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-{"008d8895-3ae0-522b-83a2-64ff01799f07":{"name":"Iron awl","description":"Iron point awl with a handle made of a branch of deer antler. Awls are used for piercing and fibre manipulation. The holes created by an awl may be used as a guide for thread.","type":"Iron awl","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"600-332 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 12cm, W: 1cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Iron and Deer antler"]},"03194f3e-048b-5d3e-a6af-514f37ac800f":{"name":"Winged colossus","short_description":"Massive Assyrian winged animals captured the imagination of Victorian England. Large scale reproductions of them were incorporated into “The Assyrian Court” at the Crystal Palace Exhibition.","type":"Statue","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Assyrian revival"]},"037e2e8a-4c21-57dd-b0a6-532274d43a0d":{"name":"Baalbec : engineers removing the Kaiser's commemoration stone from the Temple of Apollo","description":"British Royal Engineers at work on an ancient stone temple. Three engineers stand on the ground at the foot of a tall ladder, which leads up to a stone platform where three other engineers are removing a more recent German commemorative stone. They have attached a pulley to the top of the platform in readiness to move the stone. The composition is framed by two enormous pillars that are part of the temple.","type":"Artwork","holder":"IWM","owner":"IWM","initial_owner":"IWM","dates":"c.1917 - 1918","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 41,9 cm; width: 30,4 cm","place_of_production":"Lebanon","method_for_datation":"All details are held in the War Artists Archive at IWM.","method_for_provenance":"All details are held in the War Artists Archive at IWM.","provenance":"Department of Information commission transferred to the Ministry of Information and then to the Imperial War Museum.","obtention":"Artist commission for the UK government's Department of Information, subsequently transferred to the Imperial War Museum.","bibliography":"*Shadows and Light: The Extraordinary Life of James McBey*, Soussi A., Scotland Street Press, 2022.  \n*Visions of War: Art of the Imperial War Museums*, IWM, 2023.  \n*The War Artists*, Harries M. and Harries S., Michael Joseph, 1983.","dynasty":"1914-1918","artist_birthdate":"1883","artist_birthplace":"Aberdeenshire, Scotland","artist_deathdate":"1959","author":"Claire Brenard","keywords":["Military engineering; military personnel; architecture; landscape; First World War"],"materials":["Watercolour and ink on paper"]},"03a27e68-fae1-5950-a3b8-9e7fa5eb103e":{"name":"Goblet.","description":"A goblet that was found during archaeological excavations at Palace B, a building which bears an inscription on plaster associating it with the Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42). The goblet has a simple circular base and an inverted bell-shaped body; a twisted stem connects the two parts.  \nThe application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique that first appeared in glasswork before becoming, famously, applied to pottery. The body of this goblet is decorated with vertical and horizontal lines of metallic lustre, that take the shape of sequential dots forming stylised vegetal motifs and bands of circular geometric patterns. The rim is articulated with line of cobalt-blue.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found in the region.","short_description":"This elegant blue-rimmed chalice with metallic-lustre and painted decoration is a masterpiece of royal glasswork. It was found in the Raqqa region during excavation of the palace of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah who reigned AH 218–27 / AD 833–41.","type":"Goblet, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu’tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–41.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 9.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of al-Mu'tasim's reign (218–27 / 833–41).","method_for_provenance":"The goblet was found during an archaeological excavation at Raqqa. There is no way of establishing whether it was made locally or imported, as similar glass production flourished in both Baghdad and Damascus.","obtention":"The object was obtained during archaeological excavations undertaken in the 1950s by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.102; fig. 19, plate  \n54b.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.420.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; goblet; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Harun al-Rashid; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Glass decorated with metallic lustre."]},"0659eb21-0d9f-5b11-ae51-0ba0f6eea1f1":{"name":"Reverent Baboon with Pharaoh figure","description":"The loud rejoicing of the Hamadryas baboon at the sunrise in its rocky habitat served as a model for the Egyptian celebration of the ascent and descent of the sun at the critical stages of its cycle. Baboons with upraised hands – the Egyptian gesture of reverence – became symbols for the “eastern souls”, the gods who cheer the sun at its appearance above the horizon. The king joins these gods in his role as sun priest.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"18th Dyn. Amenophis II, 1454-1419 BC; acquired in 1865/66","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 130 cm, Width 42 cm, Diameter 61,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Maximilian of Mexico; Miramare; Egypt"],"materials":["Pink granite"]},"0945b287-7bd5-56a6-8465-7ea419eb7485":{"name":"Adornment from small chest.","description":"Small quadrangular adornment from a chest, with a wider base, with plant-form decoration: two flowers with light blue and greyish green enamelled petals, surrounded by white enamel and the remaining spaces filled with light blue. Three incisions are visible on the base containing remnants of gilding. This style of object was used to decorate small chests covered with bone or marble sheets.","short_description":"Square adornment for a small chest with a wide base and plant decoration: two flowers with petals enamelled in light blue and grey-green surrounded by white enamel. The remaining spaces are coloured light blue.","type":"Adorment, copper","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th century – first half of 6th century / AD end of 11th century – first half of 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 3.7 cm, width (max.) 2.7cm and (min) 2.1 cm, weight 11.9 g.","method_for_datation":"By comparison with objects of the same type found in the citadel of Mértola and in other locations where archaeological excavations have taken place.","provenance":"Citadel of Mértola.","obtention":"Object found in the citadel area by an inhabitant of Mértola and donated to Mértola Museum in 1991.","bibliography":"*Guia do Museu. Museu de Mértola – Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2003, p.36.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2001, p.176.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Lígia Rafael","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["plant decoration"],"materials":["Enamelled copper in white, blue and greyish green. In the widest part (base) there are three incisions containing vestiges of gilding."]},"0b2e5db9-7b0b-58f7-bda2-af3bd45e294c":{"name":"Tombstone.","description":"Upper fragment of a rectangular stone, with smooth moulding, in which a 'symbolic' gently pointed arch is inscribed in relief. Inside the arch and between it and the moulding runs an epigraph in a pseudo-*kufic* archaic script which, together with its stylistic characteristics, might indicate its use in the Muslim community when the Christian period was already fully established. The text reads: 'God is eternal. Have compassion according to your mercy, oh you who rule everything, and look \\[with compassion\\] upon the place where I was sent \\[…\\]'.  \nThis stone was found in a rural house in Frielas, on the outskirts of Lisbon, at the end of the 19th century.","short_description":"Found in Frielas on the outskirts of Lisbon, this stone is one of the best known and most copied in the National Archaeological Museum’s epigraphic collection. It comes from an Islamic cemetery and was made for a member of the Islamic community who remained in Lisbon after the Christian *Reconquista*.","type":"Tombstone","holder":"National Museum of Archaeology.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Lisbon.","dimensions":"Height 33 cm, width 55 cm, depth 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The form of certain characters and the frequent use of diacritical marks, together with the plain stylisation of the arch, suggest a date at the end of 7th / 13th century.","method_for_provenance":"According to a report dated 1896 by Arabist David Lopes (see Bibliography), this stone was found in a rural house at Castanheira das Neves, in Frielas, on the outskirts of Lisbon.","provenance":"Frielas, Lisbon.","bibliography":"Barros, M. F. L., “Inscrição Funerária Árabe”, in *XVII Exposição Europeia de Arte Ciência e Cultura. Madre de Deus*, catalogue, Lisbon, 1983, pp.116–17.  \nBorges, A. G. M., “Lápide Funerária”, in *Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1999, p.251.  \nLabarta, A. and Barceló, C., “Inscripciones Árabes Portuguesas: situación actual”, *Al-Qantara*, 8, 1987, p.408.  \nLopes, D., “Cousas Arábico-Portuguesas”, *O Archeologo Português,* 2, Lisbon, 1896, p.207.  \nNykl, A. R., “Arabic Inscriptions in Portugal”, *Ars Islamica*, 11–12, 1946, pp.178–9.","dynasty":"From the Moorish community immediately after the Christian conquest of Lisbon in AH 541 / AD 1147","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Artur Goulart de Melo Borges","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Tomb; kufic; funerary object; funerary stele; funerary inscription; gravestone"],"materials":["Sculpted limestone."]},"0b91f97f-aa76-5d14-a2ae-6751b59baea3":{"name":"Ring-shaped flask.","description":"This is a particularly fine piece of ceramic art. Thinly coated with tin-based glaze, it has no slip coating. Simple, elegant and harmonious, its beauty lies in its absence of decoration and in the finesse of its shape. From a disc-shaped base rises a hollow ring which becomes slightly broader at its upper part. A long, cylindrical neck, with two buttress–like supports, has four circles incised around the top. A handle is attached at the base of the neck.","short_description":"Despite the absence of decoration, the elegant shape and the harmony and simplicity of its component parts make this piece a real work of art, with its beauty found in the sparseness of its structure. The flask has a round, flat base below a slightly inflated ring topped with a long cylindrical neck.","type":"Flask, terracotta","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada.","dimensions":"Height 27.5 cm, diameter 14.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital, was built in 263 / 876 by the Aghlabid prince Ibrahim II. Since the flask was discovered on the excavation site, this date must be a *terminus ante quem*. Moreover, the constituent shapes of the piece (base, neck …) are characteristic of the Aghlabid period, which means that we can date the piece from the 3rd / 9th century. Both its shape and decoration suggest it was a local production, from the Kairouan or Raqqada workshops.","method_for_provenance":"An archaeological find among a group of other pieces of Aghlabid pottery.","provenance":"Raqqada or Kairouan.","obtention":"The flask was among objects discovered on site during the 1960 excavations at Raqqada. It was acquired by the Great mosque at Kairouan in 1964 and transferred in 1986 to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.256.  \n*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis,  \n1992, p.277.  \nDaoulatli, A., *Poteries et ceramiques tunisiennes*, Tunis, 1979, pp.26–7, fig. 7.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"materials":["Lightly glazed terracotta."]},"0c5bacf8-49f2-5415-b7db-491e97a23a73":{"name":"Weaving shuttle","description":"A tool designed to neatly and compactly store weft yarn while weaving. To weave the weft, shuttles are passed back and forth through the 'shed', the threads of the warp.","type":"Weaving shuttle","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 6cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"0cec6aaa-8c9c-5003-8b7b-39389edbe2cf":{"name":"Stone relief of a lion.","description":"The area of Bab al-Faraj refers to the north and northwestern area of old Aleppo.  \nBab al-Faraj (Gate of Deliverance), also known as Bab al-Faradis (Paradise Gate), was built by the Ayyubid king al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. AH 613 / AD 1216) as part of his expansion and refortification of the city. Today, the Bab al-Faraj area is almost completely destroyed. Some traces of the wall were revealed in archaeological excavations by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities, including a round tower that can feasibly be identified with the Burj al-Tha'abin (The Tower of the Serpents). Both serpents and lions were common decorative and talismanic features on city gates and city walls, long used as symbols of protection and of power.  \nThis lion, one of a pair, was carved in relief each from a single large block hewn in an inversed t-shape form. The rather affable beast is carved in profile as if walking, with uplifted paws and a long curving tail over the body. Although rather schematic, details such as the eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth and some muscular details along the shoulder have been accentuated by deeply cut lines.  \nSuch lions are extremely common in AH 6th- and 7th- / AD 12th– and 13th–century architectural decoration in Anatolia and Mesopotamia, often appearing as a pair on city walls, gates, and other places of fortification. In Aleppo a pair of lions, albeit in a quite different style, protect the entrance tower of the Ayyubid Citadel. A second further and much more similar pair of lions can be found along the western city wall, still integrated. A third pair of lions on the northern city wall is only documented by photography.  \nNot all the existing lion pairs are necessarily in their original location nor are they necessarily attributed to the same date.","short_description":"This stylised animal carving was found in the Bab al-Faraj (Gate of Deliverance) area in the northwest of Aleppo. Although it is difficult to establish the exact dating of this piece, it is known that the gates of Aleppo were fortified by the Ayyubid king al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi.","type":"Lionm stone","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 50 cm, length 104 cm, width 15.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is difficult to date this object definitively: some scholars have proposed a Mamluk attribution, identifying the lion as the blazon of Sultan Baybars (r. AH 658–75 / AD 1260–77). While Baybars did use his famous lion emblem on coins and numerous architectural constructions, he is not known to have repaired or renovated any of Aleppo's fortifications or city walls. It is far more probable that the lions belong to the Ayyubid period and the major construction works of al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi.","method_for_provenance":"The carved lions were not found *in situ*, and therefore their attribution to the Bab al-Faraj is based on oral history. Given the local expertise in stone carving, it is probable that they were made in Aleppo, possibly as part of the Bab al-Faraj or the surrounding wall.","provenance":"Bab al-Faraj, Old Aleppo, Syria.","obtention":"This lion is one of a pair discovered in the Bab al-Faraj area of Aleppo in the 1980s when extensive construction works took place. Archaeological chance-finds were moved to the Museum by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities.","bibliography":"Gierlichs, J., *Mittelalterliche Tierreliefs in Anatolien und Mesopotamien*, Tübingen,  \n1996.  \nHerzfeld, E., *Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum: Syrie du Nord, Part 2: Inscriptions et monuments d'Alep,* 3 vols, Cairo, 1954–6, pp.39-43 ; plates. VII b, VIII d, e, IX, X a, XI b.  \nMeinecke, M., “Zur mamlukischen Heraldik”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institutes*, Cairo, XXVIII/2, 1972, pp.217–19.  \nSaba, R., “Taqrir 'an a'mal kashf Sur madinat Halab fi mintaqat Bab al-Faraj”, *Les Annales Archéologique arabes syriennes*, XXXVI–VII, 1986–7, pp.25–32.  \nSauvaget, J., “Inventaire des Monuments Musulmans de la Ville d'Alep”, in *Revue des Études Islamiques*, V, 1931, p.74 ; cat. no. 5.  \nTabbaa, Y., *Constructions of Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo,* Pennsylvania, 1997, p.20, pp.28–30.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Lion; gates; stone carving; Aleppo; al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi; Sultan Baybars"],"materials":["Carved stone."]},"0dc391d9-1f9b-5c22-91bf-a9670c98fa1b":{"name":"Two Egyptian mummies","short_description":"The National Museum of Antiquities was founded in Wallachia in 1834. According to a museum catalogue from 1906, a section of one exhibition room was dedicated to “Egyptian religious objects” (more than 120 items, among which small statues of various gods and goddesses, amulets, clay or bronze scarabs, cameos, a mummified hand). The museum also owned three mummies, exhibited in the “Trophy Room”, along with very varied objects of different epochs. Two of the mummies, belonging to a little boy and girl, were donated by a certain captain Horovitz (no information about him is known), who brought them from Cairo. He also offered the museum a mummified ibis and four mummified parrots.","type":"Mummies","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"Undated; 1906 (included in the National Museum of Antiquities collection)","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"materials":["Struck gold."]},"0f35b172-0d2a-596c-a8b4-04b40be2b1e8":{"name":"Panels of a small chest.","description":"Panels made of bone which were used to cover a small chest. No vestiges have survived of the chest itself, which was probably made of wood. The two sets of panels have identical decoration, are painted delicately and with great simplicity.  \nBy comparison with other known pieces, this appears to be one of the examples with the plainest decoration (it might even be said to have a certain primitivism), in the context of Islamic ivory and bone objects from the western Mediterranean.  \nThe designs are simple: the object is distinguished by a rose of interlaced patterns in the centre with human figures on either side (one of these is barely visible). The circles of the roses were drawn with a pair of compasses, and the figures then outlined with Indian ink or with lines of manganese using a paintbrush, and the rest filled with pigments.  \nThe anthropomorphic figures are represented in two dimensions, without any modelling of light or shade, and in a schematic style: the eyes are two small circles, and the direction of their gaze is shown by the relative position of the iris to the eyebrows. The mouth is symbolised by a single thin line.  \nThe figures on this piece seem to be wearing long garments of oriental tradition – possibly the *kaftan*, a long silk, velvet or satin tunic which went down to the knees or ankles, with long sleeves and open at the front. The style of the figures, with thick arched eyebrows and a long nose, is also an archetypal representation of men from the Near East.  \nAt the far ends of the composition are two groups of plant forms, which seem to be an attempt at a realistic representation, common in all Western Islamic art, the generalised use of which led to a certain conventionality, making their identification easier. Long flexible stems topped by globular forms are combined, in rows above one another, with lotus flowers surrounded by digitate palmettes.","short_description":"Bone plaques dating to the end of the Islamic presence (AH 596–629 / AD 1200–32) thought to have been used to cover a small wooden chest. The different motifs (human, plant and geometric) suggest it was made in the peninsula by a craftsman familiar with eastern influences.","type":"Panel, bone","holder":"Moura Municipal Museum.","owner":"Moura Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 596–629 / AD 1200–32.","location":"Moura., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 6.2 cm, width 12.8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Chronology was established by means of a comparative study of this piece with similar specimens from Spain, which suggests dates from the 7th–8th / 13th–14th centuries. The presence of the anthropomorphic elements (practically identical to those of pieces with scraffito design from Murcia from the first half of the 7th / 13th century, and the actual date of the reconquest of Moura allows us to put forward the beginning of the 7th / 13th century as a plausible date for the manufacture of this object.","method_for_provenance":"Found *in situ*.","provenance":"These panels, found in the castle of Moura, were possibly made in the region of Granada, Spain.","obtention":"Archaeological excavations at the castle of Moura (1980 or 1981).","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, Lisbon, 1998, p.103.  \nMacias, S., “A Arqueta Pintada de época Islâmica do Museu de Moura”, in *Actas das V Jornadas Arqueológicas (Lisboa, 1993)*, Vol. 2, Lisbon, 1994, pp.295–8.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C.*, O Legado Islâmico em Portugal*, Lisbon, 1998, p.168.","dynasty":"Final phase of the Almohad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Santiago Macias","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["small chest; bone; Moura; Almohad"],"materials":["Painted panels made of bone."]},"11882e61-41ff-533d-8ba1-acb37292e9e4":{"name":"The Rosetta Stone","short_description":"An iconic image of decipherment, since the same text is inscribed in three different scripts, including Greek, the ‘stone’ is actually part of a grey and pink granodiorite stela bearing a priestly decree concerning Ptolemy V in three blocks of text: Hieroglyphic (14 lines), Demotic (32 lines) and Greek (54 lines).","type":"Monument","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"196 BC; acquisition date: 1801","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; museums; inscription; Greek inscription; hieroglyph; Demotic; science"]},"14fa7435-2efe-5c6f-be7f-cc253ffd3d64":{"name":"A historical fake","short_description":"An early example of a fake antiquity. It was made by impressing a real tablet into new clay. The typology of fakes has changed as our familiarity with and understanding of tablets has grown.","type":"Fake clay tablet","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"c.1810","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; archaeology; exploration; archaeology; museums; collection; collector; travel; traveller; inscription"]},"170c8cf5-b614-5435-ab40-7ff0326cc97f":{"name":"Bottle.","description":"Small glass bottle, gilded and translucent, with greenish-brown tones. The flattened spherical form of the body, the tall truncated cone neck and the concave base give it stability and a formal coherence of great quality. The fragility of the material is thus combined with a solidity of form. The refined decoration of the body consists of oval-shaped motifs which become denser in the upper part, around where the neck rises up.  \nIts shape and refined decoration suggest that it was probably used to contain perfume.  \nIt was found with other luxury objects in the inside of a system of channels, where it is presumed to have been hidden at the end of the Muslim administration of the town, a very turbulent period which resulted in valuable objects being hidden away. This is probably the reason for its having survived intact over the centuries.  \nThis object has unique characteristics in the context of Islamic archaeology in Portugal.","short_description":"Small gilded glass bottle with green-brown hues. Its shape and decoration suggest that it was used to hold perfume. It was found alongside other luxury Almohad items in a drain, where it must have been hidden just before the town was taken by the Christians.","type":"Bottle, glass","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira second half of 6th – first half of 7th century / AD second half of 12th – first half of 13th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 13 cm, max. diameter (of body) 6.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"By comparison with identical objects of the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in the Castle at Silves, directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Excavation inventory number Q 20/C2-7.","provenance":"Silves Castle.","obtention":"Housed in the Museum after the excavation that was carried out in the 1990s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* Lisbon, 1998, p.189.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.76.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade"],"materials":["Gilded glass; moulded."]},"17666a11-01b4-52c2-96f9-bcfc12f3f7f7":{"name":"Brazier.","description":"An iron and bronze brazier of the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, perfect in both the craftsmanship of the relief and in the rendition of the figures in the round. This object is probably one of the best-known and complete of all the Umayyad heating stands to be found in Jordan.  \n  \nThe front plaque consists of six niches surrounded by arcades reposed over columns. The erotic scenes that appear in the niches probably represent the myth of Dionysus and his entourage. The brazier stands on four eagles, while the upper angles have four nude female figurines holding a bird in their left hand.  \n  \nThe combination of iron and bronze form a happy union and make for a beautiful design. The arcaded sides remind one of the vaulted halls at Qasr al-Amra, and the erotic scenes depicted (within) call to mind the frescoes on the walls of the apodyterium (dressing room) of the bath complex (*hammam*) at Qasr al-Amra. The eagles that support the stand, together with the nude female figurines that stand 47 cm high on their narrow pedestals. Part of the inherited oriental iconography, the artisan integrates Iranian cultural traits with the oriental Greco-Roman style.  \n  \nBronze braziers played an important role in the ceremonials of court life. The main function was to heat the caliph's room but they were also used as incense burners in the palace.","short_description":"An iron and bronze brazier from the Umayyad palace of al-Fudayn. Its front plaque bears erotic scenes that probably represent the myth of Dionysus. Part of the inherited oriental iconography, the artisan integrated Iranian cultural traits with the oriental Greco-Roman style.","type":"Brazier, metalwork","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 47 cm, length 58 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context, and association with Umayyad pottery vessels and shards also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was found during archaeological excavation work at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq.","provenance":"Hallado en al-Fudayn.","obtention":"The object was found during an excavation in 1986 that took place at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq which lies 70 km north-east of Amman, where a palace and a mosque were discovered. Many metal objects, steatite vessels, ivory and ceramic pots were also found, dating back to the Umayyad period.","bibliography":"Bienkowski. P., *The Art of Jordan* , Glasgow, 1991, p.99, cat. no 118.  \nHumbert, J. B., 'El-Fedein-Mafraq', *Liber Annuus* 36, 1986, pp.354–8, plate 75.  \nHumbert, J. B., 'El-Fedein-Mafraq' in *Contribution Française à l'Archéologie Française Jordanienne, Amman* , 1989, pp.125–31.  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.268.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; architectural motifs; brazier; eagles; erotic imagery; figurative representation; hammam; iconography; incense burner; metalwork; relief decoration"],"materials":["Iron and bronze, cast."]},"17a3121f-bb4b-5108-899a-81417b7512b6":{"name":"Ivory container (*pyxis*).","description":"A small, round ivory container (*pyxis*) with a lid; the lid now, unfortunately, missing. The decoration on the outside surface consists of a very simple geometrical pattern of an upper and lower narrow band filled with concentric circles. The space in between the bands is decorated with small tangent circles within which are dots forming semi-circular arches. There are traces of black pigment on the top band, and red on the lower one.","short_description":"Small carved ivory container (*pyxis*) from al-Fudayn in Mafraq. Its lid is now missing. The decoration on the outer surface consists of a geometrical pattern in two bands, with traces of black pigment on the top band, and red on the lower one.","type":"Container, ivory","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated to the Umayyad period by its stratigraphic context and by association with pottery shards from the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out at al-Fudayn.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was recovered in 1986 during archaeological excavations carried out at al-Fudayn in Mafraq which lies about 70 km north-east of Amman.","bibliography":"Bienkowski, P., (ed), *The Art of Jordan*, Glasgow, 1991, p.106.  \n  \n**La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie**, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.278.  \n  \nZabern, P., *Der Königs Weg: 9000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur in Jordanien und Palästina*, exhibition catalogue, Mainz, 1987, p.351.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; ivory."],"materials":["Carved ivory."]},"1a94744a-6596-5190-8100-1548c229068b":{"name":"Ostracon.","description":"A triangular Ostracon that bears part of the Qur'anic sura 105 (the Elephant) written in simple *kufic* script. Unfortunately some words are missing because the sherd is incomplete. The function of this Ostracon was most probably for the study and memorisation of the sura by a student, but it is possible that it may have formed part of a vessel of some sort which would have been kept in the home to bring good luck and good fortune to its inhabitants.","short_description":"Ostracon (inscribed pot sherd) from Petra that bears part of the Qur'anic Sura 105 (the Elephant) in *kufic* script. It was probably used by a student to study the verse, or could have been part of a vessel kept in a house to bring good fortune to its inhabitants.","type":"Ostracon, pottery","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, width 3 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated on paleographical grounds to the early Islamic period.","method_for_provenance":"The object was found during the course of an archaeological excavation in Petra.","provenance":"Petra, Jordan.","obtention":"The object was acquired during an archaeological excavation conducted by G. Horsfield in the Palace Tomb at Petra in 1936.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Arabic inscription; kufic script; pottery; Qur’an."],"materials":["Inscribed pottery."]},"1bdcb311-686f-5698-aa9b-df0727b85070":{"name":"Incense Burner or Lamp","short_description":"The date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera), an enduring symbol of Oman, is identified with the early oasis Civilisation of Magan in the 3rd millennium BC and the taming of the desert. It is one of the few tree species specifically mentioned in the Holy Qur’an, and according to Islamic tradition Maryam (Mary) gave birth to 'Iesa (Jesus) in the shade of a palm.  \n  \nIn the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful:  \nAnd the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a date palm. She said, \"Would that I had  \ndied before this, and had been forgotten and out of sight!\" Then \\[the infant 'Iesa (Jesus)\\] cried unto her from below her, saying, \"Grieve not! Your Lord has provided a water stream under you\";  \nAnd shake the trunk of date palm towards you, it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon you.  \n  \nMary Chapter (Surat Maryam) (19:23-25)  \n  \nHighly simplified palm motifs appear as design elements on such diverse items as wooden doors, coffee pots, forefinger rings and copper spoons. The date palm is often combined with geometric or floral elements to create circular or linear patterns as a repetitive motif.","type":"Archaeological Artefact","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"1,300–300 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Length: 26cm, Weight: 751g, Diameter: 6.7cm","provenance":"Sallut (ad-Dakhiliyah Governorate)","obtention":"Museum of the Frankincense Land","dynasty":"Iron Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Incense Burner; Lamp; Date Palm; Floral"],"materials":["Pottery"]},"1db2b71c-1b13-500e-b0ba-c510c7396de5":{"name":"Fragment of a mural painting.","description":"This fragment belongs to a group of fresco paintings that once adorned the walls of the second floor of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. It shows the face of a woman in three-quarter profile with a fashionable, delicate shawl wrapped around her head and draping over her shoulders. She wears earrings and the black curls of her hair frame her forehead and cheeks. She is situated amidst a background of geometric and stylised vegetal patterns.  \nHer features are those of an Arab woman. Archaeologists believe she is a songstress from the palace. Historical sources mention that songstresses were brought from the Hijaz region, in the western Arabian Desert, to sing in the Umayyad palaces of the Syrian Desert.","short_description":"This Umayyad painting presents distinctly Arab features of female beauty: the big almond-shaped kohl-lined eyes, the whiteness of the eyeball contrasting with the dark pupil, the Bedouin-style earrings and the distinctively draped headscarf.","type":"Painting, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. 105-125 / 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 41 cm, width 39 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription located on the door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace. The inscription specifies the year AH 109 / AD 727 as the year the building was constructed and the Umayyad Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik is named as its patron.","method_for_provenance":"The wall painting was produced *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"This mural fragment was discovered during the 1936 French archaeological excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was directed by the archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. When the entrance façade of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi was prepared for relocation at the National Museum of Damascus during the 1940s, this painting was selected from a large group of paintings and exhibited in the upper level of the relocated section of the palace.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982, p.232, p.272.  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, plate 37.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Painting; fresco; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Qasr; desert palace; Daniel Schlumberger; Hijaz"],"materials":["Plaster, using the fresco technique."]},"1e282c8c-3fed-5331-b88b-4c2782ff7968":{"name":"Fragment of a painted wooden panel.","description":"In Palace B in the Raqqa region, we find a group of applied ornamental techniques executed in various materials. These include the use of plaster frames for doors and windows as well as wooden panels to cover walls and ceilings of formal imperial halls. Similar forms and techniques existed in the Umayyad period and may be found in Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. This indicates a continuation of this type of palatial decoration between the Umayyad and Abbasid periods.  \nThis rectangular fragment from a painted wooden panel is decorated with stylised floral and vegetal motifs bracketed by geometric designs. The decoration is executed in black, red, yellow and brown applied in gradual shades to make the drawings seem three-dimensional.","short_description":"A painted wooden panel that once decorated the reception hall of an 'Abbasid palace in Raqqa reveals a high degree of expertise in three-dimensional shading of floral motifs.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 52.2 cm, width 11.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was found in Palace B in the Raqqa region. An inscription on plaster was found on one of the walls of the palace associating it with the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27/ 833–42). The palace is thought to have been built in around 220 (835).","method_for_provenance":"This piece of architectural ornamentation was found in palace B in the Raqqa region and was probably made *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The object was recovered during archaeological excavations carried out in 1952 by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.158.  \nAndalucia, J., de- (ed), *El esplendor de los Omeyas cordobeses*, exhibition  \ncatalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Wood; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi"],"materials":["Painted wood."]},"201e230b-e913-5349-b14d-69a729ecf657":{"name":"Disk","short_description":"The disk in green glass with a golden square foil is considered of remarkable interest because of its label, attributed to Ippolito Rosellini, which proves that the relic was found inside a tomb in Thebes. Rosellini, one of the main figures of the Franco-Tuscan expedition in Egypt, wrote on it \"Disco di vetro con entro una lamina d'oro. Trovato in una tomba a Tebe, Egitto, da I. Rosellini 1824 -dono di Elenina Ox Sicard, dicembre 1902\". The relic was later acquired by Enrico Hillyer Giglioli. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini decided to expand the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" which he directed at that time. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, with the main body of the collection donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Archaeological find","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"New Kingdom (16th–11th century BC); discovered in 1824","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 7.2 cm; length of the golden foil 4,6 cm; glass thickness 0,6 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Glass; gold"]},"21203aaf-bad1-5324-9ce5-01be5dd93e89":{"name":"Bowl with inscription.","description":"Round-based bowl with chamfered rim, coated with a green copper oxide glaze. In the centre of the bowl are four rows of *kufic* script written using a brown glaze (manganese oxide) with the word ‘al-Mulk’ (Sovereignty) written twice over. This expression occurs right through AH 3rd- / AD 9th-century Muslim pottery, from al-Andalus to India. The letters are drawn with split ascenders, a practice which became frequent in Ifriqiya from the second half of the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. The background colour of the lettering is yellow ochre based on antimony oxide or iron oxide and the script is surrounded by a frame of four brown rectangles.  \nGreen, brown and yellow ochre are the three colours typically used in Aghlabid pottery. Interestingly, these three colours have been consistently employed in Tunisian pottery through the centuries and up to the present day.","short_description":"Dish with a ring base and bevelled rim. The green, brown and yellow ochre colours used are the same as those typically found in Aghlabid ceramics, and they have remained an almost constant part of Tunisian ceramics through the centuries to the present day.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, last third of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 24 cm, diameter (at base) 9 cm, thickness 1 cm.","method_for_datation":"Raqqada, where the bowl was found, was the Aghlabid capital city, built in 263 / 876 by Prince Ibrahim II, which makes this date a *terminus ante quem*. Moreover, the bowl is characteristic in its shape, colour and decoration of that of the Aghlabid period just before the advent of the Fatimids in 296 / 909. It is therefore likely that the *terminus post quem* can be taken at the latter date.  \nUnfortunately, these excavations were not carried out methodically and scientifically and no excavation record was compiled, so a more accurate dating is not possible. It is probable that the same shapes, colours and techniques were carried over to the Fatimid era.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this bowl on the Raqqada site, painted in the Aghlabid manner and of Ifriqiyan-style manufacture, would confirm that this was a local piece from the Raqqada potteries or from those at Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Raqqada or Kairouan.","obtention":"This bowl was found during the Raqqada site excavations in the 1960s. At first it was kept on site, but since 1986 it has been on display at the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"Daoulatli, A., *Poteries et céramiques tunisiennes*, 1979, pp.32–3.  \n*Tunisie: du christianisme à l'islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.184.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"21b91c4b-40fa-5696-96fc-cfe01762acda":{"name":"A Khorsabad barrel","short_description":"During the archaeological mission led in Khorsabad by French consul Victor Place (1851–1854), fourteen Assyrian barrels were discovered. However, only four were preserved, since most of Place’s findings were lost in a shipwreck that took place in April 1855 on the Shatt el-Arab. As a reward for his archeological activity, the French government offered Place one of the barrels. Between 1855-1863 he was a consul in Moldavia, where he settled and started a family. In 1987 the Romanian state bought the barrel from one of Place’s descendants after the authorities found out that he was trying to sell it abroad. The barrel is made of clay, is nine-sided and bears an inscription recounting the reign of Assyrian king Sargon II, founder of a new capital, Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad).","type":"Barrel cylinder","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"721–705 BC (reign of Sargon II); discovered in 1851–1854","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Khorsabad"},"27a8bc2c-716a-5b73-bc30-dce11b765646":{"name":"Pilgrim’s flask.","description":"One of the specialities of Mamluk Syrian potters was the unglazed moulded pilgrim's flasks for the transportation of cool water on long journeys. These sturdy flasks became extremely popular in the AH 7th and 8th / AD 13th and 14th centuries and were certainly produced by a number of Syrian kilns. They were all made in the same manner: the globular body with its flattened sides was created from two identical moulds; the two handles on the shoulders and the short slightly tapering mouthpiece were then added separately. The moulded decoration on the body is various, including hunting scenes, mythical creatures, floral motifs, knotted designs, inscriptions and heraldic emblems which, no doubt, were meant to identify the ownership of the Mamluk officers who carried them.  \nThis well-preserved pilgrim's flask from the National Museum of Aleppo was uncovered during the course of recent Syrian-German excavations at Aleppo Citadel. Its decoration is highly unusual: it shows a large crescent on top of a solid triangular base, flanked by a pair of swords inscribed in a roundel. The background is covered with small impressed circles. The upper segment of the roundel is separated and decorated with foliage. Knotted bands run along the outer edges of the body.  \nThe unusual central composition is obviously meant to represent a Mamluk blazon, albeit the emblem depicted here is completely unknown in the canon of Mamluk heraldry. It might possibly be the result of a misunderstanding or indeed an inspired fantasy of the potter who mixed the crescent with the more popular cup symbol. It is possible that these decorations were only meant to look like heraldic emblems without actually being such. The piece has not been produced very carefully: although the same mould was used on both sides as usual, the impression on the back is seriously off centre.","short_description":"This pilgrim's flask from the Mamluk period was found during recent excavations in the Citadel of Aleppo. Although its shape is typical, its decoration is highly unusual as the emblem is unknown in the repertory of Mamluk heraldry.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department.","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 23.8 cm, diameter16.5, diameter (of mouthpiece) 3.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The flask was dated by stylistic considerations and by comparison with similar flasks.","method_for_provenance":"The flask was found during archaeological excavations in the area of Aleppo Citadel.","provenance":"Although this flask was discovered during an archaeological excavation at Aleppo Citadel, its place of production is unknown, but it was possibly produced in Syria.","obtention":"The flask was brought to the Museum in 2004.","bibliography":"Riis, P. J., and Poulsen, V., “Hama: Fouilles et Recherches de la Foundation Carlsberg,1931–8, IV/2” in *Les verreries et poteries médiévales,* Copenhagen, 1957.  \nSarre, F., *Keramik und andere Kleinfunde der islamischen Zeit von Baalbek*, Berlin–Leipzig, 1925.  \nSauvaget, J., *Poteries Syro-Mésopotamiennes du XIVe siècle*, Damascus, 1932.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; emblem; pilgrimage"],"materials":["Moulded earthenware."]},"2cb4ecb2-82f2-509d-b8a0-99acaa4537d9":{"name":"Two steatite (soapstone) oil lamps: a) star-shaped oil lamp; b) triplet oil lamp.","description":"Steatite, known technically as chlorite and commonly known as soapstone, was used for only a few utilitarian stone items, such as these lamps, cooking pots, and incense burners, due to its ability to absorb and conduct heat.  \n  \na) A simply decorated saucer-like lamp in the shape of a star with ten triangular nozzles decorated with incised lines and dots. There is a round hole through which oil is poured directly into the reservoir; ten corresponding holes at the bottom of the reservoir are connected to the nozzles.  \n  \nb) A triplet oil lamp with six nozzles on ribs and angles, three of which are on the rim. Simply decorated with incised lines, it has a round hole in the middle through which oil is poured directly into the reservoir; openings in the reservoir allow oil to travel down the channels and feed the nozzles with oil.","short_description":"Two steatite oil lamps from Ayla in Aqaba. Steatite, known technically as chlorite and commonly known as soapstone, was used for some utilitarian items due to its ability to absorb and conduct heat, and was usually imported from Yemen or western Arabia.","type":"Oil lamp, steatite","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"a) Height 3.8 cm, diameter 17.8 cm, depth: 2.9 cm; b) Height 5 cm, rib of the triangle 20.2 cm, depth (of each triangle) 2.5 cm, depth (of central circle) 3.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"These lamps were dated by stratigraphic context and by comparison with other objects on this and other sites, for instance, al-Fudayn (Mafraq).","method_for_provenance":"These lamps were found at the ancient site of Ayla (Aqaba) during archaeological excavations; they might have been imported from Yemen or western Arabia (Hijaz). The steatite mines of Yemen have been studied; although it is known that earlier mines were active in the Hijaz during the 2nd and 3rd / 8th and 9th centuries.","provenance":"Unknown, probably Yemen or western Arabia.","obtention":"These lamps were obtained during an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of Ayla (Aqaba) in 1987.","bibliography":"Whitcomb, D., *Aqaba: Fort of Palestine on the China Sea*, Amman, 1988, p.25, figs. C, D.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Lamp; steatite; domestic vessels"],"materials":["Carved steatite (technically known as chlorite, commonly known as soapstone)."]},"2ce846c0-44cf-593b-a417-5ec441dd4212":{"name":"Bas-relief in carved marble.","description":"In the right-hand section of the bas-relief is a seated figure wearing a richly embroidered tunic. The heavy crown on his head defines him as a sovereign or military leader. With his right hand he lifts a cup to his lips. To his right a musician plays the flute. The man's head is covered with a veil and the sleeves of his tunic are decorated with bands containing geometric motifs. His eyes are almond-shaped and very prominent.  \nThis bas-relief is one of those rare gems of Ifriqiyan art representing people and their daily life. The artist is totally unconcerned with anatomical detail. The musician's face does not betray age, type or expression. This work probably has its roots in a very ancient North African tradition. Some art historians hold that the style recalls various funeral stelae which the Romano-Africans dedicated particularly to Saturn and to Caelestis. Common features are the frontal poses, their rigidity, the indifference to spatial considerations and the prominence of the eyes. The similarities of this piece to several carvings in wood and ivory from the Spanish Umayyad, the Egyptian Fatimid and the Eastern Abbasid eras are astonishing, especially the face of the flute player, the costumes and the veils. The crown has been described as Norman by some experts. Similar crowns have been found on ivory panels from Fatimid Egypt and also on Mesopotamian pottery from the same era.","short_description":"This bas-relief is one of the few Ifriqiyan pieces depicting an animal scene. A person dressed in a rich, embroidered tunic is sat on the right side of the bas-relief. He is wearing a crown on his head, suggesting that he is a king or military leader. To his right, a musician is playing the flute.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 53 cm, width 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bas-relief was discovered at Mahdiyya, capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids during the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries, which tends to establish its dating in that era. This is corroborated by the large number of human figures and scenes from daily life produced in Ifriqiya at the same time.","method_for_provenance":"The Ifriqiyan origin of the decoration suggests the object was carved *in situ* re-using an old piece of Italian marble.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"Following its chance discovery at Mahdiyya, the piece was acquired and shown at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (catalogue de l'exposition de Séville)*,* Tunis*,* 1992, p.265.  \nMahfoudh F., “Entre Mahdiyya et la Sicile: Analyse d'un bas-relief sculpté”, *Africa*, 20, 2004, pp.5–33.  \nMarçais, G., “L'art musulman du XIe siècle en Tunisie d'après quelques trouvailles récentes”, *Revue de l'art ancien et moderne*, XLIV, 1923, pp.161–73.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954, p.197.  \nYacoub, M., *Chefs-d'œuvre du musée du Bardo, Tunis, 1978, pp.230–2.*","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; marble; Zirid; relief"],"materials":["Carved marble."]},"32add590-3c53-51d7-af55-57212f399b39":{"name":"Equestrian figurine.","alternate_name":"Horseman of Raqqa.","description":"A figurine of a bearded horseman with Asian Turkoman facial features, long braided hair and a helmet. Around the right front hoof of the horse is a snake that is climbing towards the rider from his left. The snake is shown opening its mouth to bite the rider through his armour, but he repels it with his shield. He carries a straight sword lifted into the air, ready to strike. There is a grooved cylindrical column coming out of the stomach of the horse that probably supported the statue, keeping it upright. The horse wears blue reins that are executed in relief. The reins continue around the horse's mouth and hang in front of its neck, then, like a harness, run across the sides of the horse's body down to the lower part of its hind legs.  \nThe object is glazed in off-white and blue and, therefore, can be compared to the laqabi-style ware of Persia, also known to have been produced in Raqqa. Laqabi ware is often seen as luxury bowls and dishes with moulded decorations. Production probably centred on the city of Kashan in Persia. Raised areas were often coloured in bright- blue, yellow, green, purple and pink to differentiate them from the white or off-white background.","short_description":"Known as the 'Horseman of Raqqa', this masterpiece of Syrian polychrome underglaze sculptural ceramics clearly displays the influence of the Central Asian military elite on artistic taste and local production.","type":"Figurine, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 46.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object is similar to wares produced in Persia during the Seljuq period in the 12th century; a period that saw significant trade activity and migration between Abbasid domains and those of the Seljuq and other Turkoman peoples.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this object is difficult to determine because there was substantial trade activity in ceramics between various centres of production and wealthy consumers. Therefore, it is impossible to determine whether it was made in Persia and imported to Raqqa, or made in Raqqa after exposure to wares from Seljuq Persia. Its “Eastern” features and its similarity to the *laqabi* wares reveals a strong Persian influence in either case.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"Salim ‘Adil ‘Abd al-Haqq, Director General of Antiquities and Museums in the 1950s, referred to this figurine as the “Horseman of Raqqa” in the *Syrian Archaeological Annals*. It was found along with two others in a man-made pond during archaeological excavations in Raqqa. The pieces were then sold and taken to Paris where this figurine was deposited in a French bank. In 1949, after negotiations with the French government, the Horseman was returned to Syria and the National Museum of Damascus.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.161.  \nDelpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, pp.56–8; fig. 53.  \nPapadopoulo, A., *Islam and Muslim Art*, New York, 1979, p.429; fig. 413.  \nRice, D. T., *Islamic Art*, London, 1965, p.131; fig. 131.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.56–9.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Earthenware; ceramics; horse; polychrome; Raqqa; Aleppo; Paris; Salim ‘Adil ‘Abd al-Haqq; M. E. de Lorey"],"materials":["Earthenware, polychrome painted."]},"385662fc-85ab-5e90-a9e6-c6b945d3350c":{"name":"Egyptian mummy","short_description":"Romanian politician and doctor Nicolae Kretzulescu, his wife and their daughter spent the winter of 1868-1869 in Egypt at the invitation of the German consul, whose wife was Mrs. Kretzulescu’s aunt. They were very well treated by Isma'il Pasha, khedive of Egypt, who offered them a three weeks’ cruise on the Nile and put at their disposal a translator, all on his expenses. Before they left Egypt, Isma'il Pasha gave Kretzulescu a sarcophagus with an Egyptian mummy, which according to a description made by French Egyptologist Auguste Marriete, belonged to Bes-An, priest of Ammon from Thebes and dated from the 16th century BC. Back in Bucharest, Kretzulescu invited prince Carol of Hohenzollern to see the mummy and then donated it to the National Museum of Antiquities.","type":"Mummy","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"22nd dynasty (c. 950–730 BC); beginning of the 20th century","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"388495f6-3f6d-567c-a227-5d28fc8523c3":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"The cosmetic palette in slate is fish-shaped, as are many other objects found in both men and women’s graves in Egypt. It is linked to the practice of painting bodies with colours, probably for magical belief. The palette comes from a tomb excavated by David Randall-MacIver in 1902, who subsequently donated it to the Pigorini Museum in Rome. Along with the palette were found three clay scale models of ships. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" decided to increase the Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada II; excavated in 1902","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 15cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Slate"]},"38ac8909-b6b3-578f-84ca-ee3dab9091b2":{"name":"Ma’in mosaic.","description":"Ma\\`in lies west of Madaba and was the last inhabited village on the road that led to the hot springs of Baaru (modern day Hammamat Ma\\`in) and Callirhoe (modern day Zara). During archaeological excavations carried out in 1973 by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan a monastic complex with a church was uncovered on a hill to the southwest of Ma'in.  \n  \nAt the site some floor mosaics were found, the most significant of which was that in the nave of the Acropolis Church, dated by its inscription to AH 100 / AD 719–20.  \n  \nThe mosaic measures 9.5 m x 16.5 m and includes a central panel framed by borders of varying widths (some measure over two meters wide). One border consists of yellowish squares and black ellipses; another is composed of acanthus scrolls that depict hunting scenes showing wild animals and pastoral motifs; most of this type of imagery was damaged during the iconoclastic period (carried out by decree of the Emperor Leo in AH 221 / AD 726) and replaced with floral motifs. Another of these borders depicts a series of buildings surrounded by fruit trees; it includes 11 buildings each with a toponym in Greek identifying them as representing the cities on the east and west banks of the Jordan River. These cities were all bishoprics except for Ma'in itself, which was included here purely out of civic pride.  \n  \nThe central field is composed of geometrical designs and figures; the figurative imagery suffered intensive iconoclastic damage and was replaced by motifs such as, for example, a basket filled with fruit and a boat with its sail unfurled; a bull, which was destroyed and replaced with a tree, but its hind hooves and tail, a front hoof and its hump are still visible. To the east of the nave there is a rectangular panel with a flower border, it has an inscription, enclosed in a tabula ansata that sits between a geometric motif and three wreathes formed by a grape vine emerging from a small jar.  \n  \nThere is another less well preserved floor mosaic in the room to the north of the church which measures 6.8 m x 3.5 m. This mosaic once comprised three panels: in the central panel only the upper part of a medallion with interloped circles still exists; in the eastern panel a tail, two paws, a bush, a hoof, a hump and the points of two horns can still be detected, above there is an inscription in Greek. This mosaic was damaged by iconoclasts; in its original state it would have depicted a Zebu and a lion facing a tree, but these were replaced by a bush to the left and a jar to the right. The leaves of the central tree were also replaced.","short_description":"Mosaic floors of the Acropolis Church at Ma’in, dated by an inscription to AH 100 / AD 719–20. The nave includes depictions of 11 buildings representing cities in Jordan and Palestine, as identified by Greek toponyms. All figures were damaged by iconoclasts and carefully replaced with various motifs.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Park.","dates":"Hegira 100–101 / AD 719–20.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"9.5 m x 16.5 m.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was dated by its dedicatory inscription, dating it to the Umayyad period (100-101 /719–20). Regards the repairs to the original mosaic, the style of the repairs indicates that the artists who laid the original mosaic were also the people who carried out the systematic iconoclastic damage, made obvious by the identical style of the fruit trees in the original mosaic and the tree that replaced the bull in the central field of the post-iconoclast mosaic.","method_for_provenance":"The mosaic was found in a church that belonged to part of a monastic complex on a hill to the southwest of Ma'in.","provenance":"Ma’in, Jordan.","obtention":"This mosaic floor was found during excavations carried out at the site in 1973. For the purposes of conservation it was lifted from its original site and is now at the Madaba Archaeological Park.","bibliography":"Piccirillo, M., *The Mosaics of Jordan*, Amman, 1993, pp.195–204.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., \"Le antichita bizantine de Ma'in e dintorni\", *Liber Annuus*, 35, 1985, pp.339–64.  \n  \nSchick, R., *The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study*, Princeton, 1995, pp.398-400.  \n  \nDe Vaux, R., \"Une mosaïque byzantine à Ma'in (Transjordanie)\", *Revue Biblique*, 1938, pp.227–58.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghada Al-Yousef","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Church; iconoclasm; inscription; mosaic; nave; tesserae; topoynm"],"materials":["Mosaic."]},"3a0eac5c-b039-57d4-9958-f23bbfce364b":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Group of Musicians’.","description":"Music making and dancing is a recurring theme in the frescoes at Qusayr ‘Amra. In the north-east spandrel of the central aisle, near the entrance to the audience hall, is a depiction of a female dancer and three musicians: a tambourine player, a flutist, and a third-badly damaged player, holding a cymbal. The flutist wears a tight-necked long garment with an all-over pattern of double circles, diamonds and florets. The garment is held at the waist by a girdle knotted at the side with two strands. The flutist holds the flute to his mouth with two hands.","short_description":"This fresco is located near the entrance to the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra; it depicts a female dancer and three musicians: a tambourine player, a flutist, and a player holding a cymbal. Music and dancing is a recurrent theme at Qusayr ‘Amra.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescoes date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is located near the entrance to the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, plates VI a-b.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr ‘Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.66-67.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Audience hall; fresco; music"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"3ef00d87-7d99-5046-8489-348689e5698a":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Hunting Scene’.","description":"A hunting scene that occupies the entire upper register of the western wall in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra. The scene depicts a group of onagers within a fenced enclosure; they are being driven towards a net where they will be trapped. Alongside the fence are a number of puppet-like figures holding torches, apparently to scare the animals into the trap.  \n  \nIn between the onagers (seemingly running at full speed) one can detect three men mounted on galloping horses; the horseman on the extreme left (south) side has just fallen off his horse. This scene, rendered with so much feeling for movement, savours strongly the hunting scenes in the mosaic pavements of Piazza Armerina in Sicily, and in Tunisia, for unlike Sassanid hunting scenes where the king appears as the central figure and the aim of the scene is to glorify the king and his prowess, the hunting scene at Qusayr ‘Amra depicts hunting as a pleasurable pastime and thus comes closer to the Mediterranean representation of hunting. What may well be a sequence to this scene is represented on the north wall of the eastern bay. The panel here depicts the trapped animals being speared and disembowelled by hunters, who are bare-footed and wear knee-length tunics with long, loose sleeves.","short_description":"This fresco is in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra and depicts a group of onagers driven through a fenced enclosure towards a net. Rendered with a sense for movement, similar to Mediterranean scenes, it shows hunting as a pleasurable pastime.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sassanid emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is inside the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, p.61; plates XX–XXII, XXX–XXXI.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.85–114.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Fresco; Hunting scene."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"3fb68c28-e2b3-5087-9283-6b67b63e3936":{"name":"Wellhead","description":"Wellhead in the shape of an external octagonal and internal semicircular prism, made of sifted reddish clay on which various decorative motifs have been stamped and complemented with green glaze. On a circular and smooth base, a prismatic shape rises, which is reinforced by the moldings that vertically decorate each of the walls, ending at the top with lobed modillions. Two decorative motifs alternate on its eight fronts. The first consists of a decoration of quadrilobed flowers included in a rhomboidal pattern, in the manner of the sebka network, all glazed in green and bordering its contours with manganese oxide. The second has a trilobed arch, whose central lobe is a sharp pointed horseshoe arch, and which houses a decoration with a mirror pseudoepigraphic motif ending in palmettes that end in a twisted stem. It ends, under the mouth of the border, with two borders: the lower one with a stamped seven-point star decoration, on which three bands with incised zig-zag lines and a central one with knife-corded thread, and the upper one contains a inscription in florid Kufic, transcribed by Sahwki Zayed (2015) as *at-tawfiq*, \"The Providence\", repeated five times on each side of the octagon. The presence of this inscription is confirmed in numerous Almohad works, and is common in the Merinid and Mudéjar works, but not in the Nasrid works. Its upper edge, thickened on the outside and rectangular in profile, is octagonal and smooth.  \n  \nSuch wellheads can be understood within the broader development of water management systems in al-Andalus. Methods and objects were introduced and disseminated to optimise the water usage, an essential resource that significantly shaped everyday life. As part of these innovations, systems for water collection, distribution, and storage were devised. Among these, wells played a key role in accessing underground water, and wellheads such as this one were installed both in public spaces and in domestic courtyards.","type":"Wellhead","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","owner":"Spanish State","initial_owner":"Unknown / Daniel Aguilera Camacho (owner of the Córdoba house)","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height: 70cm, inside diameter: 55cm, outside diameter: 70cm","place_of_production":"Córdoba (attributed)","method_for_datation":"The techniques of stamping and the *cuerda seca* technique (original and innovative technique, created in al-Andalus at the end of the 10th century that will continue to be used in later centuries), become widespread and reach their best expression in the AH 6th - 7th / AD 12th–13th centuries. Decorative motifs such as stars are frequent in pieces from the Almohad, Mudejar and Nasrid periods, throughout the AH 6th - 8th / 12th–14th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"The stamping and the dry rope techniques (which were created in al-Andalus at the end of the 10th century and would continue to be used long afterwards) became widespread and reached their best expression in the Hegira 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries. Decorative motifs such as stars are frequent in pieces from the Almohad, Mudéjar and Nasrid periods throughout the Hegira 6th–8th / AD 12th–14th centuries.","provenance":"House No. 6, Ambrosio de Morales Street, Córdoba.","obtention":"Bought from the antique dealer Apolinar Sánchez Villalba in 1943.","bibliography":"Galván, M. L., “Brocal de pozo morisco”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940-1945)*. Madrid: Aldus, S.A. Imp., 1947: 168.  \n  \nSantos Gener, S., “Nuevos brocales de pozo hispano-mahometanos”, *Boletín de la Real Academia de Ciencias Bellas Letras y Nobles Artes de Córdoba*, Año XV: No. 49 (1944): 71-86.  \n  \nBernus-Taylor, M., “Brocal de pozo”, en Marte Bernus-Taylor (Com), *Las Andalucías. De Córdoba a Damasco.* Exposition presented in the Institut du Monde Arabe from 28 November 2000 to 15 April 2001, Paris: Ed. Hazan-IMA-Fundación El Legado Andalusí, 2000: 148.  \n  \nArias Sánchez, I., “Brocal” en Félix Jiménez Villalba (Dir.), *España, encrucijada de civilizaciones*. México. Madrid: Lundwerg Editores, 2007: 221.  \n  \nShawky Sayed, Z., *Brocales de pozo y aljibes andalusíes y mudéjares*. Doctoral thesis. Univesidad Complutense de Madrid, 2015: 135-137. \\[Date accessed: 3 January 2024 https://produccioncientifica.ucm.es/documentos/5d1df62d29995204f76639e1\\]","dynasty":"Kingdom of Castile","author":"Beatriz Campderá Gutiérrez, Al Blooshi Khuloud","copy_editor":"Judy Harter, Alvaro Miranda","translator":"Dept. of Medieval Antiquities of the MAN, Ruth Checa","keywords":["Water, dwelling, *cuerda seca* technique, stamped decoration"],"materials":["Clay, kaolin, metal oxide; Stamping, engraving, firing, partial dry rope"]},"42311da9-1496-5d35-a0ea-56b7ce7ff0f7":{"name":"Water pot.","description":"Water pot with everted rim with quadrangular lip, circular mouth, neck in the shape of an inverted truncated cone, globular body with two wing-form handles with an upper protuberance on the shoulder and a convex base. The neck and body are covered in a green glaze and profusely decorated with finger and nail impressions, and stamped with protective signs based on plants (rosettes, palmettes), calligraphic and architectural motifs (horseshoe and trefoil arches). The object has been restored.","short_description":"Almohad pitcher used to store water. The care taken to protect the content of the pitcher is evident from the profusion of prophylactic symbols stamped on it. It includes plant (rosettes and palmettes), calligraphic and architectural (horseshoe and trilobed arches) motifs.","type":"Pot, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira second half of 6th or early 7th century / AD second half of 12th or early 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 70.5 cm, width 59 cm, diameter (of mouth) 28 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the Almohad houses vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–36 / AD 1238. This dating has been confirmed by comparison with similar decorative features on a water jar from Tetuan (Morocco) with an inscription dating it to AH 585 / AD 1190.","method_for_provenance":"Stamps used to decorate this type of water jar have been found in Mértola.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.163.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.150.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; water; daily life; protective signs"],"materials":["Ceramic made from compact greyish straw and paste mix, and made using a combination of coil technique for the lower part and thrown on a wheel for the upper part. It has a stamped decoration and is partially glazed."]},"475e49ee-eb2e-5fd2-a068-1be681fa5929":{"name":"Mercenary’s helmet","description":"It began when a farmer in the canton of Ticino found an old gravestone in 1900. Soon it became clear that what lay buried there was not just a collection of old bones. In fact, there were over 500 such graves, all dating from the Iron Age. About one-fifth of the burials were warriors who had been interred with their lances, shields, swords, and helmets.The Roman Empire had taken to hiring mercenaries to aid its expansion to the north towards the end of the Iron Age. Mercenaries used their own weapons and armour, and the helmet found in the grave has been identified as belonging to a mercenary who came from the Central Alps. The mercenaries would return to their homes after completing their period of service. When they died, they were given a warrior’s funeral as befitted their status, like this man from Giubiasco, whose origins are revealed by the shape of his helmet. It’s all in the shape. Even in archaeology.","type":"Negau helmet","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"50-30 BC (Iron Age)","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 22cm, L: 24cm, Diameter: 27.5cm","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","obtention":"Found in an excavation in Giubiasco (tomb 119)","bibliography":"Pernet, Lionel, Carlevaro, Eva, *et al.*, Musée national suisse (edited by), *La necropoli di Gubiasco (TI). Vol. II. Les tombes de la tène finale et d'epoque romaine*, Collectio Archaeologica 4, Zurich: Schweizerisches Landesmuseum Zürich, Bundesamt für Kultur, 2006; Zurich: Chronos Verlag, 2006.","keywords":["Helmet; Mercenary; Iron Age; Bronze; Excavation; Ticino"],"materials":["Bronze, chased, adorned"]},"47fcbd3c-bf49-59d2-b9ac-7634939dbb18":{"name":"Islamic pottery from Ephesus","short_description":"Excavated by John Turtle Wood, an architect and surveyor. He was employed by the Ottoman Railway Company from 1858. Between 1863–1874 he excavated on behalf of the British Museum at ancient Ephesus, where he discovered the Temple of Artemis.","type":"Ceramics","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"Excavated 1870; 14-15th century","location":"London","provenance":"Turkey","keywords":["archaeology"]},"4ad5424f-dc5c-51b8-ae7b-00f62d3a6860":{"name":"Fragment of a glass floor tile with a plaster base.","description":"A fragment of a glass floor tile that was found amongst a group of glass tiles in the southern wing of the palace, in the formal reception hall no. 9, which was paved with glass tiles. The floor of the hall was first covered with a thick layer of plaster and then green glass tiles were placed on top. The bottom surface of the glass tiles is toothed to allow the glass to be embedded into the plaster. The upper face of the glass tiles is smooth but also wavy to prevent those walking on it from slipping.  \nThe Abbasid period is distinguished by prosperity and extravagance. Historical sources contain references to luxurious palaces, the floors of which were paved with glass tiles. Palace B, located in the Raqqa region, extending to the east of the Euphrates River and bordered by its tributary the Balikh River, is one such palace.","short_description":"The use of glass floor tiles, reminiscent of the glass floor in King Solomon's legendary meeting with Queen Sheba as described in the Holy Qur'an, is here found at the 'Abbasid palaces of Raqqa.","type":"Tile, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 20 cm, diameter 14 cm.","method_for_datation":"An inscription found in the palace refers to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim and scholars date the palace to around 220 / 835.","method_for_provenance":"The tile fragment was found in Palace B and was probably produced *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The tile fragment was found during archaeological excavations undertaken during the 1950s by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.100; fig. 17.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; floor tile; plaster; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Moulded glass; plaster."]},"4aea7da2-77b0-548c-ab58-60e5f4c3f6e5":{"name":"Stele of King Nabonidus","short_description":"Upper part of a stele (once approx. 1.3 m high) with the carved representation of a standing royal figure looking towards right in front of a panel with a cuneiform inscription. Above, there are three symbols of Mesopotamian astral gods (moon disc / crescent for the moon god Sîn, the winged sun for the sun god Shamash, the star for the goddess of love and war, Ishtar). Style of the representation and text are Late Babylonian, and although the name is not preserved, the object can be attributed to the last king of Babylon, Nabû-na’id, who, for ten years, stayed at Tayma, when trying to establish control over Northwest Arabia, most probably because of economic reasons, i.e. his interest in the Arabian long distance trade. The preserved part of the inscription, however, reports on activities in his hometown Babylon.","type":"Arched stele of Mesopotamian type with cuneiform inscription","holder":"Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities, Antiquities and Museums Sector, Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography","dates":"Mid 6th century BC (between 552 and 542 BC)","location":"Tayma, Tabuk Province","dimensions":"Height: 60 cm, Width: 58.5 cm, Depth/Thickness: 13 cm","provenance":"Accumulation of debris east of a former temple building","author":"Jamal S. Omar","keywords":["Stele; Northwestern Arabia; archaeology; Arabian peninsula; Mesopotamia; Babylonia; cuneiform"],"materials":["Sandstone"]},"4cd253cf-44cf-56c0-9d8c-9c6924980524":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘The Family of Kings’.","description":"A fresco situated at the southern end of the audience hall on the lower register of the western wall at Qusayr 'Amra. Much discussed and extremely damaged, the fresco is known as 'The Family of Kings'.  \n  \nIn its original state, the fresco panel depicted six kings arranged in two rows: the most important rulers are in the front row, and the less important ones are at the back. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sassanid emperor; 'Negus', the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Fortunately parts of the scene including the Sassanid king and certain sections of the Byzantine emperor are still preserved. The fresco shows figures extending their hands as if paying homage. The figure to the left–south (the Byzantine emperor), whose head is destroyed, is dressed in an imperial robe decorated with an all-over pattern of small circles; the central figure (the Sassanid king) shows a beardless youth wearing a long robe (*chiton*) with a golden hem and a mantle (*chlamys*) fastened on his right shoulder by a *fibula*. The Sassanid king's crown is not typical and shows a stand topped by two superimposed knobs with a crescent.  \n  \nAs it has already been pointed out by Oleg Grabar (1954), the scene does not stress defeat in the usual Sassanid or Byzantine manner, and therefore might be interpreted as a harmonious representation of a 'Family of Kings'. This scene was also thought to supply the date of the building, since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed by the Umayyad armies in AH 92 / AD 711. It has been assumed that the Qusayr 'Amra complex was built by al-Walid I (r. AH 986–96 / AD 705–15). This date AH 92 / AD 711, however, provides a *terminus post quem* for the construction of the monument and it is more likely that it was built by Al-Walid's nephew and synonym, Al-Walid II, who is known to have lived in the Azraq area.","short_description":"This fresco panel is situated in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra. Its original state depicted the six rulers of Byzantium, Persia, Abyssinia, Spain, China and the Turks, whose names were written in Arabic and Greek. Roderick of Spain ruled only in AH 92 / AD 711 providing a terminus post quem for construction.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being this fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco panel is located in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, plates XXII a-b.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *A short Account of Early Muslim Architecture*, Revised by J. W. Allen, Cairo, 1989, pp.112–13, plate 69.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.197–226.  \nGrabar, 0, 'The Painting of the Six Kings at Qusayr Amra', *Ars Orientalis*, 1, 1954, pp.185–7.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Fresco; Roderick."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"4e167204-1a3f-5a86-944d-ab0b42f8681b":{"name":"Parthian Monument: the adoption of the Emperors","description":"During his reign, the Emperor Hadrian (figure right) adopted Antoninus Pius (centre left), who in turn adopted the 17-year-old Marcus Aurelius (left) and the eight-year-old Lucius Verus. A head stares from behind Hadrian’s left shoulder, presumably representing the guardian spirit of Aelius Verus, late father of Lucius. A bull is being offered to the gods as a sacrifice.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"After 169 AD","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Width 150 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Ephesos"],"materials":["Marble"]},"4f4aebf4-ad51-596f-8d75-02d79f90d769":{"name":"Sphinx","short_description":"This sphinx was found in Rafiqa, Raqqa’s twin city, in 1924 together with the cock in the David Collection and the figure of a horseman in Syria’s National Museum. As ceramic sculptures, they are unique not only in Syria, but also in the rest of the Islamic world. They are fountain figures, and all have pipes to carry water up to the figures’ heads.","type":"Fountain figure","holder":"The David Collection","dates":"Hegira 2nd half of the 6th century / AD 2nd half of the 12th century","location":"Copenhagen","provenance":"Syria, Raqqa","dynasty":"Zangid","keywords":["Syria; Fritware; zangids; imaginary animal; zoomirphic imagery"],"materials":["Cast, modelled, and carved fritware painted in an opaque white and a turquoise glaze"]},"4f5a9a60-32ea-5f5b-8f48-76aa1c556539":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"This slate palette, characterized by an unusual shape and an articulated decoration along one of the sides, was used to pulverize cosmetics. The absence of information about the context in which it was found make it difficult to propose a dating. Roberto Paribeni (later named superintendent of the antiquities of Rome and Lazio from 1928 to 1933) bought the palette in 1904 from the antique dealer Ghirghis in Quena on behalf of \"Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico\" in Rome. In 1878 Luigi Pigorini decided to enlarge the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", which he directed at the time. The main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, from excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. In 1905 the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin offered more artifacts for purchase. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Bought in 1904","location":"Rome","dimensions":"4.8 x 10 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver; dealer"],"materials":["Slate"]},"5319542a-7b08-534a-801f-e2b18cb78aef":{"name":"Hemispherical plate.","description":"A fragment corresponding to a section of the body including part of the rim and the complete base. The rim has a lip semi-circular in cross-section and the base has a high foot-ring. It is made from pinkish beige paste. Both surfaces are coated in white enamel with a slight sheen. The interior surface has a motif of intersecting lines, painted green, creating eight equidistant spokes radiating from the centre. The quality and fine grain of the paste of this flattened hemispherical plate reflects the sophistication of domestic articles used in Silves in this period.","short_description":"Hemispherical bowl from the Almohad period. It is decorated with a star painted in green consisting of eight evenly spaced spokes radiating from the centre. The quality and finesse of this piece suggest a refined environment and probable domestic use in the town on Silves during that time.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th  century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 6.4 cm, diameter (of rim) 22.6 cm, diameter (of foot) 7.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"From its archaeological context, stratigraphy and style.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in the castle at Silves directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Inventory number: Cast. Q 110/C3-3.","provenance":"Castelo de Silves.","obtention":"It has been housed in the museum since the excavation carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"Gomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.62.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII),* Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., 'Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcáçova', *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia*, Lisbon, 2004, p.402.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade"],"materials":["Enamelled and glazed ceramic with decoration of intersecting lines in a star."]},"55179813-b0e7-5c56-9d77-119429fc40fd":{"name":"Human head.","description":"Face of a man in his prime. A part of the head and the right side of the face are damaged. The man wears a moustache and a very full beard. The curls of his beard end in circular, shell-like orifices. The iris of the eye is indicated by a fragment of iridescent glass, ovoid in shape. This work has its roots in an ancient North African tradition. It brings to mind numerous stelae dedicated particularly to Saturn, which share the frontal aspect, the beard and the importance accorded to the eyes. However, the statue does bear a strong resemblance to the bas-relief of the prince and the musician found at Mahdiyya. The face appears Oriental but the absence of clothing obviates any definite conclusions.","short_description":"This plaster sculpture shows the face of a man in the prime of life. The style and emphasis of the eyes, forehead and beard are reminiscent of numerous stelae dedicated to Saturn, and the piece also presents some similarities to a piece found in Mahdiyya.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 16 cm, width 12 cm, thickness 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya.","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.258.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.220.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Carved plaster."]},"55ec1f26-ba55-52bc-a1b6-556c48ff41e4":{"name":"A bronze Greek cross.","description":"The Christian cross is a familiar religious symbol. Its significance lies in the belief that the governor of Judea executed Jesus Christ on a large wooden cross. The cross was the first of the instruments of the passion that came to be venerated in the form of a relic.  \n  \nThis bronze cross is of Greek form, decorated with concentric incised circles on each arm and on both faces of the cross. Two of three iron nails are still preserved on the vertical arm while the third, at the bottom, is missing.  \n  \nIt seems that this cross was nailed to a wooden box as a reliquary in the Church of St Stephen at Umm al-Rasas. The upper part of the vertical arm is broken into two pieces and has been mended recently.  \n  \nThe importance of this cross is linked to its discovery at the Church of St Stephen, which was paved with mosaic floors in AH 138 / AD 756, according to the dedicatory inscriptions on either side of the altar. The inscription is significant because it indicates that there was an active Christian community present at Umm al-Rasas six years after the end of the Umayyad period and after more than a century of Islamic rule in the region.","short_description":"A bronze cross of Greek form from the Church of St Stephen at Umm al-Rasas, decorated on both faces. This cross was probably nailed to a wooden box by three iron nails, two of which are still preserved on the vertical arm.","type":"Cross, Greek, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira, first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, width 6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The cross was dated by a dedicatory inscription discovered at the Church of St Stephen.","method_for_provenance":"The cross was discovered at Umm al-Rasas during archaeological excavations but where it was originally manufactured is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The cross was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at Umm al-Rasas by the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, on-going since 1986.","bibliography":"Desreumaux, A., et Humbert, J. B., *Khirbet es-Samara. Contribution à l'épigraphie syro-palestinienne*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan XXV, 1981, p.50, type Ec, Pl. XVI.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., and Alliata, E., *Umm al-Rasas Mayfa'ah I: Gli scavi del complesso ecclesiastico di Santo Stefano*, Jerusalem, 1993.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; cross; Christian community; dedicatory inscription; Greek form; incised; religious symbol; religious object"],"materials":["Cast bronze."]},"5628ecb6-07a3-5d56-a952-4ec168b169ea":{"name":"Spindle","description":"Spindle, made of stone or bone that has been shaped into a rounded rod tapered on each end. This tool was used in hand spinning to twist threads into fibres drawn from the distaff.","type":"Spindle","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3500-3000 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 2-5cm","method_for_datation":"Excavation team in Jericho","provenance":"Jericho","obtention":"Excavation/Jericho","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Stone / bone"]},"56acaf8e-1d2d-5882-9b67-7d024e5744ff":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Dancers’.","description":"A fresco in one of the compartments of the apodyterium (vestiary) at Qusayr ‘Amra. The apodyterium is covered by a tunnel-vault, which is divided into diamond-shaped compartments by frescoed leafy bands, containing an agglomeration of isolated pastoral scenes. One compartment depicts a female dancer dancing to the accompaniment of a flutist. She wears a long undergarment indicated by a band of dark red colour. The whirling folds at the bottom of her skirt suggest motion which is accentuated by the raised left arm and the tilt of her head.  \n  \nOn the intrados of the western arch in the audience hall, near its southern curve, is another dancing woman. She is naked except for a loin cloth, and wears wristlets, armlets, and a bracelet. The figure, although voluptuous, shows vivid movement, achieved through the active twist of the body, the counter-poised position of the arms, and the forward-thrust of the right leg, all of which acts to accentuate the sense of motion. Her vigorous movement is reminiscent of one of the dancing bacchante from the 'Bacchic Procession' now at Madaba Archaeological Museum.","short_description":"One fresco is in a compartment of the apodyterium (vestiary) at Qusayr ‘Amra and depicts a female dancer and a flutist; on the intrados of an arch in the audience hall is another dancing woman. Both show movement reminiscent of images of dancing bacchantes.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"One of the fresco panels is in the apodyterium, and the other is in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, platesXLII b-c.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.67–8.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; fresco; dance"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"574ec553-46f8-5bdf-871c-23a4e10a1779":{"name":"Bellino copy","short_description":"Hand drawing by Bellino of BM 22502. Bellino’s technique produced wonderfully accurate copies, despite the fact that cuneiform was not yet deciphered.","type":"Drawing","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"c. 1810–1820","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; drawing; archaeology; exploration; collection; collector; museums; travel; traveller; inscription"]},"57af1dd9-6f7e-59ac-a49a-549fb3d6d750":{"name":"Bowl","short_description":"Probably used to keep cosmetics, the artwork is part of the purchases bought by Roberto Paribeni (later Soprintendente alle antichità di Roma e Lazio, 1928–1933) in 1904 from Ghirghis, the antiquities dealer in Quena, on behalf of \"Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico\" in Rome. In 1878 Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", decided to expand the museum’s Egyptian archaeological collection. The main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Stone bowl","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Second Dynasty; purchased in 1904","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Height 3.4 cm; diameter 7.5 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver; dealer"],"materials":["Breccia"]},"58b37312-2a63-52d9-9118-d73987819f0b":{"name":"Plate with metallic glaze.","description":"A bowl with a circular base and curved sides. The cruciform decoration is set off by four green areas glazed with copper oxide which cover the area outside the cross. The cross itself is decorated with dotted and stylised leaves and bordered with four twisted-rope motifs set within parallel lines.  \nThis plate is the only example of passementerie decoration that we have for this period. There are no other similar objects in Mesopotamian ceramics of this era, which could mean that this is an Ifriqiyan artefact. The floral decoration is quite similar to that of the wooden half-dome of the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan and also to the braiding found on Kairouanese bookbinding of the AH 3rd–5th / AD 9th–11th centuries. However, there is undoubtedly a connection in the colouring and the decoration between this piece and the façade tiles of the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The Mesopotamian origin of these tiles is firmly established. The metallic-glazing technique is a Muslim innovation which spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt in the early 3rd / 9th century and probably reached Ifriqiya in the second half of that century. It moved through the Maghreb and on to Spain before reaching Europe in the AH 6th or 7th / AD 12th or 13th centuries.","short_description":"The lustre technique originated in Mesopotamia, spreading to Egypt and Ifriqiya, the Maghreb and Spain, before finally conquering Europe. The floral decoration and the colours used in this dish are reminiscent of the demicupola of the *mihrab* in the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, late 3rd–early 4th centuries / AD 9th–10th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 9.2 cm, diameter 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece comes from the excavation sites at Raqqada, a city founded in 263 / 876, which survived until the middle of the 5th / 11th century. Unfortunately, the excavations were never published and the archives do not include the reports of the excavation which would have identified the different stratigraphic layers. However, the colouring and decoration of the piece are typically Aghlabid. It would appear from the evidence of this example and of mosaic flooring found on site that the ceramists had achieved a considerable mastery of the technique of metallic glazing, which could not have reached Ifriqiya before the middle of the 3rd / 9th century. This evidence would allow us to date the piece from the last quarter of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"As the decoration of this plate fits in the Ifriqiyan repertoire, it is plausible to consider that it was produced at the workshops in Kairouan","provenance":"The Raqqada excavations.","obtention":"This piece was found on the site of the Raqqada excavations during the 1960s. From 1966 it was on display at the museum of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, transferring to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1994, p.127, plate no. 65.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.223, plate no. 301.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.249.  \nLings, M. and Safadi, Y.-H., *The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), London, 1976, p.216.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed and polished ceramic."]},"5dcd5e36-d273-5b03-a8de-93f266c0b45c":{"name":"Floor painting.","description":"Islamic art began as a continuation of elements from previous periods that were common and well-known in the area. This panel offers a clear example of the influence of Roman myths. It was painted using the *secco* technique, where the paint is applied only after the plaster is dried and then the plaster is remoistened with a bit of water. This panel covered the floor of the reception hall in the west wing of the Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which is located in the Syrian Desert between Damascus and Palmyra.  \nThe panel is rectangular with a vine-scroll border and allegorical figures. A female portrait within a circular frame dominates the composition. She faces the viewer in a frontal position. Her face is welcoming and in her hands she offers a cloth filled with colourful fruits. She wears a necklace around her neck beneath which a snake coils. Archaeologists consider the woman in this painting to be Gaea, the mother-goddess of Roman mythology who emerges bountifully out of the Earth. The circle surrounding her is defined by two white lines filled-in in red and accentuated by smaller white circles, each containing a bouquet of flowers.  \nThe upper part of the painting shows two “marine centaurs” that are half man and half beast. They are surrounded by foliage and both grasp a spear in their left hand and reach out with their right. In the lower part of the painting there is a group of animals, including two cranes, two foxes, and a dog.  \nThis floor painting belonged in the reception hall, and in the upper section of it there are traces of the round column that stood on top of it.","short_description":"This fresco painting comes from the Umayyad palace Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in the deserts of Syria. It displays an image from classical Roman mythology, the earth goddess, Gaea, signifying bounty and fruitfulness. It also indicates artistic and cultural continuity from Late Antiquity to early Islam.","type":"Floor, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 5.21 m, width 4.43 m.","method_for_datation":"The floor, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription on the door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace. The lintel carries the date AH 109 (AD 727) and indicates that the complex was built by Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik.","method_for_provenance":"The floor painting was produced *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert, 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The floor painting was discovered during the 1936 French excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was led by archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. It was the discovery of this site that led to the development of the Islamic Arts section in the Damascus National Museum. This floor painting, along with the palace's plaster façade which now adorns the museum's entry, were prepared for relocation at the National Museum during the 1940s. The Umayyad wing was formally inaugurated in 1950.