires in history. For centuries they stood as a world power, the centre of the Islamic world and a serious competitor to the West.  \nThe Ottoman dynasty began as one of a number of Anatolian *beylik*s, or emirates, in the late AH 7th / AD 13th century. Gradually they overcame their neighbours to become the strongest Muslim power in the region and, when they put an end to the Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople (Istanbul) in AH 857 / AD 1453, their status as an international power was secure. Further conquests over the 9th–10th / 15th–16th centuries gave the Ottomans control over an empire spanning much of the Mediterranean, southeastern Europe, the Arabian Peninsula, and of course Anatolia.  \nThis vast empire was governed under a highly centralised system, with the centre of power in Istanbul. Supreme authority rested with the sultan, although he was constrained by Islamic law. An extensive network of local governors ensured that the imperial writ was observed throughout the Ottoman lands.  \nOttoman art was profoundly influenced by this centralised system. Although its roots were in Anatolia, and it drew inspiration from sources as disparate as the cultures the empire had subsumed, the art of the Ottomans was in very large part devised in and disseminated from the imperial-court workshops in Istanbul. This resulted in the Ottoman style being consistent over an astonishingly wide geographic area.  \nWhether decorating a palace or a mosque, adorning their own houses, or creating products for export to an eager European market, the Ottomans adhered to an aesthetic generated at the top. It was an aesthetic shaped by the Ottoman’s deep Islamic piety, as seen in the emphasis on floral elements redolent of Paradise.  \nThe Ottoman Empire ended in the wake of World War I, but its art continues to captivate us today.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_ottomans/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/18/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":6}}},"61bd4ed5-85c4-5ab9-88e8-0e600ef3d9cd":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"The Mudéjar population brought its technical expertise, most of which dated back to Antiquity, to the Christian society accommodating it. The importance of the professions undertaken by Mudéjars made them significant players in the economic development of the kingdoms on the peninsula, and this ensured that they left a mark on the regulations governing the trades and professions which date from this time. The Mudéjars excelled in the professions relating to construction, especially bricklaying and plasterwork. Once a building's foundations were laid, bricklayers would erect the basic structure before the plasterers applied a finish to the walls. Mudéjars were also skilled carpenters, metalworkers, potters and weavers.","quote":"*'The Mudéjar population brought its technical expertise to the Christian society accommodating it.'*"},"622bc6c4-0521-53bd-80a6-0fa7a314fc9b":{"title":"The Holy Qur’an","description":"The Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book, is God’s words revealed orally to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic between hegira 610 and 632. It was collected and assembled into one volume by his companions and the early caliphs, especially the third caliph, ‘Uthman Ibn ‘Affan (23–35 / 644–56), in whose time the texts were organised into the Book as we know it today. The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters (*sura*) and 6,236 verses (*ayat*).","quote":"*‘The Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book, is God’s words revealed orally to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic.’*"},"635d4cb2-5c7e-5d27-bd41-43032dd5262b":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"Since Antiquity, Tunisia, a small country standing at the crossroads of Mediterranean civilisations, has been a meeting point between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, Africa and Europe. At the dawn of the modern era, the old Hafsid Ifriqiya, by then an Ottoman province, opened up to the Ottoman East and the European West.  \n  \n**Exchange and interference**  \nIn the Tunisia of the *dey*s and then the *bey*s, the country's new Turkish rulers took to building mosques, *madrasas, zawiyas,* palaces, barracks, public fountains, aqueducts and ramparts, particularly in the capital, thus ensuring that their name would live on.  \nEuropean trading houses flocked to Tunis, the secure capital of the Regency, establishing themselves there under the protection of the peace treaties signed by the Sultan of Istanbul.  \nThis period saw the rise of a strong penchant for all things European, initially among the princes, court dignitaries and other powerful individuals within the regime. In addition to making contact with the Europeans based in Tunis, some of them travelled to Europe: Bey Ahmed, for example, was received by Louis-Philippe of France with all the ceremony of a royal visit in 1846. The missions to Istanbul led to the discovery of the most exquisite luxury goods available and had a profound effect on Tunisian art and architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries.","quote":"‘At the dawn of the modern era, the old Hafsid Ifriqiya, by then an Ottoman province, opened up to the Ottoman East and the European West. ’"},"6428106b-9d8e-590a-bc5c-8be1ac54d645":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"An important ingredient in the application of eye make-up was kohl, made from a variety of sources including burnt frankincense, almond shells or Safflower plants. Believed to have medicinal benefits, kohl was also considered a powerful protection against the ‘evil eye’ and was kept in small decorative containers containing an applicator stick.","quote":"*‘Kohl was made from a variety of sources including burnt frankincense, almond shells or Safflower plants.’*"},"646ebdd8-a486-5d6b-8cd6-0d16de835996":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"Another contemporary historian and traveller, al-Hurawy (d. 611 / 1215) recalls seeing the Crusader metal grille around the rock: ‘I saw this rock at the time of the Franks; it was north of this dome [of the Aqsa Mosque] and was surrounded by an iron fence like a house is. The height of this iron fence which encloses the rock is two fathoms’.","quote":"“‘*The height of this iron fence which encloses the rock is two fathoms.’”*"},"647c6643-4c92-5053-a855-7bc6c0f2444a":{"title":"Arabic Calligraphy","description":"‘God said to the Prophet: *“Recite, your Lord is the most bountiful one who by the pen taught man what he did not know.”’* (Qur’an, 96: 2–5).","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"As the word both verbal and written is at the heart of Islamic civilisation, so Arabic calligraphy is at the heart of Islamic Art. Islam started with the Divine Revelation of God’s words to the Prophet Muhammad (AD 571–632), which formed the Qur’an, Islam’s Holy book. And from the very beginning, the Prophet and his followers encouraged the Muslim community to master reading and writing. Caliph ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab – the second caliph after the Prophet’s death in AH 11 / AD 632 – used to say: ‘The best script is the clearest, and clear script is the best’, while Imam ‘Ali, the fourth caliph, used to say: ‘Good scripting increases the clarity of truth’. This attention to the perfection of writing encouraged excellence in the field of calligraphy.  \nAfter the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the first caliphs engaged in collecting and preserving all the Qur’anic Revelations into one definitive book. Scribes were employed for the task, and as the Islamic State expanded beyond Arabia, it became important to supply the regions with definitive and approved copies of the Qur’an. Accuracy in copying the text was paramount; much attention was paid to the quality of the production, to ensure longevity. Attention to these needs and the subsequent introduction of papermaking technology to the Middle East led to the development of manuscript production all over the Islamic world.  \nThe Arabisation of the political and administrative systems of the expanding Islamic Empire during the reign of the Umayyad caliph ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan (r. 65–86 / 685–707) had an important influence on the development of Arabic calligraphy. Beyond the Arabic-speaking world, several Islamic regions and peoples began using the Arabic alphabet to write their languages. Persian and Turkish, and later on Urdu, all adapted Arabic calligraphic styles of scripting to their needs and artistic tastes.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/arabic_calligraphy/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/19/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":11}}},"66042ec5-c370-5352-acd8-d82b98d67a73":{"title":"Court Life","description":"In Enderun, there were kiosks and coastal palaces. At the entrance was the Arz Odası (audience hall), where the sultans welcomed ambassadors, *viziers* and other high-ranking officials.  \nThe *harem* was a sacred and private place and entry was not permitted by anyone but the staff. It was under the control of the sultan’s mother, or Valide Sultan. She lived there along with the sultan’s children, his favourites, and his concubines (called *ikbal* and *odalisque*). Although they all lived in material luxury none of them were allowed to sit next to the sultan or go out of the palace without his permission.","quote":"*‘The* harem *was a sacred and private place and entry was not permitted by anyone but the staff.’*"},"664da959-c73e-5c6a-8641-060470f0010e":{"title":"Mudéjar Art","description":"Mudéjar art arose from a set of historical circumstances unique to the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages.","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The most noteworthy aspect of Mudéjar art is its singularity. It cannot be compared to any other artistic style, whether Islamic or Christian, as it arose from a set of historical circumstances that were unique to the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages.  \nEffectively, when the Christian kings re-conquered the lands of al-Andalus, they had some difficulty repopulating immediately, and consequently they allowed Muslims to stay in the newly conquered territories, retaining their religion, language and system of laws. These Mudéjars, Muslims in Christian lands, joined the new society, worked for its elite and contributed Islamic customs and art, whose colours, exoticism, luxury and refinement fascinated Christian kings and noblemen.  \nMudéjar art is easily recognisable by the perfect integration of the materials used (brick, plaster, wood and ceramic), the specific techniques used to work them and the decorative motifs taken from Islamic aesthetics. Mudéjar art should be seen as the survival of Islamic art in Christian society, although this interpretation is only valid from a formal point of view as the Islamic decorative and structural forms in Mudéjar art express the thoughts and values of Christian and not Islamic culture.  \nElements of Islamic art combined perfectly with the Western artistic tradition to create a new form which differed depending on whether the combination was based on Romanesque, Gothic or Renaissance art. As a result, strictly speaking, Mudéjar art did not belong to either the Islamic or Christian artistic traditions. A link between two cultures, Mudéjar art became the artistic expression of a complex society in which Jews, Christians and Muslims lived side by side. This makes it a unique phenomenon in the history of art.  \nThe Mudéjar style declined during the AH 10th / AD 16th century and finally disappeared with the expulsion of the *Morisco*s in 1017 / 1609. Nonetheless, Mudéjar culture continued to satisfy the taste for a sort of 'Baroque style' until the advent of Baroque itself.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/mudejar_art/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/26/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":17}}},"66a1b849-44f7-56db-b90b-8414c7492a80":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks"},"67215e86-8b87-5410-a941-05738096eb5a":{"title":"Religious Life"},"6780505e-c91f-5e51-8a78-74d186fc4a0b":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"The adoption in less fertile areas of irrigation and farming techniques based on a knowledge of the ancient world, along with other hydraulic engineering projects of Iranian origin (such as the impressive network of *qanat*), were some of the more remarkable aspects of land organisation during the period of Islamic rule.","quote":"*'Farming and irrigation techniques were some of the more remarkable aspects of land organisation.'*"},"67d05c74-9479-5504-9b95-28708620c776":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"In Syria, Damascus shone as the second most important political, artistic and intellectual centre in the Mamluk sultanate; a veritable hub of religious discourse and scientific advancement. Many seminal books on medicine, geography and other natural sciences were copied and illustrated in its noteworthy *madrasa*s and institutes of higher education.","quote":"*‘Damascus* *shone as the second most important political, artistic and intellectual centre in the Mamluk sultanate.’*"},"68239d8d-9472-53ee-9876-51e1be828f05":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"Mudéjar potters brought to Medieval Europe the latest advances in glazing technology, with simple lead or transparent glazes, tin or opaque-white glazes, and finally lustre glazes, which sealed the ceramic and afforded it the beauty desired. Ceramics were produced throughout the peninsula, but the glazed and painted ceramics from the potteries of Paterna and Teruel and the gilded ceramics from Manises were the most keenly sought after and commonly exported.","quote":"*'Mudéjar potters mastered the art of glazing and brought it to Medieval Europe.'*"},"68eb0582-4a1d-5233-92af-cfac47f86d57":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone"},"699bcf48-10b7-5156-85dc-0aff994af0da":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"Like other empires, the Ottomans took their artistic taste to newly captured lands alongside their administrative and political systems. Through the ateliers established in the palace, the Ottomans dominated the artistic approach in the provinces over a vast geographical area. But another reality is that the farther you go from the capital, the more local colours you find despite the dominance of the palace ateliers.  \nImitating the refined taste of the capital was what the Ottomans did with art in the provinces as well. Ottoman taste was reflected in works commissioned either directly by the palace or by the governors ruling the provinces in the name of the sultan. The work of local benefactors was in reasonable competition with the capital, but still distinguished works of art were accomplished.","quote":"*‘The farther from the capital, the more local colours you find despite the dominance of the palace ateliers.’*"},"6a1bdb93-67a9-5fa8-b419-7479fb504783":{"title":"Kufic Script","description":"In the early years of Islam, *kufic* became the main calligraphic style employed for copying the Qur’an, it was used on coins and on architectural inscriptions. The *kufic* style went through several phases of development, from flat and stiff in shape – from which ‘*muhaqqaq*’ script was developed – to a more lenient phase, which subsequently led to the *thuluth*, *Maghrebi*, and *riqa’a* scripts. The various types of *kufic* script were gradually standardised, making it almost impossible to identify and attribute an inscription to a particular region by looking at the calligraphy alone.","quote":"*‘In the early years of Islam,* kufic *script became the main style of calligraphy employed to copy the Qur’an.’*"},"6a3348dc-029d-59c2-af77-31ec3a3dfe2f":{"title":"Court Life"},"6a6bebaa-7157-585a-a0a4-10139e43213c":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity","description":"The arabesque is certainly the most popular alternative to naturalistic floral compositions. Formed from a combination of stalks, scrolls, leaves and palmettes that grow from each other and develop in an endless, symmetrical arrangement, the arabesque became universally popular in Islamic art from the 5th / 11th century. The arabesque's adaptability and versatility lends itself to the decoration of artefacts and architectural structures alike, inviting contemplation of the unfathomable interconnections and interdependencies of God.","quote":"*‘The arabesque is certainly the most popular alternative to naturalistic floral compositions.’*"},"6ca7f36b-6ff1-5be2-b8a1-162095f62272":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The religious architecture of the Norman court can be seen in a number of churches that were built around existing structures from the Islamic period.","quote":"*'Some royal Norman churches were built on the remains of Islamic sites.'*"},"6cd83239-a26e-5c98-bcfb-6a0737411c89":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"Textiles were a vital part of the Ottoman economy, particularly since the Ottoman domains included substantial portions of the ancient silk-trade route. Their importance only increased as their value was appreciated in Europe and elsewhere. Among the most eminent woven goods exported by the Ottomans were carpets whose beautiful designs and outstanding quality made them popular with the wealthy classes of Europe. Evidence of this can be seen in European paintings contemporary to the classical Ottoman period. Artists such as Hans Holbein and Lorenzo Lotto depicted wealthy or noble individuals (including King Henry VIII of England) surrounded by symbols of prosperity and luxury, including carpets with distinctly Ottoman designs. Such carpets are now known as ‘Holbein’ and ‘Lotto’ carpets.","quote":"*‘Among the most eminent woven goods exported by the Ottomans were carpets.’*"},"6cde84c3-7f28-5ff8-88ec-3cf31d5516fb":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"Beyond Jerusalem, it is within Palestine that perhaps the largest number of sites revered by Muslims can be found. Many of these are related to prophets and personalities honoured not only by Muslims, but by Jews and Christians as well such as, most notably, the Haram al-Ibrahimi (Sanctuary of Abraham) who was patriarch of the prophets and the first Muslim, as well as places associated with Jesus Christ who is an important and highly respected prophet in Islamic belief.","quote":"*'It is within Palestine that perhaps the largest number of sites revered by Muslims can be found.'*"},"6df85d25-d81f-566f-8e8a-02540066a550":{"title":"Turkey","description":"The process of change brought about by Westernisation can be considered in relation to the personalities of the sultans of the period, and accepted as a phenomenon parallel to their various cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking. As a result, Tanzimat Firman (1839) was declared bringing acceptance of Western principles and administrative organisation as it was applied to the Ottoman system.","quote":"‘...Tanzimat Firman (1839) was declared bringing acceptance of Western principles and administrative organisation as it was applied to the Ottoman system.’"},"6e7d4f2d-b957-51ff-b7ba-274922d1bffb":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"One of the most attractive groups of Mudéjar ceramics consists of dishes and braziers, the surfaces of which were completely decorated with geometric and epigraphic patterns, egg-and-dart motifs and curved triangles repeated over and over again, creating a feeling of movement. The originality of the composition, of western origin, is found in the unity of the whole, which is arranged around an imposing central bulge. These dishes, with a boss and egg-and-dart motifs in relief, were produced by casting and were more luxury than practical items.","quote":"*'These dishes, with a boss and egg-and-dart motifs in relief, were luxury items.'*"},"6f026780-ce1b-55d2-b48b-2d177c9ca628":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"From early on in the Islamic world, calligraphic inscriptions were applied to a variety of architecture: religious, military, civic and private. Arabic calligraphy was one of the main characteristics by which to distinguish architecture of the Islamic period. The earliest surviving building that displays this element is the 1st- / 7th-century Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","quote":"*‘**Arabic calligraphy was one of the main characteristics that distinguished architecture of the Islamic period.’*"},"6f2f66f9-0684-5348-a89e-04c0ea5914a2":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power","description":"The visual language of power need not be overt. Art has been used in ingeniously subtle ways to communicate a sense of the powerful. Elaborate architectural decoration, for example, by surrounding the viewer with a dazzling array of exquisite ornament, creates an aesthetic ambience reflective of the power of the patron. Such decoration need not fill a large building; it can bestow the grandeur of empire on even a tent. Spectacular displays of craftsmanship, too, form part of this visual language. When the sultan or his officials wore precious garments bedecked with elaborately worked ornament, whether actual symbols of rank (such as aigrettes) or simply useful accoutrements (like the links of a belt), the display of the wealth and skill at their disposal implicitly proclaimed their power.","quote":"*‘Such decoration need not fill a large building; it can bestow the grandeur of empire on even a tent.’*"},"6f47a9bf-47af-5ba5-80f4-3405332e6bed":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"At the helm of the Mamluk institution was the sultan, himself a Mamluk, whose skills had marked him out for leadership among his peers. Every Mamluk sultan, irrespective of his individual ambitions, activities and interests, had certain overriding responsibilities inherent to his office. Most immediately, he was the supreme champion and defender of Sunni (Orthodox) Islam, protector of the Holy Cities and sites within the empire and guardian of the Islamic Caliphate, which thanks to Mamluk intervention was re-established in Cairo in 659 / 1261, after Baghdad had fallen to the Mongols three years earlier.","quote":"*‘The Mamluk Sultan was supreme champion of Islam, commander-in-chief, statesman and patron of the arts.’*"},"6ff61f8d-0983-5aa2-8637-2151608072f9":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"The popular and religious Mudéjar style in Portugal is distinctive, as certain decorative elements, such as crenellations and pinnacles, were incorporated into Gothic-style structures alongside exposed collar-beam ceilings decorated with vivid, multicoloured interlaced stars and crosses, or flat *alfarje* ceilings in the upper choirs decorated with wheels of eight- and sixteen-pointed stars.","quote":"*The Mudéjar style in Portugal*"},"70023ae2-4372-56e7-b249-dd9a30a1f9db":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"During the early Abbasid period, the refined and luxury-loving ruler and imperial court got directly involved in sponsoring new innovations in the ceramics industry, especially the development and manufacture of lustre wares. When an earthquake damaged the Great Mosque of Kairouan in 247 / 862, the caliph Musta‘in sent 139 square, lustre-painted tiles for the renovation of the *mihrab*, and sent with them a tile-maker from Baghdad to make more tiles. He also donated money, marble panels and teak wood for a new *minbar*. In 338 / 950 the Arab geographer, Ibn Hawqal, visited Tunisia and praised the beauty of the locally made lustre ceramics, equating them to those manufactured in Iraq.","quote":"*'The caliph al- Musta'insent 139 square lustre-painted tiles for the renovation of the* mihrab.