@museumwnf/explore-data 1.0.2 → 1.0.4

package/translations/glossary.en.json

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-{"56afd259-0505-5d2d-b7f1-9be15cb0dea2":{"definition":"Arabic dynasty that initially ruled over most of the Islamic empire after assuming the caliphate in 750 CE.","spellings":["Abbasid","Abbasids"]},"e2af48f9-49cb-51b7-84fd-bbcca177f07b":{"definition":"Masonry technique used in facades of historical buildings and characterised by alternating rows of light (yellow or white) and dark (red or black) stones or bricks.  \n  \nThe first fortress built in this style in northern Arabia during the 5th century AD was the fortress of Samawal. The style spread from al-Andalus, specifically from the Great Mosque of Cordoba (AH 170 / AD 776) into Islamic architecture. It became popular in the Levant due to the availability of white limestone and black basalt. A notable example is the Azem (or Ablaq) Palace in Damascus. Examples in Cairo include Khanqah Baybars al-Jashankir and the mosque built by Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun.","spellings":["Ablaq","Iplik"]},"8e22eece-aa71-5c15-9776-799a90bed70e":{"definition":"A practice of ritual cleansing with water to be performed before prayer.","spellings":["Ablution"]},"ee146c66-d28a-545e-ba9f-fbf2e523c6a5":{"definition":"An ancient city in Algeria, first capital of the Muslim dynasty of the Zirids.","spellings":["Achir"]},"870f1783-fcfb-57f0-806e-5a4684d21fb7":{"definition":"Call to prayer. Tr. *ezan*. See also *muezzin*.","spellings":["Adhan","Adhane","Adzan","Athan","Azan","Ezan"]},"199be476-a6fb-5584-8c39-6af25455b9be":{"definition":"A paper-treating process. Paper that was to be used for calligraphy had to be treated to prevent the ink from spreading. The paper was sized (*ahar*) with a special solution to obtain a very smooth surface.","spellings":["Ahar","Aharli"]},"84e97899-231d-5674-b71e-5b985f91973b":{"definition":"A decorative historical interior design technique and remains one of Syria’s best known handcrafts. The word itself describes different elements of the craft: from the act of applying relief paste to a plain surface, to the resulting ornamentation. Ajami also describes the type of room cladded with these artfully painted wooden panels. It is often complemented by the so called opus sectile works and complex carvings.","spellings":["Ajami"]},"34f3c711-7719-5478-a311-2b54051f81d0":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Just, fair.","spellings":["Adil","Adili","Al Adl","Al-Adili"]},"b80f901c-a916-59e9-aef8-0417192fcbbe":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Sublime, ever exalted, supreme, The Exalted.","spellings":["Al-Ali"]},"b167cfe8-dff2-5e19-ba87-f3396f0af125":{"definition":"The 6th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cattle\". It is composed of 165 verses.","spellings":["Al-An'am"]},"c44302b7-5b2a-5247-b1b7-8c1a06993aa4":{"definition":"The 2nd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cow\". It is composed of 286 verses.","spellings":["Al-Baqara","Al-Baqarah"]},"747e800c-2146-5632-889b-02f277a7ec61":{"definition":"From the Arabic word *Dawla*, meaning to turn, alternate, or come around in a cyclical fashion. The sense of alternating periods of fortune or misfortune led Arab writers to use the word when speaking of dynastic succession. In the 19th century, as Western distinctions between the state and the government began to filter into Muslim countries, Dawla became increasingly disentangled from its more personalistic connotations and began to be used almost exclusively in the sense of \"state\".","spellings":["Ad-Dawla","Al-Dawla"]},"201d853b-4474-51af-9e70-8502823535b6":{"definition":"The 48th Chapter/Surah of the Quran, meaning \"The Victory\". It is composed of 29 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fath"]},"b29a1eb8-4d03-527c-a470-6d9b2d53269c":{"definition":"The 1st Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Opening\". It is composed of 7 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fatiha","Al-Fātiḥah","Fatiha"]},"9c2e2004-3d90-5af9-823b-a7e2d698d965":{"definition":"The 3rd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Family of Irman\". It is composed of 200 verses.","spellings":["Al-Imran"]},"40da1488-6b0c-5407-91ab-fe344505219c":{"definition":"The 18th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cave\". It is composed of 110 verses.","spellings":["Al-Kahf"]},"55aae703-bcda-5ede-aedc-b02a0583cc19":{"definition":"The 67th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Sovereignty\". It is composed of 30 verses.","spellings":["Al-Mulk"]},"3d741e10-844b-53b3-bd76-b7ab36e8c586":{"definition":"The 4th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Women\". It is composed of 176 verses.","spellings":["Al-Nisa","An-Nisa"]},"1dd45db8-f741-5e90-9598-aa5bed784e70":{"definition":"The 54th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Moon\". It is composed of 55 verses.","spellings":["Al-Qamar"]},"b6bf9297-6c19-524c-aaab-018a4692c5ad":{"definition":"The 32nd Chapter/ Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Prostration\". It is composed of 3- verses.","spellings":["Al-Sajda","As-Sajdah"]},"1732d847-9072-5d1d-8fac-f261ec1dcf98":{"definition":"An Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar, who was one of the first contributors of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence.","spellings":["Al-Shafi","Al-Shafi'i"]},"782abace-0002-5e80-8b1f-a5cb1d7a353a":{"definition":"The 9th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Repentance\". It is composed of 129 verses.","spellings":["Al-Tawba","At-Tawbah","Taubah"]},"081c777a-a6b8-599a-b2cc-1ea7f2513031":{"definition":"Pottery jar for apothecaries’ ointments and dry drugs made in the Near East and in Spain and produced in Italy from the 15th through the 18th century. Since the jar had to be easy to hold, use, and shelve, its basic form was cylindrical but incurved for grasping and wide-mouthed for access.","spellings":["Albarello"]},"dceda078-7d62-5c3e-8496-f4337836cba0":{"definition":"From Arabic *qaryah*. Hamlet, village.","spellings":["Alcaria","Qaryah"]},"16131753-740a-5b87-bfb9-06606e67de19":{"definition":"A flag, banner or standard. They were carried next to a commander in a military campaign or were used in religious processions. They could be very different in shape and had geometric designs, sometimes with inscriptions. A metal *alem* could be mounted to the head of a pole.","spellings":["Alem"]},"0e59a881-b976-53f8-b105-4ec6f1ec35b6":{"definition":"Alfardones (sg. alfardón) are elongated-hexagon tiles, usually decorated with text or floral and vegetative motifs.","spellings":["Alfardon"]},"39b15d5c-120b-51e4-b058-0cc18bb7226a":{"definition":"From Ar. *farsh*. A flat ceiling of carved or artistically interlaced wood. It can also be a floor.","spellings":["Alfarje","Farsh"]},"22b53494-49b4-56ac-8f6f-9b4231d55ce1":{"definition":"(Pl. *alfices* (Es), *alfizes* (Pt)) From Ar. *hayyiz*. Rectangular surround to the Arabic arch, which frames the spandrels and starts from either the imposts or the base.","spellings":["Alfices","Alfiz","Alfizes","Alhayyiz","Alhiz"]},"b4b7cd95-2eef-5482-9f26-076ce3f742d8":{"definition":"First letter of the Arabic alphabet.","spellings":["Aleph","Alif"]},"d622d348-fe31-5163-9440-a84a07e7456c":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘ulama’*) Scholar, doctor of law and Islamic theological science. Fr: ouléma or uléma. Tr: alim, pl. ulema.","spellings":["‘Alim","Alim","Ulama","Ulema"]},"aac9c393-bcc9-5f99-b897-4114d6818298":{"definition":"Renegade.","spellings":["Alj"]},"e201e09c-f4b8-5f58-9289-a2b07a586749":{"definition":"Angular polygonal decorative elements, formed in the shape of an almond. Along with other polygonal decorative elements, they are used in combination to make more elaborate and complex geometric decorative schemes.","spellings":["Almendrillas"]},"fb4643f3-3421-5aaa-8b4f-85806f394bac":{"definition":"A designation for a two-dimensional ornamental pattern in Islamic art. Arabesques are constructed designs based on intertwined leaf stems and tendrils that create a continuous pattern sometimes in connection with scrolls or geometrical elements.","spellings":["Arabesque"]},"983e0813-bc71-581c-82c8-e8186f09992d":{"definition":"A row of shops aligned along a street, which may be covered or open. See also *bazaar*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Arasta"]},"13b13347-73d9-5e9b-896e-e43453a70910":{"definition":"(pl. of *rabat*). In Sufi tradition, an *arbita *refers to a hospice combined with an educational establishment.**","spellings":["Arbita"]},"4b276222-ccaa-52f9-9e53-a26c705c0197":{"definition":"On the 10th day of Muharram, in Türkiye, both Sunni and Alevi-Bektashi Muslims prepare and share Ashura (also known as Noah’s pudding), a ritual dish believed to symbolise prosperity.","spellings":["Ashura"]},"f80f3b72-49a9-5057-bd6f-021ba24a6071":{"definition":"A medieval scientific instrument used for astronomical calculations and navigation.","spellings":["Astrolabe"]},"1967d28e-68f6-5e68-b680-9a66e81477fb":{"definition":"Commander-in-chief of the armies. Atabegs were appointed as tutors for young Seljuq princes acting as governors of important towns but they gained power and in time their independence.","spellings":["Atabeg","Atabek"]},"7b9c0eb4-b88c-5f12-a29c-fb04001f136d":{"definition":"From Ar. *tayfur*. Bowl or deep plate characteristic of al-Andalus ceramic production.","spellings":["Ataifor","Tayfur"]},"78fafab8-3f5e-5796-824d-1b42baff7c16":{"definition":"From Ar. *tawriq*. Stylised plant motif ornamentation inspired by the classical acanthus, much used in Hispano-Muslim art.","spellings":["Ataurique","Tawriq"]},"6fd1696a-b5d7-52af-9ddf-69cb25fba143":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘attarin*) Merchant of perfume, incense and medicinal plants.","spellings":["‘Attar","Attarin","Ittar"]},"6aa4c10c-2dae-5c27-8ba4-156ce70454d5":{"definition":"Historic region of India (also called Oudh), since 1947 part of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh","spellings":["Awadh","Oudh"]},"f8abb38d-e51e-5fc5-9493-dc1508482dcf":{"definition":"Plural of Wakf, meaning religious endowments. Also meaning endowments.","spellings":["Awkaf","Awqaf"]},"8383edc1-0cb4-52fa-9e3a-219b3a940129":{"definition":"(Pl. *ayat*) Verse in the Qur’an. Tr. ayet.","spellings":["Aya","Ayah","Ayat"]},"1af94c96-d6eb-511f-8cdd-4fca18aafa8e":{"definition":"A spring.","spellings":["‘Ayn","Ayn"]},"9802ab8a-e9c6-50b6-b1ee-f80871954f07":{"definition":"Location in Jerusalem.","spellings":["Ayzariyya"]},"e6913e4d-77b8-54e6-8aff-ae3476396952":{"definition":"Hexagonal decorative element. Along with other polygonal decorative elements, it is used to create more elaborate and complex decorative schemes.","spellings":["Azafates"]},"b5ff90ab-5823-5d04-95e0-dc19f7472200":{"definition":"A Spanish and Portuguese term for glazed tiles which have been set into a larger pattern to cover walls in courtyards of mosques and palaces. It is a term common all over the Maghreb. See also *zellij*.","spellings":["Azulejo"]},"4c2bb21c-6364-5e2c-ad76-cc117a2e1056":{"definition":"Gate, door.","spellings":["Bab"]},"e44ace71-d122-5c82-bf6b-34a79ff4b2d8":{"definition":"Literally “sons of”, used to refer to members of a clan. Plural of *ibn / bin*.","spellings":["Bani","Banu"]},"9d8dd39e-6208-5b40-8479-7eb99bd94348":{"definition":"Blessings or bounty. Tr. *Bereket*.","spellings":["Baraka","Barakah","Barakat","Barkati","Bereket"]},"ac8a2874-8a19-55b3-9857-60843740d359":{"definition":"Dignitary. See also pasha.","spellings":["Basha"]},"ac67e975-1f75-526f-a8cd-402ccde93f6f":{"definition":"A formula, *bi-‘ism Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim*, which is commonly translated as “In the name of God, the Clement, the Merciful”. Fr. *besmala*; Tr. *besmele*.","spellings":["Basmala","Basmalah","Besmala","Besmele","Bi-smi llāh"]},"4191f5bc-9dab-51a1-8306-964a410fec3b":{"definition":"A type of jug.","spellings":["Batta"]},"b8c40deb-d541-5941-870e-bbb5a22c7520":{"definition":"(Pl. *biyut*) Room; in certain cases a house. *baytal-Hikma*: tribunal. *bayt ad-diwan*: reception hall. *bayt al-nar*: furnace, literally “house of the fire”. See also *dar*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Bayt","Bayt-al-diwan","Bayt-al-nar","Beyt","Biyut"]},"9f0f473b-d1c4-579a-830e-8c67cf9124bc":{"definition":"Public market or designated place for commerce; covered market with doors (Persia). Fr. bazar. See also *arasta*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bazaar","Bazar"]},"d262760a-d7c7-5583-b3d6-98f5a67ea709":{"definition":"A commercial building with at least two aisles (in Istanbul three or four) and covered with domes of equal size. The most precious merchandise was kept in *bedesten*s, which functioned like banks do today. The word was derived from *bezzazistan* where bezzaz means a seller of fabrics. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bedesten"]},"7aec7586-75a7-5362-b7c6-f62646540331":{"definition":"A decorative technique developed in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century in Samarra for stucco panels, marble and woodwork, which shows vegetal ornaments in an abstract way and has slanted or bevelled contours.","spellings":["Bevelled style"]},"816929a9-190c-57b7-8bc6-469a25050fac":{"definition":"The ruler of an independent emirate; a title of respect for a man of the upper classes; title held by the sovereign vassals of the sultan. *Beylerbeyi*: The bey of beys: the highest rank in the provincial government of the Ottoman Empire. *Beylicat*, *beylik*: soverignty of or territory ruled by a bey. See also *agha*, *dey*.","spellings":["Bey","Beylicat","Beylik"]},"5f7e8640-1f2b-52a9-a589-f51ed84f4b50":{"definition":"Hospital, infirmary or asylum.  \n  \nTr. *darüşşifa*, *şifahane*.","spellings":["Bimarestan","Bimaristan","Darüşşifa","Maristan","Şifahane"]},"5f340924-0a32-5b50-8c50-755492945fed":{"definition":"In the Islamic world blue-and-white ceramics appeared in Mesopotamia in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. Blue-and-white porcelain in China produced from the 8th / 14th century onwards had great influence in the Islamic world where it was collected at court and was imitated in the workshops of Ottoman Iznik and Safawid Iran.","spellings":["Blue-and-white"]},"73a9a2a0-a42b-53fb-aea6-1b24711d35fc":{"definition":"A usually glass collar on a candle socket to catch drippings or on a candlestick or chandelier to hold suspended glass prisms.","spellings":["Bobeche"]},"53b06a4c-1741-53c4-bd23-415aa3ce7613":{"definition":"Fort, bastion, tower, sometimes surrounded by an outer wall. The term passed into mediaeval Portuguese toponymy as *alvorge* or porches. In Tunisia it also means a secondary residence surrounded by gardens; a pleasure palace. Maghreb *borj*. Egypt *burg*. Tr. *burç*.","spellings":["Bordj","Borj","Burç","Burg","Burj"]},"5a9bc858-c027-5f9a-91c2-3756c4d27816":{"definition":"A universal oriental rug design element. Boteh is Persian for \"bush\" and buta is Hindi for \"flower\".","spellings":["Boteh","Buta"]},"9c5b0b5e-062a-5b06-ace2-d6a40e4d5cb9":{"definition":"The term \"Bustaan\" or \"Bustan\" directly translates to \"Garden\" or \"Orchard.\" It is also the title of a poetry book penned by the Persian poet Saadi in AH 655/ AD 1257. The book is rich with valuable spiritual guidance and practical wisdom.","spellings":["Boostaan","Boostan","Bostan","Boustan","Bustaan","Bustan"]},"b3b18f28-32c7-5836-ae64-e0df239443e1":{"definition":"The Byzantine empire (306 to 1453) which was preceded by the Roman empire and succeeded by the Ottoman Empire.","spellings":["Byzantine"]},"b6c3a09c-964b-5dd3-a091-e608967fe6ff":{"definition":"Ar. *khalifa* literally “successor”. The supreme head of the Muslim community. Caliphate: the territory under the power of the caliph.","spellings":["Caliph","Khalifa","Khalifah"]},"c2953466-916b-57e9-9f3b-409c9af9afa1":{"definition":"The “art of beautiful writing” (Greek) is one of the highest artforms of Islamic culture. As the Arabic language is connected with the revelation of Islam, calligraphy has deep spiritual undertones and is valued as a symbol of beauty and mystery. There are many types of calligraphy with variations according to period, place and context. Many artists of the Arab and Muslim world continue to practise calligraphy today. See also *diwani*, *farsi*, *kufic*, Maghribi-Andalusi, *muhaqqaq*, *naskhi*, *nas*ta’liq**, *rayhani*, *ruq’a*, *ta’liq*, *thuluth*.","spellings":["Calligraphy"]},"014b74c8-3720-578e-b437-bd761597b51c":{"definition":"Star shaped decorative element with five arms. Combined with other polygonal decorative elements, candilejos are used to make more elaborate and complex geometric decorative schemes.","spellings":["Candilejos"]},"801f574d-c2f6-52a3-ae7c-6a0074f1c59b":{"definition":"From Persian. Hostel along main travelling routes to accommodate travellers and safeguard their goods. See also *funduq*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Caravanserai"]},"90c8aeb0-fee7-5ad8-b2e8-525f87d18e3a":{"definition":"Fortress, citadel, usually equated with the city centre. Ar. *qasba*. *Ksiba*: small kasbah, the name of a neighbourhood in Bizerte, Tunisia. See also *hisn*, *qal’a*.","spellings":["Casbah","Kasbah","Ksiba","Ksibah","Qasaba","Qasba","Qasbah"]},"66c3c71a-cd8d-535b-aa60-f42837728e24":{"definition":"A Latin term (pl. castra) meaning legionary camp, castle, fortified town.","spellings":["Castra","Castrum"]},"ecd12214-7b80-5d96-a6e4-054647695519":{"definition":"Curved concave sweep.","spellings":["Cavetto"]},"a27048f2-e463-56af-bb14-17e5dd57b741":{"definition":"A title of respect, given to men of the upper classes; the epithet of Sultan Mehmed I. Tr. *Çelebi*.","spellings":["Çelebi","Chalabi"]},"8013dd99-b044-5c32-9cd2-44d308c0c03d":{"definition":"A term used in enamelled metalworking. Enamel glass powder is fired and fixed within depressions incised in the surface of the metal. In pottery this term is used for vessels with decoration standing out in relief obtained by taking away a slip and receiving an additional covering with a lead glaze.","spellings":["Champlevé"]},"988f73c6-aa80-5184-979f-cc026b118caf":{"definition":"A frieze of geometric motifs, also meaning reminiscent of crenelations.","spellings":["Charafa"]},"e6ca4d52-63e1-5c91-8d45-5c007bd19735":{"definition":"Artistic motifs originally from China that were used in Islamic art reflecting the strong Chinese influence since the Mongol periods. Typical designs are cloudbands, lotus-flowers and fabulous creatures such as the qilin. See also blue-and-white, *hatayi*, Ming-style, wave-and-rock motif.","spellings":["Chinoiserie","Ming-style"]},"4a12c207-113d-5b87-992e-9db5d88374f3":{"definition":"The first Muslim societies continued to use Byzantine solidus gold coins and Sassanian silver dirhams. In time, Qur'anic phrases, place of minting, names of caliph and sultan and Hijri date were added. With the Umayyad coinage revolution in AH 696–7 / AD 1296–7, pure epigraphic coins came into use. Akche: silver coin, basic unit of Ottoman money system; dinar: gold coin, equal to 10 dirhams; fils: copper coin.","spellings":["Coinage"]},"ecb796d7-8a47-5b6b-b1de-735827242cfc":{"definition":"\"Corals, like pearls, are an organic material which have earned their place within the world of precious stones. They are valued not only for their physical properties and beauty, but also because of their symbolic and spiritual properties. Corals are miniature sea organisms called polyps, which live in warm and clear waters. Their skeletons consist mainly of calcium carbonate, which hardens after a coral dies. Coral colonies are made up of individual coral “trees” which, while growing, intertwine. Corals come in many colors, but the most common is red in a variety of shades.  \nCorals are widely used for jewelry and other decorative arts. Many traits, positive and negative, have been attributed to corals, and they are mentioned in the histories of all cultures that had the opportunity to encounter them. The Quran briefly mentions corals, as well as rubies, as the stones that symbolize celestial women in paradise. In Hindu culture, it is believed that the tender young leaves of the Kalpa tree, a symbolical offering to the gods, were made of corals. In general, corals symbolize loyalty and sacrifice, and have also been associated with cures for the plague and other diseases. Belief in the healing powers of the stone has affiliated it with the protection of children.\"","spellings":["Coral","Corals"]},"44562f82-b0b6-5353-939a-47fccfb7fa3c":{"definition":"Sacred text of the Islamic Revelation transmitted by the Archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad. From the root *qr*’, “to recite, to read”.","spellings":["Coran","Koran","Kuran","Qur’an","Quran"]},"61dd2431-5d5a-563f-98ea-305257d3eed8":{"definition":"Literally “dry cord”, a way of separating different coloured glazes on a tile during firing with greased cords. The term is also used for the technique of delineating the contours of a design with a mixture of wax or vegetable fat and manganese oxide. It is also known as “coloured glaze technique” in Turkish art and is seen in Turkey in the AH 9th–10th / AD 15th–16th centuries.","spellings":["Cuerda seca"]},"f3052f85-4db5-5572-a790-f3dc9a248659":{"definition":"(Pl. *dur*) House. *Dar al-imara*: Governor’s house. Dar al-Islam: Domain of Islam: countries under Islamic rule; where Islam did not rule was considered war territory. *Dar al-Hadith*: A school for studying the Hadith; Tr. *Darülhadis*. *Dar al-Hijra*: Abode for migration. *Dar al-khuffaz*: A school for training of memorising the Qur’an; Tr. *Darülhuffaz*. Dar al-Qurra’: school for teaching Qur’an recitation as a science ; Tr. *Darülkurra*. *Dar al-shifa’*: hospital; Tr. **darüşşifa**. *Dar al-tibb*: A school where the medical sciences were taught; Tr. *Darüttıb*. See also *bayt*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Dar","Dar al-Hadith","Dar al-Hijra","Dar al-imara","Dar al-Islam","Dar al-khuffaz","Dar al-shifa’","Dar al-tibb","Darülhadis","Darülhuffaz","Darülkurra","Darüşşifa","Darüttıb"]},"0b0c9320-1a31-574f-aa24-7c9a581717b2":{"definition":"Alleyway, route. In Morocco and Tunisia derb: alley or by extension a neighbourhood. *Darb al-Hajj*: route taken to Mecca by pilgrims from every corner of the Islamic world. Usually all necessary services, especially security, were provided by the administration. Caravans would meet at specified times in designated places, e.g. the Turkish caravan would meet the caravan from al-Sham and they would travel together to join the Jordanian and Palestinian caravans.","spellings":["Darb","Darb al-Hajj","Derb"]},"a4f8f7c7-245b-5188-b8fe-8085676b0785":{"definition":"Mausoleum. See also *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Darih"]},"b64a1f79-8f29-5ad4-8e98-379f8e05cb1b":{"definition":"Member of a Muslim religious order noted for its devotional practices. Fr. *derviche*.","spellings":["Darvesh","Darwish","Derviche","Dervish"]},"9e337d3c-af6d-5856-bb0c-0ed39eab0859":{"definition":"Term used in Libya, Tunisia and Algeria for a high-ranking officer in the Turkish militia elected by a local council of janissaries. Below the Ottoman *Beylerbeyi* in rank deys nevertheless represented absolute power in the region. When they came into conflict with the Ottoman court, they were punished heavily. Tr. *dayı*. See also *agha*, *bey*.","spellings":["Daya","Dayi","Dey"]},"31591fdd-18fb-5898-b2ac-33ccb03797c8":{"definition":"A place with a very small population in the state and region of Amman Governorate in Jordan.","spellings":["Dhab'a","Dhaba"]},"eb4ec166-81db-5b55-9f7c-de12b453b102":{"definition":"The term dhikr comes from the triliteral root that means \"to remember\". In the context of the Islamic tradition, dhikr means the remembrance of God. This remembrance of God can take many forms. The word dhikr is also used to mean litanies and specific phrases in remembrance of God. This term could mean the Quran.","spellings":["Dhikr","Thikr","Zekr","Zikar","Zikr"]},"30a317f8-dd77-54b9-ba2d-fe25e643cf98":{"definition":"A crown or headband, sometimes adorned with jewels. The word derives from the Greek *διάδημα* diádēma, \"band\" or \"fillet\",from *διαδέω* diadéō, \"I bind round\", or \"I fasten\".","spellings":["Diadem","Diadema"]},"a63b6fb1-4ed2-5e10-a649-69af7e23c299":{"definition":"Diamonds (today) are known as the most prized gemstones, but they have not always had this reputation. They were primarily valued for their physical properties, particularly their hardness and fire resistance. Due to these traits, numerous myths have been created about diamonds, some of which date back to the 17th century or before. Several powers have been attributed to the stone, including purification, invincibility, and even the ability to spontaneously create others of its kind. In ancient Arabic medicine there was a belief that diamonds could cure all illnesses of the body and mind. One of the most popular legends involving diamonds is of the so-called Diamond Valley. Dating from the 4th century BC, the legend speaks of an inaccessible valley filled with snakes and other terrifying creatures, the floor of which is covered with an endless amount of diamonds. This legend has further contributed to the idea that diamonds are rare and immensely hard to find.","spellings":["Diamond","Diamonds"]},"f68bb09f-0323-528e-a7bc-c97eec5531d8":{"definition":"Monetary unit used in several countries. It was first introduced as an Islamic coinage in the late 7th century CE by Abd al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty. The dinar dates from the Roman times, when it was known as denarius. Made of gold.","spellings":["Dinar","Dinara"]},"dc07b2ea-551e-5012-a166-43402ac5534c":{"definition":"Silver coins, also used as a weight standard (2.97g).","spellings":["Dirham","Dirhem","Dirhm"]},"5117e6c8-5cec-5590-83a7-081569b2f889":{"definition":"(demon, monster, fiend), often confused with *ḡūl *(orge, ghoul) and jinn in both folk and literary traditions, expresses not only the idea of \"demon\", but also that of \"ogre\", \"giant\", and even \"Satan\". They are often black, with long teeth, black lips, blue eyes, claws on their hands, and large bodies covered with thick hair.