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962, p.35.  \nGrabar, O., *Formation of Islamic Art*, New Haven, 1987, fig. 88.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria,* California, 2004, p.71; fig. 22.  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, XIV, plate 35.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Qasr; desert palace; floor painting; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Daniel Schlumberger; Gaea"],"materials":["Plaster, painted using the *secco* technique."]},"5fc4c91c-9fc3-5456-98a6-0dd4aa412e7f":{"name":"Water jug.","description":"Fragment of a water jug with a curved everted rim, circular mouth and neck shaped as an inverted truncated cone with a central moulding, which is joined to the body by a vertical handle with an oval cross-section. The body is globular with a zoomorphic tubular spout rising from its shoulder. The overall design suggests the shape of an animal with a long narrow neck such as a camel or dromedary, whose hunched back forms the neck of the vessel. It is decorated with fine lines of white painted plant forms on a reddish background.","short_description":"Spout and neck from a water jug, whose shape is reminiscent of an animal with a long, thin neck such as a camel or a dromedary, with the hump being the neck of the jug. It is decorated with fine, phytomorphic lines in white paint on the red background of the piece.","type":"Jug, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Hegira end 5th – beginning 6th century / AD end 11th – beginning 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 22.5 cm, width 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects with similar decoration in the west of the Al-Andalus region.","obtention":"It was found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.110.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.108.","dynasty":"Taifa or Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; water jug; zoomorphic"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from fairly coarse reddish paste, modelled on a wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"60cbffe7-3b9d-561d-b0f5-035566910673":{"name":"Bone needle","description":"Carved bone needle which could have been used for preparing leather, weaving and basketry.","type":"Bone needle","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"8800-6900 BC Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 4cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"612c0f2a-80e1-56d4-ad55-7c2f2f82cb8d":{"name":"Bowl with golden-brown metallic glaze.","description":"This deep bowl with round base and curved sides is decorated with scrolls of foliage and stems with palm leaves. They interweave exuberantly, revealing a bunch of grapes. Clearly defined rings divide the decoration into concentric areas, but the overall effect is one of unity and uninterrupted movement, enhanced by the harmony of the golden-brown motifs against the cream background. The space is well-covered but not overloaded.  \nThe formula for producing ceramics with a golden glaze has been roughly described since the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Red ochre (iron oxide or *almazzaron*) is added to a precisely measured mixture of copper and silver. This mixture is then diluted with vinegar. The golden-glazed ceramics which spread throughout al-Andalus from the AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th centuries were in vogue in Egypt at the same time. Both floral and animal decorations were used. The discovery of this bowl of al-Andalus origin in Tunis has highlighted the importance of the trade established from the AH 7th / AD 13th century between Ifriqiya and Muslim Spain.","short_description":"This is a typical example of the golden-glazed ceramics that spread through al-Andalus and Egypt from the AH 7th / AD 13th century, combining floral and zoomorphic motifs. The discovery of this dish of Andalusian origin in Tunis underlines the importance of trade between Ifriqiya and Muslim Spain.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Sidi Qasim al-Jalizi Museum.","dates":"Hegira, 7th–8th centuries / AD 13th–14th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Height 9.5 cm, diameter 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was discovered in a cistern during the digs at the *Kasbah* in Tunis in the early 1980s. It was found buried next to other Hafsid plates and bowls dating from the 7th and 8th / 13th and 14th centuries in a tank containing 270 pieces.","method_for_provenance":"Its Andalusian origin was established by comparison with other pieces. The workshops of al-Andalus were indeed producing similar bowls during the 7th and 8th / 13thand 14th centuries.","provenance":"Al-Andalus.","obtention":"After its discovery at the *Kasbah* excavations, this bowl was kept in Tunis at the National Patrimony Institute at Dar ibn Khaldun and then was selected for display at the Sidi Qasim al-Jalizi Museum in 1978.","dynasty":"Hafsid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glazed ceramic; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"614be63b-02e7-5f3d-b90a-32e42c8270fa":{"name":"Cast of a Neo-Hittite relief","short_description":"Plaster cast of a Neo-Hittite relief. The original was excavated at Carchemish by Hogarth, Woolley and Lawrence between 1911 and 1913. The originals, since damaged, are now in Ankara.","type":"Cast","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"8thC BC; Exavacted 1911–13","location":"London","provenance":"Turkey","keywords":["archaeology; museums; collection; collector; relief"]},"615a7562-84b5-53a8-94c7-e0939cd2dc65":{"name":"Perforated baton with incised wild horses","description":"15,000 years ago, towards the end of the last Ice Age, human beings found an ideal campsite under a rock spur in Canton Schaffhausen. Here they ate, drank, worked flint stones, and did sewing work. The campsite was discovered in Herblingen, a district in the town of Schaffhausen, in the nineteenth century. Among the finds was a perforated baton made from reindeer antlers, featuring two incised wild horses. It is one of the oldest figurative representations ever found in Switzerland. It would be interesting to know what the baton was used for in the late Stone Age. Archaeologists assume that it served ritual purposes in connection with hunting. Drawing was considered a thaumaturgic act through which humans hoped to gain control over wild game and thus enhance their hunting luck.","type":"Perforated baton","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Paleolithic","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 29,4cm, W: 4,3cm, Depth: 2,4cm, Weight: 152g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Schaffhausen","obtention":"Found in the 19th century, purchased in 1894","keywords":["archaeology; Paleolithic; perforated baton"],"materials":["Reindeer antlers; incised"]},"63946b1b-16ea-516e-a633-bafee1467d3f":{"name":"Ionian capital from the *Ptolemaion*","description":"This fragmented capital, displaying a Greek-scrolled valuta and a wealth of floriform decoration on the cushion, originates from the so-called Ptolemaion, a gateway built in Samothrace for the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus.","type":"Architectural sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"3rd century BC; excavated in 1873–1875","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 38 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Samothrace; Alexander Conze"],"materials":["Marble"]},"66718328-7241-56c8-a45c-d60aff5e7c2d":{"name":"Cup with inscription.","description":"Cup with inverted bevelled rim, circular mouth, body in the shape of a bi-truncated cone with low carination, a vertical handle oval in cross-section which joins the carination to the rim, and a flat base with a diagonal foot-ring. The decoration was made using the partial *cuerda seca* technique, with the calligraphic motif drawn with a line of manganese and filled in with green glaze. The text is incomplete although we can read in *kufic* characters *baraka kamila \\[wani\\]ma ^sa\\[mila\\]* – 'full blessing and total happiness'. The sentence is not accompanied by any secondary motifs. This is one of the oldest objects with partial *cuerda seca* decoration conserved at Mértola and its ornamental and calligraphic style are somewhat different from the other objects which we can date to the AH 6th / AD 12th century. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Cup decorated in part using *cuerda seca* with a *kufic* inscription reading ‘*baraka kamila \\[wani\\]ma sa\\[mila*\\]’ (‘full blessing and total happiness’). It suggests the need to protect the content of this piece of tableware from Mértola Castle.","type":"Cup, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Hegira second half of 5th or beginning of 6th century / AD second half 11th  or beginning 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 10.2 cm, width 10.2 cm, diameter (of mouth) 9.1 cm, diameter (of base) 5.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to either the end of the Taifa period or the Almoravid era through stratigraphy.","method_for_provenance":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the Castle of Mértola.","provenance":"Al-Andalus.","obtention":"This is a type of ceramic made in various regions of al-Andalus, but whose production has not yet been recorded in the west of the Iberian Peninsula.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Taifa or Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; cuerda seca; calligraphy; inscription"],"materials":["Ceramic made with coarse-grained straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated with the partial *cuerda seca* technique."]},"6ad7e7f5-5b8d-5bfc-afb9-c3c90a19d9a8":{"name":"Vase.","description":"Vase with vertical bevelled rim, circular mouth, cylindrical neck, globular body, with two grooved strap handles with a pinnacle-shaped protuberance at the top which join the neck and belly of the vessel, and a convex base with diagonal foot-ring. It shows remnants of the base of a filter between the neck and body. The exterior is decorated using the partial *cuerda seca* technique, in which only some parts of the design are filled with green or greenish honey-coloured glaze and others with dotted lines. The decoration is divided into six successive horizontal bands of plant, wavy and calligraphic motifs. On the rim is a narrow border of schematic palmettes. Most of the neck is occupied by a wide band with large lotus flowers, and below this is a frieze of tooth-shaped motifs. On the shoulder is a calligraphic ornamental border in which the word '*baraka*' is repeated several times in florid *kufic* script and, on the belly, a band of phytomorphic medallions. Next to the base is a frieze of palmette leaves. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Almoravid or Almohad pot decorated in part using *cuerda seca*. The decoration is arranged into six successive horizontal bands with plant, undulating and calligraphic motifs. The lotus-flower motifs and the band inscribed with the word ‘*baraka*’ in flowery *kufic* script are particularly noteworthy.","type":"Vase,ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 34.8 cm, width 32 cm, diameter (of mouth) 17.8 cm, diameter (of base) 13.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated by comparison with objects of similar form, decorative technique and theme, in particular from Almería and Málaga.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns in which they were made have been found, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.89.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Ceramic made from porous pink paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated using the partial *cuerda seca* technique."]},"6af07b8a-a412-5ec3-a872-6ecb7dc189c5":{"name":"Disc fibula","description":"This brooch, called a fibula, belonged to a woman living in what is today the canton of Solothurn around the year AD 600. It is made of gold and set with semi-precious stones. The fibula was used to fasten a cloak over the wearer’s chest – a fashion the Germanic tribes had brought to Switzerland. The Germanic migration not only brought changes in fashion, customs, and diet to Switzerland, but also multilingualism. While the Alemannians imposed their own language on the north of the country, the Germanic tribes of the Langobards and Burgundians in the south and south-west adopted the Latin language of the local population. So it is thanks to the Germans that Switzerland is divided into German-speaking and Romance-speaking residents today.","type":"Fibula","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Around AD 600","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"Depth: 0,3cm, Diameter 2,8 cm, Weight: 6,6g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Oberbuchsiten, Canton Solothurn","obtention":"Found in Oberbuchsiten. Bought in 1909","keywords":["Disc fibula; Early Middle Ages; Jewellery; Solothurn"],"materials":["Filigree decoration, Inserts with semi-precious stones (garnet)"]},"6e327e6c-97a6-5021-bdda-e534a67a0765":{"name":"Reserve head","description":"The *Reserve head* is one of the major works of the Viennese collection, found in an early tomb in the burial grounds of Giza. Though stylized, the visage is still full of life, with simultaneously idealized and very regular features. Scholars still disagree about the purpose of this type of object. Traditional explanations proffer their use as surrogate heads for the soul (mummifying having then been only in its earliest stages).","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"4th Dyn. c. 2600 BC; acquired by Hermann Junker during his excavation in Giza 1912–1929","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 27,7 cm, B 17,3 cm, Diameter 24,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Giza; Egypt; Hermann Junker"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"703bcca9-4c28-508b-8d25-b6f6138c138c":{"name":"Fresco on the Cupola.","description":"The caldarium or hot room in the *hammam* (bath) at Qusayr ‘Amra has a fresco of the constellations on the cupola; the earliest surviving representation of the stars on a spherical surface. The painting was apparently copied from a manuscript and transferred to the cupola. A number of errors in the placement of the constellations indicate the painting was executed by someone who was not familiar with Astrology.","short_description":"The fresco of the constellations on the cupola of the caldarium at Qusayr ‘Amra is the earliest surviving representation of the stars on a spherical surface. A number of errors in the placements indicate that the painter was not familiar with astrology.","type":"Cupola, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco decorates the cupola in the caldarium of the hammam at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Beer, A., 'The Astronomical Significance of the Zodiac of Qusayr Amra', in K. A. C. Creswell, *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1, Oxford, 1932, pp.296–303.  \nBrunet, J.-P., 'The Fresco of the Cupola of Qusayr Amra', *Centaurus*, Vol. 40, 1998, pp.97–123.  \nSaxl, F., 'The Zodiac of Qusayr Amra', in K. A. C. Creswell, *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1, Oxford, 1932, pp.289–94.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Astrology; caldarium; constellations; cupola; Fresco"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"736a018e-a855-56c6-a0e4-184b1dba4cd5":{"name":"Male head","description":"South Arabia (Yemen) has always been famous for its incense. The cultivation and widespread trade of this desirable product turned Yemen into a very important region with a highly autonomous culture. This kind of head, sculpted on tombstones, portrayed the subject partly as abstract idealization and yet in a very naturalistic way.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"Beginning of 1st millenium AD South-Arabia; brought to Vienna by Edward Glaser in 1882–1894","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 24 cm, Width 12,5 cm, Diameter 11,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Yemen; Eduard Glaser; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Alabaster"]},"758017b1-e777-564d-bac6-2f8e62ea8bad":{"name":"Bowl.","description":"An open bowl with a circular body on a flat base. The rim is semi-circular in cross-section, marked and slightly inverted.  \nThe ceramic is made from very light-coloured almost white paste, with a brown, almost sepia decoration. The surfaces have slips in the same colour as the paste.  \nThe decoration is centred on the inside of the object with a star-shaped or flower motif which spreads out from a broad circle decorated with a geometric pattern inside. Small semi-circles with a dot in the centre form a border around this circle, interspersed with groups of three lines which radiate outwards and are repeated seventeen times.  \nThe rim of the bowl was also decorated with stripes of the same colour, in seven sets of small dashes producing a very subtle effect.  \nThis type of decoration is common on the inside of similar pieces, but also on the outer walls of small pots. A very similar decoration has been observed on ceramics from Vilamoura (Loulé, Algarve, Portugal) and on ceramics unearthed in the Castle at Silves.  \nIn the archaeological excavations carried out at Silves, this type of ornamentation was not found in objects from archaeological levels dating after the AH 4th / AD 10th century.  \nThis may be a locally produced object.","short_description":"The elegance of the geometric motif on the inside of this bowl is particularly noteworthy, depicting a star or flower in the centre radiating from a circle containing a geometric bar motif. The whole is reminiscent of traditional formulas from the region, characteristic of indigenous art.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 2nd–3rd century / AD 8th–9th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Hegira 2nd–3rd century / AD 8th–9th century.","method_for_datation":"From its archaeological, stratigraphic and typological context. The date attributed (2nd–3rd / 8th–9th century) is disputed by Cláudio Torres, of the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola, who believes that it is probably a later piece, in comparison with others coming from the region of Gharb al-Andalus.","method_for_provenance":"An excavation carried out in the courtyard next to the cistern in Silves, directed by Mário and Rosa Varela Gomes. Inventory number Q 41/C3-silo 1.","provenance":"Courtyard adjacent to the cistern (now Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum), Silves.","obtention":"Housed in the Museum after the excavation that was carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1998, p.162–3.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.54.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., “Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcáçova”, *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia,* Lisbon, 2004.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade; floral decoration"],"materials":["Ceramic modelled on a wheel, with a star-shaped decoration."]},"78a0a931-9669-5643-bd59-4f57da550407":{"name":"Relief","description":"Cereals and olive oil were the bases of the local diet, wealth and trade. Their production expanded in al-Andalus thanks to technical innovations such as hydraulic and irrigation systems. Their implementation facilitated the control of agricultural cycles and changed working methods. Farming expanded into arid lands, increasing and diversifying harvests. The diversity of cultivated grains –wheat, rye, etc.– made it possible to develop multiple recipes for bread, an essential food shared by the whole of society.","type":"Relief","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","initial_owner":"Unknown","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height: 30cm, Width: 22.2cm, Thickness: 7.5cm","place_of_production":"Madinat al-Zahra","method_for_datation":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra.","method_for_provenance":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain","obtention":"The fragment was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the Comisión Provincial de Monumentos of Córdoba on 18 April 1901.","bibliography":"Hidalgo López, R. et al., “Elaboración de pan según indicaciones documentales hispanas de fines de la Edad Media”, *Meridies. Estudios de Historia y Patrimonio de la Edad Media*, 14, 2023: 7-33.  \n  \nRevilla Vielva, R., *El Patio arabe del Museo Arqueológico Nacional*. Descriptive catalogue, Madrid: Imprenta de Estanislao Maestre, 1932: 19, fig. 17.","workshop":"Madinat al-Zahra workshops","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus","author":"Helena Lahoz Kopiske","copy_editor":"Alvaro Miranda","keywords":["Agriculture; Technical innovation; Diet; Trade"],"materials":["Limestone; carved, bevelled"]},"7a7a871e-70a7-5428-91b9-c5c8fd581ce1":{"name":"Ishtar Gate","short_description":"The Museum of the Ancient Near East, dating back to 1899, considers itself as a place where cultures of the region can be studied, but also as the custodian of the rich excavation finds from German field studies. The most eminent examples of the custodial work are the Processional Way and the Ishtar Gate of ancient Babylon, of whom only the foundational walls were exposed during excavations in 1902. Only after thousands of fragments had been put together, the reconstruction could be integrated into the museum.","type":"Gate; archaeological find","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum, State Museums","dates":"605–562 BC; excavated in 1902","location":"Berlin","author":"Stefan Weber"},"7aeb03eb-d2c3-50a9-9ca0-0776ebf921fd":{"name":"Sarcophagus of the mourning women","short_description":"In the Sarcophagus of the Crying Women, found at the Royal Necropolis in Sidon like the Alexander Sarcophagus, nothing could be found other than the bones of its owner and a bronze belt buckle, since it had been robbed in an earlier time. From the partial traces on the marble that remained until today, it is understood that it had been dyed in blue and red initially. It is the best example of the group called by archaeologists \"Sarcophagi with Columns\", and it is considered as a final resting place, like the \"Mausoleum of Halicarnassus\" or the \"Nereid Monument\", rather than a tomb. Its architectural features were used in the architecture of the old building of the İstanbul Archaeological Museums. It is an example of Greek sculpture displaying Eastern influences. The shaved heads, bare feet, ragged clothes of the figures and their movements and expressions of sadness are features of Semitic societies. It is thought to be the sarcophagus of the King of Sidon, Straton (374-358 BC), who was said to have led a life of pleasure. The sarcophagus has the shape of an Ionian temple.","type":"sarcophagus; archaeological find","holder":"Istanbul Archaeological Museums","dates":"It is thought to be the sarcophagus of the King of Sidon, Straton (374-358 BC)","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"Sidon","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Sarcophagus Sidon; The Hellenistic Period; Istanbul Archaeological Museums"],"materials":["Stone work"]},"7ca1dc85-dab9-5c72-9c8c-cd23bd775961":{"name":"Bone awls","description":"Bone awls made of animal bones, were polished to use for weaving. These implements were also used for piercing and sewing leather.","type":"Bone awls","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"10200-5000 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 6cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Neolithic","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"7eacd600-e860-593a-aed7-a9329d9d9011":{"name":"Fragment of the Parthenon frieze","description":"The climax of the Greater Panathenaia, the chief festival of Athens, held in honour of Athena, was a procession which ended with the presentation of the newly woven *peplos* (a woman’s garment) to the tutelary goddess of the city. This is the subject of the frieze around the cella of the Parthenon, the temple on the Athenian Acropolis. This fragment depicts the garment being handed over in the presence of the goddess.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"c. 440 BC","location":"Vienna","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Athens; Acropolis; Franz Ferdinand"],"materials":["Stone"]},"8181fe27-473a-532e-986e-e0786c511a39":{"name":"Aquamanile in the form of a ram.","description":"This standing animal sculpture has lost its front paws, ears and horns. With its long neck and head too small for its body, it exudes a feeling of great strength. On its breast is a crescent which seems to have a medicinal significance. Around its neck it wears a collar, decorated with an incised saw-tooth pattern, from which the crescent hangs. The eyes are circles sculpted around globular protrusions for the iris. This aquamanile was probably a fountain-head embellishing one of the local palaces or large houses. The water ran up a tube from under the ram's belly and emerged from the open spout of its mouth.  \nThis example can be included within a whole series of animal-shaped aquamaniles discovered in various Muslim countries, especially Egypt and Spain. They were generally deer, dogs or birds.","short_description":"Aquamaniles were probably used as fountain heads to decorate palaces and grand residences. This example belongs to a series of aquamaniles in the shape of animals, usually stags, dogs or birds, found in some Muslim countries including Egypt and Spain.","type":"Aquanmanile, metalwork","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–early 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Bardo.","dimensions":"Height 32.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This aquamanile has definite affinities to other pieces found at Madinat al-Zahra, dating from the mid-4th / 10th century, and in Egypt, dating from the 5th century (11th). From the Ifriqiyan historical context and the simple decoration the piece can be dated to somewhere between the 4th–early 5th / 10th–11th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"This piece was a fortuitous discovery made at Beni Khalad probably during the 1930s. In spite of its resemblance to the aquamaniles of al-Andalus, its Ifriqiyan origin appears beyond doubt.","provenance":"Ifriqiya(?).","obtention":"This piece was presented to the Museum by the Friends of the Bardo in May 1941, where it has been on display since.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.271.  \nZbiss, S. M., *Actes du congres national des societes savantes*, Alger, 1954, p.303.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Cast-bronze."]},"84046e76-f5c4-58c1-bb91-359397489ded":{"name":"Fragment of an ivory dagger.","description":"A triangle-shaped ivory dagger that is broken with some pieces missing. Finely decorated with flora, fauna and architecture, it has incised decoration on both faces. On one side there is a central palm tree together with a trace of the columns that form an arch either side of it and a lamp hanging in the middle, unfortunately the upper part of the arch is missing. The other side depicts a she-camel with her young. Similar architectural motifs to those used on this ivory dagger appear on the steatite vessels found at the same site.  \n  \nBackgammon dice and other ivory objects were found together with this piece in the same area of excavation. The function of such an object is not entirely clear but it was probably a decorative element used in the palace.","short_description":"Fragment of a carved triangular ivory dagger from al-Fudayn in Mafraq. It is finely decorated with flora, fauna and architecture on both faces. Backgammon dice and other ivory objects were found together with this piece, the function of which is not entirely clear.","type":"Dagger, ivory, arms, armours","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Length 28 cm, width 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context and association with other Umayyad vessels.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was found during archaeological excavation work at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was obtained in 1986 during an archaeological excavation that took place at al-Fudayn in Mafraq which lies about 70 km north-east of Amman.","bibliography":"**La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie**, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.369, fig. 355.  \n  \nZabern, P., *Der Königs Weg: 9000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur in Jordanien und Palästina*, exhibition catalogue, Mainz, 1987, p.350.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Architecural motifs; camel; floral decoration; arms; armours; weapon"],"materials":["Cut and incised ivory."]},"8473d6b1-ff39-54e8-aa27-a77f671d0068":{"name":"Lower half of a sculpturesque high relief.","description":"This is one of a prominent group of sculpturesque high-relief representing human figures, animals, and vegetal motifs found in Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. It consists of the lower half of a man sitting on a throne with his feet on a small stool. The stool is in the shape of a colonnaded portico that is supported by seven arches that rest on pairs of pillars. While other statues in the palace appear to be based on Sassanid prototypes, some prominent historians have also linked this figure with those at Qusayr Amra, which show clear Byzantine or Mediterranean influences.  \nThere is speculation that the figure represents Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik who commissioned the building of the Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi complex. This is based on the fact that the statue exhibits luxurious clothing with traces of red, green and brown paint. The building under his feet symbolises his power and the extent of his rule. It is clearly intended to emphasise the glory and majesty of the ruler.  \nSculptures in stucco are part of the pre-Islamic Iraqi, Iranian and Central Asian tradition. Extremely high-relief pieces such as this, or even stand-alone sculptures in the round, are a new development in this tradition, although they can be compared to the relief sculptures found in Palmyrene tombs of ancient Syria.  \nThis sculpture was located on the second floor of the palace, along the interior façade that overlooks the courtyard colonnade.","short_description":"Although fragmentary, this figurative carving in high-relief may have represented the Umayyad Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik dressed in Persian-inspired royal garb and sitting on his throne.","type":"Relier, stone","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira about 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 1.06 m, width 0.9 m.","method_for_datation":"This object, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription on the lintel of the door of the *khan* adjoining the palace, which carries the date 109 (727).","method_for_provenance":"The object was found and probably carved *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The object was found during the archaeological excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi completed by the French Expedition of 1936 under the direction of Daniel Schlumberger.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and*  \n*Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.44; fig. 52.  \nGrabar, O., *Formation of Islamic Art*, New Haven, 1987, fig. 80.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986.","dynasty":"Umayyad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Umayyad; desert palaces; statue; sculpture; Daniel Schlumberger; limestone; Sassanid"],"materials":["Carved limestone."]