*'*"},"704bcd73-2764-5ad7-bfaa-d813848254b2":{"title":"Artistic Introduction","description":"Curated introductions to the major artistic traditions of Islamic art, illustrated with monuments and objects from the collection."},"710d70c6-b797-5eef-a871-46a1465067fa":{"title":"The Mamluk System","description":"The Mamluks of the Ayyubid sultan Najm al-Din (637–47 / 1240–9) were trained in and stationed at barracks based at Roda Island on the river Nile. The Arabic word for a large river is *al-bahr* and this elite corps was, therefore, known as al-Bahriyya. After the death of the sultan one of the senior commanders, Baybars I al-Bunduqdari (r. 658–76 / 1260–77), turned the resulting power-vacuum to the Bahri Mamluks’ advantage and, after expelling the Mongols in 658 / 1260, emerged as the first great Mamluk sultan of an expanding empire. Bahri Mamluks now ruled until 784 / 1382, when they in turn had to yield power to another Mamluk faction, known as al-Burjiyya, named after the tower (*al-burj*) within the Citadel of Cairo that housed them.","quote":"*‘One of the Mamluk's senior commanders, Baybars, emerged as the first great Mamluk sultan.’*"},"7200b864-706c-5b6f-b1a4-7bcfad4e72c5":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"Calligraphic inscriptions on architecture had two main roles: in the religious context, to assert the authority of Islam and, in the political arena, to help establish a new state according to the ethos of the prevailing religious school. From the 3rd / 9th century, the use of architectural inscriptions spread across the Islamic world where they were used to complement the building’s function. Qur’anic verses, prayers in praise of God, as well as construction dates and patronage inscriptions appeared on mosques and other religious buildings for posterity and perhaps for pious and/or political reasons. On civic buildings, the date of construction and other details about the architect and artisans involved in construction may well appear, but the inscriptions referring to a particular caliph, ruler or wealthy benefactor’s patronage often take on particular importance because they seek to actively demonstrate the patron’s power and benevolence. A variety of calligraphic styles were developed for purely aesthetic reasons too, which became a particular feature of Arabic calligraphy. Nevertheless, the legibility of inscriptions has always been as important as their aesthetic value.","quote":"*‘A variety of calligraphic styles were developed for purely aesthetic reasons too.’*"},"72236f27-2ff3-5d56-a623-02606a2fa355":{"title":"Flora and Arabesques: Visions of Eternity and Divine Unity"},"7458975b-fc3b-5c26-8fde-fb0c9b93214e":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia"},"746b43e3-b5fd-5bfd-8ecf-f3e9560860b0":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"The space within palatial enclosures was distributed hierarchically, depending on whether it was public or private. Private spaces included the royal residence, located in the most central and inaccessible part of the enclosure, designed also to accommodate the sovereign's extended family. It was split into residential units arranged around courtyards with porticos that gave access to the private rooms. These always included a main room with adjacent bedrooms, all richly furnished and decorated for receiving the most intimate of guests and holding private parties.","quote":"*The private areas of the palace.*"},"74c72f22-8df4-5152-a841-ae72115354c3":{"title":"Egypt","description":"Ottoman interest in European art, especially the Baroque and Rococo, began in the 17th century. Ottoman sultans were keen to introduce European elements into the decorative and minor arts and into architectural edifices, such as mosques and palaces. Adoption of the Western style increased in Egypt and elsewhere during the 18th and 19th centuries, as the Ottomans tended to commission European architects, builders and decorators whose constructions and the ornamentation of them was splendidly inspired by the Baroque and Rococo, and which are characterised by spiral and curving lines rather than straight edges. Protruding cornices formed of acanthus leaves replaced the Islamic *muqarnas* in some mosques, palaces and *sabil*s (water fountains). The known principles of Baroque and Rococo came into practice in Egypt, which was at that time one of the provinces under the Ottoman Empire. The French Expedition to Egypt in 1798–1801 contributed further to the diffusion of European influences evident mainly in the capital city of Cairo.","quote":"‘The known principles of Baroque and Rococo came into practice in Egypt, which was at that time one of the provinces under the Ottoman Empire. ’"},"74e405d2-4d5c-563a-85b7-bcbf5812982e":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics","description":"As the Abbasid Empire expanded from Afghanistan to Algeria, regional ceramics industries were influenced by techniques, designs and motifs from other parts of the empire, adding to the variety of designs, decorations and styles available locally. While luxury ceramics in the eastern regions of the empire were riotous in polychrome and monochrome, equivalent wares in North Africa – particularly in Ifriqiya – were more sober. Besides the lustre ceramics, monochrome or polychrome glazed-relief pieces and glazed wares with inscriptions, were widespread. Utilitarian ware generally speaking tended to be unglazed and simply and sparsely decorated. Nonetheless, all seem to share qualities typically Islamic.","quote":"*‘Regional ceramics industries were influenced by techniques, designs and motifs from other parts of the empire.’*"},"75215c23-1bf5-590c-8e80-8ff32da4e273":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"Horses were essential for travel during this period, and were also indispensable on the battlefield. Most of the prized military horses came from Central Asia, brought by fierce Turkish warriors whose expertise as horse-riders was crucial to the success of Nur al-Din and Saladin’s armies. A renowned tactic of the Turks was to charge towards the enemy turning around at the last moment, and shooting an arrow as they sped away. Combined with their speed and equestrian agility, this tactic gave them a huge advantage against the Franks during the Crusades.","quote":"*‘Most of the prized military horses came from Central Asia, brought by fierce Turkish warriors.’*"},"754c7cda-4d25-5730-9b40-d05583d87eb1":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"Training began with learning how to read, write and recite the Qur'an, as well as studying the *Hadiths* or words of the Prophet. As books were rare, knowledge was traditionally committed to memory and communicated by word of mouth. For this reason, the ability to write was considered important and valuable as it allowed knowledge and religion to be passed to subsequent generations.","quote":"*Religious teaching, the copyists of the Qur'an*"},"75d461b2-226f-594c-ab20-e9b5b2e58ad5":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"The Anatolian Seljuq authority collapsed as a result of the Mongol invasions. The Anatolian emirates established in their wake, continued the artistic approach of the Seljuqs; then one of the emirates, the Ottomans, developed a new artistic style based on Seljuq art.","quote":"*‘The Anatolian Emirates developed a new artistic approach based on the Seljuqs.’*"},"7692a7a1-79fd-59fc-afcb-e772f94cb93c":{"title":"Crusader Art"},"775f0070-0222-53d3-a4ee-8bfa38c6cb2f":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"Mosques are not temples or 'houses of God', and no liturgical acts are performed in them. They are a place for prayer and meditation, and a meeting place. Believers come to the mosque to perform their ritual, mandatory prayers with others, although private prayer is also practised. Believers face the *qibla* when praying, bowing when necessary and reciting verses from the Qur'an.  \nMosques are also centres for training and learning. In the weekly sermon given during Friday prayers, the *imam* discusses a specific religious theme recited from the *minbar* (pulpit) and, outside prayer times, the learned can give conferences on theological or scientific topics.","quote":"*The prayer room*"},"79a58714-659c-5509-a4f9-b9359b2829ae":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture"},"79e2b8e9-7cfa-5332-82b0-542b14234df5":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes"},"7b2c2d23-dc2f-50d9-92cf-f23ca9c8f4ce":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Glassware became one of the most renowned achievements of Mamluk art, with the mosque lamp forming a significant part of glassware production. Mamluk Egypt became renowned for the production and export of textiles such as woven silks and printed cottons. Pottery workshops generated a vibrant and attractive range of quality wares, some specifically designed to imitate Chinese celadon and blue-and-white wares, and woodworkers enhanced architectural fittings, furnishings and even cenotaphs with intricately carved, and inlaid geometric-star designs.","quote":"*‘Mamluk Egypt was renowned for textiles such as woven silks and printed cottons.’*"},"7b34bf1e-80fc-5383-9afd-d561a9cf1a76":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Umayyad architecture represents the birth of the first Islamic architectural tradition, one that adapted features from preceding vocabularies, including those of the Sassanians and Byzantium, to the needs and aspirations of the young Islamic state.  \n  \nThe Umayyads used stone extensively in their architecture as this material abounds in Greater Syria, where most of their surviving buildings are located. Brick is also used frequently, often in combination with stone. Mosaic is used widely as a surface cover for both floors and walls. Stucco is used as a decorative-surface sheathing material, and becomes particularly widespread during the later Umayyad period. Wood is used as a construction material, primarily for roofs and domes, and also as a decorative material for elements such as doors and panels. Re-used Roman and Byzantine elements, such as column shafts and capitals, are commonly incorporated into Umayyad buildings.  \n  \nThe hypostyle mosque, which in its basic form may be traced back to the House and Mosque of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina, and which was the primary mosque type during the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, provides the prototype planning arrangement for Umayyad mosques, and continues to predominate in a number of later Islamic architectural traditions. This mosque type usually consists of a columned hall in which the columns may be multiplied along an orthogonal grid, and has an adjacent courtyard surrounded by a colonnade. In some cases, the hypostyle arrangement is combined with a central nave leading to the *mihrab*, thus showing connection with the Byzantine church basilica plan. The minaret, *mihrab*, and *minbar* make their first appearance in the religious architecture of the period, with the minaret usually having a square section. A relatively small dome also appears over the area in front of the *mihrab.* The arch in Umayyad architecture is primarily round in shape, although the pointed arch, which becomes predominant in later periods, makes a limited appearance.  \n  \nUmayyad palaces are often built around a central courtyard, and the larger palaces have a series of living units surrounding the courtyard. In turn, these are arranged around smaller courtyards. In addition to living units, a number of palaces include a mosque and a bath complex.  \n  \nNatural and stylised vegetal as well as geometric decorative motifs are common in the religious architecture of the Umayyads, and are executed in various materials, including mosaic, stucco, and stone. Representations of buildings and pastoral scenes are also found in religious architecture. Secular buildings include painted and sculpted representations of living creatures, both human and animal. Most importantly, Umayyad architecture introduces the use of calligraphy, including Qur'anic verses and dedicatory phrases, as an integral part of the decorative programme. This becomes a prominent feature in almost all later architectural traditions of the Islamic world.  \n  \nElements such as the hypostyle-mosque plan provide continuity with pre-Umayyad early Islamic traditions. Otherwise, Umayyad architecture shows influences from Byzantine models, especially during the early Umayyad period. This is evident in the incorporation of stone, mosaic decoration and motifs of classical derivation. During the later Umayyad period, Sassanian models from Iran become increasingly widespread, as evident in the use of brick as a construction and decorative material and in the use of stucco decoration."},"7b8e8ebb-749c-5252-9649-7f18a8830f7b":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics","description":"The first Mudéjar ceramics were direct copies of Nasrid ceramics, to such an extent that it is difficult to determine the origin of certain pieces. The techniques (gilded ceramic with cobalt blue), decoration (palms, stalks, palmettes and shoots) and the forms of Nasrid pieces were all copied. Although the Nasrid pieces were usually unique, luxury and exclusive items, the Mudéjar copies were produced for a much wider clientele. Later, the need to adapt to their customers' changing tastes forced Mudéjar potters to revise their repertoire of forms, to incorporate Gothic and Renaissance elements, and to adopt Christian iconography.","quote":"*'The techniques, decoration and the forms of Nasrid pieces were all copied.'*"},"7bb30298-992c-56ba-a331-b96f90384fbb":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity","description":"Paradoxically, it was the Christian kingdom of the Normans that left Sicily with some of the most valuable examples of Islamic art to be found in the Mediterranean basin, albeit with the addition of classical, Byzantine and Iranian elements. Instead of seeking to antagonise its predecessors, the new dynasty consciously assimilated Islamic culture and customs, looking to the contemporary Muslim world for the refined culture that it could offer. Contact between the cultures was not limited to Muslims who had remained on the island, but most notably extended to the relationship between the Norman court and the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo, which is evident from diplomatic and commercial relations and even in the exchange of gifts, such as those between Caliph al-Hafiz (r. 1131–49) and Ruggero II. It is highly likely that some of the craftsmen employed in the royal Norman workshops came from Egypt.","quote":"*'It was the Normans that left Sicily with some of the most valuable examples of Islamic art.'*"},"7ca8b514-16be-5930-b8ed-1c96b7324e76":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons","description":"Muslim women generously provided patronage for the interior enhancement of religious buildings; in the supply of elegant Qur’ans and other high-quality mosque furnishings. One of the most admirable is the intricate, inlaid-teak prayer niche for the shrine of Sayyida Ruqayya, the patron of which was the wife of the Fatimid caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah in 527 / 1133. There are a number of Qur’anic manuscripts commissioned by Zirid princesses that were intended for use in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, among them Umm Milal’s Qur’an and that of Umm al-‘Ilu, the sister of the Zirid prince al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis. A third manuscript was presented by Fatima, governess to the prince Badis Bin al-Mansur.","quote":"*‘Muslim women generously provided patronage for the interior enhancement of religious buildings.’*"},"7d659fcb-96c1-59dd-8424-245eaf39b9cd":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"The two branches of a single artistic style: the Almoravid and Almohad, was based on religious zeal. Originating in the Maghreb, on reaching al-Andalus it unified artistic expression on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. Initially quite austere, the influence of existing Andalusian artistic influences helped to make it more elaborate.","quote":"*Almoravids and Almohads: Maghrebi-Andalusian art.*"},"7dc9303d-b5b2-5fef-b408-8178d88f89d2":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"In the Muslim household women were responsible for the cooking and childcare. They would store water in large jugs, drawing from them as and when they needed. Oil and grain were also stored in such containers, and smaller ones were used for preserved fish, meat and fruit. They used milk to make dairy products, prepared meals using traditional recipes and cooked on charcoal stoves. Food was often served on tableware, especially at family parties, a chance for women to show off their culinary expertise.","quote":"*Domestic life: women as homemakers.*"},"7e1dd92e-fca9-5d89-aaaf-7b9903fb14af":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"In the hierarchy of society within the Mamluk sultanate, the Mamluks themselves formed the elite who lived quite separately from the urban and rural populations. Contemporary society was astonishingly heterogeneous ethnically, religiously and even linguistically. In addition to the Mamluks, themselves of foreign, largely Turkish or Caucasian origin, Egypt accommodated significant communities of indigenous Egyptians and Arabs, Armenians, Syrians and Greeks. Sadly, comparatively little is known about the ordinary people of the Mamluk Empire, as the historical sources of the period tend to concentrate on the achievements of Mamluk sultans and their elite.","quote":"*‘Contemporary society was astonishingly heterogeneous ethnically, religiously and even linguistically.’*"},"7e85c07a-48f2-5fc5-b04e-c0bb4eaed801":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land"},"7eda07a3-0574-54d9-a9c2-bbccf25adcc1":{"title":"Water Management","description":"Expertise in science and engineering was in high demand and in limited supply but critical in order to properly gauge, assess, implement and maintain water-related technology. It was the duty of a good Muslim governor to ensure an expert was employed for the job, the chosen candidate usually knowledgeable in mathematics, physics, and geometry, astronomy (weather-forecasting and time-keeping) and, importantly, expert in landscaping.","quote":"*‘It was the duty of a good Muslim governor to ensure an expert was employed for the job.’*"},"7f42af49-7560-50da-88eb-23e32df201f3":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"Although the main focus of Islamic pilgrimage is centred on the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia, Palestine and Jerusalem in particular, has always been a key destination for Muslim pilgrims. Indeed, Jerusalem (al-Quds) is considered the third Holiest City in Islam. Allah himself blessed the city in the Qur'an and appointed her as the first *qibla* of Islam, meaning that it was Jerusalem, and not Mecca, that served as the spiritual as well as geographical focus for Muslims' prayers during the early years of Islam.","quote":"*'Palestine, and Jerusalem in particular, has always been a key destination for Muslim pilgrims.'*"},"7f51c07a-1225-5789-b81c-1f76126498a2":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"As a whole, palaces were the real place of representation where power was exercised, with the sovereign publicly imparting justice or receiving administrators or ambassadors according to strict protocol. They consisted of sumptuous monumental spaces where state business was carried out in large, richly appointed rooms around garden courtyards. These spaces were accessed via long and complex routes, not just to improve security, but also to symbolise the inaccessibility of power.","quote":"*Palaces, the real seats of power.*"},"7fc6e76a-c529-5929-9940-9de5218a34cb":{"title":"Animal Representation","description":"The virtual preclusion of human and animal representations in the religious context was systematic and deliberate, but in all other spheres both real and mythical animals held an important place in Islamic art. Birds and horned animals, dragons and griffons are predominant, while beasts of burden, animals of the land, appear only occasionally, often reflecting local popular culture.","quote":"*‘Both real and mythical animals held an important place in Islamic art.’*"},"7fdb8cb0-22ea-566f-a81b-259013b7d4a3":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life"},"804d4535-4e46-51c6-8a4c-6dcc2261f2d1":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life"},"80b0b3fa-f2d0-572d-870a-09008ef28789":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"During the caliphate of ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (r. 65–86 / 685–705), a policy of administrative and political centralisation was initiated. A standard Arabic coinage was developed to replace the Arab-Byzantine and Arab-Sassanian types which had been used up to this time.","quote":"*'A standard Arabic coinage was developed to replace the Byzantine and Sassanian types.'*"},"80c86561-0d18-5f9a-a5fe-bce7f608b2e2":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"In Egypt, female attire could include the *izar*, a cloth wrapped round the torso and upper thighs, and the *mi’zar*, worn around the waist over the garment. The *jubah* was a common over-garment, closed at the chest and open below at the skirt. Shirts of various lengths were made of linen or cotton, the width of their sleeves indicative of a woman’s affluence. The *shimla*, finally, was meant to cover the whole body. Other countries had different dress conventions for women with a wide choice for the body and head. Turbans as well as a variety of headdresses were worn, as were an assortment of scarves or handkerchiefs.","quote":"‘*Other countries had different dress conventions for women with a wide choice for the body and head.’*"},"81a769fe-d87f-5009-a3e9-568e47eae420":{"title":"Mosque and Palace"},"82d1ab69-c61e-55a9-920a-bf67ddfb6bda":{"title":"The Muslim West","description":"'Despite being an integral part of Islamic civilisation, the Muslim West, from the Atlantic to the Straits of Sicily, has always retained its individuality.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nLakhdar DRIAS, Argel  \nNaima ELKHATIB-BOUJIBAR, Casablanca  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nKamal LAKHDAR, Rabat  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMohamed MEZZINE, Fez  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"With their westward expansion from the Middle East, the Muslims invaded territories in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), Algeria and Morocco (which they called *al-Maghreb)*, and Spain and Portugal (*al-Andalus*). Islamicisation was a complex process in these lands based on the evolution of existing urban traditions and leading in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century to resurgence in the construction of new towns and cities. With the exception of sporadic conflicts, the Arabs and the native populations of the countries they invaded managed to co-exist peacefully, as did the different religious communities (Jews, Christians and Muslims), a situation made possible by trade and religious tolerance.  \nInitially subjects of the Damascus caliphate, the Western emirates became gradually more independent and were eventually succeeded by local dynasties (Idrisids, Umayyads of al-Andalus, Zirids, Hammadids, Almohads, and so on) that, in their attempts to establish themselves, they would emulate the Eastern caliphs by building their own palaces, exercising and demonstrating their power visually and culturally, and closely defending and controlling their territories.  \nDespite being an integral part of Islamic civilisation, the Muslim West, from the Atlantic to the Straits of Sicily, has always retained its individuality, which is particularly evident in the architectural and decorative innovations taken from the Eastern tradition and developed in al-Andalus and the Maghreb to create an artistic style peculiar to this corner of the Muslim world. Today, the Muslim West displays its cultural heritage in the way of life there; in the cuisine, the gestures, sounds and expressions of the people.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/muslim_west/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/27/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":7}}},"82eec7f2-6d4c-57c6-b028-8d6d584a67ec":{"title":"Court Life"},"8319f75e-c88b-5e0d-87d1-baa20d291ec5":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*"},"8328accb-dce9-5333-9598-eb8502278b59":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"The policy of integrating migrating Turkish tribes into newly captured areas was not used in those regions where the population was mainly Arab, but a society did form where the ruling class was Turkish. In time local officials and soldiers became integrated into local life, some even married local women, giving rise to a new class, *Kuloğlu*, especially in the Maghreb. In these, the farthest lands of the empire, the influence of al-Andalus was quite remarkable.","quote":"*‘In these, the farthest lands of the empire, the influence of al-Andalus was quite remarkable.’*"},"83fcd46d-b7fd-5e22-8abd-08f76c9613a8":{"title":"Water and Everyday Life","description":"From the 6th / 12th century onwards the city of Fez in Morocco was supplied with water by public fountains, called *sikaya.* The form of these fountains has been consistent over the centuries. In a recessed broken arch set in a wall and covered in *zellij*, or glazed ceramic tiles, the water issues from spigots into a basin.","quote":"*‘The city of Fez in Morocco was supplied with water by public fountains, called sikaya.’*"},"84a22b47-284c-5dd3-8bd8-63874c62d17e":{"title":"Court Life","description":"As well as showing-off their wealth, courtiers also lived an elegant and protocol-led life that included customs such as exchanging lavish gifts with intimate acquaintances, ambassadors and dignitaries from abroad. Symbols of the sovereign's power, such gifts were sometimes used to great effect as propaganda tools, as is evident from the dedications and royal icons that decorate them.  \nThe court's demand for luxury items resulted in the creation of royal workshops and the development of trade in luxury goods in towns.","quote":"*Ivory receptacles were gifts of exceptional value.*"},"8677fa0d-83e5-5593-b69a-342224da5957":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"The fundamental purpose of astronomy was to predict the position of planets using empirical data. Muslim astronomers developed an instrument specifically to observe the height, movement and position of the stars in relation to the Earth: the astrolabe.  \nThis instrument was also used in navigation and was extremely useful for orientation and for determining latitude if the time was known; or for telling the time if the latitude was known.","quote":"*Scientific technology: the astrolabe*"},"87981465-ac17-588c-98d9-d4f2d4298bdc":{"title":"The Normans in Sicily","description":"'The Arabs left the Norman kingdom of Sicily a cultural heritage and civilisation whose Greek, Latin and Byzantine roots helped to sow the first seeds of the Italian Renaissance.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nRita BERNINI, Rome  \nPier Paolo RACIOPPI, Rome  \nEttore SESSA, Palermo  \nPaola TORRE, Rome  \n  \nCoordination  \nIrene SALERNO, Rome  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Occupied from AD 827 by the armies of the *amir* of Kairouan, Sicily was part of the Islamic world until 1061, although some staunch pockets of Greco-Byzantine resistance in the east of the island managed to hold out until 965.  \nDespite limited immigration from North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, Egypt and the Middle East, the social structures of Islam were established and spread quickly. During these two centuries of Arabic presence, Qur'anic law guaranteed profession of the Christian faith, although not without discrimination.  \nIn 1061 the Normans, led by the Altavilla family, landed on the island from their bases in Southern Italy. In 1094, Roger I (Ruggero d'Altavilla, r. 1098–1101) established the County of Sicily, which was inherited by his son Roger II (Ruggero II d'Altavilla, r. 1112 as count; king 1130–54). His successors William I (Guglielmo I, r. 1154–66) and William II (Guglielmo II, r. 1171–89) continued his aggressive policy towards Muslims, Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire before the succession of the Swabian dynasty in 1194.  \nJust as they had during the period of Arab rule, the Christian and Muslim communities existed side by side, ensuring the survival of social rituals and customs from the Islamic period, evident in particular in the new Christian dynasty's re-use of sites and buildings valued by the previous rulers.  \nThis cultural continuity was reinforced by ongoing political relations between the Normans and the Islamic world. One of the most emblematic expressions of these relations was the marked desire of the Norman dynasty, once the Kingdom of Sicily had been established, to reshape Sicilian art using models derived from Islamic art, which were consciously added to existing, modest Siculo-Arabian and Byzantine forms in art and architecture.  \nThe result was a proactive syncretism that made Siculo-Norman art one of the most original in medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/siculo_norman/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/25/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":16}}},"89e7d33e-fcb7-5aa7-9d7f-b32dc0373d7c":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"There are examples of religious institutions keeping holy objects from other religions, sometimes because of their historical value, occasionally because they could be reused and often simply because of their material value. This phenomenon tells us more about the varied culture and heritage of the Muslim West.","quote":"*Religious institutions as custodians of property*"},"8aaef163-92d1-584e-b208-20da9b7fd02e":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"A variety of calligraphic styles flourished at different periods, influenced by the social composition of the regions. In the western provinces – North Africa and al-Andalus – the ‘*Maghrebi*’ style of Arabic script was developed, influenced by North Africa’s Berber heritage. While in multicultural Sicily, the Normans produced multilingual inscriptions that included Arabic, to document and commemorate a variety of events.","quote":"*‘**In the western provinces – North Africa and al-Andalus – the* \"Maghrebi\" *style of Arabic script was developed.’*"},"8b0e746f-e8de-560d-b25c-4bf6ebf52fe3":{"title":"Muslim Women as Patrons"},"8b2c362e-437e-54a1-8dd6-250b89aa0eb5":{"title":"Explore Islamic Art Collections","description":"Explore Islamic Art Collections"},"8b555882-9559-52d8-ae93-cfbbd27f9bfe":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court"},"8ba9ac70-d9d1-566c-a0f5-e8b951a601fd":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"Throughout the Fatimid provinces, mosque interiors and furnishings were richly endowed and decorated with elegant religious inscriptions and intricate arabesque ornamentation. Royal patronage ensured the highest standards of craftsmanship, and that the dynasty’s religious and ideological convictions were expressed through artistic means.","quote":"*'Royal patronage ensured that the dynasty's religious and ideological convictions were expressed through artistic means*.*'*"},"8c63340a-4f5b-5eea-b058-3a168de8b461":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"A popular and religious form of Mudéjar art existed alongside the aristocratic and civic version, which is evident in the places of worship used by the people, such as parish churches, convents and monasteries. The religious Mudéjar style brought about the combination of Islamic decorative and structural elements with Romanesque and Gothic styles, examples of which include the use of brick instead of stone as a building material, and wooden instead of vaulted ceilings. Along with these and other general features, the Mudéjar style threw up regional differences determined by the fact that different regions were conquered at different times by the Christian kings.","quote":"*The Mudejar style in Castile and Leon: 'brick Romanesque'.*"},"8c88e6e2-52cb-52db-ae22-4a2afe00294d":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"Inscriptions were also used as a decorative element in textiles, particularly *kufic* script on account of its rectilinear, angular and geometric forms. It tended to appear on fabrics in bands, although it could also be adapted to fit the different shapes formed by geometric motifs. Conversely, the spaces formed by the letters were sometimes decorated with geometric designs. Inscriptions on fabrics could indicate its place of manufacture, praise Allah or the sovereign, or reproduce Qur'anic verses and talismanic inscriptions or formulas.","quote":"*‘Inscriptions tended to appear on fabrics in bands.’*"},"8d1948a8-5d3f-58f4-be9a-e443a4b2078b":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"The scientific knowledge developed by the Muslims was considered the most advanced in the world. The conquest of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires and access to their libraries allowed Muslims to make translations and take on all of the knowledge of classical and Eastern antiquity recorded in the literature, and from there to develop all areas of their own knowledge, including religious studies, the basis of all scientific learning.","quote":"*Madrasas: centres of higher learning*"},"8d71ce09-ebae-530f-ab2a-0c71746f1822":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest"},"8fb7d82f-7aa1-51a8-a1b6-61a100dee9f6":{"title":"The Visual Language of Power"},"8fc8d244-2d43-5bf9-99f7-fd9e84dcf3eb":{"title":"Jordan","description":"The history of Jordan during the Ottoman period is concentrated on three main subjects: administration, Hajj forts or citadels and pilgrimage stations and the Hijaz Railway system.  \nThe administrative system of Jordan, specifically during the second phase of Ottoman rule (1864–1918), consisted of two main geographical districts: Ajlun and Irbid in the north and Salt, Kerak, Ma'an and Tafileh in the south. All of these districts came under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria who was the highest administrative authority of Bilad al Sham. In 1878, the Ottomans introduced Circassian emigrants to Arab lands, and these settlers established new villages and cities influenced by the different cultures that had settled in Jordan.","quote":"‘The history of Jordan during the Ottoman period is concentrated on three main subjects: administration, Hajj forts or citadels and pilgrimage stations and the Hijaz Railway system.’"},"906067fa-11f7-54b0-a094-74a0bbde97ff":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"As the seat of the caliphate, Cairo took the lead in Islamic teaching and intellectual endeavour. Its religious institutions, al-Azhar University and the Sultan Hassan Complex foremost among them, received generous *waqf*s from the sultans and senior officials, to support both Sunni religious studies and the sciences, particularly medicine. Thus, the exemplary Bimaristan (hospital) of Sultan Qalawun in Cairo, built in 683 / 1284, provided teaching facilities for a diversity of subjects such as surgery and ophthalmology, in addition to the provision of 100 beds for the sick, a comprehensive library and a pharmacy.","quote":"*‘The Bimaristan of Sultan Qalawun taught a diversity of subjects such as surgery and ophthalmology.’*"},"91a64bcb-07fa-5fe8-a772-1643e67fe98b":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Because water is scarce in desert regions, and thus valuable, the implements with which people drink and wash are often ornately decorated. In wealthy households – such as that of a Mamluk governor of Qus in Upper Egypt – water would have been poured over guest’s hands from inlaid metal ewers and into basins for washing before and after meals. Often, Mamluk inlaid-metal basins are decorated with a whorl of fish on the inside base so that when the basin is filled with water, the fish appear to be swimming. Likewise, fish are among the motifs found in Mamluk green-glazed pottery which imitates Chinese celadon wares.","quote":"*‘Water is scarce in desert regions, and thus valuable.’*"},"9246e5d1-d625-54a9-a9cb-348e8099b248":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"Geometric compositions were sometimes combined with plant motifs. Such motifs, although subordinated to the general composition, helped to enrich the geometric decoration, to emphasise key points of the design, or simply to fill the background or spaces left by the geometric pattern.","quote":"*‘Plant motifs were used to enrich the geometric composition.’*"},"9275ed46-c379-591c-b8f5-c59e0879225f":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"The custom of inscribing the name and titles of the patron and bestowing on him blessings is a personal statement by the patron to commemorate his patronage, especially when the items concerned are being presented to public institutions such as mosques and *madrasa*s. Objects were sometimes transported for long distances to reach their intended destinations and had, therefore, the potential to inspire local practitioners. Some artisans, on the other hand, used calligraphy for purely decorative reasons, creating illegible inscriptions that were not meant to be read at all.","quote":"*‘Some artisans used calligraphy purely decoratively, thereby creating illegible inscriptions.’*"},"929519b4-bcdf-5831-adb9-06ef4ef80b6b":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"The Mamluk cities of Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem had numerous purpose-built markets or trading centres (*caravanserai*s; known variously as *suq*s, *khan*s and *wikala*s). Their purpose was to receive commercial caravans and accommodate securely the exotic goods of the merchants and tradesmen who came to them from far and wide. The international diversity of the products available in the *wikala*s, pottery and textiles among the goods, inspired local artisans. Stimulated by Mamluk patronage, and practised in royal ateliers as well as urban bazaars throughout Egypt and Syria, the decorative arts reached new heights of craftsmanship and design.","quote":"*‘Stimulated by Mamluk patronage, the decorative arts reached new heights of craftsmanship and design.’*"},"93c54687-ed57-54c6-8dc9-82032411c77b":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book"},"93d8ebf1-31d8-5e89-966d-89b3cb0abebd":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule"},"94130d65-0910-5b0b-a913-78dfa23191b4":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths"},"94a60eaa-c709-51fa-b5cd-f7f16a0f40a8":{"title":"Tunisia"},"94fec78e-a38a-50eb-964d-7cb6963f9585":{"title":"Turkey","description":"Ottoman admiration for Western art, architecture and urbanism led to the birth of a new taste in the Tulip Period (1718–30). Increasingly during the following decades, Baroque and Rococo features were introduced to the Ottoman style, thus the Empire, Neo-Classical and Eclectic styles became quite common in the 19th century.","quote":"‘Ottoman admiration for Western art, architecture and urbanism led to the birth of a new taste in the Tulip Period (1718–30).’"},"955c7ce6-0ff9-5519-9478-5130c4e3d1c8":{"title":"Water Usage: Drinking and Washing","description":"Washing and drinking are essential for most living things. For Muslims it is a requirement of the faith that they carry out ritual ablutions before prayer. As a result, basins are provided at mosques, and some of these are decorated with vegetal ornament and inscriptions. Similarly, for pilgrims to remain hydrated during their long voyages, a personal water canteen, made of pottery, was one of the few possessions commonly carried by most pilgrims.","quote":"*‘A water canteen was one of the few possessions commonly carried by most pilgrims.’*"},"95694260-7655-5184-a4d8-7c24d7fd8562":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"For the first 70 years of their rule the Muslims made no attempt to introduce a new, Arabic-speaking administrative system for the whole of the dominion, rather each province continued in the tradition of the previous regime. In Syria the language of the revenue department was Greek, while its administration was still in the hands of local Christians. In the fiscal administration, however, the Arabs introduced an innovative system according to which all fully fledged members of the new polity were entitled to regular stipends (‘ata’); a system that was financed by the taxes of the local populous. The main taxes were land tax (kharaj), a fixed rate in kind or money and the poll tax (jizya), which was imposed on every mature non-Muslim and means tested according to income. Priests, monks, and the disabled were exempt from paying jizya.","quote":"‘Each province continued in the tradition of the previous regime.’"},"968db63b-b20a-5f2d-94c5-02edf7fd6fea":{"title":"Table Culture"},"96e50aab-a868-5824-b376-8cdd7e37d384":{"title":"Figurative Art","description":"‘Human figures, animals and birds are found on Islamic art and architecture from its earliest beginnings and appear continually across all media and in different periods and regions.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nManal BASYOUNI, Aqaba  \nGhazi BISHEH Amman  \nJens KRÖGER, Berlin  \nAida NAGHAWI DODO, Amman  \nMohammad NAJJAR, Amman  \nSamarah WOROUD, Irbid  \n  \nCoordination  \nGhada AL-YOUSEF, Amman  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Human figures, animals and birds are found on Islamic art and architecture from its earliest beginnings and appear continually across all media and in different periods and regions. Although not predominant in Islamic art, the figurative, in contrast to art of the Late Antiquity which preceded it, appears in a wide variety of forms (paintings, relief works, and sculptures in the round) and in a wide variety of media such as stone, mosaic, stucco, ivory, glass, ceramics, metal, wood, textiles, leather and paper.  \nThe figurative in Islamic art addressed a broad range of subject matter, from the religious (the Prophet’s mystical journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (*Isra’*) and His ascension to heaven (*Mi’raj*), to the secular (courtly scenes of music-making, banqueting and hunting). Unlike Christian art, Islamic figurative art was not made to serve religious purposes. Although Islamic art seems to have minimised the significance of figurative visual symbols in its artistic vocabulary in fact, contrary to popular belief, there was no prohibition in the Qur'an against it. Representations of humans and animals were only prohibited in religious buildings, such as mosques.  \nIn its formative period, Islamic figurative art brought together the diverse influences and prototypes of, for example, the Classical, Late Antique, Byzantine, and Sassanian styles. Later, other artistic traditions were subsumed, such as those from Central Asia, India, China and Europe. This resulted in the rich syntheses of diverse traditions that once practiced became uniquely Islamic in character in spite of their dissimilar origins.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/figural/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/20/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":12}}},"97f0d7d4-686c-530b-b13e-3459e7fb2772":{"title":"Sartorial Splendour: Tiraz and Contemporary Costume","description":"Fatimid Egypt was famous for its luxury textile production and in particular the so-called *dar al-tiraz* textile workshops in Damietta, Dabiq, Tanis, Alexandria and Shata. The Persian word *tiraz* denotes an embroidered decorative band, attached near the edge of a fabric or a garment, that included blessings and – in the Fatimid period – the name of the ruling caliph or high-ranking patron. Each *tiraz* workshop had a designated manager to oversee the production, packing and transportation of the textiles, in particular those destined for the caliph himself. The status of this individual was very high; he commanded an impressive salary and was honoured with a welcoming procession and reception whenever he visited Cairo.","quote":"*'Fatimid Egypt was famous for its so-called* dar al-tiraz *textile workshops.'*"},"9829971b-8342-5ad0-adce-e00bc28b63c2":{"title":"The Role of Individual Plants and Flowers","description":"Muslim culture has always expressed a profound love for plants and flowers, and gardens were carefully cultivated. Many plants were chosen not only for their beauty or health-enhancing properties but also for their religious or poetic significance. As miracles of nature, they were yet another sign of the creative and life-giving powers of Allah. Their flowering and dying away every year invited contemplation of the human condition and Islam's promise of resurrection and eternal life in Paradise for all true believers.","quote":"*‘Individual plants and flowers were often chosen for their religious or poetic significance.’*"},"982c8126-411c-56dc-8e82-defe108e4e2e":{"title":"Exporting Luxury","description":"The beauty and craftsmanship of Islamic art has been appreciated in the West for centuries. In the Middle Ages, for example, textiles and decorative arts from the Middle East were prized additions to the treasuries of churches. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the world economic system, the products of the flourishing Ottoman crafts industries created demand worldwide. As a result, much of the Ottoman art that has come down to us today was originally produced for export. The image of the Ottoman Empire as a land of wealth and luxury derives largely from such artworks obtained through a network of bazaars and *han*s.","quote":"‘*The products of the flourishing Ottoman crafts industries created demand worldwide*.’"},"985ee9aa-03b0-5c47-b575-bf5cdd263b4b":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"With an expanding population and an awareness of how valuable was good urban planning, the Abbasids built a number of towns and cities where special attention was given to communications and transport routes. While the Aghlabid rulers of Ifriqiya built Raqqada – a town some 8 km from Kairouan – to house their palaces, parks and gardens; further east in Abbasid Syria, new housing developments were developed in Kharab Sayyar – a fortified town on the main route between al-Raqqa and Mosul in Iraq.","quote":"*‘They built towns and cities where special attention was given to communications and transport routes.’*"},"98c2e587-fe2e-561f-800d-0429b0889c72":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Interior walls were clad with panels and friezes with geometric patterns in relief that would originally have been coloured, as if they were fine fabrics.  \nThis type of decoration appears in *muqarnas* in the West and in the East and was used on window cornices and arches. It is made up of interconnected prismatic parts of different shapes.  \nFinally, geometric calligraphic decoration in *kufic* script adorns the friezes of religious and civil buildings.","quote":"*‘Interior walls were clad with panels and friezes, as if they were fine fabrics..’*"},"9925ba99-2ee6-5c86-a78c-af21daac6624":{"title":"Turkey"},"9a19b122-d3e1-53c0-ac5f-37070f41c095":{"title":"Objects","description":"The Umayyad arts, like Umayyad architecture, can be seen as a continuation of the traditions that came before, with a gradual imposition of a unique Islamic identity on the forms inherited from the late Antique world. This process was reflected, for example, in Umayyad coinage: the first coins struck for the Umayyad caliphs that simply copied Byzantine or Sassanian models, soon gave way to the use of strictly aniconic, textual designs.  \n  \nA remarkable aspect of Umayyad art is its adoption of figurative themes from late Antiquity. Thus at the Umayyad palace of Mushatta we find a sculpture of a lion, and at al-Fudayn a brazier was discovered which features erotic scenes taken from the Dionysus myth. Some objects are quite eclectic, combining a variety of motifs from late Roman, Byzantine and Sassanian art in new and ingenious ways.  \n  \nOf particular importance for the formation of Islamic art in the Umayyad period was the aesthetic of stylised vegetation which had been increasingly popular in the late Antique world. Designs incorporating endlessly scrolling tendrils sprouting leaves and flowers provided the new civilisation with an ideal decorative scheme, one which avoided potential theological objections to figurative representation while also evoking the verdancy of Paradise. Its flexibility meant that it could be applied to all shapes and sizes, from large wooden panels to small ivory boxes."},"9b603cf4-3d1b-5d98-b644-0c415a7c2a10":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites"},"9bff6ece-d3d2-5f2a-b7cc-fb1f33c3e113":{"title":"Official Patronage"},"9c9e8f3b-cfdb-5fd7-91cf-35e554bb6c78":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Ottoman rule extended over a period of about 700 years and, at its height, the Ottoman Empire covered a vast territory that included most of the regions adjoining the eastern and southern Mediterranean. Consequently, the character of Ottoman architecture underwent numerous changes over the course of this lengthy era. The architectural heritage of the Ottomans may be divided into three periods, beginning with the early formative phase, which extends until about the mid-9th / mid-15th century. This is followed by the classical period, which extends into the 11th / 17th century, and to which belongs most of the better-known monuments of Ottoman architecture, a number of which were designed by the great Ottoman architect Sinan. This is followed by the late period, which is characterised by more ornate decorative programs and increasing levels of Western influence. In terms of geography, the character of Ottoman architecture changes as the distance increases from the heartland of the Ottoman Empire in western Anatolia and Thrace, and concessions therefore are made to local architectural traditions for buildings constructed in the Ottoman provinces.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Ottomans, especially after the early formative period, is primarily built of stone. Ottoman architecture in fact is known for the very high quality of its masonry. Still, combinations of brick and stone are very common, and brick is used for arches, domes and vaults. Lead is used to cover domes and minaret caps, especially from the 10th / 16th century onwards. Polychrome glazed ceramic tiles, such as the renowned Iznik tiles in which white and blue dominate, are used extensively as wall coverings, and by the 10th / 16th century often replace marble as a sheathing material. Wood is used both as a structural and as a decorative material, and it is the predominant material for the houses of the Ottoman capital, Istanbul.  \n  \nA major characteristic of Ottoman mosques from the early period is the dominance of a central dome that covers a significant part of the prayer hall. With the advent of the classical Ottoman phase, this central dome increases dramatically in size and is often combined with a series of half-domes and small domes that cascade from the central dome, with the overall arrangement fitting within a pyramidal outline. A number of mosques have one, two, or four half-domes supporting the central dome. The domes in Ottoman architecture have a semi-circular flat profile. An arcaded courtyard usually flanks the prayer hall along the façade located opposite the *qibla* wall.  \n  \nLarge imperial Ottoman religious complexes usually feature a significant number of facilities, which, in addition to a mosque, may include a mausoleum for the patron, a soup-kitchen, *madrasa*, public bath, hospital and shops.  \n  \nThe Ottoman mosque is well-known for its simple, elegant pencil-shaped minaret, which is often fluted and ends in a lead-covered, elongated conical cap. Such minarets are a clear indication of Ottoman-sponsored buildings throughout the Ottoman Empire. The minarets may have anything from one to three balconies, usually resting on corbelled *muqarnas* vaults. Mosques with royal patronage have more than a single minaret, ranging from two to six.  \n  \nThe *Muqarnas* is used selectively in certain areas, such as the underside of minaret balconies or above windows and portals. Calligraphy, usually featuring the *naskhi* and *thuluth* scripts, is an integral part of the decorative programme of many buildings. Applied surface decoration in Ottoman architecture of the classical phase is more restrained than it is in the earlier Anatolian Seljuq and early Ottoman periods, as well as in the later Ottoman period.  \n  \nOttoman architecture demonstrates the influences of numerous traditions including those of the Anatolian Seljuqs and Byzantium, both of which existed in Anatolia when the Ottomans rose to power. More specifically, the Imperial Ottoman mosques of the classical period show the clear influence of the mid-6th century AD Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia."},"9d1ba52c-7e9b-5e9d-9ef2-729fa7e30e96":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"The Aghlabids built several architectural landmarks in Kairouan, Monastir, Sousse and Tunis. Ifriqiya became the main link for trade between the East and West, and between al-Andalus and the Sudan. Ifriqiya’s agricultural and other industries, such as textile weaving and ceramics, prospered. The downfall of the Aghlabids was due mainly to the frivolity and profligacy which dominated the rule of Ziyadat Allah III (290–6 / 903–9), which prompted the people of Ifriqiya to withdraw their support, and led in turn to the fall of Ifriqiya – with no resistance – to the Fatimids.","quote":"*‘**Ifriqiya became the main link for trade between the East and West, and between al-Andalus and the Sudan.’*"},"9d1c91d5-e536-5351-9c97-8a1d1755f2dd":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"Calligraphers were formally trained under distinguished masters of the profession. Many of them were enrolled in the service of the court and at the civic offices of the government. Some civic officials became famous calligraphers, for instance Ibn Muqlah, who was an Abbasid *vizier*. He defined the rules of perfect script in a manual, which became the main work of reference for subsequent calligraphers.","quote":"‘Some civic officials became famous calligraphers, for instance Ibn Muqlah, who was an Abbasid *vizier*.’"},"9d838b06-c754-52b5-b005-6c418fbd4fdc":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"Jewellery was appreciated among both Muslim men and women, and was used by men to decorate their clothes and turbans, at times even imitating certain feminine customs such as wearing earrings. Nonetheless, it was women who made the most extensive use of jewellery, most wearing personal adornments, regardless of their social position. According to the Nasrid writer, Ibn al-Khatib, there was such rivalry between the women of Granada in the art of adorning themselves with clothes and jewels that: '[…] unhappily, today's finery, cosmetics and ostentation, and the passion for rich fabric and jewels, have led to licentiousness'.","quote":"*A sign of social position and prestige.*"},"9da4357e-97c6-5bd4-aadd-f2077c7eccf0":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Under the leadership of the Atabegs and Ayyubids, cities in Syria and Jazira became important political, economic and cultural centres. Soldiers, scholars, traders and craftsmen were all attracted to the region making it a vibrant social hub for Arabs, Persians, Turks and Kurds. This resulted in a rich multi-ethnic and multi-lingual society.","quote":"*‘Soldiers, scholars, traders and craftsmen were all attracted to the region.’*"},"9e30bc38-26f6-5892-9b38-6c81101cb0d5":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"Islam enjoins both men and women to dress modestly. Muslim women are expected to cover their heads and wear long-sleeve garments that reach from the neck to the ankle. Beyond these general conventions observed by all, Muslim female costume has always varied greatly from culture to culture and from period to period in terms of textiles, design, layering of garments, the style of headdress and accessories. Social class and ethnic background have also played a role in a woman’s appearance.","quote":"*‘Islam enjoins both men and women to dress modestly and women are expected to cover their heads.’*"},"9eda6137-9ad8-5a22-8512-44e4bf96b330":{"title":"The Umayyads"},"9f0c366a-10e7-53d5-91e8-2d8a35ffc22a":{"title":"Geometric Decoration","description":"‘Muslim artists did not ‘invent’ geometric decoration but they developed it to its full potential.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nCarmen ALONSO-RODRIGUEZ, Madrid  \nMaria da Conceição AMARAL, Silves  \nGaspar ARANDA, Madrid  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nLakhdar DRIAS, Argel  \nNaima ELKHATIB-BOUJIBAR, Casablanca  \nÁngela FRANCO, Madrid  \nÁngela GARCIA-BLANCO, Madrid  \nSusana GOMEZ, Mertola  \nKamal LAKHDAR, Rabat  \nSantiago MACIAS, Mertola  \nMohamed MEZZINE, Fez  \nMargarita SANCHEZ-LLORENTE, Madrid  \nClaudio TORRES, Mertola  \n  \nCoordination  \nMiguel GARCIA, Madrid  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Geometry is a predominant decorative theme in Muslim art, usually dominating other ornamental motifs. Geometric decoration appears both in architecture and in the applied arts: ceramics, textiles and in the arts of the book. Regardless of material, scale and technique, the motifs used are practically always the same.  \nMuslim artists did not ‘invent’ geometric decoration, but they developed it to its full potential. The achievements of the Muslim world in geometric decoration were made possible to some extent by the interest that mathematical studies, such as Pythagorean mathematics, generated in Islam.  \nThis is evident in the geometric knot, inherited from pre-Islamic decoration, which was developed into complex combinations of intertwining ribbons or knot-work. Starting from the circle, an extraordinary variety of figures were generated (squares, diamonds or rhombuses, hexagons, octagons, stars with six-, eight-, ten-, twelve- and more points) by applying the principles of symmetrical repetition, multiplication or subdivision on any material and any scale.  \nThe wealth of colours and the skill used to combine different tones help the compositions to stand out, creating the illusion of several different planes. Three-dimensional effects were used to enrich compositions, either through the repetition of motifs (such as *sebka* a pattern created from a network of diamond shapes), contrasting textures or the widespread use of *muqarnas* (known as *muqarbas* in North Africa) a three-dimensional geometric stalactite-like decoration.  \n  \nGeometric motifs, occasionally based on abstractions from the natural world, also have a symbolic meaning in keeping with the function of the object or building.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/geometric/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/21/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":14}}},"9f7848ae-c4b1-5425-8491-708ef71e028d":{"title":"Water Management","description":"While the systems constructed by the Romans were gainfully re-used over the ages, the contribution of Islamic civilisation in water management is also important. The large-scale Arab immigration and population increase led to the growth of a new landholding class who invested in agricultural production. Thus, the heritage of Roman techniques in water management was further developed under the Islamic dynasties, as can be seen by the construction of many water-management systems, including subterranean canals, regular canals, aqueducts, cisterns, dams, rain reservoirs and waterwheels (*noria*).","quote":"*‘The heritage of Roman techniques in water management was further developed under the Islamic dynasties.’*"},"9faade38-b220-5c24-8c3c-705dc77ce345":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery","description":"Garments often had to be fastened and secured. Affluent women could afford fine gold and silver hooks and buckles that were functional and decorative at the same time.  \nJewellery accessories were widely used to further enhance the impact of the costume, and women of all backgrounds were proud to show off their finery at public events, not only as symbols of beauty but also of their wealth. Indeed, jewellery items were accumulated as assets that could be converted into money when needed. Some jewellery designs incorporate verses from the Qur’an, prayers or protective talismans to ward off the ‘evil eye’.","quote":"*‘Jewellery accessories were widely used to further enhance the impact of the costume.’*"},"a04edab2-8889-509d-8f02-71d9be653c47":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′","description":"Fatimid princesses endowed palaces and religious institutions throughout the realm. In Cairo we know that a hall in the Western Palace was designated to Sitt al-Mulk, the sister of Caliph al-Hakim, and that it was lined with carved wooden panelling embellished with scenes of court life and hunting. Sayyida Ulam al-Ameriyya, the wife of the caliph, al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (r. 495–524 / 1101–30) constructed an ornamental shrine for the venerated Sayyida Ruqayya, daughter of the Imam ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Righteously Guided Caliph (*Rashidun).* It was decorated with *kufic* calligraphy commemorating her patronage. The shrine was furnished with a magnificent wooden pulpit constructed out of qaru and Indian teak.","quote":"*‘Fatimid princesses endowed palaces and religious institutions throughout the realm.’*"},"a09c8ed7-01f3-5c9b-bd21-96a1d81c4678":{"title":"Women","description":"‘Islam assigns women an integral position in society; Muslim women have always actively contributed to the cultures in which they live be it in the home, professionally, as patrons of charitable causes, or in the arts.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nHouria CHERID, Algiers  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Islam assigns women an integral position in society. Their rights, duties and status are explored in the Qur’an, and legislated for in the Shari‘a – the Islamic law. In the Islamic period, women actively embraced and practiced their faith. There has never been and nor is there today, however, a uniform approach by which to interpret and implement the Islamic system across the Muslim world and its civilisations; every society within Islam has adapted its system according to its local cultural heritage and, therefore, there is no standard prototype for Islamic civilisation, and not one prototype for the condition of women within Islamic society. Indeed, the complexity of the diverse cultural and patriarchal legacies with which Muslim women have had to deal – some of them pre-Islamic – and the multitude of their tasks within the societies they live mean that they have faced a continuous struggle for a better life within a just society.  \nThroughout the ages many Muslim women have become role-models for other Muslim Women most importantly Sayyida Khadija bint Muhammad al-Khurasani, first wife of the Prophet Muhammad, an independent and powerful businesswoman and a key supporter of the Prophet in his mission. Others have included Sayyida al-Manubiya, an acclaimed mystic writer in medieval Tunisia. Maryam bint ‘Abd al-Rahman, a leading judge in early AH 8th- / AD 14th-century Palestine with her own lexicon of interpretations of al-Hadith (‘Sayings of the Prophet’). A key figure in the 19th century is Huda Sha’rawi, a pioneer and leader for women’s rights in Arab and Muslim society.  \nHistorians recorded the public work associated with upper-class women and their relationship to the ruling classes, while surviving buildings and luxury artefacts attest to their patronage and influence. On the other hand, due to the bias of historical recording and the uneven survival of artefacts, our knowledge of ordinary Muslim women is sparse. Some glimpses, however, can be derived from the crafts in which they were engaged, such as weaving, embroidery and pottery; and by studying official records that relate to the courts, marriage, divorce, or matters of female inheritance.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/women/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/23/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":9}}},"a0cc97a9-d2a3-5089-88c2-b997f283e950":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"Table culture in the Ottoman Palace had unique status. Almost every dish had a different chef: head of soup (*çorbacıbaşı*), head of helva (*helvacıbaşı*) and so on. At banquets and Ramadan dinners (*iftar*), cushions were laid out on a textile that covered the floor. In the middle of the cushions a copper, silver or gilded-metal tray was placed upon which were put spoons of turtle-shell, coral, ivory or bone. The dishes followed a traditional order: the first dish was soup served in individual bowls; a main dish of red meat or chicken would follow that was served in very large metal vessels with lids (to keep the food warm), known as *kuşhane*. The main dish was accompanied by drinks and sweets such as *zerde*, *baklava* and *helva* were served as the last course.","quote":"*‘Almost every dish had a different chef: head of soup, head of helva and so on.’*"},"a1627728-24d7-5242-9f95-1b065c869096":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"The Fatimids enjoyed the outdoor life, keeping well-maintained gardens and orchards. Visitors were invited to walk in the grounds to enjoy the decorative fountains and sounds of running water. Some royal residences had menageries that accommodated a variety of exotic animals and birds. Beyond the palace gates, royal and upper-class society pursued a variety of sports including hunting and horsemanship. Birds, hares and gazelles were pursued for sport using birds of prey, dogs and horses. Polo, mace-striking and spear-throwing were other favourite sports.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids enjoyed the outdoor life, keeping well-maintained gardens and orchards.’*"},"a1f710c0-f3ac-5a24-a8f4-4bfadf1b55e4":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients"},"a2d6b201-caf9-5fdf-9be7-286d4b763f71":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"Extensive building programmes were undertaken for the benefit of the community as well as for the ruling elite. Cities such as Amman had a palatial complex, a mosque, a marketplace and a water reservoir, and thus served the government and the administration of the country in addition to the needs of the community. Vitally important infrastructure such as dams, cisterns and water reservoirs were constructed and bridges were erected.  \nArchitectural patronage was taken a step further; entire cities and towns were constructed, for instance palatial and administrative complexes in Jerusalem and Amman (Jordan), where the palace and the Congregational Mosque were both given a central position and built side by side.","quote":"‘Building programmes were undertaken for the benefit of the community as well for the ruling elite.’"},"a33e8d0d-78bb-5e1f-bf96-8cdd1b65b6f8":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Throughout their rule, the Mamluks maintained close diplomatic ties with all the major European powers, Castile, Sicily, the Italian Republics and Byzantium among them, as well as with the Mongols and the Far East. At the highest level, the exchange of luxurious diplomatic gifts produced in Egypt and Syria underpinned and consolidated political ties. At the same time, international relations were also propagated through large-scale trade.","quote":"*‘Diplomatic gifts produced in Egypt and Syria underpinned and consolidated political ties.’*"},"a4a1d940-8c79-56af-9276-3b8d7e1c6911":{"title":"Art outside the Capital","description":"It is helpful to consider Ottoman art outside the capital on a geographical basis. While Anatolia showed more features of Turkish origin, farther south a synthesis developed against the rich background of the region. The non-Muslim minorities also made important contributions. As a result of the architectural and artistic programme of the Ottoman Palace, the cultural heritage of the Middle East – the art of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids, Fatimids and Mamluks – was mixed together with Ottoman features.","quote":"*‘The art of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Ayyubids, Fatimids and Mamluks was mixed together with Ottoman features.’*"},"a5133a30-c9e7-5c30-b1d4-bf5b16ad8f8d":{"title":"Objects","description":"Abbasid art marks the beginning of a distinctly Islamic style of decoration. The vocabulary adopted from late Antique art gave way to broader influences and a spirit of experimentation. The example of imported Chinese porcelain, for example, spurred the development of Abbasid ceramics. Some wares openly copied contemporary Tang splashware, while others featured austere geometric forms. A development of vital importance for Islamic ceramics was the rise of the lustre technique, which probably began on glass but was most famously used to make potted wares glitter like precious metal. Other Abbasid arts included luxury textiles, known to have been a major industry of the period, but surviving in only a few examples. The Abbasid period also witnessed the first canonisation of styles of the Arabic script and, by extension, the development of beautifully written and ornamented Qur'an manuscripts.  \n  \nThe term “Abbasid” refers to the far-flung empire of the caliphate, but some regions were governed by vassals under whose patronage important works of art were produced, such as the Qur'ans made in North Africa. The Tulunids of Egypt were fond of exquisitely carved or inlaid wood – a luxury material in a desert climate."},"a52fece5-e533-5203-bd90-001ae174dfca":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture"},"a54056db-53e8-5044-b4c1-ab40a258ab5b":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"While sunlight passed through the stained-glass windows in which there were dozens of colourful flowers and which illuminated the mosque interior, hanging glass oil-lamps decorated with imperial symbols and verses from the Qur’an added to the effect. Prayer rugs and carpets, whose designs were drawn-up in the palace atelier, were remarkable for the similarity of their patterns to those on the tiles decorating the walls. Qur’an stands, wooden boxes where the Qur’an was kept, and *minbar*s were other items where Islam and the place of prayer met on the artistic level.","quote":"*‘Qur’an stands, wooden boxes and* minbars *were where Islam and the place of prayer met on the artistic level.’*"},"a558466d-1411-5f51-bb99-70959fe5d70a":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles","description":"The decoration used on textiles, fabrics and rugs is dominated by plain bands, zigzags and boxes, with figurative representations such as heraldic animals, appearing at an early stage. Although these representations are schematic and flat, it is nonetheless possible to identify the ancient images from which they originate. The prevailing colours are different shades of blue, yellow and red, and gold and silver wire was often used to create stunning contrasts.  \nThe principal innovation in rug-making was the use of figurative representations so schematic that they became almost completely unrecognisable. The decorative field was often divided into polygonal medallions.","quote":"*‘Figurative representations such as heraldic animals were often used.’