**","spellings":["Dev","Div"]},"3230cdd8-ec0e-5aa1-9b44-adc5716d86b8":{"definition":"An office of government; audience hall, reception chamber; a collection of poems. Tr. divan; divan-ı Hümayun: the Imperial Council, chaired by the Grand Vizier, forming the central organ of the Ottoman government.","spellings":["Divan","Diwan","Diwani","Diwaniya"]},"68be9f26-eb6e-5276-b60c-690997493d6e":{"definition":"In military architecture the inner tower or stronghold of a castle, the keep.","spellings":["Donjon"]},"1716f8d4-fa82-5204-b71c-843312201e82":{"definition":"Central area in mosques and *madrasas*, giving access to other rooms. Usually surrounded by two or four *iwans*, and covered by a wooden ceiling with openings for light and ventilation.","spellings":["Durqa‘a","Durqaa"]},"476a1ad7-f594-57bd-8ef5-ddfe4dba9e8b":{"definition":"A lacquer technique first seen in Iran in the AH 9th / AD 15th century during the Timurid period. It was named after Edirne in Turkey from where the best examples came. It was used on different media such as bindings, drawers and bows.","spellings":["Edirnekari"]},"16e5e640-a860-5917-bc5f-7e13a3825ded":{"definition":"\"Emeralds are gemstones from the beryl mineral group which develop in a hexagonal shape. The gemstone got its name because of its color (from the Greek *Smaragdos*, meaning green stone), and it is said to symbolize the force of cosmic life, strength and inner peace.  \nEmeralds are considered to be the gemstones of alchemists, who believe the emerald of wisdom gives life to nature. In Central America, they are related to fertility. In ancient Egypt, emeralds decorated funerary jewelry of noblemen and other high-ranking individuals. Because the gems were extremely rare, green colored glass or pottery were sometimes used instead.\"","spellings":["Emerald","Emeralds"]},"8f750e3f-a3f4-5b39-8f9c-97cbf1eb56ec":{"definition":"A military commander, prince or senior official; the ruler of an emirate or principality; Tr. *emir*. amir akhur: *amir* responsible for sultan’s stables, camels and postal service; Tr. *emir* *ahur* or imrahor. amir al-Mu’minin: Prince of Believers; Tr. *emirü’l-müminin*. amir al-Muslimin: Prince of Muslims; Tr. *emirü’l-müslimin*. amir al-silah: *amir* responsible for arms. amir kabir: Great Amir. Fr. *émir*.","spellings":["Ahur","Amir","Amir Akhur","Amir al-Muslimin","Amir al-silah","Emir","Emirü’l-müminin","Imahor"]},"5d77d3cf-d7dc-59de-8fe9-16b4846e152d":{"definition":"Another name for slip, now largely obsolete.","spellings":["Engobe"]},"cd62ef51-dfea-5e66-a924-b9ac8fd72a21":{"definition":"A French term for maiolica, tin-glazed earthenware of post-Medieval Europe. Also a ceramic composed of a body of crushed quartz and an overlying glaze, common in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Capable of being moulded into small objects which were initially confused with earthenware with a white tin glaze and the term faience, incorrectly applied, has remained in use.","spellings":["Faience"]},"72193f41-0197-51af-a704-1102b4a3cf85":{"definition":"Lamp, beacon. See also *manar*.","spellings":["Fanar","Fener","Fnar"]},"6f9e5b1d-8c35-59ba-9052-011f4c240ecf":{"definition":"The evaluation of the goodness or badness of deeds according to the Islamic point of view was called *fiqh* (understanding), and the person holding the qualities of knowledge and competence to produce opinions in this respect was called faqih (the knowledgeable who understands well). The consideration of human actions within an Islamic religious context was encouraged by sayings of the Prophet, such as \"He whom God favours with good, God makes him the one who understands in religion (*faqih*)\".","spellings":["Faqih"]},"3fd5d8e5-d6d9-5084-a7bc-f270946f8c24":{"definition":"\"Farsi\" refers to the Persian language. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and is written in the Persian script.  \n  \n1\\. An inhabitant of Persia. 2. Cursive, particularly elegant calligraphic style which emphasises the curves of the Arabic letters by reducing the angular figures. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Farsi"]},"38f9b696-41fe-5bb6-aea9-f97476afeed6":{"definition":"This term has different meanings:  \n  \nFez  \nCity in northern Morocco  \n  \nFez  \nA brimless cylindrical or somewhat cone-shaped hat with a flat top that usually has a tassel, is typically made of red felt, and is worn especially by men in eastern Mediterranean countries","spellings":["Fes","Fez"]},"83ff6b98-4005-5eb0-8acb-322d72def706":{"definition":"Bronze coin.","spellings":["Fals","Fils"]},"664a6020-4914-5595-8215-d0a0af9a4b9e":{"definition":"(Pl. *fuqaha’*) Muslim canonical jurisprudence. *Fqih*: jurisconsult versed in the code of Islam, the person specialising in *fiqh’*. There are four schools of Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. See also Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i.","spellings":["Fiqh","Fuqaha'"]},"30b4ea5c-4774-5bfc-bea3-025184b06e0f":{"definition":"A designation for a ceramic body consisting mainly of quartz and some glaze mixture. In the firing process the quartz and the glaze fuse to a white body, sometimes also called stonepaste.","spellings":["Fritware"]},"a28b8897-e81c-58ac-8bd9-29b1a5ac80c3":{"definition":"Horizontal bands in Ottoman textiles.","spellings":["Frogging"]},"720487c1-6546-5ad8-96ce-6caedac4ddab":{"definition":"A leaf with illustration preceding the title-page of a book.","spellings":["Frontispiece"]},"ac65deea-d395-59f6-bb9f-0cdc678424a3":{"definition":"\"The term garnet includes a large group of silicate minerals which have the same basic structure and a consistent chemical formation which occasionally vaires when other elements are present. The name of this gemstone derives from the Latin term *granum*, meaning grain. Garnets come in all colors, among which the most common is red and the rarest is blue. Garnets can be divided into a series of subtypes: pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular, uvarovite and andradite.  \nThe most popular and widely used of these is the pyrope subtype. For a long time, pyropes and almandines were grouped under the same name, which was carbuncle. In ancient Judeo-Christian legend, it is believed that Noah used a carbuncle to light up his arc. The name pyrope comes from the Greek word *pyropos*, meaning fire-like, since pyropes are of a recognizable red palette. The stone was particularly popular around the globe in the 18th and 19th centuries. The main sources of this subtype of garnet can be found in the Czech Republic, which is why it was commonly called the “Czech Ruby”. Because of their abundance, garnets are omnipresent in European decorative arts. Garnet mines can also be found across Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\"","spellings":["Garnet","Garnets"]},"1123d155-1d0c-59e5-8ecc-ca1e2b7a31e9":{"definition":"From ghazwa (military raid), referring to a noble title for those who participated in battles for Islam. It became a military rank during the Mamluk period and was notably applied to Mahmud of Ghazni, as inscribed on Mahmud’s Tower in Ghazni in AH 421 / AD 1030. Tr. *gazi*.","spellings":["Gazi","Ghazi"]},"09e9e553-3757-50e9-a411-6aaea263cdac":{"definition":"The so-called Turkish knot in a pile rug or carpet. Another term is symmetrical knot or double knot. The asymmetrical knot exists in Persian carpets, called a Senneh knot.","spellings":["Ghiordes (Gördes) knot"]},"e0e8a76f-5937-523a-b87b-6d2a0c6528d7":{"definition":"Applying gold to the surface of an artwork. Gilding can be applied to most materials, including marble, stone, stucco, wood, metalwork, ceramics, glass and paper. Different techniques are used to apply gold, as it can be applied in a light wash or as gold-leaf foil. Tr. *tombak*, gilded copper technique.","spellings":["Gilding (gold)","Tombak"]},"f2b2bdf4-e6b8-5c67-94e3-3fdbc00d8e88":{"definition":"A thin layer of glass is applied to the surface of a ceramic before firing. In the kiln firing the glaze fuses, protecting the ceramic and making it waterproof and suitable for different purposes. Lead glaze is transparent and soft but vulnerable to cracking and chemical deformation. Tin glaze: an opaque white glaze containing tin, developed in Baghdad in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century to rival Chinese porcelain and transmitted from there to Moorish Spain and then the rest of Europe. Faience, maiolica and Delft wares have tin glazing.","spellings":["Glaze"]},"04723e93-e903-5ff8-abd0-54ec24fd67cf":{"definition":"Italian, literally, “scratched”. The pottery vessels made in this technique have received a slip and a decoration that is incised through the slip showing the contrasting colour of the body. The decoration is then covered with an additional lead glaze.","spellings":["Graffiato","Sgraffito"]},"bf45b8ed-e1ac-5ab7-a72d-85c57ebcf786":{"definition":"A decorative ceramic glazing technique where the only colours used are the green of copper oxide and almost black manganese. At the end of the process, the whole composition is covered with a transparent layer of lead glaze.","spellings":["Green and manganese"]},"2fb79a2a-639b-5703-9b25-ab627b16aef8":{"definition":"A gift of real estate bequeathed in perpetuity under certain conditions in favour of a mosque or other religious institution, such as a *madrasa* or *khanqah*, or a civil institution such as a *sabil*, or even a house. See also *waqf*.","spellings":["Habus"]},"c18561f3-9ed2-5c21-92a7-c3476d781d57":{"definition":"Literally, “sayings”. Body of traditions related to the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. *Dar al-Hadith*: see *dar*.","spellings":["Hadis","Hadith"]},"2321357b-4aa3-502a-a078-82ed79384c60":{"definition":"Female garment worn in Algeria particularly in central Algeria. Also describes the word for embroider.","spellings":["Haik"]},"4a7c27f5-2059-522b-a21e-ee99a0c6ac00":{"definition":"A high government official. The term originally designated a chamberlain, but under the Spanish Umayyads the *hajib* functioned as a chief minister, paralleling the position of vizier in the eastern caliphates.","spellings":["Hadjib","Hajib"]},"cccf5396-0f64-5785-9f34-bb8b7a5ffd5b":{"definition":"One of the five pillars of Islam: pilgrimage to Mecca and holy places, which all believers must accomplish at least once during their lifetime if they have the means to do so. By extension it also refers to someone who undertakes the pilgrimage. Hajj takes place two months after Ramadan and finishes with the Feast of Sacrifice (Eid al-Adha). ‘Umra has almost the same rituals as the Hajj but takes place outside the Hajj season. ‘Umra’s significance is growing because there is no means to house the increasingly large numbers (over three million) who want to go on Hajj.","spellings":["Hadj","Hadji","Haj","Hajj"]},"fc74d5ab-7517-53a5-9a58-0cb34c65fec8":{"definition":"Public or private bathhouse. Apodyterium: changing room; Tr. *soyunmalık*. Caldarium: hot room. Hypocaust: floor and wall heating system by steam in Roman baths and villas. Tepidarium: warm room where bathers would rest after bathing; Tr. *ılıklık*. Also in Turkish bathhouse: *aralık*: passageway between the *soyunmalık* and *ılıklık*; *halvet*: private chambers in a public bath; *traşlık*: small room used for the removal of body hair. Also in Syrian bathhouse: *barrani* (lit. “exterior”): the cold room of a bathhouse because it is usually located furthest from the furnace; *juwwani*: most interior part, closest to furnace – steam room; *wustani*: middle chambers designated as the “warm water chambers”. See also *maqsura*.","spellings":["Hamam","Hammam","Hammams"]},"cc92b83e-cb72-55df-b6de-8ddaf5a44e3f":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. Hanbeli. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanbali"]},"982c3a21-b99b-5c3b-b3d3-65276466c18d":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man, it became the chosen school of the Ottomans. Tr. Hanefi. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanafi"]},"d71360cd-eac1-5408-b6b3-59ad3d8464b9":{"definition":"Ar. literally “sacred”, “forbidden”. Sanctuary. An illicit act from the religious point of view. Haram al-Sharif: the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem including al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock.","spellings":["Haram","Haramsarā","Harem","Harīm"]},"0ad8de69-3a63-53bc-8e1b-4c6cae853bca":{"definition":"Common living space in a Turkish house. Tr. also *sofa*.","spellings":["Hayat","Sofa"]},"0f3fb66d-a491-591b-a0c2-56e11ec481aa":{"definition":"Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Madina in AD 622. The beginning of the Muslim Hijri (Hegira) calendar, which follows a lunar year.","spellings":["Hegira","Hijra","Hijrah"]},"dcd58376-8ba5-5488-bec0-53d4cf2fa497":{"definition":"A prose description of the Prophet Muhammad. Hilya-i Sharif: noble description of the prophet, a work of art bearing the noble description.","spellings":["Hilya","Hilye"]},"3d299572-ee10-5a78-93a1-b50bfe645ec5":{"definition":"Castle. See also *qal’a*, *kasbah*.","spellings":["Hisn"]},"c8f1dda2-4eb6-56a9-ab2a-90bd17c5301c":{"definition":"The 11th sura of the Quran, it has 123 verses (ayat). It relates in part to the prophet Hud.","spellings":["Hud"]},"d741661c-846f-560d-a11c-19720819ac9a":{"definition":"Son of, used in names. To indicate a clan the plural form *Bani / Banu*. is used. Tr. –*oğlu*.","spellings":["Ben","bin","ibn"]},"1cde97a5-238a-57b7-ae98-c6e06d4dd4a2":{"definition":"A small metal pot, usually of copper, with a long metal handle, used for preparing Turkish, Arabic, or Greek style coffee. Could also refer to a spouted jug made of metal or clay, usually used for ablution.","spellings":["Ibrik"]},"73a0a800-b933-53ac-9f7a-3030985394ef":{"definition":"Meaning fortune.","spellings":["Eqbal","Igbal","Ikbal","Iqbal"]},"78382734-788f-5068-b99e-3cc129b1f007":{"definition":"Political entity officially known as Iranzamin. It was established and ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu.","spellings":["Ilkhanate","Ilkhanid"]},"441e3156-be30-517c-a195-12e2d3486ed8":{"definition":"One who presides over Islamic prayers, a guide, chief, spiritual model or cleric; sometimes also a political leader in Muslim society.","spellings":["Imam"]},"8f367dab-0120-518e-b2ab-f888fb65bc16":{"definition":"Office or region and country ruled by an Imam (spiritual leader).","spellings":["Imamah","Imamate"]},"7fb96b21-abb1-5f60-883e-2d6e33ce522d":{"definition":"This is a term in Swahili meaning flourishing, strong.","spellings":["Imara"]},"d92f6fd0-31e4-5a3e-a04f-1708743e899b":{"definition":"From Ar. *imara*. A complex of buildings and institutions supported by a *waqf*. After the AH 10th / AD 16th century a public soup-kitchen for the poor.","spellings":["imaret"]},"e6385177-2664-5111-8f62-1320456abb8d":{"definition":"Rectangular basin in the centre of an atrium in the open air for the collection of rainwater.","spellings":["Impluvium"]},"a23158c9-7afc-5a3c-ad75-9ecc73727c13":{"definition":"A technique in which cut ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell or the like are arranged in a geometrical pattern, often within a wooden framework.","spellings":["Inlaying"]},"96a108d1-019f-555a-b601-5b20e5a11257":{"definition":"Land given to army officers in exchange for military and administrative duties.","spellings":["Iqta","Iqta'"]},"1bcff5a5-1586-5d9e-a84e-b16a4a88bdae":{"definition":"The Prophet Muhammad’s midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.","spellings":["Isra"]},"ed1392a3-c2e4-5dca-8b74-eaef4f0f9c94":{"definition":"A vaulted hall or domed hall, walled on three sides with a large opening arch. Tr. eyvan.","spellings":["Eyvan","Ivan","Iwan"]},"eb5afced-0046-5fd2-aa51-8192d7a0f140":{"definition":"Fragment of lintel, a textile outfit.","spellings":["Izar"]},"0c7c1002-ee4f-5507-9e43-3d8636035b0a":{"definition":"A type of architectural decoration, usually in the form of a window grill, constructed of ornaments, geometric motifs and other shapes.","spellings":["Jaali","Jali"]},"a25816af-9610-5a9b-a762-50fcfbbe7fee":{"definition":"Mountain, mountainous terrain. *Jabaliya*: mountain dwellers.","spellings":["Djebel","Jabal","Jabliya","Jebel"]},"273dff1e-b908-5770-9385-d987f829c77f":{"definition":"\"The term jade refers to two types of minerals: jadeite, which is a silicate of sodium and aluminium; and nephrite, a silicate of magnesium, potassium and iron. The two types are quite difficult to distinguish from one another, and therefore are both commonly called jade. These minerals both measure at six point five to seven on the Mohs scale. When cut, jade has a matte appearance, but possesses extraordinary shininess when polished. It comes in a variety of colors, among which the most prized are green, pink and yellow.  \nThe presence of jade in human history dates back over seven thousand years, and in myths it is one of the most mystical and mysterious gemstones. Cultures from many regions, such as South America, Asia and the Pacific Islands, all have their own versions of the story of how jade got its name. Jade is a very important gem in Chinese culture, appearing in many shapes and forms, and is affiliated with numerous beliefs of both protective and romantic natures. It is also believed that when struck, jade can produce the sound of a loved one’s voice. Talismans made from this precious stone are also popular in the Islamic world, especially among ethnic Turks, who pass them through generations as heirlooms.\"","spellings":["Jade","Jades"]},"931ee012-2711-5a21-b4b7-d99c793abaf6":{"definition":"New. Tr. *cedid* or *cedit*.","spellings":["Jadid"]},"070e713b-f503-5f87-be41-16cb73c070b4":{"definition":"Main mosque where daily prayers and Friday prayers are celebrated. Tr. *cami*. See also *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Cami","Djama'a","Djamaa","Djemaa","Jama","Jama'a","Jama’","Jamaa","Jami","Jami‘"]},"b1ec8e21-3e6a-5dda-9949-a516128c3408":{"definition":"An officer in the army of India, or any of several police or other officials of the government of India.","spellings":["Jamadar","Jamdar","Jemadar"]},"7910cc31-4aef-536d-b917-919e64b075ff":{"definition":"The Ottoman sultan’s standing infantry corps, recruited from non-Muslims under the devşirme system and paid from the Treasury. Tr. *Yeniçeri Ocağı*.","spellings":["Janissary","Yeniçeri Ocağı"]},"32060b9a-7161-59c6-9be7-e3a6e3d49442":{"definition":"Literally \"beautiful garden\". Heaven/Paradise. Tr. *cennet*.","spellings":["Cennet","Djena","Djenaïn","Djenan","Janna"]},"90bd1da2-abb0-5d9c-b340-7fc034249c2e":{"definition":"Striving towards moral and religious perfection, the motivation for which may lead to fighting “on the path to God” against dissidents or pagans.","spellings":["Jehad","Jihad"]},"9b746350-d82d-5ab5-9676-62bdb3be99b1":{"definition":"View of the World', a geographical work written by Kâtip Çelebi (Turkish historian, geographer, and bibliographer) that makes the first use, in Turkey, of European atlases and other sources.","spellings":["Cihannüma","Jihannuma"]},"f3e0634c-24ec-55cb-977b-33628dad645e":{"definition":"A type of sword. The jineta sword is most well-known like hispanoarabe, used by the Muslims in the peninsula from 13th century, later the jineta sword was made and used by the Christians from the 15th century.","spellings":["Jineta"]},"b3d75c6a-1878-50e5-88da-5dc169dc75c0":{"definition":"A spirit inhabiting the earth but unseen by humans, capable of assuming various forms and exercising extraordinary powers. Belief in jinn was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, where they were thought to inspire poets and soothsayers. Their existence was affirmed in the Qurʾān, and they are conceptualized in Islam as creatures parallel to human beings who are capable of choosing between good and evil and must thus face eventual salvation or damnation. They are beings of smokeless flame by nature, in the same manner in which humans are said to be made of earth, and they cannot be seen by human beings.","spellings":["Djinn","Genie","Jinn"]},"e6edb4f1-d8d8-54aa-8bf3-e3a0e739c95b":{"definition":"(Pl. *ajnad*) Military and administrative province.","spellings":["Ajnad","Jund"]},"2003ec95-a720-51cb-9dcd-774d9dc9f389":{"definition":"The text of the Qur’an can be divided into 30 equal sections. One-thirtieth is therefore called a *juz’* (pl. ajza). When Qur’ans were written in 30 volumes, as in Mamluk Egypt, one volume was a *juz’*.","spellings":["Ajza","Juz’"]},"98afafd6-f8b6-5d37-923e-752f4697a5a7":{"definition":"Literally “cube”. Temple in Mecca, the centre of the Islamic religion.","spellings":["Ka'bah","Ka‘ba","Kaaba","Kabah"]},"c4bd090a-f131-5065-9dbe-2761690061ca":{"definition":"Limestone used in paving and in the frames of doors and windows.","spellings":["Kadhal"]},"dde3bab2-6c93-59de-b512-d4ebe4ea584d":{"definition":"A usually cotton or silk ankle-length garment with long sleeves that is common throughout the Islamic world.","spellings":["Caftan","Kaftan","Khaftan"]},"a440e09c-19a4-5c75-a54b-ddacd997f4c6":{"definition":"Colourful decoration done with a k*alem* (brush) on a plastered surface.","spellings":["K'alem","Kalemişi"]},"792175b1-51f7-5367-a036-65b029ee9c82":{"definition":"Hand -palm amulet.","spellings":["Kef","Keff"]},"1a551412-ba3d-5a82-89e6-07e97018fb70":{"definition":"Brocade, a multi-coloured Ottoman compound-woven fabric using polychrome silk with gold, gilded silver and silver metallic threads to achieve colourful designs.","spellings":["Kemha"]},"04f42d3e-3607-5497-ac48-4aa51fe765d3":{"definition":"A small room or cell (sometimes an independent building) with few or no windows to which Sufis retreat. It corresponds to the *halvet* of a Turkish bath – see *hammam*.","spellings":["Halvet","Khalwa"]},"5805ea4d-515f-570c-944e-b39504e35c2a":{"definition":"This term has two meanings:  \n  \nHAND OF FATIMA  \nThe “Hand of Fatima” or “Khamsa”, which can be found in souks all around Morocco, be it metallic, ceramic, coloured or made from camel bone, is a very widespread talisman. Khamsa means “five” and refers to the five fingers of the hand. Khamsa is an amulet which is typical of both the Islamic and Jewish religion.  \n  \nQUINTET OF POEMS  \n\"Khamsa\" typically refers to the quintet of poems composed by the Persian poet Nezami Ganjavi in the 12th century. This collection, recognized as the \"Khamsa,\" which means five in Persian and Arabic, or \"Quintet,\" the term used in Europe, comprises five epic poems),\" “Makhzan al-Asrar” ( The Treasury of Mysteries), \"Khosrow and Shirin,\" \"The Seven Beauties,\" \"Eskandar-Nameh\" (The Book of Alexander), and \"Layla and Majnun.\" \"Khamsa\" is a compilation of Mathnawi poems, employing rhyming couplets, a specific form of Persian poetry well-suited for longer narrative works. Nezami's \"Khamsa\" is esteemed for its poetic beauty, moral depth, and the adept interweaving of historical and mythical elements. This masterpiece has left an enduring impact on Persian literature, being actively studied and appreciated for its literary and cultural significance.","spellings":["Hamsa","Hamza","Khamsa","Khamse","Khamseh"]},"cf7d3667-7d96-58e6-af31-c5d6fe2c71b8":{"definition":"Ar. Inn, lodgings on the main caravan routes for travellers (pilgrims and merchants) and where merchandise could be stored. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *wikala*. Tr. *han*.","spellings":["Han","Khan"]},"1863aa1c-4cad-53d2-a497-ecb16318e81f":{"definition":"Monastery or hostel for itinerant Sufis or dervishes. Tr. *hanikah*, *hankah*. See also *zawiya*.","spellings":["Hanikah","Hankah","Khankah","Khanqa","Khanqah"]},"069e3a86-9304-50ec-85c5-b13302126d14":{"definition":"An Arabised version of the Turkish *Hatun*, a title of respect for women of the upper classes.","spellings":["Hatun","Khatun"]},"6dc0bc86-bae7-595d-afd4-5801f58f6005":{"definition":"Treasurer, responsible for State coffers (khaza’in) where the money and gold of the sultan or *amir* was kept.","spellings":["Khaznadar"]},"b8b82127-2aac-57e8-ba1a-3104f9b6f7a3":{"definition":"Word used to describe a library, but could also mean closet, depending on the dialect and context.","spellings":["Khizana"]},"2a3c0ddd-2061-5547-b807-78d7dfc8a700":{"definition":"A vast historical region in north-eastern Iran, known for its diverse culture and history. It encompasses several major urban centres, including Mashhad, the holiest city in Iran due to it being home to the Imam Reza Shrine. Khurasan has been a centre of trade, scholarship, and civilization for centuries, with influences from various dynasties and empires.","spellings":["Khorasan","Khurasan"]},"aace2213-b96e-55dc-90b1-8852a726d654":{"definition":"The weekly sermon of the Friday prayer. Tr. *hutbe*.","spellings":["Hutbe","Khutba"]},"c7a6e5ba-2a85-5491-b7e4-4bdb152f4a22":{"definition":"A historically significant city and province located in south-eastern Iran. Kerman is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, including traditional crafts like carpet weaving, as well as its architectural marvels such as the Ganjali Khan Complex and the Jameh Mosque. The region is known for its desert landscapes, particularly the Lut Desert, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Kerman is also celebrated for its unique cuisine, blending Persian and Baluchi flavours, and its pivotal role as a hub on the historic Silk Road, fostering trade and cultural exchange between the East and the West.","spellings":["Kerman","Kirman"]},"53d47884-ba36-5979-a58f-ff35b0bd8587":{"definition":"A cloth composed of different parts to cover the Ka’ba in Mecca. It is embroidered in silk and gold with Qur’anic verses. A new one is made each year. The change takes places during the Hajj, when the old *kiswa* is cut up and distributed among the people. Cloths with zigzag patterns of calligraphy that cover mausolea cenotaphs are also called *kiswa* (e.g. in Palestine).","spellings":["Kiswa","Kiswah","Kiswat"]},"64d6c154-9408-5c99-93c4-4d53ffce9b15":{"definition":"Book. Kitabat: inscriptions.","spellings":["Kitaab","Kitab","Kitabat","Kuttab"]},"5680e113-6b9f-5043-82ac-d9da92afcd18":{"definition":"Leather case, could also refer to a grave.","spellings":["Kubur","Qubur"]},"95fc5a14-1b29-5364-810a-69fc76087256":{"definition":"An Arabic script of angular and stylised characters used in Qur’ans in the early period of Islam. It is attributed to the city of Kufa in Iraq. From the AH 4th / AD 10th century it was less used because it could be difficult to read. Foliated *kufic*: a script that combines the angular style of the letters with decorative floral and vegetal motifs as finials, popular during the Fatimid and Atabeg period. See also calligraphy.  \n  \nKufic script emerged as an Arabic script style, initially rising to prominence as the favoured choice for transcribing the Qurʾan and adorning architectural structures. Over time, it evolved into a point of reference and an exemplary model for various other Arabic scripts. Kufic script is characterised by its markedly angular form within the Arabic alphabet, originating in the initial copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Kufic"]},"81dc2164-deae-5d1f-8a05-4e038d6354b1":{"definition":"An Ottoman Turkish term that refers to religious and charitable complexes comprising several buildings with the mosque is at the centre. The other buildings were the hospital, bathhouse, soup-kitchen *darüşşifa* (hospital), *hammam* (bathhouse), *han* (lodgings), *imaret* (soup-kitchen), *madrasa* (school).","spellings":["Külliye"]},"a931a38f-be76-52dd-a8c8-ba68d6149d1c":{"definition":"A technique used in Turkish-Islamic woodwork using specially designed pieces of wood that can be interlocked with adjoining pieces without using glue or nails to make a complete pattern. The technique is used for different woodworks, such as doors or shutters. In fake *kündekari* the parts are glued or nailed onto a surface.","spellings":["Kündekari"]},"6d80067a-11d1-5a05-8e27-1c1e30ff12b0":{"definition":"Word used for chair or throne, depending on the context.","spellings":["Kursi"]},"767908ab-0b28-53cf-9774-1e73c7a6b4d0":{"definition":"A type of Turkish robe.","spellings":["Lampas"]},"961fe836-4b40-5496-978f-d23cca1475bd":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which raised or incised lines separate the different colours of a painted vessel in order to keep them from fusing. This type of pottery was made in Syria and Iran in the AH 6th / AD 12th century.","spellings":["Laqabi","Laqabi ware"]},"5caf2c52-a5b1-520d-aa0a-f9f2d56b13ec":{"definition":"Term used to describe a necklace.","spellings":["Lebba"]},"220ac6c9-5bbb-5494-a7d7-a1992e0113c3":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which a thin coating of metal oxide resulted in an iridescent and golden shining surface on glazed ceramics. The lustre technique was introduced to many different regions by travelling potters.","spellings":["lustre","lustre-painted ware","Lustreware"]},"771802a5-edca-59b2-932c-9952378c6dae":{"definition":"A natural region of the northern Sahara Desert in Ghardaïa Province, Algeria.","spellings":["M'zab","Mzab"]},"ff94889d-f66f-5e04-bc88-5fba2822cea4":{"definition":"Location in southern Jordan, located 218 km from the capital Amman.","spellings":["Ma'an","Maan"]},"5673b322-36c7-5999-b728-0eab4e189123":{"definition":"Large basin, could also mean patissier.","spellings":["Ma'jna"]},"415db5be-62a9-520e-bda8-dfb721ac0595":{"definition":"Arabic word for Congratulations.","spellings":["Mabrouk","Mabruk"]},"de7865d2-5988-5b78-b69f-32fb1986c355":{"definition":"A defensive architectural feature found on the exterior of towers and gates used to pour hot oil onto enemies below. Ar. saqqata from the root *s q t*, “to drop”.","spellings":["Machicolations"]},"f2c933f6-93e1-5c11-a123-36ceacc8076f":{"definition":"Comes from ضيف (*dayf*guest). A *madafa* is a building or specific room within a home designated for receiving guests.","spellings":["Madafa"]},"455c1318-16a9-50f2-9c44-6643a9de238c":{"definition":"Theological institution that provided instruction on Islamic law (*shari’a*), jurisprudence (*fiqh*), Quran, Hadith, and Arabic, as well as accomodations for students.  \n  \nToday, a school. Fr. *medersa*, Tr. *medrese*.","spellings":["Madrasa","Madrasah","Madrasas","Madrasat","Madrassa","Madraza","Medrese","Medresse"]},"40398059-a02d-5383-970f-ba570e4894c7":{"definition":"A 'mafrash' is one of the emblamatic woven handicrafts of the nomadic peoples of Iran. The weaving and use of mafrash is particularly prevalent among the nomads of the Ardabil region, as well as the Qashqai tribes. This handwoven item takes the form of a rectangular cube with a lid, resembling a box or suitcase. Nomads use it to transport quilts, mattresses, or essential items during their travels or migrations. Its transportation on the backs of pack animals is also very convenient.  \nAfter weaving the mafrash, leather strips are sewn along the edges, and leather handles are attached to it. Nowadays, its weaving incorporates the techniques of kilim or Soumak, and its decorative patterns are often both prominent and supplementary.","spellings":["Mafrash"]},"a9dba7ef-b3dc-5e16-b084-69f0f9f4e817":{"definition":"A cursive calligraphic style that was widespread in Muslim Spain and North Africa. It developed through the infusion of local artistic taste with *kufic* script. The best examples were produced during the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries under Umayyads of al-Andalus. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Maghribi-Andalusi"]},"447568ab-11d8-5b46-9175-19f5e0ad280b":{"definition":"Religious leader","spellings":["Mahdi"]},"2c82480a-44bd-565c-9d5c-7b38307ae24e":{"definition":"Tin-glazed earthenware with painting on unfired glaze, typical of Spain and Italy, and believed to have been influenced by Islamic pottery techniques.","spellings":["Maiolica","Majolica"]},"4d0ea53b-609e-5e3d-817e-8067fab67fc3":{"definition":"(pl. majalis). Meeting hosted by the ruler or a high official. Designate also the audience hall in which the assembly was held.","spellings":["Majles","Majlis"]},"9e4b2650-05be-581f-8706-c2064eac74ce":{"definition":"A traditional elementary school that historically taught Quran, reading, writing, and basic Islamic studies. See also *kuttab*.  \n  \nTr. *mektep*, *sıbyan mektebi*.","spellings":["Maktab","Mektep","Sıbyan mektebi"]},"bd6ee598-f323-5770-a786-0151295aea83":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Imam Malik and spread throughout the western Muslim world including al-Andalus.","spellings":["Malik","Maliki"]},"1e97c7b6-80de-5294-bd26-e7192b4e6889":{"definition":"\"Braid-Work  \nA thin embroidered piece ties the edges of the dress together.\"","spellings":["Manajel"]},"82f05a30-a07c-5d4f-83a3-2156afc3ed35":{"definition":"Light, lamp, beacon. See also *fanar*.","spellings":["Manar","Manara","Me'zana","Minar","Minaret"]},"0fa6da1f-1658-5a20-b43f-b3fdad30d66d":{"definition":"Style of Portuguese architecture developed during the reign of Manuel I (1495–1521) and characterised by ornate elaborations of Gothic and renaissance styles.","spellings":["Manueline"]},"52b16b80-e428-5bfa-a548-51e9d574cee0":{"definition":"Open rooms without doors, situated on the sides of a patio. Egypt: Reception hall.","spellings":["Maq'ad","Maqad"]},"af45d65f-d61d-59ed-bd55-76ee503119e9":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Maqam"]},"5f70c6f4-762e-5438-bf74-53c9daaa431c":{"definition":"Area of sanctuary in congregational mosques reserved for the caliph or the *imam* during public prayer times. Also, a place in a public building that is set aside for private use (as found in a *hammam*). Fr. *maqsoura*.","spellings":["Macsura","Maksura","Maqsoura","Maqsura","Maxura"]},"f2ec79dc-0998-56d5-8cc2-bce2d4228e77":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, mashhad, qubba, türbe.  \nAdditionally, Mashhad, alternatively spelled as Mashad or Meshed, serves as the city and capital of the Khorasan-e Razavi province in north-eastern Iran.  \n  \nSee also darih, *maqam*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Mashad","Mashhad"]},"3bcfdeb5-5c8a-58e9-8dfd-9ad2a9f98fdb":{"definition":"Wooden lattice screens made of turned pieces of wood assembled to form a window grille. Fr: *machrabiyya*. Tr. *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mashrabiya","Mashrabiyya","Meşrebiye"]},"f176a992-6546-55ba-a3e5-6877adc61b76":{"definition":"Literally, “place of prostration”. A mosque where daily prayers are held, usually with the exception of the Friday prayers, which cannot take place in a *meşrebiye* owing to the absence of a *minbar*. Tr. *mescit*. See also *jami’*.","spellings":["Masjid","Mescit"]},"a04d4101-e499-5fb8-ad85-ae402c6b673f":{"definition":"A long stone protruding ledge or bench against an outer wall on either side of entrance to a building.","spellings":["Mastaba"]},"e99f9b90-c624-5aa1-815f-a47f478f7da3":{"definition":"Town, the old quarter, self-sufficient city centre. Also the name of a city in Saudi Arabia where the Muslims migrated in AD 622 and where the Prophet Muhammad is buried.","spellings":["Madina","Madinat","Medina","Medinat"]},"28865fe0-58a5-5999-9b3f-6e5cf3787e6a":{"definition":"Simple decoration of wooden triangles in the corners, creating hexagons.","spellings":["Menado"]},"32178605-4854-58d8-b7b4-f35cf3cf68f4":{"definition":"Ascension of the Great Prophet Muhammad to Heaven to the throne of Allah, where he received the divine instruction for the five daily prayers (*salat*) for Muslims. Along with Muhammad’s night journey *Isrāʾ *from the “sacred place of worship” (Mecca) to the “further place of worship” (Jerusalem), the Mi’raj creates the two parts of the night journey of Muhammad.**","spellings":["Mi'raj"]},"8d2b9746-8e9b-5ac7-8c70-6fd0cd7e3667":{"definition":"The hall next to a mosque where ritual ablutions take place.","spellings":["Mayda’a","Mida","Midha"]},"e7f7d170-9ce3-5eb5-8c00-b201155164d8":{"definition":"Arched niche, usually concave but sometimes flat, in religious Islamic buildings indicating the direction of Mecca, which worshippers face when praying.","spellings":["Maharib","Mihrab"]},"1eec6d02-be45-5c34-aad1-32d6dd772a28":{"definition":"A designation for fritware pottery made at Kashan/Iran which uses enamel colours on a differently coloured ground (white, turquoise etc.) for ornamental and figural painting and inscriptions.  \n  \nMinakari, also known as Minai, is a traditional Persian enamelworking technique, distinguished by intricate designs and vibrant colours. This art form involves applying colourful enamel paints onto metal surfaces, such as copper, and then firing them in a kiln to achieve a glossy and durable finish. Minakari often features intricate patterns, floral motifs, and other details, creating visually captivating pieces of art. It has been used to embellish various objects, including pottery, vases, plates, and jewellery, and holds cultural significance as a celebrated art form in Iran.","spellings":["Mina'i","Minai","Minai ware","Minakari"]},"a7da3b34-cced-5cac-bca5-7cde2160fdbf":{"definition":"A stepped pulpit for delivering the sermon during the Friday prayers and the first morning prayers during the two big Muslim feasts. It is placed to the right of the *mihrab* in a mosque. *minbar*s first appeared in the Umayyad period.","spellings":["Mimber","Minbar"]},"0c051692-aaa6-5bc3-9767-1917d3208074":{"definition":"Weight standard for gold dinars (4,25 g), established during the reign of Abd’ al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty.","spellings":["Miskal","Misqal","mithkal","Mithqal","mitqal"]},"b2f40fe6-7d9e-55fe-91fd-b02fa7f5b5a2":{"definition":"In the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula the name given to Muslims who formally converted to Christianity after the Reconquista.","spellings":["Morisco"]},"a95bf8cd-02b1-5d88-b68d-c21999469de6":{"definition":"See *jami’* and *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mosque"]},"d9555abf-9d44-5fae-95f4-b894702cfcd9":{"definition":"From Ar. *must‘arab*. A member of the Christian minorities, tolerated by Muslim rulers as tributaries, who lived in al-Andalus holding on to their religion and ecclesiastic and judicial organisation.","spellings":["Mozarab"]},"a26fcbf5-43f5-53e6-8d77-b2efc78c5302":{"definition":"Funerary stele which is usually made out of marble. Mqabriya is an equivalent of a tomb stone.","spellings":["Mashrabiyya","Mqabriya"]},"bac9d185-bb86-5b2d-b50d-fd876fb0fe78":{"definition":"Location in Algeria. It is the capital of the province of the same name.","spellings":["M'sila","Msila"]},"432a631d-9c77-5598-9224-35e8479385c8":{"definition":"(Pl. *murabitun*) A religious Muslim, sanctified by asceticism, whose tomb is a place of pilgrimage; a warrior-monk living in a *ribat*. The name of a dynasty known in English as Almoravid that ruled al-Andalus AH 454–541 / AD 1062–1147. Fr. *mourabit*, *mourabitoun*.","spellings":["Mourabit","Mourabitoun","Murabit"]},"b01a26b1-9ff1-5e29-aedd-bb4316a59907":{"definition":"A volume measuring instrument that has been widely used as a reference measure in the Islamic region for the payment of *zakat*, *fidya* and *kaffara*. Many well-known literatures have their own definition of the mudd, but never being discussed technically in term of volume calibration. It equals to 628 ml (KSA).","spellings":["Mudd"]},"9c8d51a2-cb58-59b3-92e4-fecb1ca87eb4":{"definition":"From Ar. *mudajjan*. Muslims who were allowed to remain among their Christian conquerors, without changing their religion, in exchange for tribute. The adjective Mudéjar is also used to describe traditional craftsmanship begun under Islamic domination and continued for Christian clients after the Christian conquest.","spellings":["Mudajjan","Mudéjar"]},"b9deabe4-38f9-5144-9eed-f59423fe7ddc":{"definition":"Muslim religious official charged with announcing from the mosque minaret the five prayers of the day. *Müezzin mahfili*: Tr., special platform for the *muezzin*s. See also *adhan*.","spellings":["Mu'azzin","Mu’addin","Mu’adhdhin","Muezzin"]},"95cd8cc7-61c1-518d-a3d1-397850242e35":{"definition":"A Muslim legal expert who is empowered to give rulings on religious matters.","spellings":["Mufti"]},"323fc8b6-ea1a-5717-982f-38123c87161c":{"definition":"Muhaqqaq is an Islamic calligraphic style that emerged in the 10th century and was employed widely in the Islamic world for creating elaborate, large Qur'ans and architectural inscriptions. Its defining characteristics include a precise, angular script with upright letters, meticulously balanced ascenders and horizontal elements, a distinct horizontal emphasis (wider than it is tall), descending strokes terminating in straight, sharp points rather than curving upwards, and the frequent use of descending round strokes that encircle the following letter. Muhaqqaq is typically employed in combination with \"Rayhani,\" a smaller rendition of the same script.  \n  \nA large cursive script related to the *naskhi* script used in the Middle Ages. It is one of the six basic styles of writing. Tr. *muhaqqaq*. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Muhaqqaq"]},"cfc9414f-7ca4-5e8a-80ea-d0fc4865d5c9":{"definition":"From Ar. *muwallad*. Christians who were converted to Islamism and lived as Muslims during the domination of the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula.","spellings":["Muladi","Mullawad"]},"4c8c2130-e69d-5ae6-b03b-7dc72bf78f7a":{"definition":"Kingdom or sovereignty. The word is often applied in calligraphic ornamentation to decorate courtly items.","spellings":["Mulk"]},"bd2ffd1a-1d12-5fc1-ab6b-b186e0622cb6":{"definition":"Stalactite- or honeycomb-like architectural ornamentation which adorns many surfaces including domes and corbels. In the Maghreb *muqarbas*. Fr. *mouqarnas*.","spellings":["Mouqarnas","Muqarbas","Muqarnas"]},"b43d4539-8c8e-5de3-ba56-a72f1632c7c8":{"definition":"Meaning \"bitter\", often used to describe coffee.","spellings":["Murra"]},"3a840421-ce84-5045-8ad3-f9355dd51baf":{"definition":"Woodwind instrument, similar to a pan flute.","spellings":["Nai"]},"5fe19010-9046-582a-a119-66c4870348e7":{"definition":"Tr. Muslim ritual prayers exercised five times a day. *Namazgah*: an open-air place on inter-city roads or recreation areas for performing the *namaz*.","spellings":["Namaz","Namazgah"]},"8ffa05a8-a165-5e2c-b72e-27e8d5f953ac":{"definition":"Literally “copied”. One of the most widespread styles of Islamic calligraphy used in Qur’ans and other books. It combines the flexibility of the *farsi* style with the harmony of the *kufic* script. Tr. *nesih*.","spellings":["Naskhi","Nesih"]},"42975467-0b5c-5878-a6b2-a7814d8b803b":{"definition":"A nobleman, someone of high status, a governor who ruled a principality during the Mughal era.","spellings":["Nawab","Nawabi"]},"d99278fb-cfa3-513e-9af1-4e39e27f241b":{"definition":"A technique used in metalwork, where engraved areas are filled with a mixture of different materials such as lead, copper and silver. Fr. *niel*.","spellings":["Niel","Niello"]},"78098713-2d8f-5314-b786-0c0cdd7710a0":{"definition":"Waterwheel","spellings":["Na'ura","Nawa'ir","Norias"]},"459f8079-3081-520c-95f1-def76fceb958":{"definition":"Stringed musical instrument prominent in medieval and modern Islamic music. It is the parent of the European lute. The oud has a deep pear-shaped body, a fretless fingerboard.","spellings":["Oud","Ūd"]},"ea9e06ca-7872-5541-9ac2-11302f8890c2":{"definition":"A Turkish honorific title, arabicised as *Basha*.","spellings":["Pacha","Pasha"]},"60068ca4-be84-58d0-a590-341306ae5e41":{"definition":"Pearls, the only organic material considered to be precious gemstones, can be widely divided into two categories: natural and cultivated. The formation of the pearl occurs when a foreign body such as a grain of sand or a parasite enters the shell of an oyster or mussel. Due to their very specific origin, pearls have come to be focal points of many legends and myths. Because of their circular shape, they are frequently associated with the moon. They can also symbolize life in general, as well as birth. Some old beliefs state that morning dew, when hardened, turns into pearls. Civilizations from areas with pearl fishing cultures, such as the Middle East and Asia, have for centuries viewed pearls as symbols of supremacy, innocence and female charm.","spellings":["Pearl","Pearls"]},"ba7ec4e5-ec62-5bf2-bd27-6b932bb32ca1":{"definition":"A small box or lidded container used for holding a variety of objects such as medicine, writing instruments, etc.","spellings":["Pyxis"]},"a2005bd2-bdc7-54c7-b3c5-a7cd040e82bc":{"definition":"Reception hall where guests are received.","spellings":["Qa'a"]},"dc0561a2-2592-560f-8a87-20cd58a96753":{"definition":"\"Chest Panel  \nFrom the head of the right shoulder to the end of the left shoulder.\"","spellings":["Qabbe"]},"4563e43f-260b-5043-9a49-06e5af5a99e0":{"definition":"Muslim judge. Tr. *kadı*.","spellings":["Cadi","Kadi","Kazi","Qadi","Qazi"]},"afa2f843-fdd4-5a67-9298-c7381518b3c8":{"definition":"(Pl. qilâ’) Citadel. See also *kasbah*, *hisn*.","spellings":["Qal'at","Qal‘a","Qala","Qalaa","Qalaat","Qalat"]},"3569da80-2a51-50bb-afca-141112480550":{"definition":"A term used only in Tunisia for Ottoman-inspired polychrome pottery for architectural decoration produced in an area in the city of Tunis called Qallalin.","spellings":["Qallalin ware"]},"f50821ce-06bd-5219-a51f-0f341431411e":{"definition":"Skylight.","spellings":["Qamariyya","Qamariyyah"]},"7978d46e-780e-5ff3-b397-3e8bfd533787":{"definition":"(Pl. *qanawat*) Subterranean conduit of water; part of a distributory network.","spellings":["Qanat","Qanawat"]},"59b4beee-e4d9-52ef-99f1-2a66945a3694":{"definition":"A term for glazed tile panels derived from the Iranian city of Kashan, where tiles to decorate buildings had been produced since the Seljuq period. The term was used by the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah in Iran for the tile panels that reminded him of the *zellij* tiles of the Maghreb.","spellings":["Qashani"]},"c47920b0-c22e-53d0-aa8c-93eb3956ca0e":{"definition":"From Latin *castrum*. Palace, castle. *Qusayr*: diminutive form of *qasr*. Tr. kasr. See also *bayt*, dar.","spellings":["Ksar","Qasr","Qusair","Qusayr","Quseir"]},"f37cbff8-b219-59af-940c-6d009539e2a7":{"definition":"Covered market for precious merchandise (gold, silk, etc.). See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*, *suq*.","spellings":["Qaysariyya","Qaysria"]},"0089ce74-d5cd-57d2-bbe4-c8de79b156c9":{"definition":"Direction of the Ka‘ba in Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer. The qibla wall of the mosque is where the *mihrab* is situated.","spellings":["Kibla","Qibla","Qiblah","Quibla"]},"ea03a56c-d809-5ee0-9bf3-d2601be89fe3":{"definition":"A portable astronomical instrument whose name literally means \"showing the direction to the Ka'ba\". The alternative name for it is astrolabe.","spellings":["Qiblanuma"]},"c39cd815-3b51-5b89-a4e4-5e9f2c0ca622":{"definition":"Dome; by extension a monument or chamber built over the grave of a saint or important person, which is usually marked with a dome. Fr. *koubba*. Tr. *kubbe* (dome only).","spellings":["Koubba","Kubbat","Kubbe","Qubba","Qubbat"]},"9c6aeb81-7bc2-5ea4-9209-1c4a1345ac29":{"definition":"The division of the Qur’an into 30 parts. Each part (*juz’*) was bound as a separate volume and usually the 30 volumes were housed in an illuminated box.","spellings":["Rab'a","Rab’a","Raba"]},"1f1c56a0-2af0-51fc-9adb-3b2cb1118d0b":{"definition":"From Ar. *rabad*. Quarter outside the walls.","spellings":["Rabad"]},"389ffbb1-3a7e-5ec3-a9fc-efdd3e0f54ca":{"definition":"The fourth month of the Islamic calendar. Its name means  the 'second spring'.","spellings":["Rabi al-Awwal","Rabi ath-Thani","Rabi‘","Rabi’a"]},"79ad5742-3251-5a48-afdc-3eadbe4bc902":{"definition":"The ninth month of the Hijri / lunar calendar when Muslims fast. It is the last of the three consecutive holy months. Tr. Ramazan.","spellings":["Ramadan","Ramadhan","Ramathan","Ramazan"]},"87260489-dd79-59f8-a295-dd2d8f65524a":{"definition":"A term used widely and sometimes very generally for pottery from the Syrian town of Raqqa. Raqqa ware includes different pottery such as dark brown lustreware and, fritware with monochrome or polychrome underglaze painting.","spellings":["Raqqa ware"]},"2f088e48-669e-5b0f-b7ef-a94fb24641eb":{"definition":"Rayhani is a calligraphic style that was used for copying Qur’ans. It is characterised by its smaller rendition of muhaqqaq, featuring letter forms with sharper, more pointed shapes compared to naskh, and often distinguished by a prominent spike on the initial alif-lam letter shape.  \n  \nAlthough this script shows close resemblance to *muhaqqaq*, it is written on a smaller scale. It was used in large Qur’ans produced in AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th centuries. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Rayhan","Rayhani","Reyhan","Rihani"]},"30f08fe7-8bb1-504a-aa55-685d583ff5ba":{"definition":"Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) by the Christians from the Muslims, which ended in AH 897 / AD 1492 with the fall of Granada.","spellings":["Reconquista"]},"44b5dcf7-b45d-5206-b3e1-f77d5f220d80":{"definition":"A metalworking technique. To make a design appear in relief on the front of a metal work of art, it has to be worked in repoussé (hammered) from the back.","spellings":["Repoussé"]},"9a8096ea-a204-590a-8744-2ddf28c2b6b8":{"definition":"Fortified enclosure for religious warriors (North Africa); a hospice for pilgrims (Mamluk Egypt, Palestine and Syria). The name of the town Rabat comes from Ribat al-Fath (Ribat of the Conquest).","spellings":["Ribat"]},"40f27447-6ac4-5d17-9557-f1bd3868060b":{"definition":"Arcade or portico. Tr. *revak*.","spellings":["Revak","Riwaq"]},"8f56e049-19ca-5856-9caa-3acff60817b3":{"definition":"Pl. of *rawda* “garden”. Always used in plural form, in Morocco *riyad* means a garden within residential housing.","spellings":["Rawda","Riad","Riyad","Riyadh"]},"9b3eb14d-ccb9-5bdf-b3a6-ae4fd27367cf":{"definition":"Rosewater is a fragrant liquid crafted by immersing rose petals in water. Prior to the advancement of the distillation method for producing rosewater, Persian cuisine already employed rose petals to enhance the aroma and taste of dishes. Rose water likely had its beginnings in Persia, where it was identified as \"gulab\". The technique of steam distillation to create rosewater was perfected by Persian chemist, Ibn Sina/ Avicenna, within the medieval Islamic world.","spellings":["Gulab","Rose Water","Rosewater"]},"99e11148-863b-5916-afb5-d3b71fb5abe5":{"definition":"Split-palmette motif. One of the most popular and basic motifs in Islamic decorative arts, applied to every medium from woodcarving to tiles. It is mostly seen in arabesques. It was named after an earlier name for Anatolia.","spellings":["Rumi"]},"e6f3286c-05d3-51b8-bc2f-6985190c9563":{"definition":"Large tray.","spellings":["S'ni","Sni"]},"85c2ecc8-51b1-5e22-90ca-051cf297fa08":{"definition":"\"Sleeve  \nFrom the beginning of the palm to the middle of the elbow.\"","spellings":["Sa’ed"]},"a8525513-1742-5e9f-85de-bb2067ad9fb6":{"definition":"(Pl. *subul* or *asbila*) Small structures that were designed to dispense and provide free and clean drinking water to the public. *Sabil*s can be freestanding buildings or parts of small or large charitable complexes.  \n  \nTr. sebil – a chamber where an attendant serves free drink to the public.","spellings":["Asbila","Sabil","Sebil","Subul"]},"8f59f848-6089-5df5-ac39-251f4a455901":{"definition":"Often a two-story structure where the ground level is reserved for the *sabil* (public water source) and the upper level is the elementary school or *kuttab*.","spellings":["Sabil-Kuttab"]},"ab5197e2-ba37-5f84-9a8c-1bc168852cbc":{"definition":"Meaning blessings, pl. of the word Salam. Could also refer to safety.","spellings":["Salama","Salamah"]},"63187e27-a423-515a-905c-73fa1d04ccf8":{"definition":"This general term is used for the different styles in stucco common in the temporary Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq. Style A uses naturalistic designs, Style B uses naturalistic designs interwoven with abstract designs and Style C uses barely discernible plant design with bevelled edges in an abstract way.","spellings":["Samarra style"]},"8089a1c5-8454-567a-8c69-3ee03dc28782":{"definition":"Sanja is a monetary weight. Researchers differ as to its exact use. Some interpret them to be standards of monetary weights and measures, while others believe that these pieces of pâte de verre substituted for copper coins or even commercial weights.","spellings":["Sanja"]},"7b0b0e45-2f2a-5fd0-be86-16fa0e895a59":{"definition":"In the Maghreb an entrance to a house, often twisting and turning.","spellings":["Saqifa","Skifa","Sqifa"]},"0f26046e-3b67-5601-baf6-72d291d77ad0":{"definition":"Straight, double-edged sword. The sayf varied in appearance throughout Islamic history.","spellings":["Saif","Sayf","Seif"]},"98f32a82-0f8d-523b-b82b-b4c5d2090590":{"definition":"(Pl. *sada*) Descendants of Prophet Muhammad. See also *sharif*.","spellings":["Sada","Sayyed"]},"9ba68a24-0e40-52cc-9957-968da7055d9a":{"definition":"Arabic title of respect, meaning Heir to the grandson of the prophet Muhammad.","spellings":["Sayyid"]},"11864cd8-7574-5b81-8dbd-f0180dc203cf":{"definition":"The writer of *Şehname*, equivalent to a court historian.","spellings":["Şehnameci"]},"1e2bc98b-db88-5155-9556-2e6e52c00a36":{"definition":"Mobile openwork plaque or rete, could also mean net.","spellings":["Shabaka"]},"1c72befa-b751-593e-8d75-c600c4e562d3":{"definition":"A wall fountain attached to a wall. Tr. *Şadırvan*, a şadırvan is a fountain, especially for ablutions in a mosque courtyard. It can be part of a wall or free-standing.","spellings":["Şadırvan","Shadirwan"]},"03eaf2d5-1988-549b-919f-2aaad8416221":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. *Şafi*.","spellings":["Shafi’i"]},"970967ba-4fb4-5316-b273-742dafe6d401":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni schools of religious law.","spellings":["Al-shafi","Al-shafi'i","Shafiʽi"]},"5dfb0beb-240c-5fb8-a4ba-14bd15936137":{"definition":"Title of the kings of Iran, or Persia. The title shah was also used in Afghanistan until the overturn of the monarchy in 1973 and has been used by rulers and princelings in other countries of central and southern Asia.","spellings":["Šâh","Shah"]},"10021f2a-1ddf-5af4-bb0f-d78adb4a1f5d":{"definition":"Profession of Muslim faith. Tr. *Şahadet*.","spellings":["Sahadet","Shahada","Shahadah"]},"b574ce4b-f297-5c3f-b370-895a19b2933a":{"definition":"Written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi, the Shahnama or Shahnameh is a long epic poem which dwells on the mythical and historical past of the Persian Empire.","spellings":["Šāhnāme","Shahnama","Shahnameh"]},"72c54743-5b69-565e-b54d-8fe9dfa0e746":{"definition":"Window, also could refer to an umbrella.","spellings":["Shamsiya","Shamsiyya"]},"bd727956-74e1-5614-9f39-07003f768b6a":{"definition":"Literally, “road”. Islamic precepts that the believer must follow in order to be on the right road that leads to God. The *Shari‘a* rules the behaviour of the faithful in the spiritual, legal, social and political spheres, and also in the concrete aspects of daily life.","spellings":["Shari‘a","Sharia"]},"a0a0b21a-5425-5de1-8d04-b7fd7daeca8b":{"definition":"An elder, respected for his knowledge and age, learned man instructed in the religious sciences, member of a religious brotherhood, sufi master. Tr. *Şeyh*. Shaykh al-Islam: The head of the hierarchy of the doctors of Muslim canon law, tradition and theology. Tr. Şeyhülislam.","spellings":["Şeyh","Shaykh","Sheikh"]},"c98013e1-9336-5b90-9d71-2658cca1e0ca":{"definition":"(Pl. *shurafa*) Descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. See also *sayyed*.","spellings":["Sharif","Shurafa"]},"3f35b372-188c-5440-a3a1-24902734c0d8":{"definition":"Member of the smaller of the two major branches of Islam, the Shiʿa, distinguished from the majority Sunnis.","spellings":["Shi'i","Shi'ite","Shii","Shīʿī"]},"3d198a73-3a55-5a34-b209-561c8dc2c58e":{"definition":"Correctly, Shi‘at ‘Ali, meaning “the party of ‘Ali”. Shi‘ites rejected the legitimacy of all caliphs who succeed after the assassination of Ali (AH 40 / AD 661), the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. See also Sunna.","spellings":["Shi‘a","Shia"]},"947c308d-bc24-5bbc-91e5-bb461cbe7cfa":{"definition":"Bearer of arms, an official of the court who was in charge of the preservation and maintenance of arms.","spellings":["Silahdar","Silahtar","Silihtar"]},"717dbbdd-a73f-5072-9370-1b0902785426":{"definition":"A huge ancient bird of Persian legend credited with possessing great wisdom.","spellings":["Senmurv","Simorg","Simorgh","Simorq","Simourv","Simurg","Simurgh"]},"88ea725b-ca76-5d06-9ede-29e288e0ff44":{"definition":"Knotwork based on a twelve-star pattern, and could also be used in architecture as a decorative pattern.","spellings":["Sinos"]},"288b2150-8838-5cdf-8779-d98b7d476915":{"definition":"The Sira are the prophetic biographies.  In addition to what is written in the Quran and Hadith, the sira also provide information on Muhammed's life and the early period of Islam.","spellings":["Seera","Sira","Sirah","Sirat"]},"60d18096-8ef8-5848-9e25-fc081e078906":{"definition":"A wash of diluted clay applied to a ceramic vessel to cover the clay body before applying decoration.","spellings":["Slip"]},"1296cfdc-d33f-5cb5-8260-c31331325ee5":{"definition":"The term socarrat (\"scorched\") refers to large fired-earth tiles manufactured using the biscuit technique: the slab, once dried in air, is rubbed with white clay on its smooth side, then blue, red ochre and iron is painted onto this base. It is then fired, and the tile comes out coloured blue, vermilion and black on a white base. They were intended to decorate eaves and cornices, to which they afforded a colourful intensity, usually in mineral earthy black tones and iron or ochre reds dissolved in a lime milk that, once set, gave them consistency.","spellings":["Socarrat"]},"8d51b0ae-13b3-5a75-acf3-79e63e2bd891":{"definition":"An arch placed diagonally at each corner of a square and filled decoratively with a variety of methods, providing the transition from the cubical walls to the sphere of the dome.","spellings":["Squinch"]},"b68f8c65-978e-5a31-bb68-5994ae43ec75":{"definition":"A Muslim acetic and mystic who represents the mystical aspect of Islam.","spellings":["Sufi"]},"ddce3372-545d-5166-8dfc-c8bb72ab9fe8":{"definition":"An Islamic mystical or ascetic order. Derived from *suf*, wool, which is the fabric in which devotees (*sufi*) clothe themselves. Fr. *soufisme*.","spellings":["Soufisme","Sufism"]},"aea62142-bf4f-5655-8c52-b1e856151ce7":{"definition":"Honorary title used by independent sovereigns (in particular Ottomans and Seljuks) whose authority, however, does not question the nominal superiority recognised to the ruling caliph.","spellings":["Sultan"]},"ab99a408-a9e3-547f-9a94-45b205e6a57b":{"definition":"Sultan Muḥammad, who lived during the 16th century in Safavid Iran, is regarded as one of the most exceptional Persian painters and stands out as the most prominent artist of the Safavid school based in Tabriz, Iran. Between AH 900- 928 / AD 1495 and 1522, Sultan Muḥammad likely held a preeminent position within the Turkmen school of painting, which was prevalent in western Iran during the reign of the Ak Koyunlu (\"White Sheep\") and Kara Koyunlu (\"Black Sheep\") Turkmens.","spellings":["Sultan Muhammad"]},"f21a9ff0-ae8f-5ff9-be18-36b4a4db6794":{"definition":"State or territories that are ruled by a sultan. Sultan is a title given to the ruler of such a place.","spellings":["Sultanate"]},"aa9eeba9-8ad8-555a-8988-13c068bdac81":{"definition":"Turkish word for box or chest.","spellings":["Sanadiq","Sanduq","Senduq","Sunduq"]},"811580e5-c0b8-5c27-8c10-3a3a36bee143":{"definition":"Literally “tradition”. For Orthodox Islam, the group of traditions of the Prophet in which legal advisers and theologians find support and foundations to establish the content of Islamic law arising from the Qur’an. Sunni: Follower of Sunna. Sunnis are divided into four schools: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i. Sunnism: a political and religious system opposed to Shi‘ism. See also Fiqh, Shi’a.","spellings":["Sunna"]},"08fa434b-cde7-5b8b-be42-9e2217634cd8":{"definition":"Marketplace. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*.","spellings":["Esouk","Sooq","Souk","Souq","Suk","Suq"]},"5c212d06-15e4-5918-a02d-bb0ef2c59fe1":{"definition":"Chapter of the Qur’an. There are 114 surahs in the Qur’an. Tr. Sure.","spellings":["Sura","Surah"]},"78fd8be3-f58d-5f6b-b249-3f3c97b9ef97":{"definition":"Tabby Weave has all the character of a hand-woven silk but with a high-performance level.","spellings":["Tabby"]},"665383f5-4a15-5f32-8010-a19d807b45a5":{"definition":"Guestroom at a mosque for itinerant dervishes and other travellers. From the AH 10th / AD 16th century *tabhanes* became part of the mosque’s prayer hall.","spellings":["Tabhane"]},"83f6772d-09b7-5ad2-a480-9c2c0c7c4320":{"definition":"Small board or a tablet with which a gap is covered, such as a socarrena or the front of a wooden step.","spellings":["Tabica"]},"e492236b-2179-5d42-b894-3fc913a09686":{"definition":"From Ar. *tabiya*. A wall made from mud, which is compressed between caissons. The technique was perfected further in military constructions by introducing lime mortar into the framework. Tr. *tabya*.","spellings":["Tabiyya","Tabya"]},"1a96ac8d-419a-5515-b21c-9a95109e369b":{"definition":"Arabic term for dish or plate, probably deriving from the Turkish word *tepsi*.","spellings":["Tabsil"]},"b9925565-dd1a-5d2a-b600-c734be2f3586":{"definition":"Factions or groups. The term usually refers to the disintegration of Muslim Spain into several smaller kingdoms during the 5th/11th century.","spellings":["Ta'ifa","Taïfa"]},"1ad49aeb-c4a6-56fa-a5db-9635fe80d767":{"definition":"From Tr. *tekke*, literally “place where food is served free of charge”. Centre where dervishes meet, worship and live. Architectural type introduced by the Ottomans. See also *imaret*, *khan*qah, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takiyya","Tekke"]},"a032a946-6a59-5dc8-99e3-7006cd02ff68":{"definition":"Arabic word used to describe a water system.","spellings":["Tali","Tali'"]},"cc2bbcf5-54f0-5959-a72b-231b955a7d9c":{"definition":"One of the six main styles of calligraphy developed in Persia in the AH 9th / AD 15th century. Used especially for official correspondence, it is characterised by fine lines with no vowel. Tr. *talik*. See also *nas*ta’liq**, calligraphy.  \n  \nTaliq is characterised by an unauthodox use of ligatures, which connect letters on the left that typically wouldn't be joined. It features descending strokes that form loops, rounded letter shapes with pronounced variations in letter spacing, wide spacing between lines, as well as lines that ascend from right to left.","spellings":["ta‘liq","Talik","Taliq"]},"78053761-99e7-5b79-85ba-68c278e8c447":{"definition":"Reforms that were propagated under the rule of Ottoman emperors Abdulmecid I and Abdulaziz between 1839 and 1876.","spellings":["Tanzimat"]},"da8b7101-f569-5ca6-b136-b50cc01aa5c9":{"definition":"Cylindrical container, taller than it is wide, usually made out of glass, ceramic, or earthware, with a lid. It is used specifically for packing food, perfumery, or cosmetic products.","spellings":["Tarro"]},"b2155481-cc7f-58d7-9a13-f7b8d291e362":{"definition":"The invocation of God's blessing upon the Prophet Muhammad. Could also mean entertainment.","spellings":["Taslim","Tasliya"]},"5826611f-c015-58cb-b5aa-7aa9b979d8aa":{"definition":"Flat wooden ceiling completely covered with strapwork decoration, which conceals the beams; cf. *alfarje*, where the beams are exposed. From Arabic *tawshih*.","spellings":["Taujel","Tawshih"]},"df95e636-1ccf-5f43-af09-acfeaa8bdd39":{"definition":"Circle, collar, also could be used to refer to a necklace.","spellings":["Tawq"]},"0cb5ca4c-b4bd-55d8-8d21-7fe594c06fcf":{"definition":"Tawqi is a calligraphic script, and the term is etymologically derived from the Arabic verb \"waqa’a,\" which means \"to sign.\" It gained this name because it was commonly employed to inscribe the signature on decrees issued by rulers. Primarily used for scrolls, diplomas, royal documents, and impressive calligraphic works, Tawqi is frequently written alongside riqa, a smaller version of the same script. Developed in the 10th century, Tawqi is characterised by its more compressed and rounded letters, the practice of unauthorised ligatures to connect non-connecting letters on the left for faster writing, and notably shorter ascending and deeply curved horizontal strokes.","spellings":["Tawqi"]},"950b9741-65c7-56dc-84fa-f599f1697a4f":{"definition":"Sacred formula of entreaty to God, could also refer to a talisman.","spellings":["Ta'wida","Tawida","Taʿwidha"]},"09f713d8-279f-5781-b4b0-b3e3ec8c7848":{"definition":"Mirror trim usually used as a mirror dressing or could be used as a scarf.","spellings":["Tenchifa"]},"0286f96a-fc62-506d-a042-ab44ef3b40b1":{"definition":"A type of geometric decoration used for tiles.","spellings":["Testir"]},"9b57e731-19ab-55da-8b80-25d31d0f41c3":{"definition":"Arabic: “one-third”. A style of calligraphy named after the size of the pen used. The prolongation of its letters allow for very complex decorative compositions. It was used in calligraphy, books and civil and religious architecture. From the AH 12th / AD 18th century it was widely used in panels particular to Ottoman art. Fr. *toulouth*. Tr. *sülüs*.  \n  \nThe thuluth script, a medieval Islamic calligraphic style, features an alphabet written in a distinctive manner. The name \"thuluth\" (Arabic for \"one-third\") refers to the principle that each letter's form encompasses a slope of about one-third of its size. This script is both spacious and refined, characterized by its cursive nature. During the medieval period, thuluth script found its place on mosque embellishments.  \nFunctionally, thuluth script assumed some of the roles initially held by the early Kufic script. It was employed for crafting headings for suras (chapters) of the Qurʾan, religious inscriptions, princely titles, and inscriptions of importance. Additionally, from the 13th century AD (597-700 AH) onwards, it was favoured for producing large copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Sülüs","Thoulouth","Thuluth"]},"59087726-c8e5-5434-aecc-5dd7d3e42d51":{"definition":"A hard, quick-drying plaster processed from river silt used in Saharan building for making building blocks, as mortar, and for rendering.","spellings":["Timchent","Timchet"]},"a054eff3-ab33-572b-8c6c-47a7d300c111":{"definition":"First used for embroidered inscriptions on textiles, this term became synonymous with textile robes with inscriptions giving the ruler’s name and the workshop where the textiles were made. Such robes were presented by the caliph to people who were to be honoured. Dar al-tiraz: royal textile factories supervised by the court.","spellings":["Taraz","Teraz","Tiraz"]},"9c8dfd7c-96f7-590d-8c3e-dacf904f0e4a":{"definition":"A brass alloy usually referred to as red bronze. It is also mentioned as gilded copper and as a technique which uses copper and zinc alloy and gilt. Could also refer to tobacco.","spellings":["Tombac","Tombak"]},"1ad5b477-1036-5c86-ba62-687284025702":{"definition":"Modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan.","spellings":["Transoxiana"]},"744d1b33-89fe-5377-a4fb-132f67bbf758":{"definition":"Meaning \"blessedness\", a tree which grows in Jannah, also considered as the three of paradise.","spellings":["Tuba"]},"5e33fb53-916f-516d-b614-5039d1c3c7ec":{"definition":"A calligraphic signature of an Ottoman sultan that was affixed to official documents. Each sultan had his own *tughra*. Tr. *tuğra*.","spellings":["Tughra","Tuğra"]},"ce2219af-ca75-5d6e-a3b1-280a9ea04fbc":{"definition":"Mausoleum, tomb, private burial place, sometimes with a crypt below, an architectural practice introduced by the Turks. Tr. *kümbet*, a monumental tomb, usually covered with a dome hidden under a spire. See also *darih*, *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*.","spellings":["Kümbet","Turba","Turbat","Türbe","Turbet"]},"5cc4d556-5ce6-575d-a50b-a403e6c59d4f":{"definition":"A headdress consisting of a long scarf wound round the head or a smaller, underlying hat. Turbans vary in shape, colour, and size.","spellings":["Turban","Turbant"]},"b6fc69ea-ced1-5b11-8e24-2ac2f4c53e76":{"definition":"An architectural technique using triangles and chevrons to make the transition from square walls to a curved dome.","spellings":["Turkish triangles"]},"9d699883-6a5a-53ad-8a08-f3b27574c431":{"definition":"Turkish people located in the region east of the Caspian Sea and South of the Aral Sea. This area now comprises of Turkmenistan and parts of Iran and Afghanistan.","spellings":["Turkmen","Türkmenler","Turkoman"]},"fd4ff19f-5ca3-5bdd-b26e-79e1ad771914":{"definition":"\"Turquoise is a blue-green gemstone made from hydrated copper aluminium phosphate. It between five and six on the Mohs scale, and is mainly cut in the cabochon style since it is not transparent. This gemstone comes in a variety of shades of blue and green. Turquoise was known in Egypt from a very early time and was later described by Pliny the Elder under the name *callias*. For him and those who studied his works, the blueish-green stone was attributed only virtues shared by other green or blue gems. However, in the 13th century, the term turquoise was introduced in Western Europe, and the gemstone started to be affiliated with new powers. These included the ability to prevent injuries from falling, especially from horseback, and the power to protect horses from sickness. For this reason Turks were said to attach turquoise stones to the bridles and stirrups of their horses.  \nTurquoise has traditionally been sold in Turkey, since it mostly originates in Iran. It still passes through Turkey on the way to Europe. Ancient Persians fully appreciated the beauty and power of this gemstone, and it was the national stone of the vast empire. There is a saying that good fortune can be obtained by seeing the reflection of the new moon either on a friend’s face, on a copy of the Quran, or on a turquoise. Turquoise is also popular for religious use in Hindu mystic circles, as well as among Indigenous people of North and Central America.\"","spellings":["Turquoise"]},"04e377c7-df9e-578d-a9cd-de2fa4b2cef9":{"definition":"Wooden cabinet of mixed Spanish and Oriental origin that first appeared in Europe in the late Middle Ages and became a common article of furniture in the Spanish colonial empire from the late 16th century onward. Its major component is a chest with a drop front. The interior is divided into an intricate arrangement of drawers and recesses for holding jewels, documents, and other valuables. The drawers and recesses are often inlaid with ivory, silver, or gold and are occasionally stained in bright colours. The exterior is elaborately mounted at the corners and elsewhere in iron or silver, and the front is secured by a heavy padlock or conventional lock.","spellings":["Bargueño","Vargueno"]},"577792e7-dcb2-5783-bc01-836c6f2cded6":{"definition":"Minister. Tr. *vezir*. The highest vizier (Prime Minister) was the Grand Vizier, Prime Minister. Tr. *Sadrazam*.","spellings":["Sadrazam","Vasir","Vazir","Vesir","Vezir","Visir","Vizier","Vizir","Wazir"]},"fbb75391-7625-52c9-8a1c-5ab26a82c52c":{"definition":"A deputy, delegate or agent who acts on behalf of a principal. It can refer to an attorney, a diplomat or the custodian of a mosque or religious order. Also, could mean prime minister.","spellings":["Vakeel","Vakel","Vakil","Wakil"]},"38031924-6b4f-5fb1-9337-c0222f9b16d2":{"definition":"Endowment in perpetuity, usually of land or property, from which the revenue was reserved for the upkeep of religious foundations. *waqfiyya*: the deed of endowment of a *waqf*. Tr. *vakıf*, *vakfiye*. See also *habus*.","spellings":["Vakif","Vakifiye","Wakf","Waqf"]},"9d0320cb-1068-5d1a-bb89-97a0628cb0f4":{"definition":"Trading establishment with lodgings for merchants. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *khan*.","spellings":["Wakala","Wakalat","wikala","Wikalat"]},"cc1e247a-53d7-5c70-9399-89357963e5cf":{"definition":"A style in Ottoman art which uses Chinoiserie decorations. The designs incorporate stylised lotus blossoms, buds and leaves in decorative scrolls. Hatayi is derived from Chatay in China. See also Chinoiserie.","spellings":["Hatayi"]},"c7ce411f-9d53-5566-8a9c-a1744854bc80":{"definition":"An officer’s rank in the Turkish army. Tr. Ağa. See also *bey*, *dey*.","spellings":["Ağa","agha"]},"bcebf34c-f01e-5220-896e-b24e7d5c3220":{"definition":"Hostel for merchants and their pack animals, a store for merchandise, a commercial centre. See also *caravanserai*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Funduq"]},"3e7d0321-a9c7-56d8-9638-45619daff312":{"definition":"Frankish fortress located in Jordan.","spellings":["Wu'ayra","Wuarya"]},"676dd2c8-ade4-5066-9242-2d2dc6e9b274":{"definition":"Daily ablutions before prayers","spellings":["Al-wudu","Udu","Wudu","Wudu'"]},"00cb9155-a05e-57be-b845-f2828bcd7de6":{"definition":"Another of the five pillars of Islam, Zakat is a tithe that is to be paid each year by all Muslim adults in the amount of 2.5 percent of their income and wealth.","spellings":["Zakah","Zakat","Zakat al-mal"]},"c820b0fc-daf0-5f36-aed6-5dcb2aab4aa8":{"definition":"Sharp plane, also is considered a technique used to separate the lines of text within the panel.","spellings":["Zamla"]},"76676210-58c4-5de1-89e6-594e4175ceac":{"definition":"Establishment for religious teaching dedicated to preparing men to become *shaykhs*, which includes the shrine of a saint and built where he was born or lived. In Turkey also a small *tekke*, a hospice for dervishes and travellers. See also *khanqah*, *tekke*, *takiyya*.","spellings":["Zaouia","Zawija","Zawiya","Zawiyah","Zwaya"]},"9aa57c3b-8983-5efb-9663-8813a2e47d5c":{"definition":"Small glazed ceramic tiles or cut-out parts of tiles set like mosaics to form a complex geometric design in interiors and exteriors of buildings. Fr. *zellige*.","spellings":["Zellige","Zellij","Zillij"]},"b2664e35-a30a-5283-80bf-77beed25e898":{"definition":"The empty space between the walls of a building (for example, a mosque) and an outer wall.","spellings":["Ziyada"]}}