},"893326f6-9a4d-57db-bdf6-56796de6ef99":{"name":"Fragment from a carved wooden piece.","description":"In the Raqqa region one can find fragments of wood that once decorated the formal halls of its Abbasid royal palaces. It is possible to classify these fragments into three types according to their techniques of decoration. The first group is adorned with relatively realistic coloured and gilded carved ornamentation that includes floral and calligraphic motifs. The second group is carved in a slanted manner so that the edges of the carved objects appear curved and not sharp. The examples of this group are influenced by the Abbasid Samarra motifs identified as \"Samarra Style C\". The third group, to which this piece belongs, has decorative motifs carved in a vertical manner so that the panel appears to have an upper surface and a lower background. The decorative carving is flat with sharp edges and the groove to the background is deep, as can be seen in the small deep holes indicating the circular part of the calligraphic letters. The piece is decorated with Arabic *kufic* script that reads “Commander of the Faithful.” It seems to have been partially burned in a fire.","short_description":"This calligraphic wooden panel with its sharp vertically carved angles and deep circular grooves is one example of the many carving styles that were developed in the Abbasid period and spread throughout the region.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 43 cm, width 13 cm.","method_for_datation":"The carving technique used on this wood fragment is distinctly Abbasid-Islamic and was developed during the Abbasid period in Iraq and Syria.","method_for_provenance":"The wooden piece was discovered in the vicinity of the Abbasid palaces in the Raqqa region, and therefore it is assumed that it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The piece was accidentally discovered by a resident of the Raqqa region during the early 1950s. He presented it to the archaeological expedition working there at that time.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.158.  \nAndalucia, J., de- (ed), *El esplendor de los Omeyas cordobeses*, exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Wood; carved; Raqqa; Samarra; kufic script"],"materials":["Carved wood."]},"8c32bee4-0f68-56fc-9da8-59caa6e72f6d":{"name":"Cup/Bowl.","description":"An open vessel, hemispherical in shape. It has a slightly everted semi-circular rim, a foot-ring, and is made from light-coloured paste. The surfaces are enamelled with polychrome decoration. In the centre there is a simple and charming depiction of a lotus bulb which is a symbol of eternal life. This type of piece, from its shape, especially its ring foot, indicates Iberian production in imitation of an oriental style. In addition to the decorated base the rim of the object also has a discontinuous decorative wavy line interrupted in three places.","short_description":"Bowl made in the Iberian Peninsula based on oriental models. This AH 4th / AD 10th century piece has a quite naïve representation of a lotus bulb in its centre, a symbol of the eternity of life.","type":"Cup, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 4 cm, diameter (of rim) 15.6 cm, diameter (of base) 6.8 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the basis of its archaeological context and ceramics of a  similar style.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in Silves in the courtyard next to the cistern, directed by Mário Varela Gomes. Inventory number Silves 3, Q37 – C3.","provenance":"Courtyard adjacent to the cistern (now the site of Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum), Silves.","obtention":"Housed in the Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum after the excavation carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* 1998, p.98.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.57. (37)  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., “Silves (Xelb): Uma cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcaçova”, *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia*, Lisbon, 2004, p.402.","dynasty":"Umayyad of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["floral decoration"],"materials":["Ceramic with polychrome decoration."]},"8d436c70-8d15-5b93-b5b5-044a974ad60d":{"name":"Cooking pot.","description":"Pot with vertical straight rim with flattened lip and external flange, circular mouth and cylindrical neck. The body is shaped like a truncated cone with sharp carination close to the base. It has two strap handles with a central ridge and convex base. There are horizontal incisions around the rim, neck and body and fire marks indicate that it was used in cooking. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Kitchen implement with an extremely simple form and very little decoration. This type of pot was found in an Almohad oven excavated in Mértola and appears almost exclusively in this region, which helps to identify it as a local product.","type":"Pot, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Early Hegira 7th century / early AD 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 21.5 cm, width 35 cm, diameter (of rim) 23.5 cm, diameter (of base) 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"This type of pot has been found in an Almohad kiln excavated in Mértola and is almost exclusive to this region. This indicates that it was produced locally.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.107–67.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.155.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["daily life; cooking; food"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"8e2d8258-5733-5cff-a71b-a0329ecb34b2":{"name":"Portable stove.","description":"A portable stove consisting of an upper or fire chamber, a grate and a lower chamber or ash collector. The upper chamber has a vertical rim or moulding into which another object is fitted, a circular mouth, a cylindrical body with sharp carination, holes to ventilate the fire and two vertical strap handles with a conical protuberance at the top. The grate is convex with circular openings between the upper chamber and the ash collector, which is almost cylindrical with an oval opening and flat base. It is decorated with a cord of impressed fingernail marks at the point of carination, three parallel wavy incised lines and white paint on a reddish background which traces interlacing vertical and horizontal lines. The object has many fire marks from its use as a portable stove for cooking or heating. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Kitchen utensil from the Almohad era, probably produced locally. The stove consists of an upper (or fire) chamber, a grill and a lower (or ash) chamber. This type of item has been used up to the present day in this region.","type":"Stove, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira early 7th century / AD early 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 22.2 cm, width 33.5 cm, diameter (of mouth) 29.2 cm, diameter (of base) 15.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"This type of object was usually traded locally. Moreover it is a very common form in the region, with technical and formal characteristics typical of items produced in Mértola.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.107–67.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica Decorada Islámica de Mértola”, in *VI Colloque International sur la Céramique Médiévale en Méditerranée, Aix-en-Provence, 1995*, Aix-en-Provence, 1997, pp.311–25.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Contenedores de Fuego en el Garb al-Andalus”, in *Actas do III Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular. Vila Real de Trás-os-Montes, Setembro de 1999, vol. VII: Arqueologia da Idade Média da Península Ibérica*, Porto, 2000, pp.421–34.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.155.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["fire; daily life; kitchenware; domestic vessels; furnishing"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from moderately fine reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an alternating oxidising and reducing atmosphere."]},"8ecca203-295e-576b-be2c-1ce60f86ab0e":{"name":"Erstfeld treasure","description":"The Erstfeld (UR) treasure is discovered by chance in a rock crevice in August 1962. The extraordinary assemblage is one of the most prominent masterpieces of Celtic goldsmithing. It consists of four torques and three arm rings made of high-carat gold (up to 95%) weighing 640 g in total. The rings are decorated with figural friezes, plant motifs and mythical creatures. One of the motifs shows the «Lord/Lady of the wild animals»: this deity is widely known, both in the Celtic tradition and in the mythology of the Mediterranean region.The gold rings are made in the 4th century BC in a workshop on the Swiss Plateau or in southern Germany. The gold treasure is quite probably a votive offering to a deity to ask for a safe crossing of the Alps.","type":"Neck ring","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"4th century BC","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H/L: 16.3cm, W: 13.5cm, Diameter: 17.3cm, Weight :128.7g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic and typological analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Erstfeld","obtention":"Found in Erstfeld, Switzerland","dynasty":"Iron Age","keywords":["archaeology; Erstfeld treasure; neck ring"]},"90ac8914-3124-5940-a90b-536222104ba2":{"name":"Pergamon altar","short_description":"The Pergamon Museum building owes its name to a spectacular finding in Turkey. The story of this discovery of the past starts in 1864 with the German engineer Carl Humann, who urged the Berlin museums to undertake proper excavations when he saw local lime burners burning ancient remains on the acropolis. The subsequent research unveiled important remains of Hellenistic art. With the museum opening in 1930 and the architectural reconstructions of the Ancient, Hellenistic, Roman and Islamic Middle East the museum developed in one of the most famous institutions of its kind.","type":"Altar; archaeological find","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum, State Museums","dates":"170 BC; discovered in 1864","location":"Berlin","author":"Stefan Weber"},"91accd64-ec4c-56b4-b2f4-b293a427f8c4":{"name":"Carved figure of a mammal.","description":"This mammal looks like a cow with no horns or like a hippopotamus with no tail. The lower part of the two hind legs and of one of the fore-legs is also missing. Face on, the features are quite clear but highly simplified; just rough cavities for the eyes, a hole to indicate the nostrils and a hollowed-out line for the mouth. Seen from the back, the face is totally unrecognisable. The neck and the rest of the body are thick-set. It is unclear what this animal was used for. Could it have decorated the facade of a wall or have been part of a bas-relief? This is very difficult to ascertain because of the rarity of such objects in both Occidental and Oriental Muslim art. We do have clay figures of horses, camels and mules from Iran and Samarkand, but their function is well-defined. They were used as toys or ornaments and are completely different from Kairouanese figures, which are unique in Muslim art.","short_description":"This animal figure in stucco appears to be a bull with no horns or a hippopotamus with no tail. The purpose of this mammal is unknown, given the rarity of such objects in Islamic art. Kairouanese figurines are entirely different.","type":"Mammal, stucco","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 33 cm, height 16 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya.","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.226  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.257.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Stucco."]},"94369548-7782-52b0-adae-f3a0d1f1caf6":{"name":"Lower part of a semi-naked female statue.","description":"The lower part of a semi-naked female figure found at Qasr al-Mushatta. Carved out of limestone, the figure has a drape over her thighs the edge of which she holds with her left hand along with a basket or bag. In her right hand she holds an unidentified object.  \n  \nThe proportions of this female figure are curvaceous and voluptuous. Such figures obviously flouted Muslim principles and were not supposed to be seen by the public.","short_description":"The lower part of a semi-naked female figure found at Qasr al-Mushatta. Carved out of limestone, the figure has a drape over her thighs. Such figures flouted Muslim principles and were not supposed to be seen by the public.","type":"Statue, stone","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 75 cm, width 52 cm.","method_for_datation":"Qasr al-Mushatta, where this figure was found, dates to the end of the Umayyad period (first half of the 2nd / first half of the 8th century).","method_for_provenance":"The figure was found within the Umayyad palace of al-Mushatta.","provenance":"al-Mushatta, Jordan.","obtention":"The figure was found during the course of restoration work and an archaeological excavation that was carried out in 1962 by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan at the Umayyad palace of al-Mushatta; the object was then transferred to Jordan Archaeological Museum.","bibliography":"Enderlein, V., and Meinecke, M., *Mschatta-Fassade*, Berlin, 1992, p.144, fig. 8.  \n  \nTrumpelmann, L., 'Die Skulpturen von Mschatta', *Archaologischer Anzeiger*, Berlin, 1965, pp.235–76; A1.1–4 (for other sculptures from al-Mushatta).","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative representation; statue; stone; women"],"materials":["Carved limestone."]},"952ab9d3-ae66-55d8-89bd-8e1f14d55203":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Tall Standing Woman at the Edge of a Pool’.","description":"A fresco on the central section of the lower register in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra that depicts a remarkably tall woman standing at the edge of a pool. She is naked except for a loin cloth and is decked with wristlets, armlets, and a necklace with pendants around her neck; another, longer necklace with three pear-shaped pendants hangs between her rounded breasts. Her right arm is lowered, slightly bent towards her right thigh, while the index and little finger of her right hand are extended; the left arm is raised and bent towards her shoulder as if pulling back a curtain behind her. A turban covers her hair with a circular pin at the front.  \n  \nThis female bather puts on a really bold display, evidently much admired by the crowd of figures watching from behind a balustrade in the left arcade. Behind her to the right is a gesturing attendant. In the background is an impressive architectural vista: a two-storey arcade with a curtain and balustrades, which may well represent pool architecture similar to that of the palace forecourt at Khirbet al-Mafjar in Jericho. The central position of the tall, semi-naked woman, her size and her attitude all indicate that she must have been an important personage, perhaps the favourite concubine of the patron of Qusayr ‘Amra.  \n  \nThis bathing beauty brings to mind images of the Goddess of love, Aphrodite, whose image may have served as a source of inscription for this panel.","short_description":"This fresco is in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra and is inspired by images of Aphrodite. Her central position, size and attitude indicate that she was an important personage, perhaps a favourite concubine of the patron.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second third of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of china and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is located on the western wall of the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, p.56; p.102; plates XVIa, XIX a-b; XXa-b.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.227–47.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Audience hall; bath; fresco."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"9550bb5f-dcd9-54bc-a521-b59609c24581":{"name":"The Tavira Vase.","description":"Vessel made from red clay.The sides, sloping slightly outwards, become thicker at the top to form an invisible channel through which water could pass after having been poured into a kind of funnel-neck which stands out clearly from the overall piece. The water would run through the channel and then be poured into the interior of the vase through eight of the 14 figurines standing around its edge.Two armed and mounted knights, accompanied by a dismounted archer, stand on either side of a woman also on horseback. Then come two musicians, who would have been part of a quartet, now incomplete. This set of human figures was followed by five animals, four of which remain: a bovine, a camel, a deer or gazelle, another camel and a lion. A flock of doves is perched on the funnel-neck.This is an extraordinary piece of popular art probably representing the ceremonial abduction that took place before a wedding ceremony, in which the animals are intended to be an allegory of good fortune for the couple. The water coming from the eight gargoyles would be for a shrub planted in the vase, possibly basil as this plant was associated with the cult of love in Iberian and Mediterranean traditions.","short_description":"This pot, an example of popular art, represents the ceremonial abduction enacted before a wedding ceremony. The human figures (woman, crossbowman, knights and musicians) are accompanied by animals, intended as a good omen for the newly weds. The pot would have contained a plant.","type":"Vase, ceramic","holder":"Tavira Municipal Museum.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th or beginning of 6th century / AD end of 11th or beginning of 12th century.","location":"Tavira., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 36 cm, width 42 cm.","method_for_datation":"By stratigraphic references and typological comparison with related artefacts.","method_for_provenance":"Collected during archaeological excavations directed by Maria and Manuel Maia, near the Porta de D. Manuel in Tavira.","provenance":"Tavira, Portugal.","obtention":"Deposited in Tavira Municipal Museum following archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Maia, M., “O Vaso de Tavira e o Seu Contexto”, in *Actas do Colóquio Internacional sobre Portugal, Espanha e Marrocos. O Mediterrâneo e o Atlântico*, Faro, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nTorres, C., *O Vaso de Tavira*, Mértola, 2004.","dynasty":"Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Cláudio Torres","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["vase; Tavira; ceramic; firing in an oxidising atmosphere; wheel; modelled; popular art; wedding; marriage"],"materials":["Ceramic fired in oxidising atmosphere, made on the wheel and modelled."]},"96da7333-2414-5c15-9ce1-3664f7119887":{"name":"Mummy board and inner coffin for Nes-pauti-taui","description":"An entire set of coffins was made in Thebes for the Amun priest Nes-pauti-taui. The mummy board and both coffin lids bear the same decorative scheme. We see enormous ornamental collars of foliage and flowers. The hands are separately applied and hold the djed-pillar and the Blood of Isis. The faces and wigs are also superimposed.","type":"Woodwork","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"21st Dyn, c. 1000 BC; excavated in 1891","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Mummy Board: Length 173cm, Width 36 cm; Coffin: Length 183 cm, Width 50 cm, Height 35,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Theben; Egypt; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Wool covered with linen cartonnage; painted, vanished"]},"98897be0-18bb-5f36-beaa-b28285fbeb42":{"name":"Earring.","description":"The main pendant-ring has an opening for insertion in the earlobe. Attached at the lower edge of this ring and pointing downwards are three spheres, each joined to the other and each extended at the base into cylindrical projections. These forms are decorated with radial grooves and lateral bands. Pointing upwards from the same lower part of the ring is a short spoke coiled at the top. Its purpose is unknown.  \nThese spherical shapes may well occur in some Muslim jewellery from both Eastern and Western areas, but we have not found anything similar to the Raqqada earring in the various collections that we have seen. Only a very few pieces of jewellery from the early centuries of Islam survive. Tombs have not yielded much and Islamic religious institutions do not have treasures like Christian churches do.  \nThe dearth of documentation makes affiliation, evolutionary research and the dating of new finds within a coherent series very difficult. Things become clearer from the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","short_description":"Although their spherical shape is similar to other Eastern and Western Islamic jewellery, these earrings are different from Raqqada Zirid and Fatimid pieces in their technique and decoration. Only a small quantity of jewellery has survived from the early centuries of Islam to enable them to be dated.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira 3rd–early 4th centuries / AD 9th–10th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 2.2 cm, width 2 cm.","method_for_datation":"This earring was found during the excavations undertaken in the 1960s on the Raqqada site. Raqqada was founded by the Aghlabids in the year 263 / 876. Its active life as a city continued up to the mid-5th / 11th century, when it was sacked by the Hilalian tribes. So the date of the earring could fall anywhere over the span of these two centuries. We unfortunately do not possess any information as to which archaeological layer the piece came from. However, this piece is technically and decoratively different from Fatimid and Zirid pendants. It has a more archaic and a definitely more classical appearance, which leads us to date it to between the 3rd and the early 4th centuries (9th to 10th centuries).","method_for_provenance":"Archaeological find.","provenance":"Unknown. Probably of Ifriqiyan fabrication.","obtention":"The earring was discovered on the Raqqada site, this earring was kept at the Institut National du Patrimoine de Kairouan. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1993 and displayed there.","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Adornment; geometric decoration; jewellery"],"materials":["Chased gold leaf."]},"9894288e-e20a-599a-a609-d59380647196":{"name":"Floor mosaic","description":"During refurbishment of the villa in the late 18th-century, commissioned by Marco Antonio IV Borghese, the architect Antonio Asprucci decided to entirely relay the floor of the “Room of the Hermaphrodite” with ancient mosaics, a popular custom at the time, and whose decorative impact was powerfully suggestive. In fact, for visitors, the interior of a room with its authentic “mosaic carpet” covering the floor, became both an integral part of the modern refurbishment and a museum object. For the assemblage, which took place in 1781, Asprucci used mosaics from the excavation of a large Roman thermal complex situated in Castellarcione, a property of the Borghese family, located on Via Tiburtina at Bagni di Tivoli, not far from the famous Villa Adriana. The most ancient part of the mosaic, “little stars” on a white background (constructed from four black tiles juxtaposed in a form similar to a star), is surrounded by a frame, reproducing a polychrome meander. At the centre of the room, a panel, produced later, depicts a fishing scene, surrounded by multiple frames of braid motifs with acanthus leaves in the corners. A second panel, from the same period and depicting another fishing scene, is placed on the step in the window recess. The fashion for using authentic mosaic tiles to recall Antiquity is characteristic of the last decades of the 18th century. This is demonstrated in various buildings of the era, such as the Pontifical Galleries (for example the famous Sala Rotonda of the Pio-Clementino Museum with mosaics of the 3rd century BC) and in aristocratic residences, such as in the noble Cabinet of Palazzo Altieri in Rome.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Borghese Gallery","dates":"200 BC‒AD 300","location":"Rome","dimensions":"455cm x 685cm","method_for_datation":"Based on stylistic analysis, the part of the mosaic with “little stars” on a white background framed by a multicolour meander is from the 1st century BC; the “emblemata” with fishing scenes is from BC 200‒AD 300. The assemblage was made in 1781.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance is documented in the description of the Villa of 1796 (see Lamberti and Visconti, 1796).","provenance":"Excavations at Castellarcione near Bagni di Tivoli (Rome)","obtention":"The two panels with fishing scenes come from excavations carried out in the 18th century in Castellarcione near Tivoli, a property belonging to the Borghese family.","bibliography":"Guadalupi, Gianni, et al., “Villa Borghese”, *Grand Tour*, no. 30, Milan, 2002.  \nLamberti, Luigi, and Visconti, Ennio Quirino, *Sculture del Palazzo della Villa Borghese*, Rome, 1796.  \nMoreno, Paolo, and Viacava, Antonella, *I marmi antichi della Galleria Borghese: La collezione archeologica di Camillo e Francesco Borghese*, Rome, 2003.","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","materials":["Marble tiles"]},"9905bf41-30f3-505a-84b5-5d1abdf32a88":{"name":"Jug.","description":"A magnificent squat-shaped applied bronze jug with a high loop handle attached to the body and lid with a chain. Three discs, decorated with incised rosette and concentric circles, form a collar that surrounds the neck and which is nailed to a twisted arm that ends with a curled spiral on the lower part of the handle.","short_description":"An applied bronze jug from a house on the Citadel of Amman. Its high loop handle is attached to the body and lid with a chain. Three discs decorated with incised rosette and concentric circles form a collar around the neck.","type":"Jug, metalwork","holder":"Spanish Mission.","owner":"Department of Antiquities of Jordan.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 40 cm, diameter (of body) 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its archaeological context and associated pottery *in situ*.","method_for_provenance":"The object was recovered during an archaeological excavation at Amman Citadel; but where this object was produced is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was recovered curing the course of an archaeological excavation in 1999–2000 in a house that lay south of the mosque on the Citadel of Amman.","bibliography":"Unpublished object: information about this object has been gained through personal communication with Dr Ignacio Arce, Director of the Spanish Archaeological Mission in Amman. Smith, R., and Day, L., *Pella of the Decapolis*, Vol. II, London, 1989, p.69, object no. 350126; plate 38H.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; incision; daily life; geometric decoration; geometric pattern"],"materials":["Applied bronze."]},"9ba14117-d905-597a-95be-0025b3200e4e":{"name":"‘The Younger Memnon’","short_description":"Henry Salt and J.L. Burckhardt donated this colossal bust of Ramesses II to the British Museum in 1817 where it created a sensation and became known as the Younger Memnon. It was removed from the Ramesseum in Thebes by the explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who transported it to Alexandria, from where it was shipped to England.","type":"Statue","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"19th Dynasty; donated to the British Museum in 1817","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; museums; travel; traveller; statue"]},"9e674f9b-6875-58c3-9a9a-b05a50df35bb":{"name":"Bellino Cylinder","short_description":"One of the first objects from Nineveh to reach the West. Studied by Rich’s secretary, Karl Bellino. Bellino was a talented scholar of Middle Eastern languages. His new style of copying set the standard for rigorous study of cuneiform. His life ended tragically short; he died of fever in Mosul in 1820. Many European explorers and excavators lost their lives in the Middle East to disease or one of many other dangers.","type":"Clay cylinder","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC; acquisition date: 1825","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; archaeology; exploration; travel; traveller; collection; collector; museums; clay; inscription"]},"9ece1ead-7c0b-528b-bdd1-e15c148b868c":{"name":"Medallion","short_description":"In Rome in the 4th century, glass-makers fully exploited the technique of sandwiched gold glass. Religious subjects - predominantly Christian but also Jewish - as well as portraits of families and individuals such as this piece were depicted in gold leaf with stippled and painted decoration. This was then placed between two layers of colourless glass that were fused together.  \n  \nThe identity of the man in this portrait is not known, but the costly process of this technique means it was somebody of high status. Medallions formed by this method were sometimes made as decorative pendants for wearing, but most were set into the base of bowls and dishes to commemorate a special occasion or present as a wedding gift. The portrait disks were later broken out of the dishes to be re-used as grave markers.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"200 - 400 AD","location":"London","dimensions":"Diameter: 4.4cm","provenance":"Italy","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868","bibliography":"Harden, Donald B., et al. (eds), *Glass of the Caesars*, Milan: Olivetti, 1987: 262.  \nHoney, W. B., \"Gold-Engraving under Glass\", *Connoisseur*, 92, (1933): 376, no.5.  \nLiefkes, Reino (ed), *Glass*, London: V&A Publications, 1997: 21-22, pl. 19.  \nWilliamson, Paul (ed), *The Medieval Treasury: The Art of the Middle Ages in the Victoria and Albert Museum*, London: V&A Publications, 1986: 42-43.","dynasty":"Roman Empire","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Gold lead applied to dark blue glass then finely scratched and stippled with a needle point and protected with a fused layer of colourless glass"]},"9fbdeae7-8d2e-57e7-91e7-ef25446597b8":{"name":"Necklace","short_description":"Fishing Communities at Ra's al-Hamra (6000—4000 BC) Archaeologists have identified 14 prehistoric sites in the Ra's al-Hamra area of modern - day Muscat dating from 6,000 to 4,000 BC. The sites, commonly known as shell middens, consist of layered deposits resulting from food preparation and consumption of local species including shells, fish remains and the bones of marine and land mammals. The communities of fisher-gatherers that settled in the Ra's al-Hamra area at this time exploited ecological niches related to the sea and the mangrove stands, and also had access to resources of the interior through Wadi Aday. The material culture of these early communities is represented by finds of tools and ornaments made of shells (pendants, beads and fishhooks), mammal bones (beads, points and gorge hooks) and stones (beads, earrings and lithic industry). This object is another example illustrating the dot-in-circle design.","type":"Archaelogical Artefact","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"4,000 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Length: 19cm, Weight: 25g","provenance":"Ra's al-Hamra, al-Qurm (Muscat Governorate)","obtention":"Ministry of Heritage and Culture Collection","dynasty":"Stone Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Necklace; Jewellery"],"materials":["Chlorite, with shell pendant"]},"9fd48483-773e-56ef-a4ac-80ac9b4f89d0":{"name":"*Ataifor* (bowl).","description":"This *ataifor* is a dish with a convex base, curved sides and a smooth rim. The piece is made from reddish clay; the outside is covered with a honey-coloured greenish glaze and the inside with a white glaze. The inside of the receptacle is decorated with elements in green and manganese on a white base. The large circular border that runs round the edge of the plate, with fan-shaped palmettes joined by undulating stems, gives the piece a tri-lobed appearance. The central strip completes the decoration with an inscription in archaic *kufic*, where the phrase ‘al-Mulk’ (power) is repeated. The letters outlined using dark manganese lines are filled with copper green, creating a contrast with the white base that was common in the ceramics of the era.","short_description":"This bowl or *ataifor*, produced in the palace workshops of Madinat al-Zahra, is thought to have symbolic significance: the word ‘al-Mulk’, ‘the power’, represents sovereignty, while the white, green and black represent the Umayyad dynasty, Muhammad, and the austerity of the Qur’an respectively as well as the sovereignty of the caliph.","type":"Ataifor, bowl, ceramics","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 324–66 / AD 936–76.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 26 cm.","method_for_datation":"The writing style could date it to the second third of the 4th / 10th century. The simple *kufic* inscription belongs to an initial stage of production at Madinat al-Zahra, before the reign of al-Hakam II (350–66 / 961–76).","method_for_provenance":"The *ataifor* came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra. Both its shape and decoration are characteristic of palatine production at Madinat al-Zahra.