*"},"a63d73d1-ce20-5a6f-9699-40bef46f5a8e":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"Muslim women used jewellery throughout their lives: as children, they wore prophylactic jewellery to protect them against the evil eye; once they were engaged they would be given family jewels by their parents, along with a dowry. Marriage was a further opportunity for women to amass jewellery. The groom would give his bride jewellery as a gift, so that on the day of her wedding the bride would appear in the place of honour with her most beautiful adornments.  \nThis, and other jewellery acquired subsequently, constituted a woman's inalienable property.","quote":"*A woman's inalienable property*"},"a68e0dec-446e-5c8a-bf2e-1f05f0f0e7fb":{"title":"Andalusian-Maghrebi Art","description":"The tendency in Islamic art to decorate interior spaces and building façades was complemented in the art of al-Andalus and the Maghreb by the systematic use of the arch and the capital as decorative motifs.  \nAlthough the horseshoe arch was the most typical of the available decorative devices, craftsmen created new styles of arches and combined them in different ways. The same was true of capitals, with craftsmen changing the proportions and embellishing the foliage seen on the Romano-Byzantine models to create their own style.  \nThe starting point for this new architecture was the Great Mosque of Córdoba.","quote":"*From Emirate to ta'ifa* art*:* *simple beginnings and elaborate heights.*"},"a787ec88-bc49-5171-bf60-265ba0253dd4":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy"},"a83b5614-7afc-5fae-8115-5fbbcede5144":{"title":"Managing Prosperity","description":"At about the same time, the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil (r. 232–47 / 847–61), ordered the construction of another ingenious structure on the Nile: the Nilometer. This structure was used to measure the level of seasonal flooding, which in turn enabled the agricultural authorities to predict and then calculate the quantity of seasonal harvests expected and the taxes that were due for them. The Nilometer also helped the population of the Nile  Valley to plan for food shortages and rationing in periods of drought, thereby ensuring that both the wealth and the health of the nation were well managed and preserved.","quote":"*‘The Nilometer helped the population of the Nile Valley to plan for food shortages and rationing in periods of drought.’*"},"a919029f-a759-5c31-89dc-8db0585bcd4c":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"In later periods although the human form is still present, it does not occur with the same frequency as it had done in the art of the Umayyad period. During the Abbasid (132–750 / 923–1517), Fatimid, and in the periods following, figurative art was manifest primarily in manuscript illustrations and ceramics, where a broad variety of subjects both religious and secular, were addressed. Religious themes include the Prophet’s mystical journey and His Ascension. Secular subjects include scenes from daily life and expressions of the ruler’s splendour.","quote":"*‘During later periods, figurative art manifested primarily in manuscript illustrations and ceramics.’*"},"a9ff8542-78ea-5d01-b60a-684f30ac221a":{"title":"Artintro Page 15","description":"Crusader art includes works in the style of contemporary European art, made for use in the Holy Land. It also includes works that more clearly reflect the influence of local norms."},"aa042c08-6f7c-5f9d-b7df-e0e92304f71d":{"title":"Exporting Luxury"},"aa67e1af-35cc-5e7a-99e2-d1870c0b4ca7":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Despite the increasingly successful efforts of the Ayyubid dynasty (564–658 / 1169–1260) to expel the Frankish Crusaders from the Levant, they did not fully achieve this aim. After another 50 years of struggle, it was the Mamluks from Egypt who succeeded, finally, in driving the Franks from the Holy Land and the Syrian coast.","quote":"*‘It was the Mamluks from Egypt who succeeded, finally, in driving the Franks from the Holy Land’.*"},"aa7dbfdb-56bd-59fa-98ce-c5b08de806c5":{"title":"Kufic Script"},"aaa18cdd-a5f0-52cf-9e64-9676401e300e":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education","description":"Hospitals *(bimaristan*s) were important centres for scientific learning. The voyager from al-Andalus, Ibn Jubayr, was amply impressed by the newly built Bimaristan Nur al-Din, which he noted was both a treatment centre and medical school equipped with a comprehensive library; he also describes ‘the ticking water clock’ he saw at the Umayyad Mosque. Abu al-Fadl Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim al-Harithi, known as al-Muhandis, or ‘the Geometer’, was a resident doctor at the hospital as well as being a multi-talented polymath. It was he who designed the geometric woodcarving on the door of the *bimaristan* and he also repaired the mechanical clock at the Umayyad Mosque.","quote":"*‘Bimaristan Nur al-Din was a treatment centre and medical school equipped with a comprehensive library.’*"},"aaf61a39-17ed-561e-8fc6-7e7f983d5ddd":{"title":"Egypt","description":"The economic, political and cultural degeneration that took place throughout the Ottoman lands during this period may have been the underlying cause of the Westernisation trend that was aimed at reform, and which was based on the adaptation of some features and elements of Islamic art alongside the prevailing European influences in all fields of art. The Westernised elements of buildings and palaces offered a magnificence and opulence cherished by the Ottoman sultans and kings, and this style prevailed over the Islamic elements such as *muqarnas*, geometric, vegetal and epigraphic motifs.","quote":"‘The Westernised elements of buildings and palaces offered a magnificence and opulence cherished by the Ottoman sultans and kings... ’"},"ab61d1b6-fc37-59e8-a3b2-262f917d2f6e":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"There is ample evidence of the presence of Jews and Christians in Muslim lands, from Tunisia to the Portuguese Algarve, although this cohabitation was more common in the towns than it was in the countryside on account of the commercial opportunities to be found there. In some instances, Christian communities even held some degree of power or sufficient economic strength to commission fine works of art. The Jewish communities found in the Muslim West before the arrival of Islam lived in their own districts alongside Muslims throughout the different dynasties, working as administrators or craftsmen and participating in social and economic life.","quote":"*Christians and Jews in Muslim lands*"},"ab86e7ab-a2af-55b0-bd1d-acb09915baa1":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"The Fatimid dynasty made great efforts to construct, furnish and maintain mosques in order to disseminate their Shi‘ite beliefs. Whether at Mahdiyya, or in their splendid capital Cairo – with imposing complexes like the mosques of al-Azhar and al-Aqmar – or in regions as far a field as Sicily, Fatimid mosques were designed to shine, like beacons, of Shi‘ite propaganda. Architecturally the Fatimid mosque is distinct: a protruding entrance reminiscent of Roman ‘victory arches’; a carved, stone dome, and a facade with inscriptions (Shi‘ite in content) written in kufic script, but most notable of all, is the absence of a minaret.","quote":"*‘Fatimid mosques were designed to shine, like beacons, of Shi‘ite propaganda.’*"},"ab8c2fe1-9836-5c36-9b9a-179e2f8b07fb":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Architecture","description":"Geometric designs dominate architectural decoration above all other patterns. The linear and repetitive character of geometric ornamentation made it easy for craftsmen to faithfully reproduce complicated compositions, thus ensuring their continuity and formal similarity over time and in different lands. Moreover, the great variety of geometric motifs and the possibility of adapting them to materials as diverse as tile, plaster, brick and wood encouraged their use throughout buildings in floors, skirting boards, walls, cornices and ceilings.","quote":"*‘The repetitive character made it easy for craftsmen to faithfully reproduce complicated compositions.’*"},"ad8cb308-f2d0-51c1-8a74-24b337e0c430":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"Successive Muslim caliphs, and later the Mamluk sultans, were the prime protectors of the Holy cities of the Hijaz. As a result, they were responsible for all refurbishments and maintenance of the *Haram* in Mecca as well as the mosque and tomb of the Prophet in Medina. In order to finance these ongoing commitments, the Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay (r. 872–901 / 1468–96) established a *wikala* in Cairo, the income from which was dedicated to the provision of grain and other charitable donations to the needy living in the vicinity of the Holy Sites of Mecca and Medina.","quote":"*'Successive Muslim caliphs and Mamluk sultans were the prime protectors of the Holy Cities of the Hijaz.'*"},"adc2c82c-8dbe-5321-9ab3-9fea14b4167f":{"title":"Turkey","description":"Although a relationship of many centuries had existed between the Ottomans and the West through wars or trade going back to the middle ages, Westernisation of Ottoman taste came to the empire much later.  \nThe zenith of the Ottoman Empire, which occurred in the 16th century, did not last long. The weaknesses that occurred in the administrative system, together with erosion of the military and financial bodies, resulted in the empire's loss of territories from the late 17th century. Attempts were made at regaining the empire's once mighty power seen in the importation of measures from the West's administrative and technical infrastructure, a borrowing that was also reflected in Ottoman society and art. Closer cultural and diplomatic relations established with the West, reinforced with the perception of the Ottoman Empire as a market, led to new developments in both the social structure of the society and its art. Thus, the introduction of Western elements into the Ottoman artistic repertoire in the 18th and 19th centuries is known as the Westernisation period.","quote":"‘Although a relationship of many centuries had existed between the Ottomans and the West through wars or trade going back to the middle ages, Westernisation of Ottoman taste came to the empire much later.’"},"adc7d88a-073e-571d-ad07-7d7f35682e7e":{"title":"Travelling and Trading"},"afba56c6-390e-5231-9951-6321bf20581e":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools"},"b16c75fd-58ed-5aaa-b553-978b13694e35":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"Calligraphy was led by the palace calligraphers (*hattats*) who, with their distinguished place in society, were highly respected by the sultans and allowed to view, read and study the most valuable manuscripts in the palace library. Interest and respect for calligraphy never waned throughout the centuries, and despite the corruption seen in other branches of the fine and decorative arts, the art of calligraphy continued to develop and adapt to the taste of different periods.  \nIn the 19th century the Ottoman sultans, preferring a different lifestyle, moved to the Western-style Dolmabahçe and Yıldız Palaces. The end of life in Topkapı Palace saw a change in the sultans’ aesthetic taste and thus the palace workshops came to an end, and the ties between the palace and artistic practice were loosened.","quote":"*‘With their distinguished place in society, the court calligraphers were highly respected by the sultans.’*"},"b1e5cc51-1bae-53e9-9ca7-b41d062600ac":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Anatolian Seljuq architectural decoration uses mainly tile, stone, wood and plaster. Due to the influence of Islam, floral and geometric decoration and inscriptions were preferred for the decoration of religious buildings, but there is also an intensive use of the figure, especially in palaces. This world of human, animal and talismanic-mystic creatures is the result of good observation and vivid imagination; its presence challenges the belief that the representation of figures was prohibited in Islamic art.","quote":"*‘This world of human, animal and talismanic-mystic creatures is the result of good observation and vivid imagination.’*"},"b1f3d679-a18b-5258-af5f-524e8530cb84":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court"},"b2dfb887-c592-5972-be84-da52442aac78":{"title":"Journey of an Islamic *Minbar*","description":"This is a story about an Islamic *minbar* (pulpit) that was rescued from the Crusaders. The *minbar* was made originally for the *maqam* (shrine) of the great Muslim martyr al-Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, in Ashqelon. Like the *mihrab* (the prayer niche), the *minbar* is a focal point of the mosque but unlike the *mihrab* the *minbar* is usually mobile. With the exception of copies of the Qur’an, the *minbar* is, therefore, the only removable object in a mosque that carries profound spiritual value.","quote":"*‘This is a story about an Islamic* minbar *that was rescued from the marching Crusaders.’*"},"b3513528-5861-5dfd-a473-0f15c92c8f94":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"In ceramics, geometric motifs are often derived from the simplification of naturalistic plant motifs that have become increasingly schematised and geometric over time. This abstraction process can easily be seen in certain plates and bowls with radial geometric plant decoration. The forms develop from originally naturalistic motifs (such as a flower with rounded petals) to reach the absolute simplicity of radial lines that form triangular sections.","quote":"*‘Naturalistic motifs are increasingly schematised to reach absolute simplicity.’*"},"b4082e27-2852-5968-8ae5-6d5eb32f370a":{"title":"Managing Prosperity"},"b47b44b8-f4c5-57ff-b813-46c5b0f3fb22":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer","description":"The courtyard outside the prayer room is an open, porticoed space that is accessed directly from the street. Believers ready themselves for prayer by purifying their bodies by means of ritual ablutions, just as they purify their souls with prayer. Like the prayer room, the courtyard is also used as a meeting place by the community.","quote":"*The courtyard*"},"b4a8eac2-4a9d-514f-8bcf-a4339448fd19":{"title":"Objects","description":"The art of Norman Sicily is a striking mixture of Byzantine, Fatimid and other elements, just like Siculo-Norman society itself. Islamic influence can be seen, for example, in wares which use pseudo-Arabic “calligraphy” as a decorative motif. Much Siculo-Norman art is in ivory, which was a popular material for making caskets or boxes, often with a characteristic truncated-pyramid lid. Some of these boxes are quite austere, while others are painted with lively ornament including calligraphic inscriptions, animals and human figures."},"b5239e1f-1ae6-5f79-9b09-016f7be99ee0":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"There were two main caravan routes for Muslims on pilgrimage to Mecca: the Egyptian route, which included Muslims journeying from Sub-Saharan and North Africa, and the Syrian, used by pilgrims travelling from the Eastern Provinces. The Syrian caravan often had to change course and move further east to avoid the Holy Land, due to the disruptions caused by the Crusades.","quote":"‘*There were two main caravan routes for Muslims on pilgrimage to Mecca*.’"},"b554b571-d0e5-5750-8458-758d1d2857a2":{"title":"The Sultan and his Court","description":"At court, the sultan was surrounded by an inner circle of senior retainers, each one with a specific responsibility, such as cup-bearer, treasurer or major-domo. These senior Mamluks were meant to support their sultan loyally in all his religious, political and military objectives, but often partook in factional infighting and power struggles against their ruler.  \nOn a more positive note they vied to emulate the sultan’s activities as a patron of art and architecture. As the children of Mamluks were not allowed to inherit their fathers’ rank and privileges, the endowment (*waqf*) of religious foundations was a popular means to provide security and income for their families.","quote":"*‘Mamluk retainers vied to emulate the sultan’s activities as a patron of art and architecture.’*"},"b57ef26f-345f-5d0d-8e89-3f02ef5a1f29":{"title":"Jordan","description":"In Jordan the Western artistic characteristics of the Ottoman period are mainly represented in naturalistic scenes that were not previously part of the visual language known to the Ottomans. These scenes were painted by European artists who brought with them new artistic elements that they skillfully integrated with the artistic works they implemented in Jordan. Also during this period the utilization of Western coins with human figurative motifs was frequently used, more than the Ottoman coins. People preferred Western artifacts, in particular the coins, which they used as adornments, specifically for necklaces, chin-chains and veils. They also decorated their houses, churches and buildings with fresco paintings created by western artists. Some of these buildings later became museums and many of the churches are still in use today, while others continue to be the homes of private owners whom conserve and restore them.  \nEven after the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Jordanians still appreciated Western and Ottoman coins and women still wore gold pendants and bracelets adorned with the coins of King George V and Sultan Muhammad Rashad V that had been gifts to them as dowries. This heritage still exists at the Folkloric Museum and some still belong to the successors of these old families.","quote":"‘In Jordan the Western artistic characteristics of the Ottoman period are mainly represented in naturalistic scenes that were not previously part of the visual language known to the Ottomans.’"},"b6146a5e-8a97-5fec-bf52-891c57ea0891":{"title":"Calligraphic Schools","description":"After the dawn of Islam, and throughout the subsequent centuries, Arabic calligraphy developed into numerous schools that varied in type. Among the most important and widespread are the *kufic*, *naskhi* and *thuluth* scripts. While *kufic* was the earliest of the three, suitable for calligraphic works, it was not appropriate for utilitarian tasks. This led to the development of the *naskhi* script, which was widely used in the practical fields of daily civic life.","quote":"*‘Among the most important and widespread calligraphic scripts are the* kufic*,* naskhi *and* thuluth *types.’*"},"b82e552a-e3da-5171-bbda-751d4602d53f":{"title":"Two Mamluk Sultans against the Franks","description":"Both sultans, Baybars and Qalawun, were enthusiastic patrons of both luxury objects and architecture, which they had built in Syria and in the Holy Land, and not only in the capital Cairo. For example, Baybars restored fortresses in Palestine and Syria, but his interests did not lie solely in military architecture; he also built a large Congregational Mosque in Cairo – the earliest surviving royal Mamluk mosque in the city. He died in Damascus Citadel (d. 676 / 1277) and was buried in a mausoleum (qubba) north of the Umayyad Mosque. The qubba is part of a school that was already dedicated to him, the Madrasa al-Zahiriyya.","quote":"*‘Sultans Baybars and Qalawun were enthusiastic patrons of luxury objects and architecture.’*"},"ba6e5443-d6c5-5620-916d-366e3adb48bc":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria","description":"After Harun al-Rashid’s death in 192 / 809 the government returned to Baghdad, but the city of al-Raqqa remained important, being in a strategic position on the doorstep of the Byzantine Empire. It became the governor’s seat for the region of al-Jazira – between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in northeastern Syria and northwestern Iraq. During the time of Caliph a-Mu‘tasim – the builder of the city of Samarra in Iraq – al-Raqqa witnessed a new era of restoration and construction, with architecture that was very much influenced by the architectural and decorative schemes of Samarra. Al-Raqqa’s own glass and ceramics industries also flourished during this period, influenced by contemporary ceramics produced in Damascus and various cities of Iraq.","quote":"*‘**Al-Raqqa’s own glass and ceramics industries also flourished during this period.’*"},"bb6637ac-a866-515d-b9a2-3869310f0ad7":{"title":"Civilisation of the Word","description":"Inscriptions vary in subject and include a wide variety of calligraphic styles. They may refer to patrons and their accomplishments or recite verses from the Qur’an, protective prayers, blessings, poetic verses and proverbs. The latter inscriptions are usually chosen to complement the function of the object, such as the use of the Qur’anic verse ‘God, Light of the World’ (24: 35) on mosque lamps, or the use of poetic verses that praise the work of the pen, seen on pen cases or writing boxes. Protective prayers and invocations of blessings are expected to actively contribute to the function of a vessel. Words such as ‘*baraka’* acknowledge and invoke God’s generosity, and the owner’s good luck. The same sentiments are evoked when using one of God’s Ninety-Nine Names on an object, where its presence would protect the object and its contents from harm or loss.","quote":"*‘Inscriptions are usually chosen to complement the function of the object.’*"},"bc3059aa-db7e-5ab4-ae05-77999d031552":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"From the 2nd / 8th century, the Umayyad caliphate increasingly directed its attention to the East as a reaction to a series of unsuccessful attempts to conquer Constantinople. This shift led to a closer identification with Iran, an identification reflected in the art and architecture but above all in court ceremonials.  \nAn elaborate ceremonial of receptions and audiences evolved, which emphasised the separation of the ruler from his subjects. The surviving Umayyad palaces with their extensive decoration in various media, as well as literary sources from the period, permit us to form an idea about the court ceremonials and pastimes of the ruling elite.","quote":"*‘An elaborate ceremonial of receptions and audiences evolved.’*"},"bc7fb8be-cdce-5445-b548-ff8fbfd12324":{"title":"Science and Knowledge","description":"Research into and knowledge of theoretical and applied sciences was actively encouraged in the Muslim West, with the latter disciplines during the time of the caliphate of Córdoba notably including medicine, surgery, pharmacopoeia and veterinary science, and producing some exceptional individuals, such as Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Baytar, both of whom wrote encyclopaedias.","quote":"Applied sciences"},"be3643d7-c50e-574a-9d16-2e5d7e04d722":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"The total prohibition of figurative representation in the Qur'an meant that only abstract motifs or 'illuminations', particularly geometrical ones, were used as decoration. This decorative work attracted a range of different artistic specialists, such as bookbinders, calligraphers and illuminators, and ended up spreading to other disciplines, such as weaving, metalwork, carpentry, monumental inscriptions and architectural decoration.  \nThe most common format used for Qur'ans was a vertical rectangle, although square and horizontal examples were made.","quote":"*‘The work of decorating the Qur’a attracted bookbinders, calligraphers and illuminators.’*"},"bea69b13-6fa2-574b-aa7f-147e96a211c7":{"title":"Administrative Reforms","description":"From the coin reform on, all Umayyad coinage was of a standardised weight and design: purely epigraphic, with an inscription giving the date and a religious formula. These measures served to introduce a unity which hitherto had been lacking.","quote":"‘From the coin reform on, all Umayyad coinage was of a standard weight and design.’"