+{"56afd259-0505-5d2d-b7f1-9be15cb0dea2":{"definition":"Arabic dynasty that initially ruled over most of the Islamic empire after assuming the caliphate in 750 CE.","spellings":["Abbasid","Abbasids"]},"e2af48f9-49cb-51b7-84fd-bbcca177f07b":{"definition":"Masonry technique used in facades of historical buildings and characterised by alternating rows of light (yellow or white) and dark (red or black) stones or bricks.  \n  \nThe first fortress built in this style in northern Arabia during the 5th century AD was the fortress of Samawal. The style spread from al-Andalus, specifically from the Great Mosque of Cordoba (AH 170 / AD 776) into Islamic architecture. It became popular in the Levant due to the availability of white limestone and black basalt. A notable example is the Azem (or Ablaq) Palace in Damascus. Examples in Cairo include Khanqah Baybars al-Jashankir and the mosque built by Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun.","spellings":["Ablaq","Iplik"]},"8e22eece-aa71-5c15-9776-799a90bed70e":{"definition":"A practice of ritual cleansing with water to be performed before prayer.","spellings":["Ablution"]},"ee146c66-d28a-545e-ba9f-fbf2e523c6a5":{"definition":"An ancient city in Algeria, first capital of the Muslim dynasty of the Zirids.","spellings":["Achir"]},"870f1783-fcfb-57f0-806e-5a4684d21fb7":{"definition":"Call to prayer. Tr. *ezan*. See also *muezzin*.","spellings":["Adhan","Adhane","Adzan","Athan","Azan","Ezan"]},"199be476-a6fb-5584-8c39-6af25455b9be":{"definition":"A paper-treating process. Paper that was to be used for calligraphy had to be treated to prevent the ink from spreading. The paper was sized (*ahar*) with a special solution to obtain a very smooth surface.","spellings":["Ahar","Aharli"]},"84e97899-231d-5674-b71e-5b985f91973b":{"definition":"A decorative historical interior design technique and remains one of Syria’s best known handcrafts. The word itself describes different elements of the craft: from the act of applying relief paste to a plain surface, to the resulting ornamentation. Ajami also describes the type of room cladded with these artfully painted wooden panels. It is often complemented by the so called opus sectile works and complex carvings.","spellings":["Ajami"]},"bbc26d8f-e927-5230-afcf-3d59d97a8616":{"definition":"Term used primarily to mean a pair of windows or openings sharing a central column. An architectural feature common in buildings in Spain and North Africa including minarets.","spellings":["Ajimez"]},"34f3c711-7719-5478-a311-2b54051f81d0":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Just, fair.","spellings":["Adil","Adili","Al Adl","Al-Adili"]},"b80f901c-a916-59e9-aef8-0417192fcbbe":{"definition":"One of the 99 names of God, meaning The Sublime, ever exalted, supreme, The Exalted.","spellings":["Al-Ali"]},"b167cfe8-dff2-5e19-ba87-f3396f0af125":{"definition":"The 6th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cattle\". It is composed of 165 verses.","spellings":["Al-An'am"]},"c44302b7-5b2a-5247-b1b7-8c1a06993aa4":{"definition":"The 2nd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cow\". It is composed of 286 verses.","spellings":["Al-Baqara","Al-Baqarah"]},"747e800c-2146-5632-889b-02f277a7ec61":{"definition":"From the Arabic word *Dawla*, meaning to turn, alternate, or come around in a cyclical fashion. The sense of alternating periods of fortune or misfortune led Arab writers to use the word when speaking of dynastic succession. In the 19th century, as Western distinctions between the state and the government began to filter into Muslim countries, Dawla became increasingly disentangled from its more personalistic connotations and began to be used almost exclusively in the sense of \"state\".","spellings":["Ad-Dawla","Al-Dawla"]},"201d853b-4474-51af-9e70-8502823535b6":{"definition":"The 48th Chapter/Surah of the Quran, meaning \"The Victory\". It is composed of 29 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fath"]},"b29a1eb8-4d03-527c-a470-6d9b2d53269c":{"definition":"The 1st Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Opening\". It is composed of 7 verses.","spellings":["Al-Fatiha","Al-Fātiḥah","Fatiha"]},"9c2e2004-3d90-5af9-823b-a7e2d698d965":{"definition":"The 3rd Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Family of Irman\". It is composed of 200 verses.","spellings":["Al-Imran"]},"40da1488-6b0c-5407-91ab-fe344505219c":{"definition":"The 18th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Cave\". It is composed of 110 verses.","spellings":["Al-Kahf"]},"55aae703-bcda-5ede-aedc-b02a0583cc19":{"definition":"The 67th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Sovereignty\". It is composed of 30 verses.","spellings":["Al-Mulk"]},"3d741e10-844b-53b3-bd76-b7ab36e8c586":{"definition":"The 4th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Women\". It is composed of 176 verses.","spellings":["Al-Nisa","An-Nisa"]},"1dd45db8-f741-5e90-9598-aa5bed784e70":{"definition":"The 54th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Moon\". It is composed of 55 verses.","spellings":["Al-Qamar"]},"b6bf9297-6c19-524c-aaab-018a4692c5ad":{"definition":"The 32nd Chapter/ Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Prostration\". It is composed of 3- verses.","spellings":["Al-Sajda","As-Sajdah"]},"1732d847-9072-5d1d-8fac-f261ec1dcf98":{"definition":"An Arab Muslim theologian, writer, and scholar, who was one of the first contributors of the principles of Islamic jurisprudence.","spellings":["Al-Shafi","Al-Shafi'i"]},"782abace-0002-5e80-8b1f-a5cb1d7a353a":{"definition":"The 9th Chapter/Sura of the Quran, meaning \"The Repentance\". It is composed of 129 verses.","spellings":["Al-Tawba","At-Tawbah","Taubah"]},"081c777a-a6b8-599a-b2cc-1ea7f2513031":{"definition":"Pottery jar for apothecaries’ ointments and dry drugs made in the Near East and in Spain and produced in Italy from the 15th through the 18th century. Since the jar had to be easy to hold, use, and shelve, its basic form was cylindrical but incurved for grasping and wide-mouthed for access.","spellings":["Albarello"]},"dceda078-7d62-5c3e-8496-f4337836cba0":{"definition":"From Arabic *qaryah*. Hamlet, village.","spellings":["Alcaria","Qaryah"]},"16131753-740a-5b87-bfb9-06606e67de19":{"definition":"A flag, banner or standard. They were carried next to a commander in a military campaign or were used in religious processions. They could be very different in shape and had geometric designs, sometimes with inscriptions. A metal *alem* could be mounted to the head of a pole.","spellings":["Alem"]},"0e59a881-b976-53f8-b105-4ec6f1ec35b6":{"definition":"Alfardones (sg. alfardón) are elongated-hexagon tiles, usually decorated with text or floral and vegetative motifs.","spellings":["Alfardon"]},"39b15d5c-120b-51e4-b058-0cc18bb7226a":{"definition":"From Ar. *farsh*. A flat ceiling of carved or artistically interlaced wood. It can also be a floor.","spellings":["Alfarje","Farsh"]},"22b53494-49b4-56ac-8f6f-9b4231d55ce1":{"definition":"(Pl. *alfices* (Es), *alfizes* (Pt)) From Ar. *hayyiz*. Rectangular surround to the Arabic arch, which frames the spandrels and starts from either the imposts or the base.","spellings":["Alfices","Alfiz","Alfizes","Alhayyiz","Alhiz"]},"b4b7cd95-2eef-5482-9f26-076ce3f742d8":{"definition":"First letter of the Arabic alphabet.","spellings":["Aleph","Alif"]},"d622d348-fe31-5163-9440-a84a07e7456c":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘ulama’*) Scholar, doctor of law and Islamic theological science. Fr: ouléma or uléma. Tr: alim, pl. ulema.","spellings":["‘Alim","Alim","Ulama","Ulema"]},"aac9c393-bcc9-5f99-b897-4114d6818298":{"definition":"Renegade.","spellings":["Alj"]},"e201e09c-f4b8-5f58-9289-a2b07a586749":{"definition":"Angular polygonal decorative elements, formed in the shape of an almond. Along with other polygonal decorative elements, they are used in combination to make more elaborate and complex geometric decorative schemes.","spellings":["Almendrillas"]},"fb4643f3-3421-5aaa-8b4f-85806f394bac":{"definition":"A designation for a two-dimensional ornamental pattern in Islamic art. Arabesques are constructed designs based on intertwined leaf stems and tendrils that create a continuous pattern sometimes in connection with scrolls or geometrical elements.","spellings":["Arabesque"]},"983e0813-bc71-581c-82c8-e8186f09992d":{"definition":"A row of shops aligned along a street, which may be covered or open. See also *bazaar*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Arasta"]},"13b13347-73d9-5e9b-896e-e43453a70910":{"definition":"(pl. of *rabat*). In Sufi tradition, an *arbita *refers to a hospice combined with an educational establishment.**","spellings":["Arbita"]},"4b276222-ccaa-52f9-9e53-a26c705c0197":{"definition":"On the 10th day of Muharram, in Türkiye, both Sunni and Alevi-Bektashi Muslims prepare and share Ashura (also known as Noah’s pudding), a ritual dish believed to symbolise prosperity.","spellings":["Ashura"]},"f80f3b72-49a9-5057-bd6f-021ba24a6071":{"definition":"A medieval scientific instrument used for astronomical calculations and navigation.","spellings":["Astrolabe"]},"1967d28e-68f6-5e68-b680-9a66e81477fb":{"definition":"Commander-in-chief of the armies. Atabegs were appointed as tutors for young Seljuq princes acting as governors of important towns but they gained power and in time their independence.","spellings":["Atabeg","Atabek"]},"7b9c0eb4-b88c-5f12-a29c-fb04001f136d":{"definition":"From Ar. *tayfur*. Bowl or deep plate characteristic of al-Andalus ceramic production.","spellings":["Ataifor","Tayfur"]},"78fafab8-3f5e-5796-824d-1b42baff7c16":{"definition":"From Ar. *tawriq*. Stylised plant motif ornamentation inspired by the classical acanthus, much used in Hispano-Muslim art.","spellings":["Ataurique","Tawriq"]},"6fd1696a-b5d7-52af-9ddf-69cb25fba143":{"definition":"(Pl. *‘attarin*) Merchant of perfume, incense and medicinal plants.","spellings":["‘Attar","Attarin","Ittar"]},"6aa4c10c-2dae-5c27-8ba4-156ce70454d5":{"definition":"Historic region of India (also called Oudh), since 1947 part of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh","spellings":["Awadh","Oudh"]},"f8abb38d-e51e-5fc5-9493-dc1508482dcf":{"definition":"Plural of Wakf, meaning religious endowments. Also meaning endowments.","spellings":["Awkaf","Awqaf"]},"8383edc1-0cb4-52fa-9e3a-219b3a940129":{"definition":"(Pl. *ayat*) Verse in the Qur’an. Tr. ayet.","spellings":["Aya","Ayah","Ayat"]},"1af94c96-d6eb-511f-8cdd-4fca18aafa8e":{"definition":"A spring.","spellings":["‘Ayn","Ayn"]},"9802ab8a-e9c6-50b6-b1ee-f80871954f07":{"definition":"Location in Jerusalem.","spellings":["Ayzariyya"]},"e6913e4d-77b8-54e6-8aff-ae3476396952":{"definition":"Hexagonal decorative element. Along with other polygonal decorative elements, it is used to create more elaborate and complex decorative schemes.","spellings":["Azafates"]},"b5ff90ab-5823-5d04-95e0-dc19f7472200":{"definition":"A Spanish and Portuguese term for glazed tiles which have been set into a larger pattern to cover walls in courtyards of mosques and palaces. It is a term common all over the Maghreb. See also *zellij*.","spellings":["Azulejo"]},"4c2bb21c-6364-5e2c-ad76-cc117a2e1056":{"definition":"Gate, door.","spellings":["Bab"]},"32f6b8be-b738-5d45-a7b3-a5669da61ea4":{"definition":"Hall, inner courtyard, in front of the prayer room, alcove; by extension an entrance. Fr. *bhou*.","spellings":["Bahu","Bhou","Bhu"]},"e44ace71-d122-5c82-bf6b-34a79ff4b2d8":{"definition":"Literally “sons of”, used to refer to members of a clan. Plural of *ibn / bin*.","spellings":["Bani","Banu"]},"9d8dd39e-6208-5b40-8479-7eb99bd94348":{"definition":"Blessings or bounty. Tr. *Bereket*.","spellings":["Baraka","Barakah","Barakat","Barkati","Bereket"]},"ac8a2874-8a19-55b3-9857-60843740d359":{"definition":"Dignitary. See also pasha.","spellings":["Basha"]},"ac67e975-1f75-526f-a8cd-402ccde93f6f":{"definition":"A formula, *bi-‘ism Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim*, which is commonly translated as “In the name of God, the Clement, the Merciful”. Fr. *besmala*; Tr. *besmele*.","spellings":["Basmala","Basmalah","Besmala","Besmele","Bi-smi llāh"]},"4191f5bc-9dab-51a1-8306-964a410fec3b":{"definition":"A type of jug.","spellings":["Batta"]},"b8c40deb-d541-5941-870e-bbb5a22c7520":{"definition":"(Pl. *biyut*) Room; in certain cases a house. *baytal-Hikma*: tribunal. *bayt ad-diwan*: reception hall. *bayt al-nar*: furnace, literally “house of the fire”. See also *dar*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Bayt","Bayt-al-diwan","Bayt-al-nar","Beyt","Biyut"]},"9f0f473b-d1c4-579a-830e-8c67cf9124bc":{"definition":"Public market or designated place for commerce; covered market with doors (Persia). Fr. bazar. See also *arasta*, *bedesten*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bazaar","Bazar"]},"d262760a-d7c7-5583-b3d6-98f5a67ea709":{"definition":"A commercial building with at least two aisles (in Istanbul three or four) and covered with domes of equal size. The most precious merchandise was kept in *bedesten*s, which functioned like banks do today. The word was derived from *bezzazistan* where bezzaz means a seller of fabrics. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *qaysariyya*, *suq*.","spellings":["Bedesten"]},"b60d511d-ac28-5256-a068-c11df29bba22":{"definition":"The sanctuary of a Byzantine church enclosing the altar. Access to this area, which is often raised, is restricted to the clergy.","spellings":["Bema"]},"7aec7586-75a7-5362-b7c6-f62646540331":{"definition":"A decorative technique developed in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century in Samarra for stucco panels, marble and woodwork, which shows vegetal ornaments in an abstract way and has slanted or bevelled contours.","spellings":["Bevelled style"]},"816929a9-190c-57b7-8bc6-469a25050fac":{"definition":"The ruler of an independent emirate; a title of respect for a man of the upper classes; title held by the sovereign vassals of the sultan. *Beylerbeyi*: The bey of beys: the highest rank in the provincial government of the Ottoman Empire. *Beylicat*, *beylik*: soverignty of or territory ruled by a bey. See also *agha*, *dey*.","spellings":["Bey","Beylicat","Beylik"]},"5f7e8640-1f2b-52a9-a589-f51ed84f4b50":{"definition":"Hospital, infirmary or asylum.  \n  \nTr. *darüşşifa*, *şifahane*.","spellings":["Bimarestan","Bimaristan","Darüşşifa","Maristan","Şifahane"]},"5f340924-0a32-5b50-8c50-755492945fed":{"definition":"In the Islamic world blue-and-white ceramics appeared in Mesopotamia in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. Blue-and-white porcelain in China produced from the 8th / 14th century onwards had great influence in the Islamic world where it was collected at court and was imitated in the workshops of Ottoman Iznik and Safawid Iran.","spellings":["Blue-and-white"]},"73a9a2a0-a42b-53fb-aea6-1b24711d35fc":{"definition":"A usually glass collar on a candle socket to catch drippings or on a candlestick or chandelier to hold suspended glass prisms.","spellings":["Bobeche"]},"53b06a4c-1741-53c4-bd23-415aa3ce7613":{"definition":"Fort, bastion, tower, sometimes surrounded by an outer wall. The term passed into mediaeval Portuguese toponymy as *alvorge* or porches. In Tunisia it also means a secondary residence surrounded by gardens; a pleasure palace. Maghreb *borj*. Egypt *burg*. Tr. *burç*.","spellings":["Bordj","Borj","Burç","Burg","Burj"]},"5a9bc858-c027-5f9a-91c2-3756c4d27816":{"definition":"A universal oriental rug design element. Boteh is Persian for \"bush\" and buta is Hindi for \"flower\".","spellings":["Boteh","Buta"]},"fcf506db-4a98-5daa-97c6-61ec142d4106":{"definition":"A flat-topped arch. Named after the town of Bursa where you find many examples of this arch.","spellings":["Bursa arch"]},"9c5b0b5e-062a-5b06-ace2-d6a40e4d5cb9":{"definition":"The term \"Bustaan\" or \"Bustan\" directly translates to \"Garden\" or \"Orchard.\" It is also the title of a poetry book penned by the Persian poet Saadi in AH 655/ AD 1257. The book is rich with valuable spiritual guidance and practical wisdom.","spellings":["Boostaan","Boostan","Bostan","Boustan","Bustaan","Bustan"]},"b3b18f28-32c7-5836-ae64-e0df239443e1":{"definition":"The Byzantine empire (306 to 1453) which was preceded by the Roman empire and succeeded by the Ottoman Empire.","spellings":["Byzantine"]},"b6c3a09c-964b-5dd3-a091-e608967fe6ff":{"definition":"Ar. *khalifa* literally “successor”. The supreme head of the Muslim community. Caliphate: the territory under the power of the caliph.","spellings":["Caliph","Khalifa","Khalifah"]},"c2953466-916b-57e9-9f3b-409c9af9afa1":{"definition":"The “art of beautiful writing” (Greek) is one of the highest artforms of Islamic culture. As the Arabic language is connected with the revelation of Islam, calligraphy has deep spiritual undertones and is valued as a symbol of beauty and mystery. There are many types of calligraphy with variations according to period, place and context. Many artists of the Arab and Muslim world continue to practise calligraphy today. See also *diwani*, *farsi*, *kufic*, Maghribi-Andalusi, *muhaqqaq*, *naskhi*, *nas*ta’liq**, *rayhani*, *ruq’a*, *ta’liq*, *thuluth*.","spellings":["Calligraphy"]},"014b74c8-3720-578e-b437-bd761597b51c":{"definition":"Star shaped decorative element with five arms. Combined with other polygonal decorative elements, candilejos are used to make more elaborate and complex geometric decorative schemes.","spellings":["Candilejos"]},"801f574d-c2f6-52a3-ae7c-6a0074f1c59b":{"definition":"From Persian. Hostel along main travelling routes to accommodate travellers and safeguard their goods. See also *funduq*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Caravanserai"]},"90c8aeb0-fee7-5ad8-b2e8-525f87d18e3a":{"definition":"Fortress, citadel, usually equated with the city centre. Ar. *qasba*. *Ksiba*: small kasbah, the name of a neighbourhood in Bizerte, Tunisia. See also *hisn*, *qal’a*.","spellings":["Casbah","Kasbah","Ksiba","Ksibah","Qasaba","Qasba","Qasbah"]},"66c3c71a-cd8d-535b-aa60-f42837728e24":{"definition":"A Latin term (pl. castra) meaning legionary camp, castle, fortified town.","spellings":["Castra","Castrum"]},"ecd12214-7b80-5d96-a6e4-054647695519":{"definition":"Curved concave sweep.","spellings":["Cavetto"]},"a27048f2-e463-56af-bb14-17e5dd57b741":{"definition":"A title of respect, given to men of the upper classes; the epithet of Sultan Mehmed I. Tr. *Çelebi*.","spellings":["Çelebi","Chalabi"]},"8013dd99-b044-5c32-9cd2-44d308c0c03d":{"definition":"A term used in enamelled metalworking. Enamel glass powder is fired and fixed within depressions incised in the surface of the metal. In pottery this term is used for vessels with decoration standing out in relief obtained by taking away a slip and receiving an additional covering with a lead glaze.","spellings":["Champlevé"]},"988f73c6-aa80-5184-979f-cc026b118caf":{"definition":"A frieze of geometric motifs, also meaning reminiscent of crenelations.","spellings":["Charafa"]},"e6ca4d52-63e1-5c91-8d45-5c007bd19735":{"definition":"Artistic motifs originally from China that were used in Islamic art reflecting the strong Chinese influence since the Mongol periods. Typical designs are cloudbands, lotus-flowers and fabulous creatures such as the qilin. See also blue-and-white, *hatayi*, Ming-style, wave-and-rock motif.","spellings":["Chinoiserie","Ming-style"]},"cf4307ca-f437-5c58-80b8-f9b0100711fa":{"definition":"A term used in enamelled metalwork. The enamel colours are laid in separate compartments as required by the design. These compartments are formed from thin metal strips set on edge so that the different colours cannot fuse during the firing process.","spellings":["Cloisonné"]},"4a12c207-113d-5b87-992e-9db5d88374f3":{"definition":"The first Muslim societies continued to use Byzantine solidus gold coins and Sassanian silver dirhams. In time, Qur'anic phrases, place of minting, names of caliph and sultan and Hijri date were added. With the Umayyad coinage revolution in AH 696–7 / AD 1296–7, pure epigraphic coins came into use. Akche: silver coin, basic unit of Ottoman money system; dinar: gold coin, equal to 10 dirhams; fils: copper coin.","spellings":["Coinage"]},"ecb796d7-8a47-5b6b-b1de-735827242cfc":{"definition":"\"Corals, like pearls, are an organic material which have earned their place within the world of precious stones. They are valued not only for their physical properties and beauty, but also because of their symbolic and spiritual properties. Corals are miniature sea organisms called polyps, which live in warm and clear waters. Their skeletons consist mainly of calcium carbonate, which hardens after a coral dies. Coral colonies are made up of individual coral “trees” which, while growing, intertwine. Corals come in many colors, but the most common is red in a variety of shades.  \nCorals are widely used for jewelry and other decorative arts. Many traits, positive and negative, have been attributed to corals, and they are mentioned in the histories of all cultures that had the opportunity to encounter them. The Quran briefly mentions corals, as well as rubies, as the stones that symbolize celestial women in paradise. In Hindu culture, it is believed that the tender young leaves of the Kalpa tree, a symbolical offering to the gods, were made of corals. In general, corals symbolize loyalty and sacrifice, and have also been associated with cures for the plague and other diseases. Belief in the healing powers of the stone has affiliated it with the protection of children.\"","spellings":["Coral","Corals"]},"44562f82-b0b6-5353-939a-47fccfb7fa3c":{"definition":"Sacred text of the Islamic Revelation transmitted by the Archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad. From the root *qr*’, “to recite, to read”.","spellings":["Coran","Koran","Kuran","Qur’an","Quran"]},"61dd2431-5d5a-563f-98ea-305257d3eed8":{"definition":"Literally “dry cord”, a way of separating different coloured glazes on a tile during firing with greased cords. The term is also used for the technique of delineating the contours of a design with a mixture of wax or vegetable fat and manganese oxide. It is also known as “coloured glaze technique” in Turkish art and is seen in Turkey in the AH 9th–10th / AD 15th–16th centuries.","spellings":["Cuerda seca"]},"f3052f85-4db5-5572-a790-f3dc9a248659":{"definition":"(Pl. *dur*) House. *Dar al-imara*: Governor’s house. Dar al-Islam: Domain of Islam: countries under Islamic rule; where Islam did not rule was considered war territory. *Dar al-Hadith*: A school for studying the Hadith; Tr. *Darülhadis*. *Dar al-Hijra*: Abode for migration. *Dar al-khuffaz*: A school for training of memorising the Qur’an; Tr. *Darülhuffaz*. Dar al-Qurra’: school for teaching Qur’an recitation as a science ; Tr. *Darülkurra*. *Dar al-shifa’*: hospital; Tr. **darüşşifa**. *Dar al-tibb*: A school where the medical sciences were taught; Tr. *Darüttıb*. See also *bayt*, *qasr*.","spellings":["Dar","Dar al-Hadith","Dar al-Hijra","Dar al-imara","Dar al-Islam","Dar al-khuffaz","Dar al-shifa’","Dar al-tibb","Darülhadis","Darülhuffaz","Darülkurra","Darüşşifa","Darüttıb"]},"0b0c9320-1a31-574f-aa24-7c9a581717b2":{"definition":"Alleyway, route. In Morocco and Tunisia derb: alley or by extension a neighbourhood. *Darb al-Hajj*: route taken to Mecca by pilgrims from every corner of the Islamic world. Usually all necessary services, especially security, were provided by the administration. Caravans would meet at specified times in designated places, e.g. the Turkish caravan would meet the caravan from al-Sham and they would travel together to join the Jordanian and Palestinian caravans.","spellings":["Darb","Darb al-Hajj","Derb"]},"a4f8f7c7-245b-5188-b8fe-8085676b0785":{"definition":"Mausoleum. See also *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Darih"]},"b64a1f79-8f29-5ad4-8e98-379f8e05cb1b":{"definition":"Member of a Muslim religious order noted for its devotional practices. Fr. *derviche*.","spellings":["Darvesh","Darwish","Derviche","Dervish"]},"0c6702be-079c-5910-88ee-33a290820f45":{"definition":"Holder of Sultan's ink bottle (from Persian دوات‌دار meaning bearer of the ink bottle), sometimes also referred to as secretary.","spellings":["Dawadar"]},"9e337d3c-af6d-5856-bb0c-0ed39eab0859":{"definition":"Term used in Libya, Tunisia and Algeria for a high-ranking officer in the Turkish militia elected by a local council of janissaries. Below the Ottoman *Beylerbeyi* in rank deys nevertheless represented absolute power in the region. When they came into conflict with the Ottoman court, they were punished heavily. Tr. *dayı*. See also *agha*, *bey*.","spellings":["Daya","Dayi","Dey"]},"31591fdd-18fb-5898-b2ac-33ccb03797c8":{"definition":"A place with a very small population in the state and region of Amman Governorate in Jordan.","spellings":["Dhab'a","Dhaba"]},"eb4ec166-81db-5b55-9f7c-de12b453b102":{"definition":"The term dhikr comes from the triliteral root that means \"to remember\". In the context of the Islamic tradition, dhikr means the remembrance of God. This remembrance of God can take many forms. The word dhikr is also used to mean litanies and specific phrases in remembrance of God. This term could mean the Quran.","spellings":["Dhikr","Thikr","Zekr","Zikar","Zikr"]},"30a317f8-dd77-54b9-ba2d-fe25e643cf98":{"definition":"A crown or headband, sometimes adorned with jewels. The word derives from the Greek *διάδημα* diádēma, \"band\" or \"fillet\",from *διαδέω* diadéō, \"I bind round\", or \"I fasten\".","spellings":["Diadem","Diadema"]},"a63b6fb1-4ed2-5e10-a649-69af7e23c299":{"definition":"Diamonds (today) are known as the most prized gemstones, but they have not always had this reputation. They were primarily valued for their physical properties, particularly their hardness and fire resistance. Due to these traits, numerous myths have been created about diamonds, some of which date back to the 17th century or before. Several powers have been attributed to the stone, including purification, invincibility, and even the ability to spontaneously create others of its kind. In ancient Arabic medicine there was a belief that diamonds could cure all illnesses of the body and mind. One of the most popular legends involving diamonds is of the so-called Diamond Valley. Dating from the 4th century BC, the legend speaks of an inaccessible valley filled with snakes and other terrifying creatures, the floor of which is covered with an endless amount of diamonds. This legend has further contributed to the idea that diamonds are rare and immensely hard to find.","spellings":["Diamond","Diamonds"]},"f68bb09f-0323-528e-a7bc-c97eec5531d8":{"definition":"Monetary unit used in several countries. It was first introduced as an Islamic coinage in the late 7th century CE by Abd al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty. The dinar dates from the Roman times, when it was known as denarius. Made of gold.","spellings":["Dinar","Dinara"]},"dc07b2ea-551e-5012-a166-43402ac5534c":{"definition":"Silver coins, also used as a weight standard (2.97g).","spellings":["Dirham","Dirhem","Dirhm"]},"5117e6c8-5cec-5590-83a7-081569b2f889":{"definition":"(demon, monster, fiend), often confused with *ḡūl *(orge, ghoul) and jinn in both folk and literary traditions, expresses not only the idea of \"demon\", but also that of \"ogre\", \"giant\", and even \"Satan\". They are often black, with long teeth, black lips, blue eyes, claws on their hands, and large bodies covered with thick hair.**","spellings":["Dev","Div"]},"3230cdd8-ec0e-5aa1-9b44-adc5716d86b8":{"definition":"An office of government; audience hall, reception chamber; a collection of poems. Tr. divan; divan-ı Hümayun: the Imperial Council, chaired by the Grand Vizier, forming the central organ of the Ottoman government.","spellings":["Divan","Diwan","Diwani","Diwaniya"]},"68be9f26-eb6e-5276-b60c-690997493d6e":{"definition":"In military architecture the inner tower or stronghold of a castle, the keep.","spellings":["Donjon"]},"1716f8d4-fa82-5204-b71c-843312201e82":{"definition":"Central area in mosques and *madrasas*, giving access to other rooms. Usually surrounded by two or four *iwans*, and covered by a wooden ceiling with openings for light and ventilation.","spellings":["Durqa‘a","Durqaa"]},"476a1ad7-f594-57bd-8ef5-ddfe4dba9e8b":{"definition":"A lacquer technique first seen in Iran in the AH 9th / AD 15th century during the Timurid period. It was named after Edirne in Turkey from where the best examples came. It was used on different media such as bindings, drawers and bows.","spellings":["Edirnekari"]},"16e5e640-a860-5917-bc5f-7e13a3825ded":{"definition":"\"Emeralds are gemstones from the beryl mineral group which develop in a hexagonal shape. The gemstone got its name because of its color (from the Greek *Smaragdos*, meaning green stone), and it is said to symbolize the force of cosmic life, strength and inner peace.  \nEmeralds are considered to be the gemstones of alchemists, who believe the emerald of wisdom gives life to nature. In Central America, they are related to fertility. In ancient Egypt, emeralds decorated funerary jewelry of noblemen and other high-ranking individuals. Because the gems were extremely rare, green colored glass or pottery were sometimes used instead.\"","spellings":["Emerald","Emeralds"]},"8f750e3f-a3f4-5b39-8f9c-97cbf1eb56ec":{"definition":"A military commander, prince or senior official; the ruler of an emirate or principality; Tr. *emir*. amir akhur: *amir* responsible for sultan’s stables, camels and postal service; Tr. *emir* *ahur* or imrahor. amir al-Mu’minin: Prince of Believers; Tr. *emirü’l-müminin*. amir al-Muslimin: Prince of Muslims; Tr. *emirü’l-müslimin*. amir al-silah: *amir* responsible for arms. amir kabir: Great Amir. Fr. *émir*.","spellings":["Ahur","Amir","Amir Akhur","Amir al-Muslimin","Amir al-silah","Emir","Emirü’l-müminin","Imahor"]},"5d77d3cf-d7dc-59de-8fe9-16b4846e152d":{"definition":"Another name for slip, now largely obsolete.","spellings":["Engobe"]},"cd62ef51-dfea-5e66-a924-b9ac8fd72a21":{"definition":"A French term for maiolica, tin-glazed earthenware of post-Medieval Europe. Also a ceramic composed of a body of crushed quartz and an overlying glaze, common in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Capable of being moulded into small objects which were initially confused with earthenware with a white tin glaze and the term faience, incorrectly applied, has remained in use.","spellings":["Faience"]},"72193f41-0197-51af-a704-1102b4a3cf85":{"definition":"Lamp, beacon. See also *manar*.","spellings":["Fanar","Fener","Fnar"]},"6f9e5b1d-8c35-59ba-9052-011f4c240ecf":{"definition":"The evaluation of the goodness or badness of deeds according to the Islamic point of view was called *fiqh* (understanding), and the person holding the qualities of knowledge and competence to produce opinions in this respect was called faqih (the knowledgeable who understands well). The consideration of human actions within an Islamic religious context was encouraged by sayings of the Prophet, such as \"He whom God favours with good, God makes him the one who understands in religion (*faqih*)\".","spellings":["Faqih"]},"3fd5d8e5-d6d9-5084-a7bc-f270946f8c24":{"definition":"\"Farsi\" refers to the Persian language. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and is written in the Persian script.  \n  \n1\\. An inhabitant of Persia. 2. Cursive, particularly elegant calligraphic style which emphasises the curves of the Arabic letters by reducing the angular figures. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Farsi"]},"38f9b696-41fe-5bb6-aea9-f97476afeed6":{"definition":"This term has different meanings:  \n  \nFez  \nCity in northern Morocco  \n  \nFez  \nA brimless cylindrical or somewhat cone-shaped hat with a flat top that usually has a tassel, is typically made of red felt, and is worn especially by men in eastern Mediterranean countries","spellings":["Fes","Fez"]},"83ff6b98-4005-5eb0-8acb-322d72def706":{"definition":"Bronze coin.","spellings":["Fals","Fils"]},"664a6020-4914-5595-8215-d0a0af9a4b9e":{"definition":"(Pl. *fuqaha’*) Muslim canonical jurisprudence. *Fqih*: jurisconsult versed in the code of Islam, the person specialising in *fiqh’*. There are four schools of Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. See also Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i.","spellings":["Fiqh","Fuqaha'"]},"111b1877-22ac-5026-90bf-a0267a993a00":{"definition":"An edict of a sultan with official court directives. Firmans of the Ottoman sultans are paper scrolls of different length with an artistic signature (*tughra*) of the sultan as a heading, a written text in an official script followed by a number of testifying signatures at the end.","spellings":["Farman","Ferman","Firman"]},"30b4ea5c-4774-5bfc-bea3-025184b06e0f":{"definition":"A designation for a ceramic body consisting mainly of quartz and some glaze mixture. In the firing process the quartz and the glaze fuse to a white body, sometimes also called stonepaste.","spellings":["Fritware"]},"a28b8897-e81c-58ac-8bd9-29b1a5ac80c3":{"definition":"Horizontal bands in Ottoman textiles.","spellings":["Frogging"]},"720487c1-6546-5ad8-96ce-6caedac4ddab":{"definition":"A leaf with illustration preceding the title-page of a book.","spellings":["Frontispiece"]},"b54d5ba9-119e-5200-8993-1d307bd7f285":{"definition":"A compendium of military arts written by Muhammad ibn ʿIsa ibn Ismaʿil al-Hanafi al-Aqsari, who dedicated it to the Mamluk viceroy of Egypt, Ala al-Din Asanbay al-Abu Bakri. It became the most popular Mamluk book on *furusiyya *(horsemanship) and many illustrated copied were made for Mamluk patrons in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.**","spellings":["Furūsīyah","Furusiyya"]},"0608107a-ec5a-529b-8814-e74d5f7ea1bd":{"definition":"A traditional outer garment worn in Iran during the Qajar period.","spellings":["Gaba","Ghaba"]},"ac65deea-d395-59f6-bb9f-0cdc678424a3":{"definition":"\"The term garnet includes a large group of silicate minerals which have the same basic structure and a consistent chemical formation which occasionally vaires when other elements are present. The name of this gemstone derives from the Latin term *granum*, meaning grain. Garnets come in all colors, among which the most common is red and the rarest is blue. Garnets can be divided into a series of subtypes: pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular, uvarovite and andradite.  \nThe most popular and widely used of these is the pyrope subtype. For a long time, pyropes and almandines were grouped under the same name, which was carbuncle. In ancient Judeo-Christian legend, it is believed that Noah used a carbuncle to light up his arc. The name pyrope comes from the Greek word *pyropos*, meaning fire-like, since pyropes are of a recognizable red palette. The stone was particularly popular around the globe in the 18th and 19th centuries. The main sources of this subtype of garnet can be found in the Czech Republic, which is why it was commonly called the “Czech Ruby”. Because of their abundance, garnets are omnipresent in European decorative arts. Garnet mines can also be found across Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\"","spellings":["Garnet","Garnets"]},"8fcc7f3b-7497-583a-8d85-b885dbba2fcd":{"definition":"Emblem of the Emirate.","spellings":["Ghalaba"]},"1123d155-1d0c-59e5-8ecc-ca1e2b7a31e9":{"definition":"From ghazwa (military raid), referring to a noble title for those who participated in battles for Islam. It became a military rank during the Mamluk period and was notably applied to Mahmud of Ghazni, as inscribed on Mahmud’s Tower in Ghazni in AH 421 / AD 1030. Tr. *gazi*.","spellings":["Gazi","Ghazi"]},"09e9e553-3757-50e9-a411-6aaea263cdac":{"definition":"The so-called Turkish knot in a pile rug or carpet. Another term is symmetrical knot or double knot. The asymmetrical knot exists in Persian carpets, called a Senneh knot.","spellings":["Ghiordes (Gördes) knot"]},"e0e8a76f-5937-523a-b87b-6d2a0c6528d7":{"definition":"Applying gold to the surface of an artwork. Gilding can be applied to most materials, including marble, stone, stucco, wood, metalwork, ceramics, glass and paper. Different techniques are used to apply gold, as it can be applied in a light wash or as gold-leaf foil. Tr. *tombak*, gilded copper technique.","spellings":["Gilding (gold)","Tombak"]},"f2b2bdf4-e6b8-5c67-94e3-3fdbc00d8e88":{"definition":"A thin layer of glass is applied to the surface of a ceramic before firing. In the kiln firing the glaze fuses, protecting the ceramic and making it waterproof and suitable for different purposes. Lead glaze is transparent and soft but vulnerable to cracking and chemical deformation. Tin glaze: an opaque white glaze containing tin, developed in Baghdad in the AH 3rd / AD 9th century to rival Chinese porcelain and transmitted from there to Moorish Spain and then the rest of Europe. Faience, maiolica and Delft wares have tin glazing.","spellings":["Glaze"]},"04723e93-e903-5ff8-abd0-54ec24fd67cf":{"definition":"Italian, literally, “scratched”. The pottery vessels made in this technique have received a slip and a decoration that is incised through the slip showing the contrasting colour of the body. The decoration is then covered with an additional lead glaze.","spellings":["Graffiato","Sgraffito"]},"bf45b8ed-e1ac-5ab7-a72d-85c57ebcf786":{"definition":"A decorative ceramic glazing technique where the only colours used are the green of copper oxide and almost black manganese. At the end of the process, the whole composition is covered with a transparent layer of lead glaze.","spellings":["Green and manganese"]},"2fb79a2a-639b-5703-9b25-ab627b16aef8":{"definition":"A gift of real estate bequeathed in perpetuity under certain conditions in favour of a mosque or other religious institution, such as a *madrasa* or *khanqah*, or a civil institution such as a *sabil*, or even a house. See also *waqf*.","spellings":["Habus"]},"c18561f3-9ed2-5c21-92a7-c3476d781d57":{"definition":"Literally, “sayings”. Body of traditions related to the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. *Dar al-Hadith*: see *dar*.","spellings":["Hadis","Hadith"]},"2321357b-4aa3-502a-a078-82ed79384c60":{"definition":"Female garment worn in Algeria particularly in central Algeria. Also describes the word for embroider.","spellings":["Haik"]},"4a7c27f5-2059-522b-a21e-ee99a0c6ac00":{"definition":"A high government official. The term originally designated a chamberlain, but under the Spanish Umayyads the *hajib* functioned as a chief minister, paralleling the position of vizier in the eastern caliphates.","spellings":["Hadjib","Hajib"]},"cccf5396-0f64-5785-9f34-bb8b7a5ffd5b":{"definition":"One of the five pillars of Islam: pilgrimage to Mecca and holy places, which all believers must accomplish at least once during their lifetime if they have the means to do so. By extension it also refers to someone who undertakes the pilgrimage. Hajj takes place two months after Ramadan and finishes with the Feast of Sacrifice (Eid al-Adha). ‘Umra has almost the same rituals as the Hajj but takes place outside the Hajj season. ‘Umra’s significance is growing because there is no means to house the increasingly large numbers (over three million) who want to go on Hajj.","spellings":["Hadj","Hadji","Haj","Hajj"]},"fc74d5ab-7517-53a5-9a58-0cb34c65fec8":{"definition":"Public or private bathhouse. Apodyterium: changing room; Tr. *soyunmalık*. Caldarium: hot room. Hypocaust: floor and wall heating system by steam in Roman baths and villas. Tepidarium: warm room where bathers would rest after bathing; Tr. *ılıklık*. Also in Turkish bathhouse: *aralık*: passageway between the *soyunmalık* and *ılıklık*; *halvet*: private chambers in a public bath; *traşlık*: small room used for the removal of body hair. Also in Syrian bathhouse: *barrani* (lit. “exterior”): the cold room of a bathhouse because it is usually located furthest from the furnace; *juwwani*: most interior part, closest to furnace – steam room; *wustani*: middle chambers designated as the “warm water chambers”. See also *maqsura*.","spellings":["Hamam","Hammam","Hammams"]},"cc92b83e-cb72-55df-b6de-8ddaf5a44e3f":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. Hanbeli. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanbali"]},"982c3a21-b99b-5c3b-b3d3-65276466c18d":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man, it became the chosen school of the Ottomans. Tr. Hanefi. See also *fiqh’*.","spellings":["Hanafi"]},"d71360cd-eac1-5408-b6b3-59ad3d8464b9":{"definition":"Ar. literally “sacred”, “forbidden”. Sanctuary. An illicit act from the religious point of view. Haram al-Sharif: the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem including al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock.","spellings":["Haram","Haramsarā","Harem","Harīm"]},"0ad8de69-3a63-53bc-8e1b-4c6cae853bca":{"definition":"Common living space in a Turkish house. Tr. also *sofa*.","spellings":["Hayat","Sofa"]},"0f3fb66d-a491-591b-a0c2-56e11ec481aa":{"definition":"Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Madina in AD 622. The beginning of the Muslim Hijri (Hegira) calendar, which follows a lunar year.","spellings":["Hegira","Hijra","Hijrah"]},"c0013a33-832b-5aec-b97e-3901d8475a95":{"definition":"The crescent Moon, also known as the most common symbol of Islam.","spellings":["Al-hilal","Hilal"]},"dcd58376-8ba5-5488-bec0-53d4cf2fa497":{"definition":"A prose description of the Prophet Muhammad. Hilya-i Sharif: noble description of the prophet, a work of art bearing the noble description.","spellings":["Hilya","Hilye"]},"3d299572-ee10-5a78-93a1-b50bfe645ec5":{"definition":"Castle. See also *qal’a*, *kasbah*.","spellings":["Hisn"]},"c8f1dda2-4eb6-56a9-ab2a-90bd17c5301c":{"definition":"The 11th sura of the Quran, it has 123 verses (ayat). It relates in part to the prophet Hud.","spellings":["Hud"]},"f02daf1a-8cf3-537e-9527-27663513c0ba":{"definition":"The term Huri refers to a beautiful maiden who awaits the devout Muslim in paradise. The Arabic word *ḥawrāʾ *signifies the contrast of the clear white of the eye to the blackness of the iris. There are numerous references to the houri in the Qurʾān describing them as 'purified wives' and 'spotless virgins'.**","spellings":["Hawra","Houri","Huri"]},"d741661c-846f-560d-a11c-19720819ac9a":{"definition":"Son of, used in names. To indicate a clan the plural form *Bani / Banu*. is used. Tr. –*oğlu*.","spellings":["Ben","bin","ibn"]},"1cde97a5-238a-57b7-ae98-c6e06d4dd4a2":{"definition":"A small metal pot, usually of copper, with a long metal handle, used for preparing Turkish, Arabic, or Greek style coffee. Could also refer to a spouted jug made of metal or clay, usually used for ablution.","spellings":["Ibrik"]},"73a0a800-b933-53ac-9f7a-3030985394ef":{"definition":"Meaning fortune.","spellings":["Eqbal","Igbal","Ikbal","Iqbal"]},"78382734-788f-5068-b99e-3cc129b1f007":{"definition":"Political entity officially known as Iranzamin. It was established and ruled by the Mongol House of Hulagu.","spellings":["Ilkhanate","Ilkhanid"]},"441e3156-be30-517c-a195-12e2d3486ed8":{"definition":"One who presides over Islamic prayers, a guide, chief, spiritual model or cleric; sometimes also a political leader in Muslim society.","spellings":["Imam"]},"8f367dab-0120-518e-b2ab-f888fb65bc16":{"definition":"Office or region and country ruled by an Imam (spiritual leader).","spellings":["Imamah","Imamate"]},"7fb96b21-abb1-5f60-883e-2d6e33ce522d":{"definition":"This is a term in Swahili meaning flourishing, strong.","spellings":["Imara"]},"d92f6fd0-31e4-5a3e-a04f-1708743e899b":{"definition":"From Ar. *imara*. A complex of buildings and institutions supported by a *waqf*. After the AH 10th / AD 16th century a public soup-kitchen for the poor.","spellings":["imaret"]},"e6385177-2664-5111-8f62-1320456abb8d":{"definition":"Rectangular basin in the centre of an atrium in the open air for the collection of rainwater.","spellings":["Impluvium"]},"a23158c9-7afc-5a3c-ad75-9ecc73727c13":{"definition":"A technique in which cut ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell or the like are arranged in a geometrical pattern, often within a wooden framework.","spellings":["Inlaying"]},"96a108d1-019f-555a-b601-5b20e5a11257":{"definition":"Land given to army officers in exchange for military and administrative duties.","spellings":["Iqta","Iqta'"]},"1bcff5a5-1586-5d9e-a84e-b16a4a88bdae":{"definition":"The Prophet Muhammad’s midnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.","spellings":["Isra"]},"ed1392a3-c2e4-5dca-8b74-eaef4f0f9c94":{"definition":"A vaulted hall or domed hall, walled on three sides with a large opening arch. Tr. eyvan.","spellings":["Eyvan","Ivan","Iwan"]},"eb5afced-0046-5fd2-aa51-8192d7a0f140":{"definition":"Fragment of lintel, a textile outfit.","spellings":["Izar"]},"0c7c1002-ee4f-5507-9e43-3d8636035b0a":{"definition":"A type of architectural decoration, usually in the form of a window grill, constructed of ornaments, geometric motifs and other shapes.","spellings":["Jaali","Jali"]},"a25816af-9610-5a9b-a762-50fcfbbe7fee":{"definition":"Mountain, mountainous terrain. *Jabaliya*: mountain dwellers.","spellings":["Djebel","Jabal","Jabliya","Jebel"]},"273dff1e-b908-5770-9385-d987f829c77f":{"definition":"\"The term jade refers to two types of minerals: jadeite, which is a silicate of sodium and aluminium; and nephrite, a silicate of magnesium, potassium and iron. The two types are quite difficult to distinguish from one another, and therefore are both commonly called jade. These minerals both measure at six point five to seven on the Mohs scale. When cut, jade has a matte appearance, but possesses extraordinary shininess when polished. It comes in a variety of colors, among which the most prized are green, pink and yellow.  \nThe presence of jade in human history dates back over seven thousand years, and in myths it is one of the most mystical and mysterious gemstones. Cultures from many regions, such as South America, Asia and the Pacific Islands, all have their own versions of the story of how jade got its name. Jade is a very important gem in Chinese culture, appearing in many shapes and forms, and is affiliated with numerous beliefs of both protective and romantic natures. It is also believed that when struck, jade can produce the sound of a loved one’s voice. Talismans made from this precious stone are also popular in the Islamic world, especially among ethnic Turks, who pass them through generations as heirlooms.\"","spellings":["Jade","Jades"]},"931ee012-2711-5a21-b4b7-d99c793abaf6":{"definition":"New. Tr. *cedid* or *cedit*.","spellings":["Jadid"]},"070e713b-f503-5f87-be41-16cb73c070b4":{"definition":"Main mosque where daily prayers and Friday prayers are celebrated. Tr. *cami*. See also *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Cami","Djama'a","Djamaa","Djemaa","Jama","Jama'a","Jama’","Jamaa","Jami","Jami‘"]},"b1ec8e21-3e6a-5dda-9949-a516128c3408":{"definition":"An officer in the army of India, or any of several police or other officials of the government of India.","spellings":["Jamadar","Jamdar","Jemadar"]},"7910cc31-4aef-536d-b917-919e64b075ff":{"definition":"The Ottoman sultan’s standing infantry corps, recruited from non-Muslims under the devşirme system and paid from the Treasury. Tr. *Yeniçeri Ocağı*.","spellings":["Janissary","Yeniçeri Ocağı"]},"32060b9a-7161-59c6-9be7-e3a6e3d49442":{"definition":"Literally \"beautiful garden\". Heaven/Paradise. Tr. *cennet*.","spellings":["Cennet","Djena","Djenaïn","Djenan","Janna"]},"90bd1da2-abb0-5d9c-b340-7fc034249c2e":{"definition":"Striving towards moral and religious perfection, the motivation for which may lead to fighting “on the path to God” against dissidents or pagans.","spellings":["Jehad","Jihad"]},"9b746350-d82d-5ab5-9676-62bdb3be99b1":{"definition":"View of the World', a geographical work written by Kâtip Çelebi (Turkish historian, geographer, and bibliographer) that makes the first use, in Turkey, of European atlases and other sources.","spellings":["Cihannüma","Jihannuma"]},"f3e0634c-24ec-55cb-977b-33628dad645e":{"definition":"A type of sword. The jineta sword is most well-known like hispanoarabe, used by the Muslims in the peninsula from 13th century, later the jineta sword was made and used by the Christians from the 15th century.","spellings":["Jineta"]},"b3d75c6a-1878-50e5-88da-5dc169dc75c0":{"definition":"A spirit inhabiting the earth but unseen by humans, capable of assuming various forms and exercising extraordinary powers. Belief in jinn was common in pre-Islamic Arabia, where they were thought to inspire poets and soothsayers. Their existence was affirmed in the Qurʾān, and they are conceptualized in Islam as creatures parallel to human beings who are capable of choosing between good and evil and must thus face eventual salvation or damnation. They are beings of smokeless flame by nature, in the same manner in which humans are said to be made of earth, and they cannot be seen by human beings.","spellings":["Djinn","Genie","Jinn"]},"e6edb4f1-d8d8-54aa-8bf3-e3a0e739c95b":{"definition":"(Pl. *ajnad*) Military and administrative province.","spellings":["Ajnad","Jund"]},"2003ec95-a720-51cb-9dcd-774d9dc9f389":{"definition":"The text of the Qur’an can be divided into 30 equal sections. One-thirtieth is therefore called a *juz’* (pl. ajza). When Qur’ans were written in 30 volumes, as in Mamluk Egypt, one volume was a *juz’*.","spellings":["Ajza","Juz’"]},"98afafd6-f8b6-5d37-923e-752f4697a5a7":{"definition":"Literally “cube”. Temple in Mecca, the centre of the Islamic religion.","spellings":["Ka'bah","Ka‘ba","Kaaba","Kabah"]},"c4bd090a-f131-5065-9dbe-2761690061ca":{"definition":"Limestone used in paving and in the frames of doors and windows.","spellings":["Kadhal"]},"dde3bab2-6c93-59de-b512-d4ebe4ea584d":{"definition":"A usually cotton or silk ankle-length garment with long sleeves that is common throughout the Islamic world.","spellings":["Caftan","Kaftan","Khaftan"]},"a440e09c-19a4-5c75-a54b-ddacd997f4c6":{"definition":"Colourful decoration done with a k*alem* (brush) on a plastered surface.","spellings":["K'alem","Kalemişi"]},"792175b1-51f7-5367-a036-65b029ee9c82":{"definition":"Hand -palm amulet.","spellings":["Kef","Keff"]},"1a551412-ba3d-5a82-89e6-07e97018fb70":{"definition":"Brocade, a multi-coloured Ottoman compound-woven fabric using polychrome silk with gold, gilded silver and silver metallic threads to achieve colourful designs.","spellings":["Kemha"]},"04f42d3e-3607-5497-ac48-4aa51fe765d3":{"definition":"A small room or cell (sometimes an independent building) with few or no windows to which Sufis retreat. It corresponds to the *halvet* of a Turkish bath – see *hammam*.","spellings":["Halvet","Khalwa"]},"5805ea4d-515f-570c-944e-b39504e35c2a":{"definition":"This term has two meanings:  \n  \nHAND OF FATIMA  \nThe “Hand of Fatima” or “Khamsa”, which can be found in souks all around Morocco, be it metallic, ceramic, coloured or made from camel bone, is a very widespread talisman. Khamsa means “five” and refers to the five fingers of the hand. Khamsa is an amulet which is typical of both the Islamic and Jewish religion.  \n  \nQUINTET OF POEMS  \n\"Khamsa\" typically refers to the quintet of poems composed by the Persian poet Nezami Ganjavi in the 12th century. This collection, recognized as the \"Khamsa,\" which means five in Persian and Arabic, or \"Quintet,\" the term used in Europe, comprises five epic poems),\" “Makhzan al-Asrar” ( The Treasury of Mysteries), \"Khosrow and Shirin,\" \"The Seven Beauties,\" \"Eskandar-Nameh\" (The Book of Alexander), and \"Layla and Majnun.\" \"Khamsa\" is a compilation of Mathnawi poems, employing rhyming couplets, a specific form of Persian poetry well-suited for longer narrative works. Nezami's \"Khamsa\" is esteemed for its poetic beauty, moral depth, and the adept interweaving of historical and mythical elements. This masterpiece has left an enduring impact on Persian literature, being actively studied and appreciated for its literary and cultural significance.","spellings":["Hamsa","Hamza","Khamsa","Khamse","Khamseh"]},"cf7d3667-7d96-58e6-af31-c5d6fe2c71b8":{"definition":"Ar. Inn, lodgings on the main caravan routes for travellers (pilgrims and merchants) and where merchandise could be stored. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *wikala*. Tr. *han*.","spellings":["Han","Khan"]},"1863aa1c-4cad-53d2-a497-ecb16318e81f":{"definition":"Monastery or hostel for itinerant Sufis or dervishes. Tr. *hanikah*, *hankah*. See also *zawiya*.","spellings":["Hanikah","Hankah","Khankah","Khanqa","Khanqah"]},"069e3a86-9304-50ec-85c5-b13302126d14":{"definition":"An Arabised version of the Turkish *Hatun*, a title of respect for women of the upper classes.","spellings":["Hatun","Khatun"]},"6dc0bc86-bae7-595d-afd4-5801f58f6005":{"definition":"Treasurer, responsible for State coffers (khaza’in) where the money and gold of the sultan or *amir* was kept.","spellings":["Khaznadar"]},"b8b82127-2aac-57e8-ba1a-3104f9b6f7a3":{"definition":"Word used to describe a library, but could also mean closet, depending on the dialect and context.","spellings":["Khizana"]},"2a3c0ddd-2061-5547-b807-78d7dfc8a700":{"definition":"A vast historical region in north-eastern Iran, known for its diverse culture and history. It encompasses several major urban centres, including Mashhad, the holiest city in Iran due to it being home to the Imam Reza Shrine. Khurasan has been a centre of trade, scholarship, and civilization for centuries, with influences from various dynasties and empires.","spellings":["Khorasan","Khurasan"]},"aace2213-b96e-55dc-90b1-8852a726d654":{"definition":"The weekly sermon of the Friday prayer. Tr. *hutbe*.","spellings":["Hutbe","Khutba"]},"c7a6e5ba-2a85-5491-b7e4-4bdb152f4a22":{"definition":"A historically significant city and province located in south-eastern Iran. Kerman is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, including traditional crafts like carpet weaving, as well as its architectural marvels such as the Ganjali Khan Complex and the Jameh Mosque. The region is known for its desert landscapes, particularly the Lut Desert, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Kerman is also celebrated for its unique cuisine, blending Persian and Baluchi flavours, and its pivotal role as a hub on the historic Silk Road, fostering trade and cultural exchange between the East and the West.","spellings":["Kerman","Kirman"]},"53d47884-ba36-5979-a58f-ff35b0bd8587":{"definition":"A cloth composed of different parts to cover the Ka’ba in Mecca. It is embroidered in silk and gold with Qur’anic verses. A new one is made each year. The change takes places during the Hajj, when the old *kiswa* is cut up and distributed among the people. Cloths with zigzag patterns of calligraphy that cover mausolea cenotaphs are also called *kiswa* (e.g. in Palestine).","spellings":["Kiswa","Kiswah","Kiswat"]},"64d6c154-9408-5c99-93c4-4d53ffce9b15":{"definition":"Book. Kitabat: inscriptions.","spellings":["Kitaab","Kitab","Kitabat","Kuttab"]},"5680e113-6b9f-5043-82ac-d9da92afcd18":{"definition":"Leather case, could also refer to a grave.","spellings":["Kubur","Qubur"]},"95fc5a14-1b29-5364-810a-69fc76087256":{"definition":"An Arabic script of angular and stylised characters used in Qur’ans in the early period of Islam. It is attributed to the city of Kufa in Iraq. From the AH 4th / AD 10th century it was less used because it could be difficult to read. Foliated *kufic*: a script that combines the angular style of the letters with decorative floral and vegetal motifs as finials, popular during the Fatimid and Atabeg period. See also calligraphy.  \n  \nKufic script emerged as an Arabic script style, initially rising to prominence as the favoured choice for transcribing the Qurʾan and adorning architectural structures. Over time, it evolved into a point of reference and an exemplary model for various other Arabic scripts. Kufic script is characterised by its markedly angular form within the Arabic alphabet, originating in the initial copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Kufic"]},"81dc2164-deae-5d1f-8a05-4e038d6354b1":{"definition":"An Ottoman Turkish term that refers to religious and charitable complexes comprising several buildings with the mosque is at the centre. The other buildings were the hospital, bathhouse, soup-kitchen *darüşşifa* (hospital), *hammam* (bathhouse), *han* (lodgings), *imaret* (soup-kitchen), *madrasa* (school).","spellings":["Külliye"]},"a931a38f-be76-52dd-a8c8-ba68d6149d1c":{"definition":"A technique used in Turkish-Islamic woodwork using specially designed pieces of wood that can be interlocked with adjoining pieces without using glue or nails to make a complete pattern. The technique is used for different woodworks, such as doors or shutters. In fake *kündekari* the parts are glued or nailed onto a surface.","spellings":["Kündekari"]},"6d80067a-11d1-5a05-8e27-1c1e30ff12b0":{"definition":"Word used for chair or throne, depending on the context.","spellings":["Kursi"]},"767908ab-0b28-53cf-9774-1e73c7a6b4d0":{"definition":"A type of Turkish robe.","spellings":["Lampas"]},"961fe836-4b40-5496-978f-d23cca1475bd":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which raised or incised lines separate the different colours of a painted vessel in order to keep them from fusing. This type of pottery was made in Syria and Iran in the AH 6th / AD 12th century.","spellings":["Laqabi","Laqabi ware"]},"5caf2c52-a5b1-520d-aa0a-f9f2d56b13ec":{"definition":"Term used to describe a necklace.","spellings":["Lebba"]},"220ac6c9-5bbb-5494-a7d7-a1992e0113c3":{"definition":"A ceramic technique in which a thin coating of metal oxide resulted in an iridescent and golden shining surface on glazed ceramics. The lustre technique was introduced to many different regions by travelling potters.","spellings":["lustre","lustre-painted ware","Lustreware"]},"771802a5-edca-59b2-932c-9952378c6dae":{"definition":"A natural region of the northern Sahara Desert in Ghardaïa Province, Algeria.","spellings":["M'zab","Mzab"]},"ff94889d-f66f-5e04-bc88-5fba2822cea4":{"definition":"Location in southern Jordan, located 218 km from the capital Amman.","spellings":["Ma'an","Maan"]},"5673b322-36c7-5999-b728-0eab4e189123":{"definition":"Large basin, could also mean patissier.","spellings":["Ma'jna"]},"415db5be-62a9-520e-bda8-dfb721ac0595":{"definition":"Arabic word for Congratulations.","spellings":["Mabrouk","Mabruk"]},"de7865d2-5988-5b78-b69f-32fb1986c355":{"definition":"A defensive architectural feature found on the exterior of towers and gates used to pour hot oil onto enemies below. Ar. saqqata from the root *s q t*, “to drop”.","spellings":["Machicolations"]},"f2c933f6-93e1-5c11-a123-36ceacc8076f":{"definition":"Comes from ضيف (*dayf*guest). A *madafa* is a building or specific room within a home designated for receiving guests.","spellings":["Madafa"]},"0b7baddc-7f52-53b8-b3fb-622d6e00e5ec":{"definition":"Islamic juridical school. See also Fiqh, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi‘i. Tr. *mezhep*.","spellings":["Madhhab","Mezhep"]},"455c1318-16a9-50f2-9c44-6643a9de238c":{"definition":"Theological institution that provided instruction on Islamic law (*shari’a*), jurisprudence (*fiqh*), Quran, Hadith, and Arabic, as well as accomodations for students.  \n  \nToday, a school. Fr. *medersa*, Tr. *medrese*.","spellings":["Madrasa","Madrasah","Madrasas","Madrasat","Madrassa","Madraza","Medrese","Medresse"]},"40398059-a02d-5383-970f-ba570e4894c7":{"definition":"A 'mafrash' is one of the emblamatic woven handicrafts of the nomadic peoples of Iran. The weaving and use of mafrash is particularly prevalent among the nomads of the Ardabil region, as well as the Qashqai tribes. This handwoven item takes the form of a rectangular cube with a lid, resembling a box or suitcase. Nomads use it to transport quilts, mattresses, or essential items during their travels or migrations. Its transportation on the backs of pack animals is also very convenient.  \nAfter weaving the mafrash, leather strips are sewn along the edges, and leather handles are attached to it. Nowadays, its weaving incorporates the techniques of kilim or Soumak, and its decorative patterns are often both prominent and supplementary.","spellings":["Mafrash"]},"be71e06b-ee9d-56dd-9643-241707440030":{"definition":"Maghribi calligraphy takes its name from the Arabic word \"Maghribi,\" meaning \"western,\" and is associated with the western Islamic regions of North Africa and Spain, where this script and its variations originated in the 10th century. Its distinguishing characteristics include descending strokes with large, sweeping curves or loops, uniform stroke thickness, the frequent use of brown ink, a horizontal baseline, flat vowel markings, and its lineage traces back to the earliest rounded script of the Arabian Peninsula.","spellings":["Maghribi"]},"a9dba7ef-b3dc-5e16-b084-69f0f9f4e817":{"definition":"A cursive calligraphic style that was widespread in Muslim Spain and North Africa. It developed through the infusion of local artistic taste with *kufic* script. The best examples were produced during the AH 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries under Umayyads of al-Andalus. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Maghribi-Andalusi"]},"447568ab-11d8-5b46-9175-19f5e0ad280b":{"definition":"Religious leader","spellings":["Mahdi"]},"2c82480a-44bd-565c-9d5c-7b38307ae24e":{"definition":"Tin-glazed earthenware with painting on unfired glaze, typical of Spain and Italy, and believed to have been influenced by Islamic pottery techniques.","spellings":["Maiolica","Majolica"]},"4d0ea53b-609e-5e3d-817e-8067fab67fc3":{"definition":"(pl. majalis). Meeting hosted by the ruler or a high official. Designate also the audience hall in which the assembly was held.","spellings":["Majles","Majlis"]},"9e4b2650-05be-581f-8706-c2064eac74ce":{"definition":"A traditional elementary school that historically taught Quran, reading, writing, and basic Islamic studies. See also *kuttab*.  \n  \nTr. *mektep*, *sıbyan mektebi*.","spellings":["Maktab","Mektep","Sıbyan mektebi"]},"bd6ee598-f323-5770-a786-0151295aea83":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Founded by Imam Malik and spread throughout the western Muslim world including al-Andalus.","spellings":["Malik","Maliki"]},"1e97c7b6-80de-5294-bd26-e7192b4e6889":{"definition":"\"Braid-Work  \nA thin embroidered piece ties the edges of the dress together.\"","spellings":["Manajel"]},"82f05a30-a07c-5d4f-83a3-2156afc3ed35":{"definition":"Light, lamp, beacon. See also *fanar*.","spellings":["Manar","Manara","Me'zana","Minar","Minaret"]},"0fa6da1f-1658-5a20-b43f-b3fdad30d66d":{"definition":"Style of Portuguese architecture developed during the reign of Manuel I (1495–1521) and characterised by ornate elaborations of Gothic and renaissance styles.","spellings":["Manueline"]},"52b16b80-e428-5bfa-a548-51e9d574cee0":{"definition":"Open rooms without doors, situated on the sides of a patio. Egypt: Reception hall.","spellings":["Maq'ad","Maqad"]},"af45d65f-d61d-59ed-bd55-76ee503119e9":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, *mashhad*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Maqam"]},"5f70c6f4-762e-5438-bf74-53c9daaa431c":{"definition":"Area of sanctuary in congregational mosques reserved for the caliph or the *imam* during public prayer times. Also, a place in a public building that is set aside for private use (as found in a *hammam*). Fr. *maqsoura*.","spellings":["Macsura","Maksura","Maqsoura","Maqsura","Maxura"]},"f2ec79dc-0998-56d5-8cc2-bce2d4228e77":{"definition":"Building of one or more architectural units, usually with a dome, that contains the tomb of an important religious figure. A place of worship, and pilgrimage. See also darih, mashhad, qubba, türbe.  \nAdditionally, Mashhad, alternatively spelled as Mashad or Meshed, serves as the city and capital of the Khorasan-e Razavi province in north-eastern Iran.  \n  \nSee also darih, *maqam*, *qubba*, *türbe*.","spellings":["Mashad","Mashhad"]},"3bcfdeb5-5c8a-58e9-8dfd-9ad2a9f98fdb":{"definition":"Wooden lattice screens made of turned pieces of wood assembled to form a window grille. Fr: *machrabiyya*. Tr. *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mashrabiya","Mashrabiyya","Meşrebiye"]},"f176a992-6546-55ba-a3e5-6877adc61b76":{"definition":"Literally, “place of prostration”. A mosque where daily prayers are held, usually with the exception of the Friday prayers, which cannot take place in a *meşrebiye* owing to the absence of a *minbar*. Tr. *mescit*. See also *jami’*.","spellings":["Masjid","Mescit"]},"a04d4101-e499-5fb8-ad85-ae402c6b673f":{"definition":"A long stone protruding ledge or bench against an outer wall on either side of entrance to a building.","spellings":["Mastaba"]},"e99f9b90-c624-5aa1-815f-a47f478f7da3":{"definition":"Town, the old quarter, self-sufficient city centre. Also the name of a city in Saudi Arabia where the Muslims migrated in AD 622 and where the Prophet Muhammad is buried.","spellings":["Madina","Madinat","Medina","Medinat"]},"28865fe0-58a5-5999-9b3f-6e5cf3787e6a":{"definition":"Simple decoration of wooden triangles in the corners, creating hexagons.","spellings":["Menado"]},"32178605-4854-58d8-b7b4-f35cf3cf68f4":{"definition":"Ascension of the Great Prophet Muhammad to Heaven to the throne of Allah, where he received the divine instruction for the five daily prayers (*salat*) for Muslims. Along with Muhammad’s night journey *Isrāʾ *from the “sacred place of worship” (Mecca) to the “further place of worship” (Jerusalem), the Mi’raj creates the two parts of the night journey of Muhammad.**","spellings":["Mi'raj"]},"8d2b9746-8e9b-5ac7-8c70-6fd0cd7e3667":{"definition":"The hall next to a mosque where ritual ablutions take place.","spellings":["Mayda’a","Mida","Midha"]},"e7f7d170-9ce3-5eb5-8c00-b201155164d8":{"definition":"Arched niche, usually concave but sometimes flat, in religious Islamic buildings indicating the direction of Mecca, which worshippers face when praying.","spellings":["Maharib","Mihrab"]},"1eec6d02-be45-5c34-aad1-32d6dd772a28":{"definition":"A designation for fritware pottery made at Kashan/Iran which uses enamel colours on a differently coloured ground (white, turquoise etc.) for ornamental and figural painting and inscriptions.  \n  \nMinakari, also known as Minai, is a traditional Persian enamelworking technique, distinguished by intricate designs and vibrant colours. This art form involves applying colourful enamel paints onto metal surfaces, such as copper, and then firing them in a kiln to achieve a glossy and durable finish. Minakari often features intricate patterns, floral motifs, and other details, creating visually captivating pieces of art. It has been used to embellish various objects, including pottery, vases, plates, and jewellery, and holds cultural significance as a celebrated art form in Iran.","spellings":["Mina'i","Minai","Minai ware","Minakari"]},"a7da3b34-cced-5cac-bca5-7cde2160fdbf":{"definition":"A stepped pulpit for delivering the sermon during the Friday prayers and the first morning prayers during the two big Muslim feasts. It is placed to the right of the *mihrab* in a mosque. *minbar*s first appeared in the Umayyad period.","spellings":["Mimber","Minbar"]},"0c051692-aaa6-5bc3-9767-1917d3208074":{"definition":"Weight standard for gold dinars (4,25 g), established during the reign of Abd’ al-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty.","spellings":["Miskal","Misqal","mithkal","Mithqal","mitqal"]},"b2f40fe6-7d9e-55fe-91fd-b02fa7f5b5a2":{"definition":"In the Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula the name given to Muslims who formally converted to Christianity after the Reconquista.","spellings":["Morisco"]},"a95bf8cd-02b1-5d88-b68d-c21999469de6":{"definition":"See *jami’* and *meşrebiye*.","spellings":["Mosque"]},"d9555abf-9d44-5fae-95f4-b894702cfcd9":{"definition":"From Ar. *must‘arab*. A member of the Christian minorities, tolerated by Muslim rulers as tributaries, who lived in al-Andalus holding on to their religion and ecclesiastic and judicial organisation.","spellings":["Mozarab"]},"a26fcbf5-43f5-53e6-8d77-b2efc78c5302":{"definition":"Funerary stele which is usually made out of marble. Mqabriya is an equivalent of a tomb stone.","spellings":["Mashrabiyya","Mqabriya"]},"bac9d185-bb86-5b2d-b50d-fd876fb0fe78":{"definition":"Location in Algeria. It is the capital of the province of the same name.","spellings":["M'sila","Msila"]},"432a631d-9c77-5598-9224-35e8479385c8":{"definition":"(Pl. *murabitun*) A religious Muslim, sanctified by asceticism, whose tomb is a place of pilgrimage; a warrior-monk living in a *ribat*. The name of a dynasty known in English as Almoravid that ruled al-Andalus AH 454–541 / AD 1062–1147. Fr. *mourabit*, *mourabitoun*.","spellings":["Mourabit","Mourabitoun","Murabit"]},"b01a26b1-9ff1-5e29-aedd-bb4316a59907":{"definition":"A volume measuring instrument that has been widely used as a reference measure in the Islamic region for the payment of *zakat*, *fidya* and *kaffara*. Many well-known literatures have their own definition of the mudd, but never being discussed technically in term of volume calibration. It equals to 628 ml (KSA).","spellings":["Mudd"]},"9c8d51a2-cb58-59b3-92e4-fecb1ca87eb4":{"definition":"From Ar. *mudajjan*. Muslims who were allowed to remain among their Christian conquerors, without changing their religion, in exchange for tribute. The adjective Mudéjar is also used to describe traditional craftsmanship begun under Islamic domination and continued for Christian clients after the Christian conquest.","spellings":["Mudajjan","Mudéjar"]},"b9deabe4-38f9-5144-9eed-f59423fe7ddc":{"definition":"Muslim religious official charged with announcing from the mosque minaret the five prayers of the day. *Müezzin mahfili*: Tr., special platform for the *muezzin*s. See also *adhan*.","spellings":["Mu'azzin","Mu’addin","Mu’adhdhin","Muezzin"]},"95cd8cc7-61c1-518d-a3d1-397850242e35":{"definition":"A Muslim legal expert who is empowered to give rulings on religious matters.","spellings":["Mufti"]},"323fc8b6-ea1a-5717-982f-38123c87161c":{"definition":"Muhaqqaq is an Islamic calligraphic style that emerged in the 10th century and was employed widely in the Islamic world for creating elaborate, large Qur'ans and architectural inscriptions. Its defining characteristics include a precise, angular script with upright letters, meticulously balanced ascenders and horizontal elements, a distinct horizontal emphasis (wider than it is tall), descending strokes terminating in straight, sharp points rather than curving upwards, and the frequent use of descending round strokes that encircle the following letter. Muhaqqaq is typically employed in combination with \"Rayhani,\" a smaller rendition of the same script.  \n  \nA large cursive script related to the *naskhi* script used in the Middle Ages. It is one of the six basic styles of writing. Tr. *muhaqqaq*. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Muhaqqaq"]},"23ba4d6b-6ce4-504a-b495-efdcb419b6ed":{"definition":"Literally the \"chosen one\". This term designate the person responsible for the clan or tribe; typically an elder.","spellings":["Mukhtar"]},"cfc9414f-7ca4-5e8a-80ea-d0fc4865d5c9":{"definition":"From Ar. *muwallad*. Christians who were converted to Islamism and lived as Muslims during the domination of the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula.","spellings":["Muladi","Mullawad"]},"4c8c2130-e69d-5ae6-b03b-7dc72bf78f7a":{"definition":"Kingdom or sovereignty. The word is often applied in calligraphic ornamentation to decorate courtly items.","spellings":["Mulk"]},"bd2ffd1a-1d12-5fc1-ab6b-b186e0622cb6":{"definition":"Stalactite- or honeycomb-like architectural ornamentation which adorns many surfaces including domes and corbels. In the Maghreb *muqarbas*. Fr. *mouqarnas*.","spellings":["Mouqarnas","Muqarbas","Muqarnas"]},"b43d4539-8c8e-5de3-ba56-a72f1632c7c8":{"definition":"Meaning \"bitter\", often used to describe coffee.","spellings":["Murra"]},"3a840421-ce84-5045-8ad3-f9355dd51baf":{"definition":"Woodwind instrument, similar to a pan flute.","spellings":["Nai"]},"5fe19010-9046-582a-a119-66c4870348e7":{"definition":"Tr. Muslim ritual prayers exercised five times a day. *Namazgah*: an open-air place on inter-city roads or recreation areas for performing the *namaz*.","spellings":["Namaz","Namazgah"]},"8ffa05a8-a165-5e2c-b72e-27e8d5f953ac":{"definition":"Literally “copied”. One of the most widespread styles of Islamic calligraphy used in Qur’ans and other books. It combines the flexibility of the *farsi* style with the harmony of the *kufic* script. Tr. *nesih*.","spellings":["Naskhi","Nesih"]},"42975467-0b5c-5878-a6b2-a7814d8b803b":{"definition":"A nobleman, someone of high status, a governor who ruled a principality during the Mughal era.","spellings":["Nawab","Nawabi"]},"d99278fb-cfa3-513e-9af1-4e39e27f241b":{"definition":"A technique used in metalwork, where engraved areas are filled with a mixture of different materials such as lead, copper and silver. Fr. *niel*.","spellings":["Niel","Niello"]},"78098713-2d8f-5314-b786-0c0cdd7710a0":{"definition":"Waterwheel","spellings":["Na'ura","Nawa'ir","Norias"]},"459f8079-3081-520c-95f1-def76fceb958":{"definition":"Stringed musical instrument prominent in medieval and modern Islamic music. It is the parent of the European lute. The oud has a deep pear-shaped body, a fretless fingerboard.","spellings":["Oud","Ūd"]},"ea9e06ca-7872-5541-9ac2-11302f8890c2":{"definition":"A Turkish honorific title, arabicised as *Basha*.","spellings":["Pacha","Pasha"]},"60068ca4-be84-58d0-a590-341306ae5e41":{"definition":"Pearls, the only organic material considered to be precious gemstones, can be widely divided into two categories: natural and cultivated. The formation of the pearl occurs when a foreign body such as a grain of sand or a parasite enters the shell of an oyster or mussel. Due to their very specific origin, pearls have come to be focal points of many legends and myths. Because of their circular shape, they are frequently associated with the moon. They can also symbolize life in general, as well as birth. Some old beliefs state that morning dew, when hardened, turns into pearls. Civilizations from areas with pearl fishing cultures, such as the Middle East and Asia, have for centuries viewed pearls as symbols of supremacy, innocence and female charm.","spellings":["Pearl","Pearls"]},"ba7ec4e5-ec62-5bf2-bd27-6b932bb32ca1":{"definition":"A small box or lidded container used for holding a variety of objects such as medicine, writing instruments, etc.","spellings":["Pyxis"]},"a2005bd2-bdc7-54c7-b3c5-a7cd040e82bc":{"definition":"Reception hall where guests are received.","spellings":["Qa'a"]},"dc0561a2-2592-560f-8a87-20cd58a96753":{"definition":"\"Chest Panel  \nFrom the head of the right shoulder to the end of the left shoulder.\"","spellings":["Qabbe"]},"4563e43f-260b-5043-9a49-06e5af5a99e0":{"definition":"Muslim judge. Tr. *kadı*.","spellings":["Cadi","Kadi","Kazi","Qadi","Qazi"]},"edfade68-77b4-50e0-9ff7-afb7a8c25e32":{"definition":"Coffee.","spellings":["Qahwa"]},"afa2f843-fdd4-5a67-9298-c7381518b3c8":{"definition":"(Pl. qilâ’) Citadel. See also *kasbah*, *hisn*.","spellings":["Qal'at","Qal‘a","Qala","Qalaa","Qalaat","Qalat"]},"3569da80-2a51-50bb-afca-141112480550":{"definition":"A term used only in Tunisia for Ottoman-inspired polychrome pottery for architectural decoration produced in an area in the city of Tunis called Qallalin.","spellings":["Qallalin ware"]},"f50821ce-06bd-5219-a51f-0f341431411e":{"definition":"Skylight.","spellings":["Qamariyya","Qamariyyah"]},"7978d46e-780e-5ff3-b397-3e8bfd533787":{"definition":"(Pl. *qanawat*) Subterranean conduit of water; part of a distributory network.","spellings":["Qanat","Qanawat"]},"59b4beee-e4d9-52ef-99f1-2a66945a3694":{"definition":"A term for glazed tile panels derived from the Iranian city of Kashan, where tiles to decorate buildings had been produced since the Seljuq period. The term was used by the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah in Iran for the tile panels that reminded him of the *zellij* tiles of the Maghreb.","spellings":["Qashani"]},"c47920b0-c22e-53d0-aa8c-93eb3956ca0e":{"definition":"From Latin *castrum*. Palace, castle. *Qusayr*: diminutive form of *qasr*. Tr. kasr. See also *bayt*, dar.","spellings":["Ksar","Qasr","Qusair","Qusayr","Quseir"]},"f37cbff8-b219-59af-940c-6d009539e2a7":{"definition":"Covered market for precious merchandise (gold, silk, etc.). See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*, *suq*.","spellings":["Qaysariyya","Qaysria"]},"0089ce74-d5cd-57d2-bbe4-c8de79b156c9":{"definition":"Direction of the Ka‘ba in Mecca, which Muslims face during prayer. The qibla wall of the mosque is where the *mihrab* is situated.","spellings":["Kibla","Qibla","Qiblah","Quibla"]},"ea03a56c-d809-5ee0-9bf3-d2601be89fe3":{"definition":"A portable astronomical instrument whose name literally means \"showing the direction to the Ka'ba\". The alternative name for it is astrolabe.","spellings":["Qiblanuma"]},"c39cd815-3b51-5b89-a4e4-5e9f2c0ca622":{"definition":"Dome; by extension a monument or chamber built over the grave of a saint or important person, which is usually marked with a dome. Fr. *koubba*. Tr. *kubbe* (dome only).","spellings":["Koubba","Kubbat","Kubbe","Qubba","Qubbat"]},"9c6aeb81-7bc2-5ea4-9209-1c4a1345ac29":{"definition":"The division of the Qur’an into 30 parts. Each part (*juz’*) was bound as a separate volume and usually the 30 volumes were housed in an illuminated box.","spellings":["Rab'a","Rab’a","Raba"]},"1f1c56a0-2af0-51fc-9adb-3b2cb1118d0b":{"definition":"From Ar. *rabad*. Quarter outside the walls.","spellings":["Rabad"]},"389ffbb1-3a7e-5ec3-a9fc-efdd3e0f54ca":{"definition":"The fourth month of the Islamic calendar. Its name means  the 'second spring'.","spellings":["Rabi al-Awwal","Rabi ath-Thani","Rabi‘","Rabi’a"]},"79ad5742-3251-5a48-afdc-3eadbe4bc902":{"definition":"The ninth month of the Hijri / lunar calendar when Muslims fast. It is the last of the three consecutive holy months. Tr. Ramazan.","spellings":["Ramadan","Ramadhan","Ramathan","Ramazan"]},"87260489-dd79-59f8-a295-dd2d8f65524a":{"definition":"A term used widely and sometimes very generally for pottery from the Syrian town of Raqqa. Raqqa ware includes different pottery such as dark brown lustreware and, fritware with monochrome or polychrome underglaze painting.","spellings":["Raqqa ware"]},"2f088e48-669e-5b0f-b7ef-a94fb24641eb":{"definition":"Rayhani is a calligraphic style that was used for copying Qur’ans. It is characterised by its smaller rendition of muhaqqaq, featuring letter forms with sharper, more pointed shapes compared to naskh, and often distinguished by a prominent spike on the initial alif-lam letter shape.  \n  \nAlthough this script shows close resemblance to *muhaqqaq*, it is written on a smaller scale. It was used in large Qur’ans produced in AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th centuries. See also calligraphy.","spellings":["Rayhan","Rayhani","Reyhan","Rihani"]},"30f08fe7-8bb1-504a-aa55-685d583ff5ba":{"definition":"Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) by the Christians from the Muslims, which ended in AH 897 / AD 1492 with the fall of Granada.","spellings":["Reconquista"]},"44b5dcf7-b45d-5206-b3e1-f77d5f220d80":{"definition":"A metalworking technique. To make a design appear in relief on the front of a metal work of art, it has to be worked in repoussé (hammered) from the back.","spellings":["Repoussé"]},"9a8096ea-a204-590a-8744-2ddf28c2b6b8":{"definition":"Fortified enclosure for religious warriors (North Africa); a hospice for pilgrims (Mamluk Egypt, Palestine and Syria). The name of the town Rabat comes from Ribat al-Fath (Ribat of the Conquest).","spellings":["Ribat"]},"40f27447-6ac4-5d17-9557-f1bd3868060b":{"definition":"Arcade or portico. Tr. *revak*.","spellings":["Revak","Riwaq"]},"8f56e049-19ca-5856-9caa-3acff60817b3":{"definition":"Pl. of *rawda* “garden”. Always used in plural form, in Morocco *riyad* means a garden within residential housing.","spellings":["Rawda","Riad","Riyad","Riyadh"]},"9b3eb14d-ccb9-5bdf-b3a6-ae4fd27367cf":{"definition":"Rosewater is a fragrant liquid crafted by immersing rose petals in water. Prior to the advancement of the distillation method for producing rosewater, Persian cuisine already employed rose petals to enhance the aroma and taste of dishes. Rose water likely had its beginnings in Persia, where it was identified as \"gulab\". The technique of steam distillation to create rosewater was perfected by Persian chemist, Ibn Sina/ Avicenna, within the medieval Islamic world.","spellings":["Gulab","Rose Water","Rosewater"]},"99e11148-863b-5916-afb5-d3b71fb5abe5":{"definition":"Split-palmette motif. One of the most popular and basic motifs in Islamic decorative arts, applied to every medium from woodcarving to tiles. It is mostly seen in arabesques. It was named after an earlier name for Anatolia.","spellings":["Rumi"]},"e6f3286c-05d3-51b8-bc2f-6985190c9563":{"definition":"Large tray.","spellings":["S'ni","Sni"]},"85c2ecc8-51b1-5e22-90ca-051cf297fa08":{"definition":"\"Sleeve  \nFrom the beginning of the palm to the middle of the elbow.