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"The *ataifor* was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the State on 5 February 1943.","bibliography":"*Al-Andalus: Las Artes Islámicas en España*,Exhibition catalogue, Madrid, 1992, p.232. English edition: *Al-Andalus: The Art Of Islamic Spain* (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York, 1992.  \nCamps Cazorla, E., “Cerámica y Vidrios Califales de Medina Azahara”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940–1945)*, Madrid, 1947, pp.148–54.  \nCastejón y Martínez de Arizala, R., *Excavaciones del Plan Nacional de Medina Azahara (Córdoba), Campaña de 1943.* Informes y Memorias no. 8, Madrid, 1945.  \n*El Esplendor de los Omeyas Cordobeses*, Exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nPavón Maldonado, B., *El Arte Hispanomusulmán en Su Decoración Floral, Madrid, 1981, pp.115–25.*","workshop":"Madinat al-Zahra workshops (Córdoba).","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","author":"Margarita Sánchez Llorente","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Epigraphy; floral decoration; ceramic; patronage"],"materials":["Ceramic; wheel-thrown, fired, green and manganese, glazed."]},"9fdca272-4041-5355-84f2-5cf19779524e":{"name":"Fragment from a mosaic floor.","description":"This panel was part of a 50 sq m mosaic floor. With a border made up of alternate geometric and floral motifs, the main area of the floor consists of a tracery of four-lobed flowers which combine to form various geometric patterns. When the floor was lifted, several panels were shared between various Tunisian museums. In the panel at the Raqqada Museum, red, white and blue-black lines alternate to represent a lilac-leaf in an octagon and four diamond-shaped petals in a circle. These elements are held within a pattern of twisting semi-circular fringes.  \nThis mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art of the Fatimid era. Some historians hold that this example attests to the survival of mosaic art in mediaeval Tunis. The techniques used in the Mahdiyyan mosaic certainly show continuity with the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine North Africa. But evidence suggests that the floor was made by Byzantine artisans or '*Rums*' who were probably taken prisoner during the many armed incursions by al-Qa'im in Italy and Sicily.","short_description":"This mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art from the Fatimid era, with some art historians believing that it is a continuance of the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine Africa. This panel was part of a mosaic covering some 58 square metres, and it combines geometric forms with floral motifs.","type":"Floor, stone","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Fatimid prince, al-Qa’im.","dates":"Hegira 303 / AD 916.","location":"Raqqada, Kairouan","dimensions":"Length 107 cm, width 106 cm.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was discovered in 1956 during the excavations under a reception room at al-Qa'im Palace. One could logically date it from the building of the palace in 303 / 916 (date confirmed by historical sources) but it could possibly have been constructed at a later date, when we believe improvements and refurbishments to the original building were made. These would have been accomplished during the relatively peaceful period of al-Qa'im's reign and just before the Kharijite rebellion of 332 / 944 that was led by Abu Yazid, known as the 'man on the donkey'.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic, discovered *in situ* at the al-Qa'im Palace, was obviously built there. But we still cannot prove the origin of the artisans who built it.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"After being dismantled at al-Qa'im Palace at Mahdiyya, the mosaic was kept at the Bardo Museum. In 1986 three panels from this mosaic were sent to the National Institute of the Patrimony of Kairouan. In 1993 one of these panels was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada for display in the second section, currently being refurbished.","bibliography":"Ennaïfer, M., “La mosaïque africaine à la fin de l'antiquité et au début de l'époque médiévale”, *Fifth international colloquium on ancient mosaics,* USA, 1994, pp.307–18.  \nLouhichi, A., “La mosaïque de Mahdia: contexte et interprétation”, *Africa*, XX, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nZbiss, S. M., “Mahdia et Sabra Mansouriya: nouveaux documents d'art fatimide d'Occident”, *Journal asiatique,* CCXLIV, 1956, pp.79–93.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.176–7.","dynasty":"Fatimid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"MWNF","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Mosaic; geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"materials":["Limestone *tessera* (mosaic tiles)."]},"9fe1e828-67e2-5249-a654-e86e4a5b6c0c":{"name":"Irrigation bucket","description":"The cylindrical object features a straight mouth and pointed base, with retaining recesses located at the start of the mouth and base. The surface shows traces of hand modelling, leaving indentations on the body in the form of perimeter circumferences and on the base in parallel lines following the conical shape.  \n  \nMade of whitish porous, unglazed clay, it retains traces of *almagra* (reddish pigment) drips on both the exterior and interior. Functionally, such objects can be understood within the context of irrigation and hydraulic systems in al-Andalus. Their development enabled the introduction of new plant species, the expansion of arable land, and the diversification of the diet. These innovations changed working methods, the agricultural cycle, and the landscape.  \n  \nWaterwheels spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. The waterwheel buckets, which were secured with ropes at the top and halfway down their cylindrical body, underwent technical improvements. These elements reflect a series of small but significant technical advances. The earliest ones, with an annular or pointed bottom, gradually were replaced by others with a perforated bottom that prevented their tilting and breakage in addition to the backward movement of the wheel.","type":"Irrigation bucket","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","initial_owner":"Unknown","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Length: 28.7cm, diameter: 12.2cm","method_for_datation":"Comparative study of typologies; references provided by previous owner.","method_for_provenance":"References provided by previous owner on file.","provenance":"Arcos de la Frontera, Cádiz","obtention":"The bucket was donated to the National Archaeological Museum on 1 January 1987.","bibliography":"Cara Barrionuevo, L. and Malpica Cuello, A. (coord), *II Coloquio Historia y medio Físico. Agricultura y regadío en al-Andalus*. Conference proceedings. Almería, 9–10 June 1995, Almería: Instituto de Estudios Almerienses, 1995.  \n  \nGómez Espín, J.M. and Hervás Avilés, R. M. (coord), *Patrimonio hidráulico y cultura del agua en el Mediterráneo*, Murcia: Fundación Séneca, AECID, 2012.  \n  \nPoveda Sánchez, Á., “Un estudio sobre las norias de sangre de origen andalusí: el caso de la alquiería de Benassal (Castellón)”, *Historia Agraria*, 32 (April 2004): 37-58.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Taifas","author":"Helena Lahoz Kopiske","copy_editor":"Alvaro Miranda","materials":["Ceramic, pigment"]},"a2b5fe1a-f5c9-5895-8b11-f75c5d9b9d7e":{"name":"Sewing needle","description":"A sewing needle shaped from ivory or bone. A large opening called the eye allows the thread to be pulled through the needle to prepare for sewing.","type":"Needle","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3500 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 10cm","method_for_datation":"Unknown","provenance":"Unknown","obtention":"Excavation/unknown","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Ivory / bone"]},"a7d32c3d-fe87-5afb-b350-091e02c5d6d1":{"name":"Pendant","short_description":"This ivory tooth-shaped amulet, decorated with a series of diagonal parallel lines, comes from the excavations conducted between 1900 to 1901 by David Randall-MacIver and Luigi Pigorini. As a result of earlier excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Pigorini, an archaeologist and the director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", decided to increase the museum’s Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by Randall-MacIver in 1901, from excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905.  The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Amulet","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada I-II; discovered in 1900–1901","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 6 x 9cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Ivory"]},"a7db21f3-7be7-5d4b-8f81-38cd6e153579":{"name":"Glass tumbler.","description":"Found in Palace B, a translucent, honey-coloured glass tumbler that is entirely decorated with floral and vegetal motifs organised in multiple horizontal bands along the edges and alternating vertical fields along the body. The decoration is incised into the glass, incorporating styles that are occasionally found on carved wood or metal from the period, but not usually on glass.  \nTechnically speaking the tumbler is of great importance since the thin, engraved glass was worked with a sharp tool, and although the technique was known in the Roman period, it was usually used in tandem with other techniques. In the Islamic period, however, it was used as a stand-alone technique, and the incisions were cut deeper into the glass.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found there.","short_description":"Although the production and ornamentation of glass in Syria has an ancient heritage, this glass tumbler reveals an example of delicate and precise decoration by incision, a technique which flourished under early Islamic rule.","type":"Tumbler, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 8.2 cm, diameter 8.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The tumbler is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27 / 833–41).","method_for_provenance":"The tumbler was found during an archaeological excavation at Raqqa. There is no way of establishing whether it was made locally or imported, as similar glass production flourished in both Baghdad and Damascus.","provenance":"Probably the Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The tumbler was found during archaeological excavations undertaken by a delegation from the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities during the 1950s under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.253.  \nAbu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., “Incised Islamic Glass,” *Archaeology* 24:3, 1971, pp.202–  \n3.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.420; cat. no.  \n312.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982, pp.276–7; plate 251.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; tumbler; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Incised glass."]},"a80ae3b6-0e85-5e1b-93e6-f4552c3eac51":{"name":"*Ataifor* (bowl).","description":"This *ataifor*, with a ring in the base and curved sides, is made of yellowish material and coated with a white glaze. The inside is decorated in green and manganese. The decorative theme is made up of a large circular border running round the edge of the plate in which it is possible to see the remains of a *kufic* inscription with the phrase ‘al-Mulk’ (power). The decoration is finished with two narrower strips that cross in the centre, with markings that appear to be a simplification of *kufic* writing but that are in fact meaningless. The decorative technique used, epigraphic motifs in copper green and manganese black visible through the white glaze, produces an impressive chromatic effect.  \nMadinat al-Zahra was the most important centre for the production and distribution of ceramics glazed and decorated in green and manganese during the Caliphate. Ornamentally, the clarity of the design and the austerity of the compositions, with extensive areas of the base undecorated, differentiates them from other works produced at the same time in al-Andalus.  \nThe function of this type of ceramic is still unclear, but what is clear is that production at Madinat al-Zahra constituted a fundamental technological advance. The use of copper and manganese oxides in the decoration and the glazing, which made the containers waterproof and stopped liquids soaking the earthenware, created a type of special crockery which was considered a luxury.","short_description":"Found in an archaeological dig at the palatine city of Madinat al-Zahra, this bowl or *ataifor* would have been part of the domestic crockery at the caliph’s home. This can be inferred from the inscription ‘al-Mulk’, ‘the power’, presumably referring to the power of the caliph.","type":"Ataifor, bowl, ceramics","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 324–66 / AD 936–76.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 22 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *kufic* script belongs to an initial stage of production at Madinat al-Zahra, before the reign of al-Hakam II (350–66 / 961–76).","method_for_provenance":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra. Most of the ceramics are characterised by an open not a closed shape, and the majority of them are *ataifors*. The phrase ‘al-Mulk’, related to Umayyad power and legitimacy, is the inscription most frequently found in this type of ceramic.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"The *ataifor* was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the State on 5 February 1943.","bibliography":"Camps Cazorla, E., “Cerámica y Vidrios Califales de Medina Azahara”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940–1945)*, Madrid, 1947, p.154.  \nCastejón y Martínez de Arizala, R., *Excavaciones del Plan Nacional de Medina Azahara (Córdoba). Campaña de 1943*. Informes y Memorias no. 8, Madrid, 1945.  \n*El Esplendor de los Omeyas Cordobeses*, Exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","author":"Margarita Sánchez Llorente","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Geometric decoration; epigraphy; ceramic"],"materials":["Ceramics; wheel-thrown, fired, green and manganese, glazed."]},"a8912ca5-9dcf-581c-885c-df8260626ef3":{"name":"Plate with battle scene.","description":"Round-based plate. The rim is ribbed on the outer wall and slopes slightly outwards. The glaze has been applied direct onto the grey clay with no slip coating. Shape and technique are typical of Ifriqiyan ceramics of the high Middle Ages.  \nThe plate is illustrated with a battle scene in which horsemen at the gallop brandish shields in their left hands. This stylised, imaginative decoration is Mesopotamian and was very much in vogue in the Fatimid era. Although seeming to derive from contemporary Oriental sources, it probably has its origin in a distant, Roman, North African past. In fact, the horses drawn on this plate are less naturalistic, more stylised than those of similar Mesopotamian artefacts. From their freedom of line and their particular decoration they are more reminiscent of contemporary Ifriqiyan plates. Moreover, the riders' faces possess that huge eye which is a common denominator of almost all Ifriqiyan human figures of the time and which would confirm the fundamental North African influence behind the decoration of this plate.","short_description":"This dish has a round base and sloping sides. It is illustrated with a war scene, suggesting a North African influence, while the stylised, fantasy decoration suggests a link with contemporary Eastern decoration. This type of decoration was extremely popular during the Fatimid era.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th century / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, (337–444 / 948–1053). This dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No publication exists identifying exactly the stratigraphic layer the object came from and so a more precise dating is not possible.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this plate on the Sabra site painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner suggests it was produced locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya or Kairouan.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it has been displayed since 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), 1994, p.133, plate no. 73.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.250, plate nos. 4-40.  \n*Tunisie: du Christianisme a l'Islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.188.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; arms; Zirid"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"a955d465-0ca9-595d-bd2a-f998ffb85fd5":{"name":"Bas-relief with bull.","description":"A bas-relief of a bull carved in marble. The right-hand and lower parts of the carving are missing. The head of the bull is full-face and the body and the neck are in profile. The head looks, oddly, at a complete right angle to the neck. The features are strongly sculpted, with the nose suggested by folds ending in a cavity. The eyes are round, the iris well-carved and the lower eyelids stand out aggressively from the eyeballs. The forehead is two deep folds under a plaited mane.  \nOnly one horn remains, next to the ear, the other having been broken off. The body of the animal is harmonious but gives no impression of robust strength. From the position of the legs, the bull seems to be rubbing up against a tree composed of a trunk and a few branches. Behind the animal's body two buds and three open vine-leaves emerge. Each element has several lobes and is sculpted in a naturalistic style. The carving is set within a frame decorated with grooved arcs and points similarly to an 'egg and dart' design. The naturalistic manner of the carving has led some historians to attribute a Byzantine origin to the piece and suggest that it was re-used in the Aghlabid era. But, in fact, several similar pieces exist in Muslim art and the frontal muzzle is very frequently found. Moreover, we should not forget that Byzantine and classical influences are characteristic of early Aghlabid art.","short_description":"The decoration of this bas-relief is quite common in Islamic art, and is evidence of the survival of Byzantine and classical influences. The body of the animal, a bull, is sculpted harmoniously and the sculpture is framed by arcs and points similar to 'egg and dart' design.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 38 cm, length 57 cm, thickness 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece decorated one of the walls in the state rooms of the as-Sahn Palace on the Raqqada site, which was excavated between 1961 and 1969. We know that this second Aghlabid capital was built in 263 / 876, which puts a *terminus post quem* date on the bas-relief. The chronological period covers two centuries, up until the desertion of Raqqada at the time of the Hilalian invasions in 449 / 1057. Not possessing an excavation file with information on the archaeological layer in which the object was found, we are unable to date it more precisely. However, the classical style of the decoration would suggest the second half of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"An architectural decoration found *in situ*, the piece was probably carved at Raqqada, re-using some old marble of Italian origin.","provenance":"Very probably Raqqada.","obtention":"After its discovery at the Raqqada excavations in 1960 the bas-relief was conserved at the site storehouse until 1993. It was then transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada and displayed there.","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; relief; animal decoration"],"materials":["Carved marble."]},"ab5f529a-54db-5914-b779-6e088fe95b11":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Seated Bear Playing a Musical Instrument’.","description":"A fresco in one of the diamond-shaped sections in the apodyterium or dressing room belonging to the bath complex (hammam) at Qusayr ‘Amra. It depicts a bear playing a musical instrument; seated on a stool, the bear's left leg is dangling, while the right one is bent and rests on the stool, touching the left thigh. He plays a long-handled, stringed musical instrument which looks like an *\\`ud*. Next to the bear is a standing monkey clapping his front paws. It is likely that this scene depicts two people masquerading as a monkey and a bear.","short_description":"Fresco from the baths complex at Qusayr ‘Amra, of a bear playing a musical instrument. Next to the bear is a standing monkey clapping its front paws. It is likely that this scene depicts two people masquerading as animals.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly Al-Walid II (r. AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira, first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a terminus post quem for construction of the palace.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco is located in the apodyterium (vestry) of the bath complex (hammam) at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"*In situ* at Qusayr Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., *Qusayr ‘Amra*, Madrid, 1975, Lamina XLII  \nEttinghausen, R., \"The Dance with Zoomorphic Masks and other Forms of Entertainment seen in Islamic Art\" In *Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honour of H. A. R. Gibb*, Cambridge, Mass., 1965, p.219.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr ‘Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, L.A., 2004, p.68; fig. 19.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; fresco; musical instruments"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"aecdf245-c267-5f1f-8bd4-3d182a56e623":{"name":"Loom weight","description":"Early loom weights found in the ancient city of Assoss, today known as Behramkale, a small historically rich town in the Ayvacık district of the Çanakkale Province, Turkey. These provide evidence the textile industry existed in the region since the Chalcolithic Period and the Bronze Age. Loom weights prevented tangling by weighting to give tension on individual yarns to enable weaving.","type":"Loom weight","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3000-2500 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 5-8cm","method_for_datation":"Excavation team in Amman Citadel","provenance":"Amman Citadel","obtention":"Excavation/Amman Citadel","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period and Bronze age","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Clay / mud"]},"aee4fe30-32cf-540e-ab4a-7a1e2e832504":{"name":"Grindstone","short_description":"The stone grinder was used to pulverise colours or cosmetics. It represents an important relic for the history of the foundation of the Pigorini Museum. Its label, signed by Giglioli, attests that the object was discovered in Thebes by Ernesto Schiaparelli in January 1892 and then donated by him to Giglioli three months later. The grinder cannot be dated as its origins are unknown. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the First dynasty, Luigi Pigorini decided to enlarge the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" which he directed at the time. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, from the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. In 1905 Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin, offered for purchase the excavation of Hammamiye by the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Stone grinder","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Discovered in Thebes in January 1892","location":"Rome","dimensions":"3 x 8.6 x 5.6 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Stone"]},"b07925c9-6a74-5708-ae78-2988cae0e279":{"name":"Flask","short_description":"Core-formed cobalt blue unguent jar, of krateriskos form, with a lip and foot rimmed with yellow. The neck and body is decorated with applied thread decoration in white bordered by yellow, and there are separately formed handles in blue.  \n  \nThis vessel was made at the time of Amenhotep III and perhaps for the pharaoh himself. Excavation of numerous fragments at Amenhotep's palace at Malkata suggests that it was the site of an important glasshouse.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"1401 - 1336 BC","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 6.4cm, Width: 5.5cm","provenance":"Malkata or el-Amarna, Egypt","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868 from the dealer John Webb","bibliography":"Freed, Rita E., *Egypts Golden Age: The Art of Living in the New Kingdom 1558 - 1085 BC*, Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1983: 163 no. 175.  \nHoney, W. B., *Victoria and Albert Museum - Glass: A Handbook for the Study of glass Vessels of All Periods and Countries & A Guide to the Museum Collection*, London: Victoria & Albert Museum 1946: 17 pl. 1b.  \nKozloff, A. P., and Bryan, B. M., *Egypt's Dazzling Sun*, Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art, 1992: 384-5 no. 92.  \nNesbitt, A., *A Descriptive Catalogue of the Glass Vessels in the South Kensington Museum*, London: 1878, 7.  \nNolte, B., *Die Glassgefaesse im Alten Agypten*, Berlin: Hessling, 1968: 84 No. 8, Pl. 3.","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Glass, core-formed, with applied thread decoration"]},"b0c35ccd-b16d-5ff5-98a0-4001791ebd8b":{"name":"Head of a sphinx of Sesostris III","description":"The 12th Dynasty was the most important period of the Middle Kingdom. Its founder, Amenemhat I, vizier to the last Mentu-hotep (11th Dynasty), usurped the throne. His greatest challenge was to reintegrate the two parts of the country, Upper and Lower Egypt, which had split and subsequently grown apart during the First Intermediate Period.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"12th Dyn. Sesostris III, 1878-1843 BC; brought to Vienna in 1893","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 21,9 cm, Width 33,2 cm, Diameter 32,1 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Deir el-Bahari; Deir el-Bahri"],"materials":["Green schist"]},"b269b5d1-fa64-52f1-83ee-615537fde662":{"name":"Golden bowl of Altstetten","description":"In Zurich, gold is something one expects to find in and around the financial centre at Paradeplatz. So you can imagine the surprise of the man working on the rail tracks in Altstetten in 1906 when his eye caught sight of a glint of gold shimmering through the mud. What came to light was a richly decorated bowl. It turned out to be one the most significant Bronze Age finds. The precious bowl had been lying in the ground, well protected, for about 3,000 years. Suns, full moons and crescents decorate the bowl. The noble material’s bright gloss also represents the heavenly lights. Even back in the Bronze Age people made use of the celestial bodies to orient themselves and keep track of the course of the seasons. They were aware of the sun and moon’s influence on the growth of crops and relied on them as symbols in their rituals.","type":"Bowl","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Bronze Age","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 12cm, Diameter Ø: 25cm, Weight: 907,8g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Altstetten","obtention":"Found in Altstetten, Switzerland","keywords":["archaeology; golden bowl; Altstetten"],"materials":["Gold"]},"b33144e1-5551-5a5c-a7ba-4cefefd46e94":{"name":"Funeral statue of Lady Khent and her youngest child","description":"The funerary statues of the *mastaba* tombs in the Old Kingdom were kept in sealed rooms called *serdabs*. The statues were believed to be alter egos of the deceased, apt to receive the mortuary rites, which were then completed in the adjacent tomb chapel. Khen (full name, Khentit-ka) was the wife of a high official. The sculpture is a magnificent example of the Old Kingdom canonical sculpture in the round.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"c. 2300 BC; acquired by Hermann Junker during his excavation in Giza 1912–1929","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 53 cm, B 26 cm, Diameter 38 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Giza; Egypt; Hermann Junker"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"b8c52c07-1db7-5b7e-a968-695ff14489a0":{"name":"Ceramic bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with vertical rounded rim, circular mouth, body shaped as inverted truncated cone with low carination and base with diagonal foot-ring. Covered with honey-coloured monochrome glaze and decorated in *cuerda seca* with white, green and honey colours separated by lines of manganese. The central theme is the word '*baraka'* written in *kufic* characters, surrounded by a frieze of palmette leaves which runs around the rim of the bowl. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl decorated entirely using *cuerda seca* from the Almoravid or Almohad periods. The central motif is the word ‘*baraka*’ written in *kufic* characters and surrounded by a frieze of palmettes that runs around the brim of the bowl. Similar pieces have been found around the western Mediterranean.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter (of mouth) 25 cm, diameter (of base) 10.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects of similar form, decorative technique and theme, in particular from Almería and Málaga.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga, in which very similar calligraphy is found, and Almería (Spain) where kilns have been found in which objects with this type of decoration were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica”, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.93.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made from coarse-grained paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated using the *cuerda seca* technique throughout."]},"b8ecf061-5f47-5eb8-bd73-a5714784eff0":{"name":"Plate.","description":"A ceramic plate decorated with geometric designs in yellow pigment on a brown background and under a transparent glaze.  \n  \nThe inner surface is divided into four zones, each pair corresponding with each other. One pair consists of curved triangles filled with crossed lines forming, net-like, small indented squares; the other two zones show crisscrossed curved lines which form an arrow–head design.","short_description":"Ceramic plate from Tall Hisban, decorated with geometric designs in yellow pigment on a brown background and under a transparent glaze. The inner surface is divided into four zones, forming two pairs of crisscrossed curved designs.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 8.8 cm, diameter 30.3 cm, diameter (of base) 10.7cm.","method_for_datation":"The plate was dated by its stratigraphic context in the archaeological excavation.","method_for_provenance":"The plate was recovered from Tall Hisban during an archaeological excavation.","provenance":"Tall Hisban, Jordan.","obtention":"The plate was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out at Tall Hisban in 1993.","bibliography":"ساري. صالح، الفخار الأيوبي المملوكي في بلاد الشام 567-923 ه / 1171-1517 م، رسالة ماجستير، الجامعة الأردنية، 1979، ص 178-179، شكل 73، 74.  \n  \nBienkowski, P., The Art of Jordan, Glasgow, 1991, p.85, cat. no. 101.  \n  \nBoras, R., and Geraty, L., Heshbon 1976, Andrews University Seminary Studies, Miami, 16.1, 1978, pp.1–17.  \n  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.283, cat. no. 385.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"b93fd12a-4d27-5f35-9bfe-b260f6a56e42":{"name":"Bowl","short_description":"This ribbed bowl is made of coloured strip mosaic, employing short strips of coloured cane, a technique employed in Italian factories and notably in Rome itself. This masterpiece is possibly the only surviving complete example of the ouput of this city.  \n  \nThe bowl came to the museum in 1868, as part of a large collection of 'Ancient glass' owned by the antique dealer John Webb. The bowl, and the rest of the collection, was first shown in the South Kensington Museum's 1862 'Special Exhibition of Works of Art of the Medieval, Renaissance, & More Recent Periods', which coincided with the large International Exhibition of the same year. The bowl stayed on loan to the museum until acquired six years later.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"25 BC - 50 AD","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 11.5cm, Width: 15.5cm","provenance":"Italy","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868","dynasty":"Roman Empire","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Mosaic glass, fused and slumped, with applied foot. Clear marks of lathe turning around the outside of the rim and foot and on the interior of the bowl."]