},"beaed359-49db-5b82-b5ab-00d242347b19":{"title":"The Private Lives of Muslim Women","description":"Once a week a visit to the bathhouse (*hammam*) provided the women of an extended household or neighbourhood with an opportunity for a get-together when they would pamper themselves and exchange the latest news. Even matchmaking took place and the dower discussed at the *hammam*. *Hammam*s were designed so that bathers were able to move gradually from hot areas to cooler ones. Many such complexes had painted or frescoed interior walls that showed scenes from daily life and other motifs, contributing to the bather’s rejuvenation of spirit and sense of well being.","quote":"*‘Even matchmaking took place and the dower discussed at the hammam.’*"},"bedfc26e-1599-5d90-867d-794002406ce7":{"title":"Al-Raqqa: Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s Capital in Syria"},"c120081f-2000-5d9f-bbc8-dc8089955a17":{"title":"*Madrasas* and Education"},"c1e27de3-f47f-5dbf-a939-9b3c100f2f30":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"For the Umayyads architectural patronage was a demonstration of the power of the new faith in general and their own dynasty in particular. Umayyad patronage included major religious buildings such as the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, and the Great Mosque of Damascus.  \nThe mosque as an architectural type unique to Islam was created during the pre-Umayyad period on the basis of the House of the Prophet in Medina. The Umayyads contributed new features that in time became characteristic components of every mosque: the *minaret* (symbolic of the presence of Islam and from which the call to prayer is made); the *mihrab* (to symbolise the presence of the Prophet) and the *maqsura* (an enclosed space reserved for the *imam*, the leader of prayers, or caliph) next to the *mihrab*.","quote":"‘Architectural patronage was a demonstration of the power of the new faith.’"},"c2dbf4ef-9ab1-5dca-9ef4-37ca6225e91e":{"title":"Official Patronage","description":"Umayyad palaces, known as ‘desert castles’ such as the palace at Minya, have received widespread interest. The location of some of these monuments on extensive and well-irrigated land suggests also that they were centres of agricultural enterprise. Some researchers have also suggested that they were built to maintain close contact with the local Arab tribes, who were strong supporters of the Umayyad Dynasty.","quote":"*‘Umayyad palaces, known as ‘desert castles’ have received widespread interest.’*"},"c3c3c6a9-356a-5b3d-b18a-805d7175e3fa":{"title":"Administrative Reforms"},"c5fe097b-ce23-566c-9ba9-78fa3ca5eb00":{"title":"Syria","description":"The wealthy families of Damascus, inspired by the grandeur of the Ottoman capital Istanbul, itself inspired by Europe, renovated their homes in the Ottoman fashion. For example, Beit Nizam's heavily gilded interiors and mirrors reflect a taste for the European Baroque, while Beit Baroudi's large wall paintings feature the international cityscapes of Mecca and Medina, Istanbul on the Bosphorus, Paris's Place de la Concorde and the tributaries of Venice. Steamships and locomotives appear in the paintings with the words 'Sham Sheriff' – 'Honourable Syria' indicating the train's final destination. The term 'Honourable Syria' comes from the city's role as the gathering place for pilgrims and is, therefore, symbolic of the beautiful marriage between East and West, representing integration and preservation of the cultural heritage.","quote":"‘The wealthy families of Damascus, inspired by the grandeur of the Ottoman capital Istanbul itself inspired by Europe, renovated their homes in the Ottoman fashion.’"},"c667dbde-a90a-50a0-a246-daedc5e094da":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"Ibn Jubayr (539–613 / 1145–1217), a Muslim from Valencia in Spain, wrote an account of his travels to the Middle East. He describes in detail the Great Mosque in Damascus and other shrines in and near the city. When leaving Damascus in September of 580 / 1184 with a caravan of merchants heading for the old city of Acre (Akko) in Israel he writes: ‘One of the strangest things in the world is that Muslim caravans go forth to Frankish lands, while Frankish captives enter Muslim lands.’","quote":"*‘“… Muslim caravans go forth to Frankish lands, while Frankish captives enter Muslim lands.’”*"},"c6bda72b-5fc2-5242-a86c-73e57fb7f25b":{"title":"The Aghlabids: Shield of the Abbasid Dynasty","description":"In addition to central North Africa, Malta, Sicily and southern Italy became part of the Aghlabid domain. They considered themselves as vassals of the Abbasids, although with great autonomy, and they maintained their links with Baghdad – the Abbasid capital – with many commercial and scientific convoys despatched and received, including one that brought back the lustre tiles used to decorate the *mihrab* (prayer niche) of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. In return for Aghlabid loyalty, the Abbasid Caliph al-Musta‘in (r. 248–52 / 862–66) ordered the construction of the dome above the *mihrab* in the Great Mosque of Zaytuna.","quote":"*‘The Aghlabids conducted themselves in the image of their patrons – the Abbasid caliphs.’*"},"c7857f3a-7319-5558-b576-1a12a5980546":{"title":"Monuments","description":"Few dynasties built as profusely as the Mamluks. Sultans and princess were avid patrons of architecture and, as a result, few cities in the world match the historical architectural wealth found in the Mamluk capital of Cairo.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Mamluks is primarily built of stone and predominant in the two major regions under their control: Egypt and Greater Syria. Wood is used for elements such as doors, panels and *mihrab*s, as well as for the lattice window screens known as *mashrabiyyas.* Domes are commonly built of stone. Stucco is used for decorative elements.  \n  \nThe four-*iwan* plan, which was introduced earlier to the architecture of Egypt and Syria by the Zangids and Ayyubids, emerged as the most common plan for the religious buildings of the Mamluks, including mosques and *madrasas*, as well as the numerous structures that combined both. These *madrasas* and mosques often include a domed mausoleum for the building's patron.  \n  \nThe minaret in the Mamluk tradition often has different sections along the component parts of its shaft, resulting in an arrangement referred to as the three-tiered minaret. This minaret would have a square base, followed by an octagonal shaft, which in turn would be proceeded by a circular shaft, the upper part of which might be colonnaded. Balconies resting on *muqarnas* vaults may separate these sections from each other. Other minaret sections such as fully octagonal ones are also common.  \n  \nMamluk buildings are generally not symmetrical, instead they tend to emphasise the use of balance over symmetry in their overall composition. The alignment of the building with the different directions of the street and the *qibla* is emphasised, and this results in a rich variety of entry sequences to buildings that mark dramatic changes in axis. The buildings are monumental in scale, especially those located in Cairo.  \n  \nDome shapes in Mamluk architecture often have a cylindrical drum and a pointed profile. Initially, squinches, and later pendentives in many cases consisting of *muqarnas* units, are used as the transitional zone for the dome. In earlier examples, wood is used for these transitional elements, but stone later prevails. Both round and pointed arches are used, but pointed ones are more prevalent, especially in later Mamluk architecture.  \n  \nThe Mamluks used calligraphy extensively. Also, the *ablaq* technique, which was introduced during the late Ayyubid period, becomes widespread and even characteristic of Mamluk architecture. The use of stone *muqarnas* is ubiquitous, the most elaborate examples articulate the half-domes located over entry portals. Even column capitals sometimes consist of *muqarnas* units. Dome exteriors are often decorated with carved stone, revealing ribbed, zigzag and intricate star-shaped, as well as arabesque patterns. Façade recesses, into which windows are placed, are usually crowned with rows of *muqarnas* units. Coloured-glass and stucco grills are common for window openings, and inlaid marble is frequently used for surface decoration.  \n  \nThe Mamluks were ardent builders of military architecture. They carried out numerous renovations and expansions of previous Crusader and Ayyubid fortresses. Also, since they ruled an empire that accumulated considerable wealth from the transit of goods through its territories, they constructed numerous buildings that served the purposes of commerce.  \n  \nThe architecture of the Mamluks was very cosmopolitan in nature. Cairo was an important international political and commercial centre, and it attracted artisans from various regions. Mamluk architecture consequently incorporates influences from al-Andalus, North Africa, Crusader, Central Asia, and Persia."},"c847fdb4-fe99-5430-96ad-f2a1a1bedc31":{"title":"Funerary Steles: Memorials in Stone","description":"A new type of stele appeared under the Almoravids, first in al-Andalus and then in the Maghreb. This type was characterised by a carved decorative horseshoe arch supported on columns as a symbolic representation of the *mihrab*. A funerary inscription would appear within the arch, which in the example seen here (as in others), is limited to the name, lineage and titles of the deceased, the date of death, the profession of faith (*Shahada*), verses from the Qur'an and religious invocations.","quote":"*Decorative headstones*"},"c8537387-383b-5275-8627-e7e6711be5ec":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"Under Saladin’s influence, the patronage of monuments and artefacts flourished. Numerous building projects were sponsored by him, including renovations at key religious sites such as the Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.","quote":"‘*Under Saladin’s influence, the patronage of monuments and artefacts flourished.’*"},"c891e7d0-4fed-5c58-96cf-57ac94c648f4":{"title":"Travelling and Trading","description":"Muslim merchants frequently travelled in the same caravans as those on pilgrimage, stopping for the night at *caravanserais*, or *khans*, most commonly built on trade routes, and within the main cities. Both provided shelter, food and water for travellers and their animals. Once in a city, the travellers would have found markets (*suq*s), selling an impressive range of goods such as silk, perfume, jewellery, gold, spices, glassware, metalwork and ceramic vessels. The *suq* in Aleppo, for example, contained a *khan*, a *hammam* and a mosque ensuring that all the travellers’ needs were met.","quote":"*‘The travellers found* suqs *selling an impressive range of goods such as silk, perfume, jewellery and gold.’*"},"ca03bc94-3139-59a8-a6bb-af5e1368a210":{"title":"Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book","description":"Considering the sacred nature of the book, illuminators took great care in the decoration of the first (*fatiha*) and last (*khatima*) pages, the whole of which was often illuminated. The beginning of a verse (*sura*) was often marked with a cartouche, and pages would sometimes be framed with more or less elaborate geometric patterns. The date and place of manufacture, and occasionally the recipient, would normally be indicated on the colophon.","quote":"*‘Illuminators took great care in the decoration of the first* (*fatiha*) *and last pages* (*khatima*)*.’*"},"ca0dc59b-60b3-560e-8e70-93208a08246a":{"title":"Jewellery: Wealth, Prestige and Protection","description":"In the Muslim West during the Middle Ages, it was customary for the groom to give the bride a wedding gift consisting of jewellery, clothes and cosmetics so that she could present herself appropriately for the marriage celebrations, which would last for several days. The bride's father would also lend her jewellery to wear in public which she returned to him after the wedding was over.  \nThe wedding would begin with the women of the family visiting the bride, who would have had her hair and clothes prepared especially for the occasion. The bride would wear as much jewellery as the economic position of her groom and her family would allow. She would receive the congratulations of her visitors impassively seated on a throne or positioned in the place of honour.","quote":"*Wedding gifts*"},"ca354990-79c2-5bab-83fc-460c8bcc911e":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"After General Jawhar had conquered Egypt for the caliph al-Mu‘izz in 358 / 969, a new capital al-Qahira (‘The Victorious’) was built, enclosed by a city wall with eight gates. Typically, the caliph’s imposing palatial complex, known as *al-Sharqi* or the Eastern Palace, lay at the very heart of the new capital, Cairo, and covered more than 17 acres, one-fifth of the entire city. Later, the so-called Western Palace was built opposite, and a public square was laid out between the two. Little remains or is known of these palaces, but historical sources mention that there were burial areas for Fatimid royals within the complex, a fact that would have enhanced the air of sanctity surrounding the caliphate. Fatimid-inspired palaces sprang up as far afield as Sicily, and continued to inspire royal architecture there until well after the Norman conquest.","quote":"*‘A new capital al-Qahira was built, enclosed by a city wall with eight gates.’*"},"ca4d15b3-1f58-5e52-8573-10d6bfc02842":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine","description":"According to the Muslim faith, on the Day of Judgment the Dome of the Rock built in Jerusalem under the Umayyads in the late 1st / 7th century, will serve as the site chosen by the Prophet Muhammad for the Resurrection of the Faithful. The Prophet named it the sacred site, as it was from here He ascended to the heavens (*Mi'raj*) on the night of his nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem *(Isra')*, and He repeatedly encouraged the Muslim faithful to revere and visit the Dome of the Rock alongside Mecca and Medina.","quote":"*'On the Day of Judgment the Dome of the Rock will serve as the site for the Resurrection of the Faithful.'*"},"ca4e1fb9-a323-523f-bcbb-6c6de8cefb05":{"title":"The Palace and the Arts","description":"Many of the artists within the palace ateliers were called *nakkaş*, or designer. The designs were used in various ways across all the arts ranging from books, calligraphy, carpets, tiles, ceramics, woodwork and stonework; thus uniformity of designs and motifs was attained in different materials such as metal, wood and stone.  \nDesigns were also used outside the palace, such as in the tile ateliers of İznik, and in the carpet-weaving workshops of Uşak; the goods were then sold within the empire or exported.","quote":"*‘The designs were used in various ways across all the arts ranging from books to stonework.’*"},"ca738840-bcc5-5148-8748-e3bb31ec2983":{"title":"Mudéjar Civic and Aristocratic Art"},"caca8135-e85b-5bcb-8988-35e33bc14f08":{"title":"Monuments","description":"The architecture of the Ayyubids and Atabeg Zangids incorporates a number of transitional features that connect it to late Fatimid and early Mamluk architecture, and therefore provides a level of continuity with both traditions.  \n  \nIn terms of building materials, stone is widely used in these architectural traditions since it is commonly available in the regions under Zangid and Ayyubid rule, Greater Syria and Egypt, and these architectural traditions do in fact provide some very high-quality stonework. Brick and stucco are more common in eastern Syria.  \n  \nThe arrangement to reconcile the different directions of the street and the *qibla* developed during the late Fatimid period becomes more commonplace during the Ayyubid period. Moreover, the broken-axis plan, developed earlier in the Fatimid Aqmar Mosque and used to connect the street to the interior of the structure in order to achieve the transition between the two directions, becomes more intricate.  \n  \nA variety of minaret shapes appear during this period. Some consist of a square section, others of a circular one, while others feature a combination of a square section at the lower part of the shaft, and an octagonal or circular one at the top.  \n  \nThe use of the *muqarnas* is commonplace during the period, especially for vaulting, and features some of the earliest surviving examples of stone *muqarnas* compositions. Also, the use of the *ablaq* technique for facades (rows of stone in alternating colours) appears towards the end of the Ayyubid period. The technique is later used extensively by the Mamluks.  \n  \nThe Ayyubids left an impressive tradition of military architecture, built primarily in response to their struggle with the Crusaders. In fact, a number of fortresses built originally by the Crusaders were later taken over by the Ayyubids, who carried out considerable renovation and expansion on them. The fortresses of the Ayyubids were larger than those of preceding periods and they had thicker walls. They included features such as double and bent entrances, arrow slits that reached to the floor, the use of machicoulis, and gates decorated with talismanic figures such as snakes, dragons and lions. Another important development of the Ayyubid period is that the rulers of the time placed their residential palaces inside their citadels.  \n  \nThe *madrasa* emerged as an important component of the architectural heritage of the Zangids and Ayyubids. In fact, one of the earliest surviving examples of a *madrasa* anywhere in the Islamic world is a Zangid monument. The development of the *madrasa* was closely connected to supporting the teaching of Sunni Islam, in which the Zangids and Ayyubids were actively engaged. In plan, Ayyubid *madrasas* generally consist of a courtyard surrounded by two to four *iwans* (a vaulted space that is walled on three sides and open to a courtyard on the fourth), as well as smaller cells consisting of living units for the *madrasa*'s students and teachers. With time, the four-*iwan* plan became predominant. The Ayyubids also introduced a combination of mausoleum and *madrasa* towards the end of their rule. This combination was used extensively by the Mamluks after them."},"cb0785ef-fb33-5e76-b51b-81652da4bdfc":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land","description":"The Islamic hero of heroes, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (known as Saladin, r, 531–89 / 1137–93), changed the tide for the defeated Arabs and victorious Crusaders when he recaptured Jerusalem. The era of Saladin is considered to be one of the brightest moments in Arab history, when the fading Abbasid Caliphate saw a brief revival under the patronage of their Ayyubid governors.","quote":"‘*The era of Saladin is considered one of the brightest moments in Arab history’.*"},"cbc12111-8c44-55d6-b676-b86eda25e6a1":{"title":"Tunisia","description":"European furniture was adopted even more readily, and it became common to see four-poster beds with gilt plasterwork, heavily gilded mirrors and consoles, Venetian lamps, and Italian or French velvet and silk alongside traditional Hispano-Maghrebian furniture, although this new trend never supplanted the old style. New imports also included carpets *(zarbia)* from Anatolia, carved wedding chests, low tables and boxes with expensive inlays from Turkey.  \nFurniture, women's wear, jewellery, etc. all underwent the same changes. Wall coverings, hangings, bed linen and divans, like clothing in general, were richly endowed with Levantine embroidery.","quote":"‘Furniture, women's wear, jewellery, etc. all underwent the same changes.’"},"cc1b1d0f-11e9-5198-addd-247752f7c5b8":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer","description":"There are two distinct features of Ottoman mosques, which were generally designed by the imperial architects pertaining to a particular architectural philosophy of the single space, single dome, where everybody prays equally. The dome symbolises the eternal universe, and the *mihrab* the presence of the Prophet as leader of the prayers. In order that these two concepts are more distinctive, to underline and to make use of Islamic aesthetics, verses from the Qur’an were written on the dome and on its drum, and the *mihrab* was richly decorated. The walls were embellished with tiles, or painted with geometric designs symbolising the eternity of God and / or with floral designs resembling the Gardens of Paradise.","quote":"*‘The dome symbolises the eternal universe and the* mihrab *the presence of the Prophet as leader of the prayers.’*"},"cc5c14f6-ee31-580d-97ca-0fb352da0379":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"Almost all the empire’s population, rich and poor, lived their lives from the cradle to the grave according to Islam. In their quest for Paradise they observed five daily prayers, preceded by thorough ablutions, gave charitably to the poor, fasted during the month of Ramadan and tried to visit the Holy City of Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Important legal issues were based on religious law or *Shari’a*, derived from the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad. Every activity, inclusive of eating and the observance of personal hygiene, was undertaken ‘In the Name of Allah’ and with the sole intention of carrying out His wishes and pleasing Him.","quote":"*‘Every activity, inclusive of eating and the observance of personal hygiene, was undertaken “In the Name of Allah”.’*"},"cca743b1-59ef-5ca4-9e68-aacc9793e3f9":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"In the early 2nd / first half of the 8th century, the Umayyads dotted the Syrian steppes with luxurious, lavishly decorated palaces. It is these, rather than the urban palaces that provide us with an insight into Islamic art in its formative stages.","quote":"*‘Luxurious palaces decorated with coloured mosaics, fresco paintings, carved stucco and marble veneer.’*"},"cd32f260-a216-5142-ba1e-9c46b541a116":{"title":"Mosque and Palace","description":"After the Fatimid rise to power, the caliph al-Mahdi founded the capital, al-Mahdiyya, in 308 / 914, adopting an innovative town plan that reflected the centrality of the Shi‘ite caliph according to the Fatimid world view, a view that thenceforth affected the appearance of all Fatimid cities. The mosque, once at the very heart of urban living, gave way to the splendidly decorated, multi-storey palace of the caliph who was both political leader and spiritual figurehead of the Fatimid dynasty; it was he who now occupied the very heart of the city, his palace placed at the centre of the *kasbah* (citadel) and overlooking the main mosque near the city walls.","quote":"*‘The Fatimids adopted an innovative town plan that reflected the centrality of the Shi‘ite caliph.’*"},"ce66627b-ff4a-54f2-8878-1023a2f1743f":{"title":"The Formation of Islamic Art","description":"In this formative phase one cannot speak strictly of a full-blown Islamic art as it is the juxtaposition and innovative combination of various decorative styles and motifs drawn from different artistic traditions that produced such striking results and made them appear different. The eclectic art of this early period is different from that which developed in later centuries; it lacks the predilection for abstract and infinite designs which became characteristic of later Islamic art. Islamic Art in this early phase might be considered as a continuation of Late Antique art of the AD 4th–6th centuries.","quote":"*‘The juxtaposition and combination of decorative styles drawn from different artistic traditions.’