\"","spellings":["Sa’ed"]},"a8525513-1742-5e9f-85de-bb2067ad9fb6":{"definition":"(Pl. *subul* or *asbila*) Small structures that were designed to dispense and provide free and clean drinking water to the public. *Sabil*s can be freestanding buildings or parts of small or large charitable complexes.  \n  \nTr. sebil – a chamber where an attendant serves free drink to the public.","spellings":["Asbila","Sabil","Sebil","Subul"]},"8f59f848-6089-5df5-ac39-251f4a455901":{"definition":"Often a two-story structure where the ground level is reserved for the *sabil* (public water source) and the upper level is the elementary school or *kuttab*.","spellings":["Sabil-Kuttab"]},"63a73a81-6d89-57f8-a292-59e48d15b9bf":{"definition":"Voluntary act of charity.","spellings":["Sadaqa"]},"ab5197e2-ba37-5f84-9a8c-1bc168852cbc":{"definition":"Meaning blessings, pl. of the word Salam. Could also refer to safety.","spellings":["Salama","Salamah"]},"63187e27-a423-515a-905c-73fa1d04ccf8":{"definition":"This general term is used for the different styles in stucco common in the temporary Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq. Style A uses naturalistic designs, Style B uses naturalistic designs interwoven with abstract designs and Style C uses barely discernible plant design with bevelled edges in an abstract way.","spellings":["Samarra style"]},"8089a1c5-8454-567a-8c69-3ee03dc28782":{"definition":"Sanja is a monetary weight. Researchers differ as to its exact use. Some interpret them to be standards of monetary weights and measures, while others believe that these pieces of pâte de verre substituted for copper coins or even commercial weights.","spellings":["Sanja"]},"33cef020-667f-52b7-8e7c-a6746c1827af":{"definition":"High court official responsible for overseeing food and drink service or servant providing drinks or entertainment. The sultan had several cupbearers led by the *Saqi al-sultan* (chief cupbearer). The *saqi *was represented by the symbol of a cup.**","spellings":["Al-saqi","Saqi"]},"7b0b0e45-2f2a-5fd0-be86-16fa0e895a59":{"definition":"In the Maghreb an entrance to a house, often twisting and turning.","spellings":["Saqifa","Skifa","Sqifa"]},"0f26046e-3b67-5601-baf6-72d291d77ad0":{"definition":"Straight, double-edged sword. The sayf varied in appearance throughout Islamic history.","spellings":["Saif","Sayf","Seif"]},"98f32a82-0f8d-523b-b82b-b4c5d2090590":{"definition":"(Pl. *sada*) Descendants of Prophet Muhammad. See also *sharif*.","spellings":["Sada","Sayyed"]},"9ba68a24-0e40-52cc-9957-968da7055d9a":{"definition":"Arabic title of respect, meaning Heir to the grandson of the prophet Muhammad.","spellings":["Sayyid"]},"11864cd8-7574-5b81-8dbd-f0180dc203cf":{"definition":"The writer of *Şehname*, equivalent to a court historian.","spellings":["Şehnameci"]},"1e2bc98b-db88-5155-9556-2e6e52c00a36":{"definition":"Mobile openwork plaque or rete, could also mean net.","spellings":["Shabaka"]},"1c72befa-b751-593e-8d75-c600c4e562d3":{"definition":"A wall fountain attached to a wall. Tr. *Şadırvan*, a şadırvan is a fountain, especially for ablutions in a mosque courtyard. It can be part of a wall or free-standing.","spellings":["Şadırvan","Shadirwan"]},"03eaf2d5-1988-549b-919f-2aaad8416221":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni legal schools of Orthodox Islam. Tr. *Şafi*.","spellings":["Shafi’i"]},"970967ba-4fb4-5316-b273-742dafe6d401":{"definition":"One of the four Sunni schools of religious law.","spellings":["Al-shafi","Al-shafi'i","Shafiʽi"]},"5dfb0beb-240c-5fb8-a4ba-14bd15936137":{"definition":"Title of the kings of Iran, or Persia. The title shah was also used in Afghanistan until the overturn of the monarchy in 1973 and has been used by rulers and princelings in other countries of central and southern Asia.","spellings":["Šâh","Shah"]},"10021f2a-1ddf-5af4-bb0f-d78adb4a1f5d":{"definition":"Profession of Muslim faith. Tr. *Şahadet*.","spellings":["Sahadet","Shahada","Shahadah"]},"b574ce4b-f297-5c3f-b370-895a19b2933a":{"definition":"Written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi, the Shahnama or Shahnameh is a long epic poem which dwells on the mythical and historical past of the Persian Empire.","spellings":["Šāhnāme","Shahnama","Shahnameh"]},"6d92f187-6403-5612-9082-88dde5497f13":{"definition":"An intricately decorated rosette or medallion which is used in many contexts, including manuscripts, carpets, ornamental metalwork and architectural decoration such as the underside of domes. It can take several overall shapes, from circles to stars. It can also mean the Sun.","spellings":["Shamsa","Shamseh","Shums"]},"72c54743-5b69-565e-b54d-8fe9dfa0e746":{"definition":"Window, also could refer to an umbrella.","spellings":["Shamsiya","Shamsiyya"]},"bd727956-74e1-5614-9f39-07003f768b6a":{"definition":"Literally, “road”. Islamic precepts that the believer must follow in order to be on the right road that leads to God. The *Shari‘a* rules the behaviour of the faithful in the spiritual, legal, social and political spheres, and also in the concrete aspects of daily life.","spellings":["Shari‘a","Sharia"]},"a0a0b21a-5425-5de1-8d04-b7fd7daeca8b":{"definition":"An elder, respected for his knowledge and age, learned man instructed in the religious sciences, member of a religious brotherhood, sufi master. Tr. *Şeyh*. Shaykh al-Islam: The head of the hierarchy of the doctors of Muslim canon law, tradition and theology. Tr. Şeyhülislam.","spellings":["Şeyh","Shaykh","Sheikh"]},"c98013e1-9336-5b90-9d71-2658cca1e0ca":{"definition":"(Pl. *shurafa*) Descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. See also *sayyed*.","spellings":["Sharif","Shurafa"]},"3f35b372-188c-5440-a3a1-24902734c0d8":{"definition":"Member of the smaller of the two major branches of Islam, the Shiʿa, distinguished from the majority Sunnis.","spellings":["Shi'i","Shi'ite","Shii","Shīʿī"]},"3d198a73-3a55-5a34-b209-561c8dc2c58e":{"definition":"Correctly, Shi‘at ‘Ali, meaning “the party of ‘Ali”. Shi‘ites rejected the legitimacy of all caliphs who succeed after the assassination of Ali (AH 40 / AD 661), the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. See also Sunna.","spellings":["Shi‘a","Shia"]},"619209ad-bef6-58a2-a777-4ddd92b2d94f":{"definition":"Refers to the “lotus tree” in the Quran. The Sidrat al-Muntaha marks the celestial boundary between those who attain the highest place in heaven (prophets, angels) and Allah (the divine).","spellings":["Sidra","Sidrah","Sidrat"]},"947c308d-bc24-5bbc-91e5-bb461cbe7cfa":{"definition":"Bearer of arms, an official of the court who was in charge of the preservation and maintenance of arms.","spellings":["Silahdar","Silahtar","Silihtar"]},"717dbbdd-a73f-5072-9370-1b0902785426":{"definition":"A huge ancient bird of Persian legend credited with possessing great wisdom.","spellings":["Senmurv","Simorg","Simorgh","Simorq","Simourv","Simurg","Simurgh"]},"88ea725b-ca76-5d06-9ede-29e288e0ff44":{"definition":"Knotwork based on a twelve-star pattern, and could also be used in architecture as a decorative pattern.","spellings":["Sinos"]},"288b2150-8838-5cdf-8779-d98b7d476915":{"definition":"The Sira are the prophetic biographies.  In addition to what is written in the Quran and Hadith, the sira also provide information on Muhammed's life and the early period of Islam.","spellings":["Seera","Sira","Sirah","Sirat"]},"60d18096-8ef8-5848-9e25-fc081e078906":{"definition":"A wash of diluted clay applied to a ceramic vessel to cover the clay body before applying decoration.","spellings":["Slip"]},"1296cfdc-d33f-5cb5-8260-c31331325ee5":{"definition":"The term socarrat (\"scorched\") refers to large fired-earth tiles manufactured using the biscuit technique: the slab, once dried in air, is rubbed with white clay on its smooth side, then blue, red ochre and iron is painted onto this base. It is then fired, and the tile comes out coloured blue, vermilion and black on a white base. They were intended to decorate eaves and cornices, to which they afforded a colourful intensity, usually in mineral earthy black tones and iron or ochre reds dissolved in a lime milk that, once set, gave them consistency.","spellings":["Socarrat"]},"cc6539b5-6a87-5bb1-bf6f-15172aea31c8":{"definition":"Turkish word of Arabic origin, used for referring to any type of floor spread, but also short-legged tables commonly placed in dining rooms for eating.","spellings":["Sofra","Sofre","Sufra"]},"a4d72e8b-593a-5cec-9714-7483be1380d4":{"definition":"Method of brocading handmade flat-woven rugs and similar fabrics. It is one of the oldest known techniques, identified among charred 7th-century-bc fragments excavated at Gordion, near Ankara in Anatolia.","spellings":["Soumac","Soumak","Soumakh","Sumac","Sumak"]},"8d51b0ae-13b3-5a75-acf3-79e63e2bd891":{"definition":"An arch placed diagonally at each corner of a square and filled decoratively with a variety of methods, providing the transition from the cubical walls to the sphere of the dome.","spellings":["Squinch"]},"b68f8c65-978e-5a31-bb68-5994ae43ec75":{"definition":"A Muslim acetic and mystic who represents the mystical aspect of Islam.","spellings":["Sufi"]},"ddce3372-545d-5166-8dfc-c8bb72ab9fe8":{"definition":"An Islamic mystical or ascetic order. Derived from *suf*, wool, which is the fabric in which devotees (*sufi*) clothe themselves. Fr. *soufisme*.","spellings":["Soufisme","Sufism"]},"aea62142-bf4f-5655-8c52-b1e856151ce7":{"definition":"Honorary title used by independent sovereigns (in particular Ottomans and Seljuks) whose authority, however, does not question the nominal superiority recognised to the ruling caliph.","spellings":["Sultan"]},"ab99a408-a9e3-547f-9a94-45b205e6a57b":{"definition":"Sultan Muḥammad, who lived during the 16th century in Safavid Iran, is regarded as one of the most exceptional Persian painters and stands out as the most prominent artist of the Safavid school based in Tabriz, Iran. Between AH 900- 928 / AD 1495 and 1522, Sultan Muḥammad likely held a preeminent position within the Turkmen school of painting, which was prevalent in western Iran during the reign of the Ak Koyunlu (\"White Sheep\") and Kara Koyunlu (\"Black Sheep\") Turkmens.","spellings":["Sultan Muhammad"]},"f21a9ff0-ae8f-5ff9-be18-36b4a4db6794":{"definition":"State or territories that are ruled by a sultan. Sultan is a title given to the ruler of such a place.","spellings":["Sultanate"]},"aa9eeba9-8ad8-555a-8988-13c068bdac81":{"definition":"Turkish word for box or chest.","spellings":["Sanadiq","Sanduq","Senduq","Sunduq"]},"811580e5-c0b8-5c27-8c10-3a3a36bee143":{"definition":"Literally “tradition”. For Orthodox Islam, the group of traditions of the Prophet in which legal advisers and theologians find support and foundations to establish the content of Islamic law arising from the Qur’an. Sunni: Follower of Sunna. Sunnis are divided into four schools: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi’i. Sunnism: a political and religious system opposed to Shi‘ism. See also Fiqh, Shi’a.","spellings":["Sunna"]},"08fa434b-cde7-5b8b-be42-9e2217634cd8":{"definition":"Marketplace. See also *arasta*, *bazaar*, *bedesten*.","spellings":["Esouk","Sooq","Souk","Souq","Suk","Suq"]},"5c212d06-15e4-5918-a02d-bb0ef2c59fe1":{"definition":"Chapter of the Qur’an. There are 114 surahs in the Qur’an. Tr. Sure.","spellings":["Sura","Surah"]},"978779cc-c917-5b85-a71a-5d3a097e453e":{"definition":"A combining or combination of different practices and beliefs.","spellings":["Syncretic"]},"78fd8be3-f58d-5f6b-b249-3f3c97b9ef97":{"definition":"Tabby Weave has all the character of a hand-woven silk but with a high-performance level.","spellings":["Tabby"]},"665383f5-4a15-5f32-8010-a19d807b45a5":{"definition":"Guestroom at a mosque for itinerant dervishes and other travellers. From the AH 10th / AD 16th century *tabhanes* became part of the mosque’s prayer hall.","spellings":["Tabhane"]},"83f6772d-09b7-5ad2-a480-9c2c0c7c4320":{"definition":"Small board or a tablet with which a gap is covered, such as a socarrena or the front of a wooden step.","spellings":["Tabica"]},"e492236b-2179-5d42-b894-3fc913a09686":{"definition":"From Ar. *tabiya*. A wall made from mud, which is compressed between caissons. The technique was perfected further in military constructions by introducing lime mortar into the framework. Tr. *tabya*.","spellings":["Tabiyya","Tabya"]},"1a96ac8d-419a-5515-b21c-9a95109e369b":{"definition":"Arabic term for dish or plate, probably deriving from the Turkish word *tepsi*.","spellings":["Tabsil"]},"b9925565-dd1a-5d2a-b600-c734be2f3586":{"definition":"Factions or groups. The term usually refers to the disintegration of Muslim Spain into several smaller kingdoms during the 5th/11th century.","spellings":["Ta'ifa","Taïfa"]},"1ad49aeb-c4a6-56fa-a5db-9635fe80d767":{"definition":"From Tr. *tekke*, literally “place where food is served free of charge”. Centre where dervishes meet, worship and live. Architectural type introduced by the Ottomans. See also *imaret*, *khan*qah, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takiyya","Tekke"]},"a032a946-6a59-5dc8-99e3-7006cd02ff68":{"definition":"Arabic word used to describe a water system.","spellings":["Tali","Tali'"]},"cc2bbcf5-54f0-5959-a72b-231b955a7d9c":{"definition":"One of the six main styles of calligraphy developed in Persia in the AH 9th / AD 15th century. Used especially for official correspondence, it is characterised by fine lines with no vowel. Tr. *talik*. See also *nas*ta’liq**, calligraphy.  \n  \nTaliq is characterised by an unauthodox use of ligatures, which connect letters on the left that typically wouldn't be joined. It features descending strokes that form loops, rounded letter shapes with pronounced variations in letter spacing, wide spacing between lines, as well as lines that ascend from right to left.","spellings":["ta‘liq","Talik","Taliq"]},"78053761-99e7-5b79-85ba-68c278e8c447":{"definition":"Reforms that were propagated under the rule of Ottoman emperors Abdulmecid I and Abdulaziz between 1839 and 1876.","spellings":["Tanzimat"]},"d60eab2d-b4d7-5c37-a166-09672f39727f":{"definition":"''Path of way''. A term used in Sufi practices to refer to a specific path or a specific discipline of Sufi thought following a particular master.","spellings":["Tariqa","Tariqah"]},"da8b7101-f569-5ca6-b136-b50cc01aa5c9":{"definition":"Cylindrical container, taller than it is wide, usually made out of glass, ceramic, or earthware, with a lid. It is used specifically for packing food, perfumery, or cosmetic products.","spellings":["Tarro"]},"b2155481-cc7f-58d7-9a13-f7b8d291e362":{"definition":"The invocation of God's blessing upon the Prophet Muhammad. Could also mean entertainment.","spellings":["Taslim","Tasliya"]},"5826611f-c015-58cb-b5aa-7aa9b979d8aa":{"definition":"Flat wooden ceiling completely covered with strapwork decoration, which conceals the beams; cf. *alfarje*, where the beams are exposed. From Arabic *tawshih*.","spellings":["Taujel","Tawshih"]},"df95e636-1ccf-5f43-af09-acfeaa8bdd39":{"definition":"Circle, collar, also could be used to refer to a necklace.","spellings":["Tawq"]},"0cb5ca4c-b4bd-55d8-8d21-7fe594c06fcf":{"definition":"Tawqi is a calligraphic script, and the term is etymologically derived from the Arabic verb \"waqa’a,\" which means \"to sign.\" It gained this name because it was commonly employed to inscribe the signature on decrees issued by rulers. Primarily used for scrolls, diplomas, royal documents, and impressive calligraphic works, Tawqi is frequently written alongside riqa, a smaller version of the same script. Developed in the 10th century, Tawqi is characterised by its more compressed and rounded letters, the practice of unauthorised ligatures to connect non-connecting letters on the left for faster writing, and notably shorter ascending and deeply curved horizontal strokes.","spellings":["Tawqi"]},"950b9741-65c7-56dc-84fa-f599f1697a4f":{"definition":"Sacred formula of entreaty to God, could also refer to a talisman.","spellings":["Ta'wida","Tawida","Taʿwidha"]},"5ee94e12-9407-5e41-bdce-43a98dc9b5bf":{"definition":"Turkish word for centre where dervishes meet, worship and live. See also *imaret*, *khanqah*, *takiyya*, *zawiya*.","spellings":["Takye","Tekke","Tekye","Tekyeh"]},"09f713d8-279f-5781-b4b0-b3e3ec8c7848":{"definition":"Mirror trim usually used as a mirror dressing or could be used as a scarf.","spellings":["Tenchifa"]},"0286f96a-fc62-506d-a042-ab44ef3b40b1":{"definition":"A type of geometric decoration used for tiles.","spellings":["Testir"]},"9b57e731-19ab-55da-8b80-25d31d0f41c3":{"definition":"Arabic: “one-third”. A style of calligraphy named after the size of the pen used. The prolongation of its letters allow for very complex decorative compositions. It was used in calligraphy, books and civil and religious architecture. From the AH 12th / AD 18th century it was widely used in panels particular to Ottoman art. Fr. *toulouth*. Tr. *sülüs*.  \n  \nThe thuluth script, a medieval Islamic calligraphic style, features an alphabet written in a distinctive manner. The name \"thuluth\" (Arabic for \"one-third\") refers to the principle that each letter's form encompasses a slope of about one-third of its size. This script is both spacious and refined, characterized by its cursive nature. During the medieval period, thuluth script found its place on mosque embellishments.  \nFunctionally, thuluth script assumed some of the roles initially held by the early Kufic script. It was employed for crafting headings for suras (chapters) of the Qurʾan, religious inscriptions, princely titles, and inscriptions of importance. Additionally, from the 13th century AD (597-700 AH) onwards, it was favoured for producing large copies of the Qurʾan.","spellings":["Sülüs","Thoulouth","Thuluth"]},"59087726-c8e5-5434-aecc-5dd7d3e42d51":{"definition":"A hard, quick-drying plaster processed from river silt used in Saharan building for making building blocks, as mortar, and for rendering.","spellings":["Timchent","Timchet"]},"a054eff3-ab33-572b-8c6c-47a7d300c111":{"definition":"First used for embroidered inscriptions on textiles, this term became synonymous with textile robes with inscriptions giving the ruler’s name and the workshop where the textiles were made. Such robes were presented by the caliph to people who were to be honoured. Dar al-tiraz: royal textile factories supervised by the court.","spellings":["Taraz","Teraz","Tiraz"]},"9c8dfd7c-96f7-590d-8c3e-dacf904f0e4a":{"definition":"A brass alloy usually referred to as red bronze. It is also mentioned as gilded copper and as a technique which uses copper and zinc alloy and gilt. Could also refer to tobacco.","spellings":["Tombac","Tombak"]},"1ad5b477-1036-5c86-ba62-687284025702":{"definition":"Modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and southwest Kazakhstan.","spellings":["Transoxiana"]},"744d1b33-89fe-5377-a4fb-132f67bbf758":{"definition":"Meaning \"blessedness\", a tree which grows in Jannah, also considered as the three of paradise.","spellings":["Tuba"]},"5e33fb53-916f-516d-b614-5039d1c3c7ec":{"definition":"A calligraphic signature of an Ottoman sultan that was affixed to official documents. Each sultan had his own *tughra*. Tr. *tuğra*.","spellings":["Tughra","Tuğra"]},"ce2219af-ca75-5d6e-a3b1-280a9ea04fbc":{"definition":"Mausoleum, tomb, private burial place, sometimes with a crypt below, an architectural practice introduced by the Turks. Tr. *kümbet*, a monumental tomb, usually covered with a dome hidden under a spire. See also *darih*, *maqam*, *mashhad*, *qubba*.","spellings":["Kümbet","Turba","Turbat","Türbe","Turbet"]},"5cc4d556-5ce6-575d-a50b-a403e6c59d4f":{"definition":"A headdress consisting of a long scarf wound round the head or a smaller, underlying hat. Turbans vary in shape, colour, and size.","spellings":["Turban","Turbant"]},"b6fc69ea-ced1-5b11-8e24-2ac2f4c53e76":{"definition":"An architectural technique using triangles and chevrons to make the transition from square walls to a curved dome.","spellings":["Turkish triangles"]},"9d699883-6a5a-53ad-8a08-f3b27574c431":{"definition":"Turkish people located in the region east of the Caspian Sea and South of the Aral Sea. This area now comprises of Turkmenistan and parts of Iran and Afghanistan.","spellings":["Turkmen","Türkmenler","Turkoman"]},"fd4ff19f-5ca3-5bdd-b26e-79e1ad771914":{"definition":"\"Turquoise is a blue-green gemstone made from hydrated copper aluminium phosphate. It between five and six on the Mohs scale, and is mainly cut in the cabochon style since it is not transparent. This gemstone comes in a variety of shades of blue and green. Turquoise was known in Egypt from a very early time and was later described by Pliny the Elder under the name *callias*. For him and those who studied his works, the blueish-green stone was attributed only virtues shared by other green or blue gems. However, in the 13th century, the term turquoise was introduced in Western Europe, and the gemstone started to be affiliated with new powers. These included the ability to prevent injuries from falling, especially from horseback, and the power to protect horses from sickness. For this reason Turks were said to attach turquoise stones to the bridles and stirrups of their horses.  \nTurquoise has traditionally been sold in Turkey, since it mostly originates in Iran. It still passes through Turkey on the way to Europe. Ancient Persians fully appreciated the beauty and power of this gemstone, and it was the national stone of the vast empire. There is a saying that good fortune can be obtained by seeing the reflection of the new moon either on a friend’s face, on a copy of the Quran, or on a turquoise. Turquoise is also popular for religious use in Hindu mystic circles, as well as among Indigenous people of North and Central America.\"","spellings":["Turquoise"]},"04e377c7-df9e-578d-a9cd-de2fa4b2cef9":{"definition":"Wooden cabinet of mixed Spanish and Oriental origin that first appeared in Europe in the late Middle Ages and became a common article of furniture in the Spanish colonial empire from the late 16th century onward. Its major component is a chest with a drop front. The interior is divided into an intricate arrangement of drawers and recesses for holding jewels, documents, and other valuables. The drawers and recesses are often inlaid with ivory, silver, or gold and are occasionally stained in bright colours. The exterior is elaborately mounted at the corners and elsewhere in iron or silver, and the front is secured by a heavy padlock or conventional lock.","spellings":["Bargueño","Vargueno"]},"577792e7-dcb2-5783-bc01-836c6f2cded6":{"definition":"Minister. Tr. *vezir*. The highest vizier (Prime Minister) was the Grand Vizier, Prime Minister. Tr. *Sadrazam*.","spellings":["Sadrazam","Vasir","Vazir","Vesir","Vezir","Visir","Vizier","Vizir","Wazir"]},"fbb75391-7625-52c9-8a1c-5ab26a82c52c":{"definition":"A deputy, delegate or agent who acts on behalf of a principal. It can refer to an attorney, a diplomat or the custodian of a mosque or religious order. Also, could mean prime minister.","spellings":["Vakeel","Vakel","Vakil","Wakil"]},"38031924-6b4f-5fb1-9337-c0222f9b16d2":{"definition":"Endowment in perpetuity, usually of land or property, from which the revenue was reserved for the upkeep of religious foundations. *waqfiyya*: the deed of endowment of a *waqf*. Tr. *vakıf*, *vakfiye*. See also *habus*.","spellings":["Vakif","Vakifiye","Wakf","Waqf"]},"9d0320cb-1068-5d1a-bb89-97a0628cb0f4":{"definition":"Trading establishment with lodgings for merchants. See also *caravanserai*, *funduq*, *khan*.","spellings":["Wakala","Wakalat","wikala","Wikalat"]},"cc1e247a-53d7-5c70-9399-89357963e5cf":{"definition":"A style in Ottoman art which uses Chinoiserie decorations. The designs incorporate stylised lotus blossoms, buds and leaves in decorative scrolls. Hatayi is derived from Chatay in China. See also Chinoiserie.","spellings":["Hatayi"]},"c7ce411f-9d53-5566-8a9c-a1744854bc80":{"definition":"An officer’s rank in the Turkish army. Tr. Ağa. See also *bey*, *dey*.","spellings":["Ağa","agha"]},"bcebf34c-f01e-5220-896e-b24e7d5c3220":{"definition":"Hostel for merchants and their pack animals, a store for merchandise, a commercial centre. See also *caravanserai*, *khan*, *wikala*.","spellings":["Funduq"]},"3e7d0321-a9c7-56d8-9638-45619daff312":{"definition":"Frankish fortress located in Jordan.","spellings":["Wu'ayra","Wuarya"]},"676dd2c8-ade4-5066-9242-2d2dc6e9b274":{"definition":"Daily ablutions before prayers","spellings":["Al-wudu","Udu","Wudu","Wudu'"]},"00cb9155-a05e-57be-b845-f2828bcd7de6":{"definition":"Another of the five pillars of Islam, Zakat is a tithe that is to be paid each year by all Muslim adults in the amount of 2.5 percent of their income and wealth.","spellings":["Zakah","Zakat","Zakat al-mal"]},"c820b0fc-daf0-5f36-aed6-5dcb2aab4aa8":{"definition":"Sharp plane, also is considered a technique used to separate the lines of text within the panel.","spellings":["Zamla"]},"76676210-58c4-5de1-89e6-594e4175ceac":{"definition":"Establishment for religious teaching dedicated to preparing men to become *shaykhs*, which includes the shrine of a saint and built where he was born or lived. In Turkey also a small *tekke*, a hospice for dervishes and travellers. See also *khanqah*, *tekke*, *takiyya*.","spellings":["Zaouia","Zawija","Zawiya","Zawiyah","Zwaya"]},"9aa57c3b-8983-5efb-9663-8813a2e47d5c":{"definition":"Small glazed ceramic tiles or cut-out parts of tiles set like mosaics to form a complex geometric design in interiors and exteriors of buildings. Fr. *zellige*.","spellings":["Zellige","Zellij","Zillij"]},"b2664e35-a30a-5283-80bf-77beed25e898":{"definition":"The empty space between the walls of a building (for example, a mosque) and an outer wall.","spellings":["Ziyada"]}}