*"},"ceab8d7c-6e1d-5d61-81c7-078ad66f0bd3":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Another example of luxury objects being employed to ease diplomatic relations is at the court of Badr al-Din Lu’lu’, an Armenian convert to Islam. He was a Zangid *vizier*, and then an independent ruler of Mosul in Northern Iraq from 615–57 / 1218–59. Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ took a great interest in inlaid metalwork. A number of brass vessels inlaid with gold and silver and bearing his name survive. These valuable vessels were probably used as a replacement for gold and the fact that Lu’lu’ has included his name on them is testimony to their function as ambassadorial gifts.","quote":"*‘Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ took a great interest in inlaid metalwork.’*"},"ceba53e2-8d26-5b58-86d1-788c47e11fd6":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures"},"cffb5dbb-cdd6-5c87-9301-6dc14bb279d8":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Damascus’s role as a starting point for the yearly pilgrimage, or *hajj,* adds to the city’s religious character. During the Ayyubid period, a suburb known as al-Maydan grew around the *hajj* road and became an important centre for the production of religious art. Islamic religious art in the Atabeg and Ayyubid periods is most eloquently expressed in mosque architecture and illuminated Qur’ans. Masonry and woodwork on *minarets,* *mihrabs*, *maqsuras* and *minbars* exemplify this pre-eminence.","quote":"*‘Islamic religious art is most eloquently expressed in mosque architecture.’*"},"d0091937-ae75-5b53-b750-fd43ae2c25e5":{"title":"Muslim Women’s Costume and Jewellery"},"d03f0704-42d3-54b3-8b3b-d1ee5a970a2c":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt"},"d0420e12-6207-5772-b8f0-9c22f7f604c4":{"title":"The Wider World: Diplomatic Contacts and International Trade","description":"Artisans drew readily on the many influences available to them from the East and the West. Most remarkable was the evolution of Qur’an production. The collaboration between calligraphers, illuminators and bookbinders created outstandingly splendid manuscripts worthy of the religious aspirations of the Mamluk sultanate. Spectacular, often intricately inlaid metalwork was made for the domestic and export markets, with some items commissioned by individual foreign clients.","quote":"*‘Artisans drew readily on the influences available to them from the East and the West.’*"},"d08a7344-9af5-5da5-ae9d-7b8557412652":{"title":"Siculo-Norman Art"},"d0f2de47-bb3f-5401-adda-d70b0bdc2f1c":{"title":"Animal Representation"},"d1cd70ed-eba3-5102-ad3f-35f48ba86542":{"title":"Turkish-Islamic Art in Pre-Ottoman Anatolia","description":"Having established political uniformity in Anatolia, the Seljuq sultans increased their building activities and developed trade. Having secured the routes, they lived in luxury palaces built with the aim of living in an Earthly Paradise. A Turkish-Islamic state, the Anatolian Seljuqs developed an artistic style rooted in the heritage of the many civilisations of Asia and Anatolia, and inspired by contemporary as well as Byzantine culture. During their rule, from the second half of the 5th / 11th to the early 8th / 14th centuries the Anatolian Seljuqs built monuments to suit their religious beliefs as well as their social aspirations. These included mosques, *türbes* (tombs), *madrasa*s (religious schools), *hammam*s (bathhouses), *hans* (*caravanserai*), and bridges.","quote":"*‘They developed an artistic style rooted in the heritage of the many civilisations of Asia and Anatolia.’*"},"d3086523-5bfd-58be-92ce-ac1f8ca548d7":{"title":"Human Representation","description":"Human representation in Islamic art occurred in different artistic media: mosaics, painting, and sculpture. Besides portraiture, the viewer is entertained by illustrative pictorial representations of various pastimes such as hunting, battle-scenes, dancing, music-making, poetry-reading, nude or half-clad women, games and acrobats, gift-bearing and scenes of working life. The precise ‘meaning’ of the imagery may be understood in different and sometimes even conflicting ways, often making the motivation for the subject matter unclear. Although most of the images may be generally interpreted as depictions of luxurious living; pleasures of the court and the symbolism of wealth and power, some of the visuals can be understood also as precise references to concrete historical or social events. Moreover, the details seen in some hunting scenes display scenes of a specifically local nature.","quote":"*‘The details seen in some hunting scenes display scenes of a specifically local nature.’*"},"d3c09fd8-614a-5317-a73b-07bb96f5d57c":{"title":"Saladin in the Holy Land"},"d4324e40-dd9c-55ae-bca3-245862dcd559":{"title":"Royal Women: Granddaughters of Fatima al-Zahra′"},"d56f34dd-618b-52fd-941d-524f966fe3d5":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The ability to borrow typological and figurative solicitations from Islamic and Byzantine art (with a certain openness to a wide range of different influences, including of Sassanian origin) gave the art arising from the 'politics of the image' used by the Norman kings a proactive and highly original syncretism.","quote":"*'The “politics of the image” used by the Norman kings made extensive use of Islamic artistic models.'*"},"d691a9e4-feba-58bc-947e-a2528e1d9adb":{"title":"Christian Subjects under Umayyad Rule","description":"In light of the new socio-religious situation, traditions of the Christian communities underwent some changes. It was a known fact that in the religious context Islam prohibited the presence of representational imagery. Under these circumstances Christian communities deliberately defaced human and animal forms in existing churches by replacing them with a cross or some other geometric or floral motif. In some cases the design was scrambled and re-assembled. The defacement of mosaic pavements was done with the utmost care and the churches continued to be used, indicating that the iconoclasm was executed by the church or at least under its direct supervision.","quote":"*‘It was known that in the religious context Islam prohibited the presence of representational imagery.’*"},"d7c23444-3d3f-5267-ac39-29110a7751ab":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem"},"d81c8cbb-bdf6-53de-8363-0663b937e7d4":{"title":"War and Horsemanship","description":"Syria was one of the main battlegrounds during the Crusader period, and witnessed the construction of many Muslim citadels and Frankish castles. Saladin (d. 589 / 1193) ­– the most famous Muslim hero of the Crusader era – was buried in Damascus. His successful campaigns saw the conquest of some 50 Crusader positions, including Chateau de Saone which he besieged in 584 / 1188. Now known as Qal‘at Salah al-Din, or Saladin Castle, this is one of the finest examples of a castle from the period extant.","quote":"*‘Saladin – the most famous Muslim hero of the crusader era – was buried in Damascus.’*"},"d88bfba8-7354-548e-ac28-2c053b370b71":{"title":"The Abbasids and their Vassals"},"da37f448-7c1f-5fc6-ac49-a3a689b3f87a":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"According to one scholar, the recurring themes of dancing females, hunting and music-making were not simply frivolous activities, but were reflections of royal pleasures and pastimes. These were enacted in what is called *majlis al-lahu* (a place used for ceremonial entertainment) in which the life of the prince was expressed through his association with hunting, banqueting and amusements such as dancing and singing, all of which were common at the Sassanian court, and served to glorify the prince and underline his greatness.","quote":"*‘The life of the prince was expressed through his association with hunting, banqueting and amusement.’*"},"da493358-92ba-5a20-8866-fa30fb03bfb2":{"title":"The Abbasids","description":"‘Islamic art and architecture benefited greatly from the wide variety of regional Abbasid cultures and their different ethnic and social groups.’","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nNoorah AL-GAILANI, Glasgow  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nJamila BINOUS, Tunis  \nAicha BENABET, Tunis  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nTaha KHECHINE, Kairouan  \nMourad RAMMAH, Kairouan  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nSaloua ZANGAR, Tunis  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"The Abbasid Dynasty rose to power in AH 656 / AD 750, and established the court in Baghdad. Abbasid rule stretched from Central Asia in the east, to Tunisia in the west, and lasted some 508 years. The reign was distinguished by their encouragement of equality between different ethnic and social groups that made up society; due to the vastness of their empire, they established regional governorates to oversee order and stability. In the Mediterranean region, the Aghlabids governed Tunisia, and the Tulunids governed Egypt, on behalf of the Abbasids.  \nThe Golden age of the Abbasids was between the 3rd and 4th / 9th and 10th centuries, during which time the Middle East and North Africa witnessed a major shift from a largely agricultural economy to one driven by trade. This led to new wealth that narrowed the social gap between Arab and non-Arab communities giving rise to further developments in many crafts, especially glass, pottery and weaving. These goods were exported worldwide to places such as China and Sub-Saharan Africa.  \nThe seeking of formal knowledge was encouraged by the state. Many schools were established in Baghdad and the provinces. The art of book translation thrived and led to the preservation of many key Greek, Persian and Indian works which were translated into Arabic. Significant contributions were made in the fields of science, mathematics, medicine and philosophy.  \nThe decline of the Abbasids began during the 5th / 11th century, when parts of the empire began to break away or became autonomous regions. The Fatimids (297–567 / 909–1171) set up a rival dynasty in Egypt; and Tughrul Beg – one of the Abbasid’s Turkic officers – took personal control of Baghdad, the Abbasid seat, in 447 / 1055. There were several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish Abbasid suzerainty, but the final blow came when the Mongols swept through the Middle East and conquered Baghdad in 656 / 1258.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/the_abbasids/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/13/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":2}}},"dc1ba8a3-fd25-52de-bd11-66f5e8ee0fdc":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists"},"dc90a515-7d31-50e6-bb8f-6de8b231efd4":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"Egypt was directly ruled by the Abbasids between 132 and 358 / 750 and 969. Its agricultural and commercial activities provided valuable revenues, and its location acted as a gate to North Africa. A governor supported by an army and an administrative elite, was appointed to manage Egypt. Fustat – on the eastern bank of the River Nile and south of Cairo – was the main commercial capital. The city still had a majority population of Coptic Christians and the Mosque of ‘Amr Ibn al-‘As was the main place of worship for Muslims. The governor and his army occupied the ‘Asakir district adjacent to Fustat.","quote":"*‘Fustat – on the eastern bank of the Nile and south of Cairo – was the main commercial capital.’*"},"df28fd23-6a70-55b8-9302-7d8b3b1968ac":{"title":"Table Culture","description":"Charity foundations called *imarethane*s were built by the rich to serve food to the poor. The food was cooked in big cauldrons and served in large bowls called *imaret*s. For the people who were not able to come to *imaret*, food was sent in lunch boxes, mess-kits, or perhaps some other vessel.  \nIn general the people consumed flat bread baked on a convex metal plate over an open fire, or in *tandoor* ovens. They would begin eating with the right hand, calling the name of God, and finish with a prayer of thanksgiving. On a textile laid out on the floor a tray would be placed on a wooden stand. A family would eat with wooden spoons sitting around the tray.","quote":"*‘Charity foundations called imarethanes were built by the rich to serve food to the poor.’*"},"df4ffea5-fc6b-5044-8eed-f3f4baa7147e":{"title":"Guardians of the Holy Sites","description":"The holiest place of Islam, the *Ka’ba* in Mecca, is dedicated to the direction of the canonical prayers by the Prophet Muhammad. As the centre of the faith, the *Ka’ba* is also the final destination of the pilgrimage which every Muslim tries to make at least once in a lifetime, and the Ottoman sultans were obliged to ensure that the faithful could carry out their religious duties, of which the pilgrimage is one. The prestige of the sultanate, therefore, very much depended on the safety of the pilgrimage routes, which they guaranteed mainly by payments to the Bedouins, whose territories the caravans crossed en-route to Mecca. They also took measures to protect the resting places of the pilgrims in the desert by building forts. At the beginning of the 20th century modern technical achievements improved transportation to the region with the construction of the Hijaz railway.","quote":"*‘The sultans were obliged to ensure that the faithful could carry out their religious duties, of which the pilgrimage is one.’*"},"dfd16be7-b25b-5454-8dba-80cf0cda47b8":{"title":"Water Management","description":"In order to withstand the aridity of the region it was crucial to devise ways of channelling naturally occurring springs and collecting rainwater for later usage. This was particularly important along the pilgrimage routes, at the *khan*s, *caravanserai*s and *wikala*s along the route, and it was the duty of the Muslim governor to ensure a water supply was available, and that travel to sacred destinations was safe.","quote":"*‘It was crucial to devise ways of channelling naturally occurring springs and collecting rainwater.’*"},"dfe11212-0dd1-5b88-8c67-bc7d735d4c2c":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Ceramic Recipients","description":"A significant number of Islamic ceramics are decorated with extremely simple geometric motifs or with schematised plant motifs that appear to be geometric figures. In all cases, the motifs are chosen and designed in advance to fit the shape of the recipient and to enhance its form. For this reason, radial arrangements are preferred for open-form vessels such as bowls, dishes and plates, while horizontal lines are generally used for closed-form vessels such as vases, cups and jugs.","quote":"*‘The motifs are chosen and designed in advance to fit the shape of the recipient.’*"},"e0d404ea-dbc1-591a-86a5-75265066d6f0":{"title":"Water","description":"“‘… and We made out of water every living thing.'”","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMona AL-MUADIN, Damascus  \nDina BAKKOUR, Damascus  \nSheila CANBY, London  \nVerena DAIBER, Damascus  \nAbdel-Razzaq MOAZ, Damascus  \nEmily SHOVELTON, London  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \n  \nCoordination  \nSamer ABDEL-GHAFOUR, Damascus  \nZena TAKIEDDINE, Damascus  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"For Muslims, water is the secret of life and a blessing from God. In the Qur’an, God says *‘… and We made out of water every living thing.’* (21: 30).  \nAccording to Islamic law, it is forbidden to deprive anyone who is thirsty of water, even if the source is privately owned. According to the *Hadith* (‘Sayings of the Prophet’), Muslims are partners in water, fire and grass – naturally occurring phenomena – that belong to all. While the right to water is an entitlement of every living being, there are water-ownership rules concerning land irrigation. For example, a well-digger gets to be the first to irrigate his land, after which water may be used in the surrounding area so long as it remains sufficient. This is usually an area of 40 cubits radius, a reserved area known as the *haram*. The same word is used to designate a sacred space, particularly a mosque. *Harim*, which is a variation of the previous word, and which passed into English as ‘*harem*’, is used to designate the part of the house to which access is forbidden, particularly the women's quarters.  \nThroughout history, Muslim societies have worked on developing ways to maintain regular and sufficient water supplies. Like most societies the needs were diverse: drinking water, water for washing and ritual purification (*wudu*, *ghusl*), land irrigation and private and public facilities such as fountains, bathhouses and gardens. Because water was so central in the lives of most citizens, regardless of rank or social position, it was a source of inspiration for architects, engineers and craftsmen.  \nStretching from as far East as the borders of China, and to the West as far as the plateaus of Spain, many cultures and peoples came under the sway of Islamic civilisation, and it was the responsibility of the Muslim governor to ensure an adequate water supply for his people. Hydraulic machines were vigorously built and maintained, many of which continued to be used even after the advent of modern technology.  \nAs populations grew and cities expanded, maintaining an efficient water supply was often an arduous task, especially in the arid climate of many Islamic countries around the Mediterranean and beyond. During the Islamic period the disadvantages in climate and terrain were overcome by developing ingenious systems for water storage and transportation.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/water/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/22/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":10}}},"e0fad146-3560-5ca0-86d7-06707053fbef":{"title":"Pilgrimage","description":"'Pilgrimage is perhaps the most emotionally profound element in the religious practice of Jews, Christians and Muslims, leading believers to the Holy Sites and spiritual fulfilment.'","extra":{"credits":"Curators & authors  \nMohammad ABBAS, Cairo  \nUlrike AL-KHAMIS, Edinburgh  \nElsayed HAMAD, Cairo  \nYousef NATSHEH, Jerusalem  \nSalah SAYAOUR, Cairo  \nTarek TORKY, Cairo  \n  \nCoordination  \nEnaam Selim, Cairo  \nMehmet KAHYAOGLU, Brussels  \n  \nWebdesign  \nTENTWELVE, Brussels  \n  \nPhotographers  \nPlease refer to the Database  \n  \nTranslators and copyeditors  \nPlease refer to General Credits","intro_text":"Pilgrimage is a fundamental element in the religious practice of the three monotheistic religions: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.  \nIn Islam, pilgrimage (*al-Hajj*), is a religious duty that forms the fifth and final pillar of Islam, the others being: the Profession of the Faith (*Shahada*: 'there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah'; the five daily prayers; *zakat* or almsgiving; and fasting during the Islamic month of Ramadan. The Qur'an describes the *Hajj* and instructs: 'And *Hajj* to the *Ka'ba* is a duty that mankind owes to Allah.' (III: 97), while the Prophet's Traditions (*Sunna*) further elaborate on the details. Consequently, every Muslim, who is physically able and who has the necessary resources must perform the *Hajj* at least once in a lifetime. According to Muslim belief the sanctuary (*Haram;* that is the Holy Precinct at Mecca) was originally built by Abraham and his son Isma'il (also known as Ishmael), both of whom were venerated prior to Islam, just as they were following its emergence.  \nWhen the faith of Islam emerged, religious pilgrimage came to be practiced with clearly defined rituals specified in the Qur'an and in the *Sunna*. The Islamic pilgrimage with its complex rituals takes place in the two Islamic months of *Dhu al-Qa'ada* and *Dhu al-Hijja*. The pilgrimage begins with adopting a state of purity by abandoning ordinary clothes and adopting *ihram*, a uniform outfit of two white un-sewn pieces of cloth, worn by all men, rich or poor (for women the garments are sewn). For the duration of the *Hajj* period the believer must remain pure, both spiritually and physically. In the *Haram* at Mecca, pilgrims walk around the Holy *Ka'ba* seven times (*Tawaf*) before performing *al-Sa'yi*, a ritual walk between two hills within the mosque complex known as *al-Safaa* and *al–Marwah*. On the ninth day of *Dhu al-Hijja* pilgrims assemble on Mount Arafat to pray and ask Allah for forgiveness. The *Hajj* culminates in *Eid al-Adha* (the Feast of Sacrifice) on the tenth day of *Dhu al-Hijja*, the most important Muslim festival. The *Hajj* is the greatest experience in a Muslim's lifetime and affords believers the possibility to ask for forgiveness of their sins and return to their lives renewed and purified.","legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","exh_link":"https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/exhibitions/ISL/pilgrimage/","new_status":"N","project_id":"ISL","portal_image":"database/exhibitions/29/portal_image/1.jpg","display_order":8}}},"e1608033-ab95-5c07-ac56-54849a33a39b":{"title":"The Holy Land of Three Faiths","description":"In the 1st / 7th century Jerusalem and the Holy Land came under Muslim sovereignty. To Muslims also the two places were sacred, and in the centuries to come, despite often troubled times politically, adherents of all three faiths continued to undertake pilgrimages to the Holy Sites in the area many of which were revered by all three religions. Successive Muslim rulers, Caliph 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. AH 13–23 / AD 634–44) and Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin, r. 564–89 / 1169–93) most famous among them, devoted themselves to protecting the pilgrimage routes, providing generously for the upkeep of the holy sites and facilitating access for all – Muslims and non-Muslims alike – a sacred duty imparted by the Qur'an itself, which respects Jews and Christians as 'People of the Book' (*'ahl al-kitab'*).","quote":"*'The Qur'an respects Jews and Christians as “People of the Book”* (“ahl al-kitab”)*.'*"},"e2009245-e11e-522b-9c3a-48771cd25259":{"title":"Pilgrimage to the Holy Land","description":"The Holy Land was a place of pilgrimage both for Muslims and Christians. Muslims would stop-off there on their way to Mecca on their foremost pilgrimage (*hajj*); they would visit the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem before continuing to Mecca. For Christian pilgrims the Holy Land was the end goal, with Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Hebron as the most important destinations.","quote":"*‘The Holy Land was a place of pilgrimage for both Muslims and Christians.’*"},"e227dc1b-85f9-5719-a57f-69b159c22d02":{"title":"Court Life","description":"There was no central court in Syria and Northern Iraq during the 4th–6th / 10th–12th centuries, rather a plethora of smaller courts co-existed with complex political alliances. The rulers often began as *atabegs* appointed by the Seljuqs of Iran (r. 429–590 / 1038–1194), but they soon established courts of their own. They built their palaces within citadels to protect them from the constant threat of the Crusaders, the best surviving example of which is the palace within Aleppo Citadel.","quote":"‘A plethora of smaller courts co-existed, with complex political alliances.’"},"e26df9ee-c3ec-50ad-8f99-5e7f98714dba":{"title":"The Ottoman Capital: Istanbul","description":"Sultan Mehmed II, who earned the title *Fatih* (‘The Conqueror’) by winning over Konstantinopolis, powerfully influenced its development. He initiated redevelopment, built up the population, and encouraged trade. The Topkapı Palace, bazaars (*han*s) and waterways initiated by Mehmed II, were developed still further by later sultans. The Ottomans crowned ‘the city built on seven hills’ with architectural complexes and adorned her streets with fountains. Many new commercial, civic, and military buildings were built in order to meet the needs of a growing society.","quote":"*‘The Ottomans crowned “the city built on seven hills” with architectural complexes and adorned her streets with fountains.’*"},"e2c12e55-44f5-5291-ad8b-8fa7958dbad2":{"title":"Artistic Introduction","description":"It is a challenging task to describe in words the visual features that differentiate a certain artistic tradition. There are no universal rules that fully apply to a given tradition since the visual features of that tradition will include considerable diversity based on changes in time and place. For every rule put forward, there will be exceptions. Still, the overall guidelines provided below will help readers to begin to visually identify the various traditions of Islamic architecture in the Mediterranean region. In developing these guidelines, an attempt has been made to identify features characteristic of each tradition including commonly used materials, forms and planning arrangements, building types, decorative motifs and techniques, as well as influences from other traditions.","extra":{"credits":"This General Introduction is prepared by:  \nMohammad Al-Asad (Monuments)  \nBarry Wood (Objects)","subtitle":"Islamic Art in the Mediterranean"}},"e3075285-c16a-5607-8854-92c2e7fc9d89":{"title":"Abbasid Egypt","description":"In 254 / 868, Ahmad Ibn Tulun (r. 254–270 / 868–84), a 33 year-old Turkish soldier of the Abbasid army in Samarra, Iraq, was sent to Egypt as deputy governor with an army of some 100,000 men. Egypt was suffering from a number of political and economic difficulties caused by political unrest and the continuous drain of its resources after the death of Harun al-Rashid in 193 / 809. Ibn Tulun succeeded in stabilising the region, ensuring the flow of revenue again. Once he was promoted to Governor of Egypt in 256 / 870, however, he began to hold back the revenue, re-investing it in agricultural reforms and industry. He renovated the Nilometer, built the district of al-Qata’i‘– following the model of Samarra – to accommodate his army and government, and built a mosque in his name in the city centre.","quote":"*‘Ibn Tulun began to hold back revenue, re-investing it in agricultural reforms and industry.’*"},"e402578d-fdef-5abf-8357-26ca4fc3ddd5":{"title":"Monumental Calligraphy","description":"Calligraphy was applied to a variety of surfaces including stone, plaster, wood and ceramic tiles. It was very popular on stonework in Turkey, Syria, Egypt and Tunisia.  Exceptional examples of it on woodwork can be seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.","quote":"*‘Calligraphy was applied to a variety of surfaces including stone, plaster, wood and ceramic tiles.’*"},"e50ffc2b-cdda-5f5f-8dc2-131a6e74a0c9":{"title":"Court Life","description":"As sartorial fashion and trends in palace decoration changed under the influence of Eastern artists and merchants, silk became the natural and preferred choice for the court. At first the production of silk was permitted only in the royal workshops, where it reached a level of quality and beauty that was as highly esteemed as the silks produced by the Eastern workshops, and often given as diplomatic gifts by sovereigns.","quote":"*Silk: a royal fabric*"},"e5a16576-99a6-59e3-b60e-463525d95dd9":{"title":"The Quest for *Baraka* – Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Palestine"},"e69dcd7a-5d1d-5edb-ae45-6bb6e2a8c847":{"title":"The Mamluk System"},"e6ad56f0-f7ef-58c5-8cd7-b611edb41a00":{"title":"Court Life","description":"Following his capture of Damascus in 547 / 1154, Nur al-Din Mahmud bin Zangi united Syria and many of the cities became political, economic and cultural centres each with its own thriving court life. The Atabegs and Ayyubids were dedicated patrons of architecture, restoring city walls and citadels, commissioning new *madrasa*s, *bimaristan*s, *hammam*s, *suq*s (markets) and mosques. Palaces were furnished with sumptuous carpets, fine metalwork and glass vessels.","quote":"‘Palaces were filled with sumptuous carpets, fine metalwork and glass vessels.’"},"e7b309d4-f6ec-5a3c-85a4-64bb13cff1d3":{"title":"Islamicised Communities Before and After the Norman Conquest","description":"There is very little material evidence of the period of Islamic rule in Sicily, this term being understood to cover both the time the entire island was governed by the Kalbid *amir*s (who were Fatimid subjects) and the Norman conquest, during which a few areas remained in the hands of the Muslims for a limited time. In architecture, this evidence often consists of masonry remains of mosques and fortresses, usually incorporated into later structures.","quote":"'*There is very little material evidence of Islamic rule in Sicily, consisting mainly of masonry remains.'*"},"e80da55d-a24c-5ad5-8bdc-c203bda24973":{"title":"The *Haram* at Mecca and the *Ka’ba*","description":"Traditionally, the *Ka'ba* is covered by a dark, elaborately decorated *kiswa* (cover), a tradition that was started by a king of Himyar in Southern Arabia two centuries before the hegira. Initially, the *kiswa* was donated by the Prophet Muhammad and the caliphs; later it was Egypt that dispatched the *kiswa* every year, decorated with gold-thread panels containing Qur'anic phrases and prayers referring to the *Hajj* and its importance. Sent at the same time were an elaborate pair of curtains to cover the doors of the *Ka'ba*, and a pouch containing the key to the *Ka'ba* made from silver-inlaid brass and enhanced with religious quotes. The sending-off ceremony involved a big celebration in the capital, Cairo. The *kiswa* began its journey via the citadel forecourt accompanied by knights and officials, drums and fanfares and flanked by a huge crowd of ordinary citizens.","quote":"*'Traditionally, the* Ka'ba *is covered by a dark, elaborately decorated* kiswa*.'*"},"e89dae11-6238-53a2-838c-8433b2388478":{"title":"Mudéjar Ceramics"},"e8deea6c-fc86-5de4-91d5-28b3549d5260":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"Through the ages there is evidence of Muslim women participating in professional life such as Zayn al-Khuzan, the female manager of the Fatimid Caliph’s wardrobe and its 30-strong female staff. Some women became writers or poets, others physicians, or some experts in religious law and jurisprudence, teaching and interpreting religious doctrines. Several women are recorded as famous calligraphers, including Hafsa, a wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the daughter of Caliph ‘Umar Bin al-Khattab. Fatima al-Baghdadia is another female calligrapher whose style was of such a high standard that it was compared to that of Ibn Hilal, a highly acclaimed calligrapher. In the case of the Prophet’s first wife, Sayyida al-Khadija, some of her calligraphic work still survives, attesting to her great skill.","quote":"*‘Some women became writers or poets, others physicians, or some experts in religious law and jurisprudence.’*"},"ea3faf2c-86c3-553a-b331-7ddd3ee15aec":{"title":"Settlements and Domestic Life","description":"In the Muslim West settlements were constructed either as fortified villages or towns, with both types of habitat sharing specific features derived from the clever adaptation of building materials and techniques to hot, dry environments.  \nThe Town had a complex structure consisting of the town centre indicated by the great mosque, a citadel or governor's residence, a *suq* or market along the main street from which side streets would run, public baths (*hammam*), inns (*funduq*) and small workshops. The residential area was located within the town walls, while the suburbs lay outside the walls where farms were situated, where livestock markets were held and from where some craftsmen operated.","quote":"*Muslim towns: a labyrinth of streets.*"},"ebe1e957-e9a6-5900-a103-902e5fee4e8f":{"title":"Water Management"},"ec1aa1aa-3f58-55b4-93d0-bac5583dd403":{"title":"Defence","description":"Along with the outer walls, a town's citadel formed part of its defensive system. The fortified enclosure was located within the town, usually at its highest part and could accommodate and protect either the ruling classes, if the threat came from within the town itself, or the urban population, if the threat was external. The citadel was used by the ruling classes as a stronghold from which to put down rebellions, prepare campaigns and defend their borders.","quote":"*Citadels: the final urban stronghold.*"},"ecc4b251-5132-548b-b9cd-828061e0469f":{"title":"Everyday life in the Mamluk Sultanate","description":"While Islam was the main religion of the empire, large Catholic and Orthodox Christian communities, particularly the Coptic Church in Egypt, contributed to its spiritual and cultural fabric, as did various Jewish groups. Both religious minorities were protected by directives in the Holy Qur’an and enjoyed a largely peaceful co-existence alongside their Muslim co-nationalists. The Egyptian Copts made some of the most significant contributions to the economic, cultural and artistic vibrancy of the Mamluk era. Their traditional expertise was concentrated in architecture and the textile, pottery and woodworking industries.","quote":"*‘Religious minorities were protected by directives in the Holy Qur’an.’*"},"ecdac084-8c2d-5ed0-b7b0-f96e5e40a7a1":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"The coins produced by the palace mints, and the mints in the towns upon which royal privilege was bestowed, gave sovereigns control over the production of money they needed to pay the army and civil servants who allowed the state to function.  \nCoinage was one of the sovereign's most obvious symbols of power, as the quality and purity of the noble metal used was a good indicator of their economic and political power.","quote":"*The mint: economic control and symbol of power.*"},"ed29c746-606e-5ae8-95a5-8870ae170839":{"title":"Egypt","description":"When Mohammad Ali became *Wali* of Egypt in 1805, he introduced the basis for the new Egyptian Renaissance, some features of which modernisation became evident in the Westernisation of the fine and decorative arts, crafts and architecture. This modernisation period culminated in Muhammad Ali's sons, who came into power in Egypt after him, inviting numerous European architects and artisans to construct and decorate a number of palaces in Egypt in the European style. They were encouraged to use architectural and decorative elements in the fashionable Baroque and Rococo styles. This is evident in Abdeen Palace, the sabils of Muhammad 'Ali at Nahaseen and Umm Abbas in Saliba Street and in buildings spread over other Egyptian cities, but most noticeable in Cairo. The Islamic Art Museum in Cairo hosts a large number of ceramics, marble pieces and manuscripts clearly displaying Westernised decorative elements characterised by curved lines, acanthus leaves and flowers and coronas in high relief.","quote":"‘When Mohammad Ali became *Wali* of Egypt in 1805, he introduced the basis for the new Egyptian Renaissance... ’"},"ed71c8d2-a286-5d34-ad28-4352240ff03d":{"title":"Mudéjar Professions","description":"The Mudejar craftsmen took on all manner of woodwork, from ceilings to furniture. They were known for their skill in *carpintería de lo blanco* (structural woodwork), leaving some of the most genuine creations in Spanish art: wooden ceilings and doors made of square-cut, ornately decorated wood that is constructed and decorated on the basis of a geometric pattern. Mudejar mastery in this field can be seen in the perfect combinations of decoration and structure.","quote":"**'Mudéjar mastery in this field can be seen in the perfect combinations of decoration and structure.'*  \n*"},"edcbed04-061f-5f7b-b80d-402678ff5d1e":{"title":"Culture in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem","description":"When the Crusaders captured the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding area in 492 / 1099 they established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the third and largest Frankish state of the eastern Mediterranean region. Its first king was Godfrey of Bouillon who called himself ‘Defender of the Holy Sepulchre’. The Crusader rulers offered their patronage to both Islamic and Christian holy sites, supporting generously the Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, just as they did Christian monuments in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Several architectural features and objects from this period are extant.","quote":"*‘The Crusader rulers offered their patronage to both Islamic and Christian holy sites.’*"},"eddac8a0-9c6b-5866-bceb-4f157fa5a04a":{"title":"War and Horsemanship"},"ee2aaf47-9aaa-5955-b4b2-c1f9cacab9fc":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"Despite their piety, life at the Fatimid court and that of their vassals – the Zirids in North Africa and the Kalbids in Sicily – was not short of entertainment, provided by poets, singers, and dancers. In North  Africa, the Fatimids welcomed local poets such as the Ifriqiyans (Tunisians) Ibn Hani and al-Ladi. Later, in Cairo, the court hosted poets from all over the Islamic world. A number of caliphs also composed poetry which was sometimes performed publicly. Musical entertainment drew on the Eastern tradition and borrowed elements from the Andalusian repertoire; it was performed by male and female musicians on instruments such as reed flutes, lutes and dulcimers. Singers, many of whom had mastered both an instrument and verse, sang poetry exploring love and chivalry. Male and female dancers performed eloquently; the popular ‘handkerchief’ dance appears on many relief carvings.","quote":"*‘Despite their piety, life at the Fatimid court was not short of entertainment.’*"},"ee5d09b5-f282-551a-ad6c-510a7a1d4b9d":{"title":"Art in the Spaces of Prayer"},"ee7a2a3a-731e-564b-b6f7-1f7eb1934418":{"title":"Cairo, Damascus and Jerusalem: Centres of Mamluk Intellectual Life","description":"Jerusalem is the Holy city of Judaism, Christianity and of Islam. The city thrived under the Mamluks, who promoted its status as the prime destination for pilgrims, religious scholars and scientists by initiating grandiose architectural projects. Indeed, Jerusalem became such a popular destination for intellectual exchange, mystic introspection and interfaith debate that the number of generously endowed *madrasa*s and other study centres, staffed by some of the most learned intellectuals of the day, increased to over 100.","quote":"*‘The Mamluks promoted the city as the destination for pilgrims, religious scholars and scientists.’*"},"ef4d7209-5b0a-59f3-aef9-3982ae097af6":{"title":"Art outside the Capital"},"f049cf8d-e79d-5896-ac15-489e32164b03":{"title":"The Popular and Religious Mudéjar Style","description":"The Mudéjar style evident in Toledo shows the influence of the Castilian Mudéjar style in its blind, brick arcades, alongside elements of Almohad and European Gothic art, which are also influential in Mudéjar art in Extremadura. Its defining traits include walls constructed of alternating brick and masonry, façades with friezes of interlinked arches, apertures with framed horseshoe arches, and brick-built bell towers erected on top of masonry cubes sited away from the church as if they were minarets.","quote":"*Mudéjar art in Toledo: the elegance of the brick Gothic style.*"},"f4035718-d69a-5c0e-b8cf-7d6e57c6114f":{"title":"Christian Sicily and Islamic Figurative Culture: Foundations and Continuity","description":"The influence of Islamic artistic culture as adopted by the Normans was still evident in a series of exquisite objects produced in the following (13th) century, including several refined ivory pieces.","quote":"*'The influence of Islamic artistic culture was still evident in objects produced in the following century.'*"},"f70d4425-5bc1-5d34-bbc8-8c1e22ee9757":{"title":"Royal Art and Architecture","description":"The establishment of the *tiraz* workshop, a royal atelier for the production of precious artefacts and fabrics near the Royal Palace, was an important vehicle for the spread of figurative repertoires and manufacturing techniques in Islamic culture.","quote":"*'The* tiraz *workshop* *was an important vehicle for the spread of figurative repertoires.'*"},"f78b948c-3d4a-57bd-8aa5-5da02d955c9a":{"title":"The Decorative Arts","description":"Fatimid wood-carving is characterised by an intricate high-relief technique and the vibrancy of its often figurative scenes executed in a variety of indigenous and imported woods. Occasionally the finished panels were painted, varnished and treated so that they were fire retardant. On occasion, wooden doors were also covered with decorated copper sheets. Ivories and other types of bone were also carved and used as inlays on a variety of products.  \nThe material wealth of the Fatimid era was also apparent in the coinage. Fatimid gold *dinar*s, silver *dirham*s and copper *fils*es were widely traded. The accuracy of these coins was measured by glass weights that were embossed with the relevant denomination and the name of the ruler.","quote":"*‘The material wealth of the Fatimid era was also apparent in the coinage.’*"},"f79e2e2d-2bd9-536c-96fc-75712b9b3f2b":{"title":"Defence","description":"Land was defended by castles and *ribats*, fortresses manned by warrior monks, and which were fortified enclosures surrounding a tower with strong walls. They were placed at strategic locations to provide a good lookout point over the surrounding area. They were used both to garrison the troops who patrolled and protected borders, paths, valleys, ports and mountain passes, and as a place of refuge for the population in times of peril.","quote":"*Castles: defending the land.*"},"f8ba8b16-3482-51fa-a0f4-ba6003540b9d":{"title":"Seats of Power: Palaces","description":"Having gained independence from the Eastern caliphate, the concentration of political and religious power vested in the new sovereigns brought with it the desire to emulate their Eastern counterparts by building luxurious palace complexes. Almost all rulers made use of this exclusive attribute and built centres of power for themselves or for their governors.  \nPalatial complexes were traditionally located outside the city as spectacular walled 'palace cities', or at the highest point within the city itself, separated from it by a wall. These 'palace citadels' were used to control the town's population and to defend the vital mechanisms of power.","quote":"*The palace complex, a walled enclosure.*"},"f9582527-5e66-53ac-b264-520c2d4cf28b":{"title":"Abbasid Ceramics"},"fa309a83-49c5-5883-9ee9-a69be57780e6":{"title":"The Co-existence of Three Cultures","description":"The spread of Islam through the Mediterranean did not mean the creation of a uniform religious society or the expulsion of native inhabitants. Indeed, Christians and Jews were permitted to maintain their religious beliefs on the condition that they paid a levy.  \nEconomic activity, especially trade, and cultural exchanges helped to bring different individuals and communities together.  \nThus followers of the three monotheistic religions, known in the Qur'an the 'people of the book' (*ahl al-kitab*), coexisted in the towns and villages of the Muslim West promoting mutual material and intellectual enrichment.","quote":"*The three religions*"},"fad5c96e-5e8e-5b67-81cc-5c34e034bb09":{"title":"Muslim Women as Professionals, Artisans and Performing Artists","description":"On a more practical level, Muslim women were also engaged in various crafts. An important activity was the production of pottery for everyday domestic use. The base of a Mamluk ceramic dish from Fustat in Egypt was inscribed with ‘amal Khadija’ (‘made by Khadija’). Rug- and carpet-weaving was another traditional female activity, with knowledge and expertise handed down through the generations from mother to daughter. Finally, embroidery played an important part in the lives of Muslim women. Many hours were spent by the females in the family to embellish textiles for domestic and, crucially, commercial purposes.","quote":"*‘Muslim women were engaged in various crafts such as pottery and rug- and carpet-weaving.’*"},"faf029c1-2130-55ac-8ebd-77f3acfeea29":{"title":"Pilgrimage Routes and Holy Sites along the Way","description":"In the late Ayyubid period (mid- AH 7th / AD 13th century), pilgrims from Egypt and North Africa began to use the land routes. It is said that Sultana Shajar al-Durr, the widow of the last Ayyubid ruler of Egypt, decreed in 645 / 1247 that she should travel overland in fulfilment of her religious duty of pilgrimage. As a result she is regarded as the first to inaugurate the *Hajj* route overland. From the period of the Mamluk sultan al-Zahir Baybars, this became the official pilgrimage route, Baybars having dispatched a state-sponsored *Hajj* caravan with the specially commissioned *kiswa* (a cover) for the *Ka'ba* along with the key. The *Hajj* caravan set off from Suez and proceeded to Aqaba where it met up with *Hajj* caravans arriving from Bilad al-Sham.","quote":"'*In the late Ayyubid period, pilgrims from Egypt and North Africa began to use the land routes.'*"},"fb7529af-c345-5f7f-84b9-097ce4ffba20":{"title":"Geometric Decoration in Textiles"},"fc555000-73aa-597e-83a9-aecade079247":{"title":"Defence","description":"Fortifications in the Muslim West were erected for two reasons: to defend borders and to consolidate power over conquered lands that were continually threatened by internal conflicts. Construction of defensive structures was initially sporadic and designed to suppress rebellious local populations. More complex defensive systems were subsequently developed throughout the West under Almohad rule, and were later adapted to counter new attacking strategies that employed catapults, battering rams and assault towers.","quote":"*The establishment of a defensive system.*"},"fc6af4b9-28ef-546f-9551-69c5530a82db":{"title":"Pleasures and Celebrations at Court","description":"Chess was played widely at court, although al-Hakim bi Amrillah (r. 386–411 / 996–1021) banned the game in 403 / 1012. Astronomy and astrology were popular pastimes. Astrological charts were drawn up and caliphs like, for instance, al-Mu‘izz and al-Hakim engaged in astrology.  \nBeyond the various private pastimes, the court was exceptionally extravagant when celebrating religious and civic festivals. Processions were elaborate affairs used to display Fatimid might and propagate Isma‘ili theology. Keenly anticipated annual banquets and gift-presentation ceremonies were held for civil servants, army generals, the judiciary and the religious establishment.","quote":"*‘The court was exceptionally extravagant when celebrating religious and civic festivals.’*"},"fc7c939a-850e-5462-8ba3-c2aa03ed101f":{"title":"Mosques: A Place for Prayer"},"fde9c1e2-a19a-570e-98f7-a4cd5e14c12e":{"title":"Court Ceremonials and Pastimes","description":"Literary sources indicate that there were two types of audience: public (*majlis al-\\`amm*) and private (*khass*), the latter restricted to the closest aides and counsellors. During the audience the caliph or his representative would sit on an elevated throne (*sarir*), while the audience would be seated according to rank. Some buildings, like Qusayr \\`Amra, Khirbet al-Mafjar near Jericho, and Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in Syria, have extensive iconographic programs showing musicians, dancers and female gift-bearers, pastimes that became an integral part of Umayyad court life.","quote":"*‘During the audience the caliph or his representative would sit on an elevated throne.’*"},"feb15667-99f8-5b55-8c0b-bcda36247b11":{"title":"Religious Life","description":"Along with the dynamic revival of Islamic institutions, Christian churches and monasteries experienced a renaissance of their own. New cycles of wall paintings were commissioned, the like of which had not been witnessed in Syria since the frescoes of the Umayyad period. Deir Mar Yakub (Monastery of St Jacob) and Deir Mar Musa al-Habashi (Monastery of St Moses the Ethiopian) survive as excellent examples of medieval Christian art and Syrian monasticism.","quote":"*‘Christian churches and monasteries experienced a renaissance of their own.’*"}}