},"bc31e6e4-7f37-5725-b63d-89472dbadb64":{"name":"Fragment of a pottery bowl.","description":"The Raqqa region contains a group of Abbasid palaces that have been labelled with the letters A, B, C and D. This ceramic fragment was found during archaeological excavations carried out in Palace A. The fragment is part of a delicate bowl that was made in a mould and decorated around its girth with Arabic *kufic* script that reads: “from the work of Ibrahim al-Nasrani that has been made in Hira for the Amir Sulayman, son of the Commander of the Faithful.\" The Commander of the Faithful, or Caliph, in question is the Abbasid Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75). The text indicates that this piece was made in Hira by Ibrahim al-Nasrani and transported to Raqqa. The name of the craftsperson (al-Nasrani, i.e. the Christian) indicates that he was probably a master craftsman in the Christian ceramic-producing quarter of al-Hira.  \nThe base of the bowl was stamped with geometric and stylised vegetal motifs including palm trees.","short_description":"Although this bowl is delicate and fragmented, its moulded band of early *kufic* inscription has mostly survived. It includes the name of the craftsman, Ibrahim al-Nasrani, evidently a Christian, the place of production in Hira and the dedication to Sulayman, '\\[son\\] of the commander of the faithful'.","type":"Bowl, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Sulayman (son of the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75).","dates":"Hegira 136–58 / AD 754–75.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 7.5 cm, diameter 12.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the fragment associates it with the rule of the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (136–58 / 754–75).","method_for_provenance":"The text inscribed on the vessel fragment specifies Hira, in Mesopotamia (Iraq) as the place of production.","provenance":"Produced in Hira in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq).","obtention":"The fragment was found during an archaeological excavation carried out in 1948 in Palace A by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of archaeologist Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.160.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.  \nWeiss, H. (ed), *Ebla to Damascus*, Washington DC, 1985, p.518.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Ceramic; earthenware; pottery; moulded; stamped; Iraq; Ibrahim al-Nasrani; Christian; Raqqa; Prince Sulayman; Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur; kufic script; Hira; Nasib Salibi"],"materials":["Earthenware; moulded and stamped."]},"bf2d1e63-7381-51a0-93c7-f275d473108c":{"name":"Glass tumbler.","description":"A white, translucent glass tumbler that was found in Palace B, where an inscription was found on the wall plaster thus associating the palace with the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah. The glass is decorated with five vertically arranged lines of Arabic inscription that read: “drink and be filled with delight” and “made in Damascus.” It is, therefore, likely that the piece was made in Damascus and then transported to the Raqqa region. The spaces in between the inscriptions are decorated with a floral design. The object's decorative arrangement is executed in an applied coating of brown metallic lustre. It is believed that this type of lustre coating was used on glass before the technique was adapted for use on ceramics.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found in the region.","short_description":"The application of metallic lustre was first used on glass, as evidenced by this Damascene tumbler dating to the 'Abbasid period, before it was famously applied on pottery.","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu’tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5.8 cm, diameter 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The tumbler is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27 / 833–42).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the tumbler specifies that it was made in Damascus.","provenance":"Damascus, Syria.","obtention":"The tumbler was found during archaeological excavations during the 1950s undertaken by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.103; fig. 20,  \nplates 51d, 51e.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.420.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; tumbler; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Damascus; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Glass decorated with a coating of metallic lustre."]},"c01c0ea8-09eb-5aa5-9b63-e27164389d77":{"name":"Lustre bowl with a sun motif.","description":"A large dark-brown lustre bowl from Qal'at Ja'bar, which is a particularly remarkable example of so-called Raqqa-ware. It was uncovered in the 1973/4 archaeological excavations by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities within the medieval fortress of Qal'at Ja'bar on the left bank of the Middle Euphrates, thus making it one of the few pieces that reached the Museum not via the art market but from a particular archaeological site.  \nThe decoration of this piece is highly original: it is dominated by an impressive sun with a female face, almond-shaped eyes, beauty marks on the cheeks and loosely curled hair. The solar-shaped face is framed by two halos of radiating rays which cover the central surface of the bowl.  \nThe astrological sign of the sun is a common iconographic motif on contemporary metalwork where it is usually surrounded by the planets and signs of the zodiac forming a cosmic circle. On medieval Syrian pottery, however, such a depiction is unique. Interestingly enough, the potter replaced the circle of planets with eight medallion-like ornaments – alternating red-on-white vegetal motifs with white-on-red lunar cartouches. This must be a specific “Raqqa” variation on the metalwork theme. The rim of the bowl is freely painted with dotted and curvilinear motifs that are regularly punctuated by a pair of vertical lines, a feature echoing calligraphic decoration.  \nThe dish belongs to the rare group of lustre-painted pieces with figurative decoration. Its shallow shape with convex profile, flat, everted rim and flaring foot is standard and particularly popular with lustre-wares. Its exterior is undecorated. The greenish transparent glaze covers only the top two-thirds of the vessel in typical Raqqa manner.","short_description":"This Raqqa-ware was found during excavations at the Ayyubid fortress Qal'at Ja'bar. Decorated in characteristic brown metallic lustre, the dish portrays a radiating sun with feminine facial features and jewellery. Planetary symbols were a common feature on Islamic luxury items, particularly on inlaid metalwork, more rarely on ceramics.","type":"Bowl, fritware","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department","dates":"Hegira early 7th century / AD early 13th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 14.1 cm, diameter 41.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Stylistic considerations and archaeological excavation point to the region of Raqqa in which the production of lustre-painted pottery flourished during the 6th / 12th century up until the Mongol invasion of 655–6 / 1258–9.","method_for_provenance":"It is unlikely that the bowl was made *in situ*, although archaeological excavations have recently uncovered evidence of fritware production in Qal'at Ja'bar. Rather, the high quality of the piece points to a manufacture in a more specialised centre, most likely in one of the thriving pottery workshops in nearby Raqqa.","provenance":"Qal'at Ja'bar, Raqqa, Syria.","obtention":"The bowl was uncovered during archaeological excavations led by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities in 1973/4.","bibliography":"*Land des Baal Syrien*, exhibition catalogue, Berlin, 1982, p.279 ; cat. no. 255.  \n*Au pays de Baal et d'Astarté: 10000 ans d'art en Syrie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1983, p.304; cat. no. 355.  \nTonghini, C., *Qal'at Dja'bar Pottery: A Study of a Syrian Fortified Site of the Late 11th-14th Centuries*, London, 1998.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Pottery; lustre-ware; Raqqa; metalwork; astrology; sun; Ayyubid"],"materials":["Fritware with dark-brown lustre decoration on transparent glaze with a strong greenish tinge."]},"c54044a4-ab1f-5f49-9976-d677360bd140":{"name":"Distaffs (five examples).","description":"Set of distaffs made from carved bone, with an upper circular horizontal section and lower circular or quadrangular horizontal section. These distaffs have different finishes from simple surface polishing to elaborate incised decorations forming single or groups of parallel lines in rows, circles with a central hole oriented in lines or in groups and concentric semi-circles intersecting one another. These objects correspond to the most decorated part of the distaff, which was an extremely important tool used in hand spinning.","short_description":"A set of distaffs, the most ornate element of a spinning wheel and an essential part of the spinning process. These examples taken from Mértola Castle are decorated simply with incisions forming single or grouped parallel lines and interlinked concentric semi-circles.","type":"Distaff, born","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th–first half of 6th century / AD end of 11th–first half of 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"OS/TR/003: height 7.4 cm, width (max.) 2.4 cm; OS/TR/037: height 6.1 cm, width (max.) 2.1 cm, weight 29.4 g; OS/TR/042: height 7.9 cm, diameter (max.) 2.4 cm, weight 33.4 g; OS/TR/046: height 6.5cm, width (max.) 2.6 cm, diameter (max.) 1.9 cm, weight 29.4","method_for_datation":"On the basis of the stratigraphy established in the various archaeological excavations carried out on the hillside and in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola and by comparison with other materials collected on the same levels of excavation and with other objects with the same characteristics.","provenance":"Hillside and citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","obtention":"By means of archaeological excavations organised by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola, carried out on the hillside of the Castle in 1986 and in the citadel of Mértola in 1978, 1992 and 1996.","bibliography":"Macias, S., *Mértola Islâmica. Estudo Histórico-Arqueológico do Bairro da Alcáçova (Sécs. XII/XIII)*, Mértola, 1996, p.89.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., *Museu de Mértola: Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2001, p.171.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., (eds.), *Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, Lisbon, 1998, p.170.  \n*Guia do Museu. Museu de Mértola – Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2003, p.36.  \nTorres, C. and Silva, L. A. da, *Mértola Vila Museu*, Mértola, 1989, p.56.","dynasty":"Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Lígia Rafael","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["geometric decoration; popular art; furnishing; spinning; wool; textile; carved"],"materials":["Animal bone. Carved from the bone with incised geometric decoration."]},"c69cb729-5a18-54d1-b7ac-2cfc3ae623ed":{"name":"Inscription stone.","description":"A rectangular inscribed stone that has a Qur'anic verse known as 'Ayat al-Kursi' ('the Throne Verse') from Sura 2 (al-Baqara), verse 255:  \n  \n'God! There is no God but he, the living, the self-subsisting: neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him! To him belong what so ever is in heaven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with him, but through his good pleasure? He knows that which is past, and that which is it come unto them, and they shall not comprehend anything of his knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended over heaven and earth, and preservation of both is no burden unto him. He is the high, the mighty.'  \n  \nThe inscription in *kufic* script is deeply incised into the stone. Comprising about ten lines, the letters are long and angular in shape, an indication that this stone inscription is of an early date. The function of the stone was to protect the owner, his family and the house from the 'evil eye'. This custom is still alive very much alive today; in many Jordanian houses one will still see such blessings on ceramic panels, laminated copper panels, embroideries, and for women and children, gold pendants.","short_description":"An inscribed stone from Amman with a Qur’anic verse known as Ayat al-Kursi from Sura 2 (al-Baqara), verse 255. The *kufic* script is typically Umayyad. The function of the stone was to protect the owner, his family and the house from the ‘evil eye’. This custom is still very much alive today.","type":"Inscription, stone","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira, first half of the 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 70 cm, width 38 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription stone was dated by stylistic analysis of the script and by dating pottery shards that were found in the in the archaeological strata close by.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this inscription stone is known because it was found during an archaeological excavation at in the centre of Amman.","provenance":"Amman, Jordan.","obtention":"The inscription stone was found in 1958 in the course of a rescue excavation carried out by the Department of Antiquities of in the centre of Amman.","bibliography":"العابدي. محمود، الآثار الإسلامية في فلسطين و الأردن، عمان، 1973، ص 238.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Inscription; kufic script; Qur’an; Shahada."],"materials":["Engraved stone."]},"cd05b644-c357-52ab-89b2-eb3a5e54560e":{"name":"Parian ware colossus","short_description":"Figurines based on the Assyrian sculptures were popular collecting pieces. Owners displayed their interest current events. Buyers included the rich and famous, as well as museums. These Parian ware figurines were also exhibited. Winged bull.","type":"Ceramic","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"1882","location":"London","provenance":"United Kingdom","keywords":["Assyrian revival"]},"cd191826-9521-5bf9-9d19-dd2913e5662a":{"name":"Egyptian vases","short_description":"In 1870 historian, numismatist and academician Mihail C. Șutu travelled to Egypt accompanied by his wife. They took a cruise on the Nile, visited Cairo, where he studied antique Egyptian units of measure for weight (one of his of domains of interest). A passionate collector, he purchased a series of Egyptian coins and antiquities, among which some vessels that are considered to be part of a funerary inventory and have been dated in the first phase of the Naqada culture (c. 3900–3300 BC).","type":"Ceramic vases","holder":"National History Museum of Romania","dates":"3800–3500 BC; bought by Mihail C. Sutu in 1870","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"ce2320b1-90a7-587e-a23e-2b91e7aba0bb":{"name":"Tomb relief from Palmyra","short_description":"Late antique relief of a woman and a man from Palmyra. This relief was given to the Imperial collection by k.k. Legationsrat Dr James Samson, an Austrian diplomat in the Ottoman Empire.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"AD 3rd century","location":"Vienna","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Palmyra; Syria;"],"materials":["Stone"]},"cf9875f4-0d50-59fb-b1f9-fb072d1e4cc5":{"name":"Vessel with lid","short_description":"Stone vessels are among the most well-preserved products of prehistoric culture in south-eastern Arabia. The earliest versions were fashioned in the 3rd millennium BCE, most often from a locally occurring form of soft stone known as chlorite. The limited range of shapes made at this time includes squarish boxes, beakers and open bowls.  Decoration often consisted of multiple horizontally cut lines or one or more rows of engraved circles, each with a central dot. This object illustrates the theme of engraved circles, each with a central dot.","type":"Stone","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"2,500–2,000 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Weight: 487.7g, Height: 3.5cm; Lid Diameter: 9.3cm, Vessel Diameter: 9.7cm","provenance":"Bahla (ad-Dakhiliyah Governorate)","obtention":"Ministry of Heritage and Culture Collection","dynasty":"Early-Middle Bronze Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Vessel"],"materials":["Steatite"]},"d31728a3-910c-5617-b017-90928de933e6":{"name":"Ivory panel.","description":"An ivory panel that has been worked from a flat sheet; it varies in color from a very light brown to a rich brownish gray (burnt in antiquity). This panel is 90 per cent extant; carved in relief the scene represents a frontally disposed male figure standing in an archway. On his head, in profile, he is wearing military headgear. He holds in both his hands, vertically, what looks like either a long rod or an oar. The designs are carved carefully into the panel, in a vigorous, round style. The highest surface of the figure is at the same level as the surrounding frame, which is richly decorated with geometric motifs.  \n  \nSmall holes have been drilled into the panel, along with some other perforations, suggesting that several of these panels were assembled together by iron fasteners to decorate the doors of a small cabinet in the 'fresco room' in the palace of the Abbasid family at al-Humayma.  \n  \nThe Abbasid Caliphs based their claim to the caliphate on their direct descent from ‘Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (AD 566–652) one of the youngest uncles of the Prophet Mohammad, by virtue of which they regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the caliphate and overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. This panel is a luxury object that has stylistic affinities with Persian, central Asian, Indian and Coptic Art.","short_description":"An ivory panel that was part of the decoration of a cabinet from the Abbasid family *qasr* (palace) at al-Humayma. Carved in relief, this is a luxury object that has stylistic affinities with Persian, central Asian, Indian and Coptic art.","type":"Panel, ivory","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira, first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Length 30 cm, width 10 cm, depth 3–5 mm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by location in the archaeological strata and through related pottery objects found in the same context.","method_for_provenance":"The object was recovered during an archaeological excavation at the site of a-Humayma, but where it was originally produced is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was found during an archaeological excavation carried out in the site of al-Humayma in 1993–8.","bibliography":"Foote, R., Oleson, P., *Humayma Excavation Project 1995–6*, Max van Berchem Bulletin No. 10, December 1996, Geneva, pp.2–4.  \n  \nOleson, J. P., Amr, K., Foote, R., *Preliminary Report of the Humayma Excavation Project 1993*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, XXXIX, 1995, pp.317–54, fig. 28; p.347.  \n  \nOleson, J. P., Amr, K., Foote, R., *Preliminary Report of the Humayma Excavation Project 1995, 1996, 1998*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, XLIII, 1999, pp.411–50, fig. 20; p.442.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Armour; figurative representation; geometric motifs; luxury ware; military wear; Prophet Mohammad; relief decoration; soldier."],"materials":["Carved ivory."]},"d3253a8b-e29d-5956-a599-90638d365b17":{"name":"The Flood Tablet","short_description":"Inspired by Layard’s discoveries, George Smith began to study cuneiform. His dedication was rewarded with the amazing discovery of a version of the Biblical Flood Story. The British Prime Minister came to his lecture. The news amazed the world. The Daily Telegraph financed an expedition to Nineveh to find the missing piece. Having found it, Smith died of fever on his way home.","type":"Clay tablet","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["archaeology; exploration; travel; traveller; collection; museums; cuneiform; inscription; clay; Gilgamesh; science"]},"d39f33c7-ab99-570d-9745-2ca9481fd5e0":{"name":"Font.","description":"Font with eight lobes. The inside is hollowed out, with the rim moulded on the top and on the outside. It has a hole at the bottom. The base is truncated, with a base or foot missing. The exterior moulding has a decoration of small engraved geometric patterns (lozenges, squares and circles). The upper rim has an Arabic inscription in *kufic* script running all the way round, in which it is possible to read the expression ‘al-Mulk’, repeated in a chain.","short_description":"The evidence for the prolonged presence of a Muslim community in Lisbon is supported by this octagonal ablutions font sculpted from local *pedra lioz* (lias) limestone. It was found during restoration work in Lisbon’s Moorish quarter, to whose mosque it belonged.","holder":"City Museum.","dates":"Hegira 8th–9th centuries / AD 14th–15th centuries.","location":"Lisbon.","dimensions":"Total height 11.4 cm, diameter 22.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"External, historical dating. The mosque in the Moorish quarter, to which it is supposed to have belonged, was dismantled in the early 16th century, in the reign of Dom Manuel I of Portugal.","method_for_provenance":"Found during urban regeneration work, re-used in the masonry of one the walls of the building on no. 67 Rua João do Outeiro (Moorish quarter, Lisbon). The building probably dated originally from the 16th century.","provenance":"Lisbon.","obtention":"Donated to the Museum.","bibliography":"*Lisboa Subterrânea*, exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1994.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Rodrigo Banha da Silva","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["font; lias stone; Kufic script; al-mulk"],"materials":["Lias stone."]},"d3f8650a-4599-5d0e-a22f-cd44a5f3ea38":{"name":"The Pietroasa Treasure","short_description":"One of the most valuable gold treasures of Romania is the Pietroasa hoard, which consists of five golden vessels and seven golden pieces of jewelry with a total weight of 19 kg. Dating from the centuries 4-5 AD, the hoard is attributed to the Goths. It was discovered accidentally in April 1837 by two peasants who sold it to an Albanian contractor named Verussi. Knowing that all treasures found in the Romanian soil had to be handed in to the authorities, Verussi tried to hide the hoard and even smashed some of the items to make them smaller. Even though he was eventually caught by the police, from the initial 22 items of the hoard only 12 were recuperated. The Pietroasa treasure was first internationally exhibited in 1867 at the universal exposition in Paris, where it enjoyed a great success.","type":"Archaeological find","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"4th century AD; discovered in 1837; exhibited in 1867","location":"Bucharest"},"d4bd63d5-45fe-58a2-9476-795fe33754f5":{"name":"Copper coin (*fils*).","description":"A copper coin (*fils*) of the standing caliph type from the transitional period (AH 74–7/8 / AD 694–8) that preceded Abd al-Malik's coinage reform of AH 77 / AD 696, and which saw the removal of images, and the issue of a pure Islamic type distinguished by the formula of the faith, the Shahada, and a purely epigraphic style that incorporated Qur'anic verses.  \n  \nOn the obverse is the figure of a standing caliph, he wears a long robe with his right hand on his sword; his head is covered with an Arabic headdress. The marginal legend begins from the top going clockwise, spelling the title and name of the Caliph ‘Abdallah ‘Abd al-Malik commander of the faithful written in simple *kufic* script.  \n  \nOn the reverse there is a transformed cross, distinguished by its simplified form and globular top, which sits on four steps with a star to the left and the name of the mint (Amman) on the right, which was one of the cities of Jund Demashq (one of the five military and administrative provinces established in the early Islamic period).  \n  \nThe marginal legend is written in inverted *kufic* script. It starts from the bottom, going clockwise spelling: 'La 'ilaha illa-Allah' ('There is one God; Muhammad is the messenger of God'), which is the second part of the Shahada, written in Arabic.","short_description":"Copper *fils* from the Amman Forum, of the ‘standing Caliph type’ from the transitional period that preceded ‘Abd al-Malik’s coinage reform in AH 77 / AD 696. The legend on the obverse is the title and name of ‘Abdallah ‘Abd al-Malik commander of the faithful. On the reverse is the mint name ‘Amman.","type":"Coin, metalwork","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 74–8 / AD 694–8.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4.59 g.","method_for_datation":"This type of coin belongs to the transitional period (74–7/8 / 694–8) which preceded the coinage reform of Abd al-Malik in 77 / 696.","method_for_provenance":"The coin was recovered from an archaeological excavation in the Forum of Amman, and the name of the mint (Amman) is inscribed on the coin.","provenance":"Amman, Jordan.","obtention":"The coin was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out by the Department of Antiquities in Amman's Forum in three stages, between 1965–7.","bibliography":"الحديدي. عدنان، فلوس نحاسية اموية من عمان، حولية دائرة الاثار الاردنية، المجلد 20، 1975، ص 9-14، لوحة 7 و 8 رقم 11.  \n  \nالقسوس. نايف، نميات نحاسية اموية جديدة من مجموعة خاصة: متحف البنك الاهلي الاردني، عمان، 2004، ص 363، مسكوكة رقم 405.  \n  \nWalker, J., A Catalogue of the Arab-Byzantine and Post-Reform Umayyad Coins, London, 1956, Vol. II, p.29, cat. no. 96.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative representation; forum; kufic script; Qur’an; coin; coinage; numismatics"],"materials":["Cast, stroked copper."]},"d861eea4-5eaf-5a74-81c8-1ecb64d9a358":{"name":"Floor painting.","description":"The Umayyad desert palaces show clearly the influence of earlier artistic traditions – both from the Byzantine Empire in the West, and the Sassanid Empire in the East, what is now modern Iran. This painting shows the influence of the art and mythology of the Sassanids. It covered the floor of the reception room in the east wing of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.  \nThe upper section shows two court minstrels playing musical instruments, a *nai* (a woodwind instrument) and an *oud* (a string instrument), beneath a pair of ornamented arches. The lower section portrays a clean-shaven hunter galloping on horseback. The hunter is dressed in Sassanid-style fashion; his head-scarf flying behind him, his bow and arrow are drawn tight for the catch. On the lower right-hand corner is a gazelle, running away while looking back. It is possible that this scene is based on a famous Persian epic, possibly Bahram Gur's *Hunting Feats*.  \nSome scholars have deduced that this fresco reflects a choice by the Caliph to re-orient his empire to look East instead of West especially after Muslim attempts to conquer Constantinople failed. Thus the Caliph chose to adopt the Sassanid imperial heritage as a model for the language of power.  \nThis painting lay on the floor of the reception hall, and one can notice in its upper section traces of a round column that stood on top of it.","short_description":"The iconographic traditions of courtly activity, such as the image of a prince galloping on horseback flaunting his hunting expertise, is derived from the pre-Islamic Sassanid Empire of Persia. It is here depicted on an Umayyad painting from the Syrian palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","type":"Floor, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 5 m, width 4.85 m.","method_for_datation":"The floor, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscribed door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace complex. The lintel carries the date 109 / 727, and indicates that the complex was built by Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik.","method_for_provenance":"This floor painting was produced on *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The floor painting was discovered during the 1936 French excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was led by archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. When the plaster façade from the front of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi was prepared for relocation at the National Museum during the 1940s this floor painting was stabilised on the wall of the main room of the new Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi wing, formally inaugurated by the Museum in 1950.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, pp.151–2.  \nEttinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962, p.37.  \nPapadopoulo, A., *Islam and Muslim Art, New York, 1979, p.387, fig. 179.*  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, XIX, plate 34.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Qasr; desert palace; figurative painting; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Daniel Schlumberger; musician; musical instruments; hunters"],"materials":["Plaster, painted using the *secco* technique."]},"dc31ffa1-da00-5df9-9b60-5eca4bdaeb38":{"name":"Frieze","short_description":"Frieze of ram heads from South Arabia found by Eduard Glaser during one of his four expeditions in Yemen from 1882 to 1894.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"4-3th century BC; brought to Vienna by Edward Glaser in 1882–1894","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 12 cm, B 20 cm, Diameter 15 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Yemen; Eduard Glaser; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Stone (Kalksinter)"]},"dc345fef-438d-5088-994a-47a78663e585":{"name":"Ablution jug.","description":"A cylindrical jug of leaded bronze without a handle and with a tall neck divided into two unequal parts by a decorative 'rope' band. The cylindrical body is plain, although the shoulder is divided into narrow bands that are filled with short vertical strokes.  \n  \nThis vessel may once have been used as an ablution jug for ritual washing before prayer; many other such metal and ceramic jugs have been found associated with this ritual. This particular jug was found during archaeological excavations in the hammam that was part of the qasr (palace) at Umm al-Walid.","short_description":"A jug of leaded bronze, without a handle and made from four parts welded together. Found during excavations at the baths of the Umayyad qasr at Umm al-Walid, it may have been used as an ablution jug for ritual washing before prayer.","type":"Jug, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 41.8 cm, diameter (of neck) 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context and association with Umayyad pottery vessels also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this vessel was produced is unknown but it was recovered during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid near Madaba.","provenance":"Objeto hallado en Umm al-Walid.","obtention":"The object was recovered during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid in 1992.","bibliography":"Bujard, J., and Schweizer, F., *Entre Byzance et l'Islam: Umm er-Rasas et Umm el-Walid – Fouilles genevoises en Jordanie*, Geneva, 1992, p.17, fig. 11/6.  \nHaldimann, M. A., *Les Implantations omeyyades dans la Balqa: l'apport d'Umm el-Walid*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*,* XXXVI, 1992, pp.307–18.  \nJoguin, M., 'Des pots et des hommes; l'exemple d'Umm el-Walid', *Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan*, Vol. VII, 2001, pp.641–5, fig. 5.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Ablution; metalwork"],"materials":["Leaded bronze; four parts joined together."]},"de6e2f8b-9a8b-550e-bef8-94cf2f8b25ed":{"name":"The goddess Maat","short_description":"The fragment comes from the parietal relief from the tomb of Sethy I (1289-1279 A.C.), discovered in 1817 and located in the Valley of the Kings. The relief is part of one of the most important group of the Franco-Tuscan expedition (1828–1829) and has been brought to Florence by Ippolito Roselllini. The relief shows the goddess Maat, recognised by the feather on her head.","type":"Bas-relief; archaeological find","holder":"Egyptian Museum","dates":"19th Dynasty (14th–13th centuries BC); found in 1828–29","location":"Florence","dimensions":"74 x 47 cm","provenance":"Egypt, Valley of the Kings, tomb of Pharaoh Sethy Ist (XIX Dynasty)","copyright":"Copyright image: Su concessione del Ministero per i Beni Culturali e del Turismo - Museo Egizio di Firenze.","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Campaign in Egypt; Egyptomania; archaeology; Leopoldo II; Charles X; scientific expedition; university; museums; collection; collector; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; Thebes; languages; hieroglyph; epigraphy; Orientalist; travelling artist; botany"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"e25630b9-4eae-5a54-82aa-8350634cc2c3":{"name":"Pot.","description":"Globular vessel with a foot-ring at the base and with a semi-circular cross-section and slightly everted rim. The paste is orange and the surfaces are glazed in a honey colour. On the exterior surface is a plant-form decoration in columns around the whole body, bordered with dark brown to black manganese.  \nThis type of decoration emerged in Silves in items dating from the AH 5th / AD 11th century, although they became more frequent in the AH 6th / AD 12th century.  \nThey are thought to be everyday ceramics. The shape suggests that they were used as receptacles for holding oil or other domestic liquids such as water. Smaller versions of this pot may have been used for cosmetics or simply as decorative objects.  \nThe characteristics of the piece are similar to those with a metallic lustre decoration from Egypt and Iran, dating from the AH 3rd and 4th / AD 9th and 10th centuries. The use of decorative motifs with borders in manganese, but enamelled, dates back to the previous period and may have originated in the East. The decoration of this piece, in spite of its stylistic similarities to oriental ceramics, is similar to other pieces found in Silves, so it may have been produced locally in the region of al-Gharb, and even in Silves itself, in imitation of oriental models.  \nCeramic objects of this kind were made in the region of Gharb al-Andalus throughout the Muslim period.","short_description":"Locally produced jar probably inspired by Iranian or Egyptian models. The outside is decorated with plant motifs that create columns around the entire body. The configuration of the piece suggests that it was used to store liquids.","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 19.6 cm, diameter 11.2 cm, diameter (of base) 10.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"From the archaeological and stratigraphic context in which it was found. A stylistic analysis has found comparisons with similar objects from the same period.","method_for_provenance":"An excavation carried out at Rua da Arrochela (the historic centre of Silves) directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Excavation inventory number: AR Q5/E15/C2-1.","provenance":"Arrochela (historic centre of Silves).","obtention":"It has been housed in the museum since the excavations carried out in the 1990s.","bibliography":"Gomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.59.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \n*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1998, p.158.","dynasty":"Umayyad of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Cosmetic; water"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic with manganese decoration."]},"e28848aa-7436-5518-abe8-0e71a1e0d924":{"name":"Weights.","description":"Bronze weights that are not inscribed but which have a variety of shapes and decoration, the typology includes: the barrel form, a truncated bi-conical shape; the polyhedral type, with sides cut into polygonal facets; the very common brick shape; and the square shape. They are often pierced in the centre for safe-keeping, to keep them together as a unit, and in order to carry them easily.  \n  \nThese bronze weights relate to two monetary systems: the values for the *dirham* (silver) and *dinar* (gold) coins. The stratigraphic contexts of the Aqaba weights give some idea about the variations seen in these weights; heavier weights are more elaborate, the lighter weights simpler. The heavier weights could have been used to weigh merchandise heavier than coins.","short_description":"Cast bronze weights from Ayla in Aqaba of a variety of shapes and decoration relating to two monetary systems: the values for the *dirham* (silver) and *dinar* (gold) coins. The heavier weights could have been for goods heavier than coins.","type":"Weight, metalwork","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Height (in the range) 4–25 mm, width (in the range) 1.3–2.5 cm, weight (in the range) 2.1–149 g.","method_for_datation":"The weights were dated by their stratigraphic context and in relation to pottery shards found at the same site.","method_for_provenance":"The weights were recovered during an archaeological excavation in Aqaba, the original place of production is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"These weights were obtained during an archaeological excavation carried out in Aqaba in 1987–94.","bibliography":"Whitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Fort of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1995, p.19.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; coinage; coin; numismatics; commerce; incise; measuring instrument"],"materials":["Moulded bronze."]},"e6457ad1-6126-508a-9c14-e66c394d18f0":{"name":"Lamp and base.","description":"An oval-shaped pottery lamp made using two moulds; one for the upper half and another for the lower, the two halves being joined together by a ridge.  \n  \nThe lamp is decorated with multiple motifs such as small circles within half volutes, wavy and straight lines on both sides of the filling hole, as well as birds and palm branches. The sides of the lower part are decorated with alternate circles and palm branches. The handle is tall and curved, terminating in a crude animal head. The base is a pointed oval, decorated with a chalice within which is a sequence of fish. Similar lamps bear Greek and Arabic inscriptions and are sometimes decorated with crosses.","short_description":"A pottery lamp from Jarash made using two moulds, one for the top and the other for the base, which is decorated with a chalice within which is a sequence of fish. Similar lamps bear Greek and Arabic inscriptions and are at times decorated with crosses.","type":"Lamp, base, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 1st–2nd century / AD 7th–8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height: 4.2 cm, length 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The lamp was dated according to stratigraphic context and associated Umayyad pottery vessels.","method_for_provenance":"The lamp was found at Jerash during an archaeological excavation.","provenance":"Jarash, Jordan.","obtention":"The lamp was recovered in 1968 during the course of an excavation carried out at Jarash by the Jordan Department of Antiquities.","bibliography":"دعنا.سليمان، \"حفرية الفسيفساء – الاستراحة- جرش، 1968\"، حولية دائرة الآثار الأردنية، المجلد الرابع عشر، 1969، ص58-60، اللوح 22.  \n  \nBisheh, G., *The Second Season of Excavations at Hallabat, 1980*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, Vol. XXVI, 1982, pp.134–5, plate 37, 1-3.  \n  \n**La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie**, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.272.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Arabic inscription; floral decoration; geometric decoration; Greek inscription; lamp; mould."],"materials":["Moulded ceramic."]},"e8e2873a-17d1-558a-a507-0fd33c1cc8ae":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"The cosmetic palette is fish-shaped and reproduces the form of a fish from the Nile River, *Tilapia nilotica*. The palette was found in a woman's tomb along with a turtle-shaped cosmetic palette, ivory findings, a comb, a huge ring and ceramics. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano”, decided to expand the Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada I; acquired in 1901","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 10 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Slate"]},"ea27369f-92ec-55ab-9c95-e957b5b3e6a5":{"name":"Spindle whorls","description":"Spherical-shaped stone spindle whorl which has been perforated to allow the spindle or rod to fit in. The spindle whorl acts like a flywheel increasing momentum and weight while spinning the fibre to produce thread.","type":"Spindle whorls","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 1cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Stone"]},"eb8190e3-fac0-5bea-9481-b7f582447f70":{"name":"Inkwell.","description":"This inkwell is cubic in shape and consists of a central cylindrical pot to take the ink, and hollow areas on each side to take the pens.  \nEach facet of the inkwell is simply decorated with geometric patterns. In the centre a grooved diamond shape contains four deeply sculpted triangles. The whole is framed by a square, the four corners of which make four more triangles.  \nOn each side of the central pattern a honeycomb effect is achieved by gouging out large numbers of very small triangles.  \nThis decoration recalls that of certain Berber carpets, but it also resembles the brick decoration on ancient doorways at the Great Mosque of Kairouan dating from the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. Since this is the only surviving inkwell from the mediaeval age in Tunis, it is difficult to trace its origin. However, certain inkwells from the Samarkand excavations, which date from the AH 2nd–4th / AD 8th–10th centuries and which are more or less cylindrical, show similarities to the central pot of this Kairouanese inkwell and have similar hollowed-out geometric patterns.","short_description":"The geometric decoration on this cubic inkwell is reminiscent of some Berber tapestries. The similarity to the brickwork patterns used on the ancient blocked doorways in the Great Mosque of Kairouan is also striking. This inkwell is the only surviving example of its type from Mediaeval Tunisia.","type":"Inkwell, stucco","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 8 cm, width 5 cm, height 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This inkwell comes from the Raqqada site. The city of Raqqada was founded by Prince Ibrahim II in 263 / 876, which gives us a *terminus ante quem* date for the piece. However, Raqqada remained the capital city of the Aghlabids and then the Fatimids until 308 / 916. The city survived until the mid-5th / 11th century, when it became a purely residential town. This gives us a very broad dating period where precise choice is rendered even more difficult by the absence of published information from the various excavations. But the inkwell's decorative simplicity and its comparability with other contemporary inkwells allow us to place it in the second half of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this piece on the Raqqada site and its Ifriqiyan decoration would tend to confirm its local origin.","provenance":"Probably Raqqada.","obtention":"After its discovery during the extensive excavations at Raqqada between 1961 and 1968, the inkwell was kept for many years at the site storehouse. It was acquired by the Raqqada Museum in 1986.","bibliography":"*De Kairouan a Carthage* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1995, p.65.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; sciences"],"materials":["Carved stucco."]},"ee1f0807-ca9d-507c-adf4-27f446a10f42":{"name":"Statue of Athlete – Ephesos","description":"After competitions in the *palestra* (sports arena), it was customary for the athletes to clean the sand from their oiled bodies with a strigil, or scraping iron. The Ephesian athlete seen here has already finished this task and – with his hair still soaking in sweat – is cleaning the strigil itself. This statue cannot be attributed to any Greek artist with certainty, yet Roman reproductions in marble and depictions on pottery reliefs and engraved stones speak to a high degree of familiarity with the original.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"2nd century AD (copy after a Greek original from the last quarter of the 4th century BC); found in 1895","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 192 cm","provenance":"Ephesos","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Ephesos; Abdul Hamid II; Emperor Franz Joseph"],"materials":["Bronze"]},"eefabf6a-3ca7-5c93-ade3-a4e5bbb13859":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with bevelled rounded rim, circular mouth, semi-oval body with gentle carination towards the bottom and convex base with a diagonal foot-ring. The exterior of the piece is glazed in honey-coloured monochrome, while the interior is decorated entirely using the *cuerda seca* technique in which the white, green and honey colours of the glaze are separated by lines of manganese. The central ornamental theme, enclosed in a circle, consists of a deer or antelope in a static pose, with its head raised in an alert posture, ready to flee. Indeterminate plant motifs fill the empty spaces, and seem to suggest the landscape around the animal. Around this, on the wall of the bowl, the composition is completed with a frieze of palmettes made by finger impressions. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl made entirely using *cuerda seca*. The central motif of the piece, enclosed by a circle, is a deer or antelope in a static pose with its head raised, alert and preparing to flee. The empty space is filled with plant motifs, which represent the landscape around the animal.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hejira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter (of mouth) 25.5cm, diameter (of base) 10.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century on the basis of comparison with objects of similar form and decorative technique from Málaga and Almería.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns have been found in which they were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga (Spain).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica”, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*.exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with porous pink straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated with the *cuerda seca* technique throughout."]},"ef21b96c-da0c-528c-bc8d-e3d1e18531f7":{"name":"Clay loom weight","description":"Loom weights are made from a roll of clay twisted and shaped into spheres, flattened cylinders, or conical shapes. They are used to keep the warp threads of the loom taut and provide even tension in order to weave with ease.","type":"Loom weight","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 5cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Clay"]},"f03adf8f-d5b8-514b-88b4-1fa35cd992e2":{"name":"Plate.","description":"Chinese earthenware ceramics with a dichromatic decorative scheme of white and blue were very popular and widely admired in the Islamic world. Their export to the eastern Mediterranean began as early as the AH 2nd / AD 8th century. This type of vessel with its bright whiteness and extensive blue decoration was the most popular export ware during the Chinese reigns of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. They exported profusely, both by land and sea, especially during the AH 8th / AD 14th century.  \nArtisans in the Islamic world imitated these Chinese ceramics because of its popularity and because they were not always readily available. Thus imitative Chinese ceramics were themselves a valuable commodity.  \nThis plate is decorated with a bouquet of flowers that incorporates gracefully sweeping stems bound with a ribbon. A decorative band of stylised vegetal motifs surround the bouquet, and a band of stylised geometric motifs articulates the rim of the plate. The decoration is executed in various shades of blue on a white base.","short_description":"This ceramic dish was found in the Citadel of Hama and it clearly indicates the intercultural influence of exported Chinese blue-and-white porcelain on Syrian and Egyptian Mamluk pottery.","type":"Plate, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5.5 cm, diameter 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The Danish excavations revealed objects that have been dated to the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, primarily from the 7th–8th / 13th–14th centuries. However, since this piece is influenced by Chinese ceramics, especially in the use of blue and white, and since such ceramics were exported to the Islamic world beginning in the 8th / 14th century, it is believed that the object belongs to this later period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Hama, known as a production centre for this kind of ware. However, the underglaze painted wares found in Syria (Hama and Damascus) and Egypt (Fustat and Alexandria) are essentially identical, so it is difficult to assign a definitive provenance.","provenance":"Possibly Hama, Syria.","obtention":"The plate was found during archaeological excavations that took place in the Citadel of Hama between 1931 and 1938 by a Danish expedition under the direction of Harold Ing Holt. The piece was registered in the Museum in 1934.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.221.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Plate; earthenware; ceramics; Chinese; Hama citadel; Harold Ing Holt; blue-and-white; Chinese motifs"],"materials":["Earthenware with blue-and-white underglaze."]},"f26b90aa-a82b-52f5-8ce6-f87882cade6c":{"name":"Lamp.","description":"A spherical object with a distinctive slightly convex base, a handle at the top that is oval in cross-section, a semi-circular front opening and a conical vertical spike inside. It has a decoration of finger impressions, wavy incised lines and traces of white paint on a reddish background.  \nThis unusual object was used as a lantern for lighting out of doors. Its closed form protected the flame from the wind and its large horizontal handle made it easy to carry. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Unusual object similar to a lamp that was used to light open spaces. The semi-circular front opening allowed the light to come out, while the closed shape protected the flame from the wind and the horizontal handle made it easy to carry. This piece of popular art dates to the Almohad era.","type":"Lamp, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Early hegira 7th century / Early AD 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 18.2 cm, width 16.2 cm, diameter (of base) 12.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"The technical and formal characteristics of this piece are typical of items produced in Mértola, although many similar items are to be found in the Valencia region (Spain).","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.130.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Contenedores de Fuego en el Garb al-Andalus”, in Actas do III Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular. Vila Real de Trás-os-Montes, Setembro de 1999, Vol. VII: Arqueologia da Idade Média da Península Ibérica, Porto, 2000, pp.421–4.","dynasty":"Almohad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["fire; lighting; daily life"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from fine reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"f4d8be9c-5207-5d6b-9a80-d65d6b7fa366":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with everted rim with small horizontal edge, circular mouth, hemispherical body and convex base with vertical foot-ring. The exterior is coated in an almost transparent whitish glaze. The interior is decorated with a polychrome glaze in white, green, purple and yellow, with an unusual schematic figurative style. The central motif consists of a lively hunting scene in which a hound and a bird (perhaps a hawk or eagle) are simultaneously attacking a gazelle. The bird carries in its mouth a spiral-shaped object which may be a snake or a branch. The rim has a scalloped pattern of black arcs filled with green glaze.  \nWhen it was in use, the object was repaired with clamps. There are also holes in the base which were probably used for hanging the bowl on the wall. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl depicting a hunting scene in which a greyhound and a falcon attack a gazelle. There is a spiral-shaped object in the bird’s mouth. This piece, dated to the second half of the AH 5th / AD 11th century, is similar to others from the western Mediterranean and was imported from Kairouan (Tunisia).","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira second half of 5th century / AD second half of 11th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 13 cm, maximum diameter 39 cm, diameter (of base) 13.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated by comparison with objects of similar form from Qal'a Banu Hammad (Algeria), Tunis and Kairouan (Tunisia), Denia and Cartagena (Spain), and Pisa (Italy).","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this type of ceramic is currently disputed. The abundance of objects with this decorative style in Kairouan has led researchers to attribute it to this origin, but analyses of pastes carried out on the objects from Mértola and Pisa contradict this theory and suggest that they may in fact come from the south of the Iberian Peninsula.","provenance":"Kairouan, Tunisia (?).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.108–9.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica de Verde y Morado de Mértola”, *Arqueologia Medieval*, no. 3, 1994, pp. 113–32.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Producciones Cerámicas en la Mértola Islámica”, in *Actes du VIIeme Congrès International sur la Céramique Médiévale en Méditerranée. Thessaloniki, 11–16 Octobre 1999*, Athens, 2003, pp.653–8.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., \"Le Vert et Brun au Portugal\", in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Taifa","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; zoomorphic imagery; trade; hunting; animal decoration; bird"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with coarse-grained straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated in green and purple."]},"f5c68eab-37f6-5a2c-b181-f87cfef70a15":{"name":"Human head.","description":"The face is that of an apparently fine-featured man but the damage to the nose and mouth is very serious. He wears a turban in the Oriental manner. It reminds us of certain pictures of human figures on pottery of the Samanid era of Nishabour (Iran). The turban is V-shaped and a deep fold extends right across its width. The face is covered with a veil, like several other images of heads from Fatimid Egypt and Umayyad Spain in the AH 4th and 5th / AD 10th and 11th centuries. The man's eyes are quite prominent and seem originally to have been covered by two pieces of glass indicating the irises, like other images found on site at Sabra.  \nThe head's discovery in the Fatimid capital gives weight to the opinion that the Shi'ites, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites, tolerated human representation in their sculptures.","short_description":"The discovery of this piece in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid capital, supports the idea that Shi'ite Muslims tolerated sculptures of human forms, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites. This image is similar to others originating from Spain and Egypt at that time.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, width 11.5 cm, thickness 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.229.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; human figure"],"materials":["Carved plaster."]},"f68ad2e3-66ed-57d2-8adb-c0e1504537b3":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with rounded everted rim, circular mouth, semi-oval body and flat base. The object has an exterior finish in honey-coloured monochrome glaze, and a polychrome glaze of white, green and purple in the interior, representing a plant motif consisting of a radial composition of eight lotus flowers topped by another set of eight oval lotus flowers. On the rim is a composition in four parts with alternating semi-circles and phytomorphic motifs. It has a defect at the bottom caused by the glaze coming into contact with another object in the kiln. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Glazed bowl with a plant motif consisting of a radial composition of eight triangular lotus flowers each topped with an oval lotus flower. This piece is similar to others found in Madinat al-Zahra and probably came from the Córdoba region.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 339–90 / AD 950–1000.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 6 cm, maximum diameter 29 cm, diameter (of base) 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the second half of the 4th / 10th century, by comparison with objects of identical form found in Madinat al-Zahra (Córdoba, Spain).","method_for_provenance":"The shape, ornamental theme and type of paste used are very similar to ceramics from the Córdoba area.","provenance":"Probably Córdoba (Spain).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.111.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica de Verde y Morado de Mértola”, *Arqueologia Medieval*, no. 3, 1994, p.125.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.97.","dynasty":"Umayyad al-Andalus / caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["floral decoration; tableware"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with compact pink paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated in green and purple."]},"f9701508-d881-5449-97c9-5004df541485":{"name":"Ceramic jar.","description":"A large, green ceramic jar with an ornamented globular body and near-cylindrical neck. It has a slightly outward-slanting lip and three handles connect the lip to the shoulder. Each handle is decorated with a finial cap coloured ivory-yellow resembling a small jar. The jar was made in a mould and the joins of the moulded pieces are deftly camouflaged by decorative motifs including interlocking circles containing scale-like patterns and medallions containing stylised vegetal and geometric motifs.  \nThe bottom of the neck has an Arabic inscription written in an early *kufic* script, the text of which may be translated as follows:  \n“Drink in health and relaxation, and thank God for this fresh water. This was made in Basra by Yahya bin Umayya for the ruler of Hira, who is generous and good.”  \nThe production of ceramics during the Umayyad period shows continuities with methods and styles known in previous periods in the area. This piece was most probably made during the Umayyad Dynasty and preserved at the 'Abbasid Raqqa palace B. It clearly displays an ancient pre-Islamic influence with its designs dating back to Roman moulded earthenware and Parthian pottery. Its attribution to Islamic civilisation is affirmed by its Arabic inscription in an early *kufic* script.","short_description":"This ceramic jug with its antique shape and moulded decoration includes a band of *kufic* inscription that indicates it was made in the city of Basra by the craftsman Yahya bin Umayya and was dedicated to the ruler of Hira.","type":"Jar, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"A ruler (*amir*) of Hira; a city in southeastern Mesopotamia (Iraq).","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 43.6 cm, diameter 34.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"Due to its eclectic and archaic design, the jar points to the Umayyad period (2nd / 8th century). As it was found in Palace B in the Raqqa region, which is dated by an inscription to the reign of the 'Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 218–27 / 833–42), the vessel continued to be used during the 'Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription specifies that the jar was made in Basra, a city in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Basra was settled by the Arabs in 1237 / 635 and continued to be an important manufacturing centre.","provenance":"Basra, Mesopotamia (Iraq).","obtention":"The jar was obtained during archaeological excavations undertaken in 1952 by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of archaeologist Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.98; fig. 15.  \nEttinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and*  \n*Architecture 650-1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.62; fig. 90.  \nRice, D. T., *Islamic Art*, London, 1965, p.10; fig. 2.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Pottery; moulded; glaze; monochrome; Yahya bin Umayyad; Nasib Salibi; Basra; Raqqa; Hira"],"materials":["Earthenware produced in a mould, glazed and monochrome-painted."]},"f9783fd3-09a2-5548-be22-593259d96e06":{"name":"Fragment of the Parthenon frieze","description":"The climax of the Greater Panathenaia, the chief festival of Athens, held in honour of Athena, was a procession which ended with the presentation of the newly woven peplos (a woman’s garment) to the tutelary goddess of the city. This is the subject of the frieze around the cella of the Parthenon, the temple on the Athenian Acropolis. This fragment shows two bearded elder citizens of Athens in conversation.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"c. 440 BC","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 26 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Athens; Acropolis; Franz Ferdinand"],"materials":["Marble"]},"fc496894-497a-5358-b6b4-2e9135336e42":{"name":"The church at Massuh mosaic.","description":"The church at Massuh lies 10 km north of Madaba in Hisban. During archaeological excavations in 1970 various phases of construction were revealed dating from the late AD 5th century (that is prior to the Muslim era, which corresponds to 16 July 622 in the Christian calendar), through to the AH 1st / AD 7th century.  \n  \nTwo layers of floor mosaics were revealed, the lower one, dating to the AD 6th century, had not suffered any iconoclastic damage. The upper layer, however, which dates back to the AH 1st / AD 7th century, suffered systematic and thorough iconoclastic damage, which had been subsequently carefully repaired by patches of larger sized tesserae.  \n  \nThe mosaic consists of a central panel decorated with a rectangular grid of florets, inside some of these grid panels appear figures of animals, one is a lion facing an inscription which dates this church. An inscription provides the names of the members of the clergy and donors who built the church at the time of Bishop Theodore of Esbus.  \n  \nThe floor mosaic in the apse at the northern side of the church is partially preserved. It is decorated with vine scrolls framed by an acanthus border; in the scrolls are animal and floral motifs that were damaged by the iconoclasts.  \n  \nIn the nave, the floor mosaic consists of an acanthus border that surrounds two panels decorated with figurative motifs, and a pattern of tangent crosses with concave ends. The eastern panel depicts a boatman and a fisherman with a rod and hook, as well as circles filled with birds and flowers. The figures were destroyed by iconoclasts and replaced with yet more floral motifs, crosses and architectural motifs. The hunting scenes, part of a decorative mosaic band in the presbytery, were also destroyed by iconoclasts during the AH 1st / AD 7th century.  \n  \nAfter the AH 1st / AD 7th century the church was rebuilt. Half the original columns were eliminated, their foundations sealed with white tesserae.","short_description":"The church at Massuh has two layers of floor mosaics. The lower one, from the AD 6th century, has no iconoclastic damage, while the upper layer, from the AH 1st /AD 7th century, was systematically altered by iconoclasts. Figures were carefully replaced by crosses, or floral and architectural motifs.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Park.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 1st–first half of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 7th–first half of the 8th century.","location":"Hisban","dimensions":"25 m x 15 m.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was dated by its dedicatory inscription, which mentions that the church was built at the time of Bishop Theodore of Esbus (late 6th century AD). Van Elderen (1986) concludes from the archaeological phasing of the church that the iconoclastic damage occurred at the end of the AD 6th century. Schick (1995) says that Massuh was attended in the early Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic was found during archaeological excavations in the church complex in Hisban in 1970.","provenance":"Hisban, Jordan.","obtention":"This mosaic floor was found during archaeological excavations carried out at the church in 1970 for the purposes of conservation and protection it was lifted from its original site in 1993 and is now housed at the Madaba Archaeological Park.","bibliography":"Piccirillo, M., *The Mosaics of Jordan*, Amman, 1993, pp.252–3.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., 'La chiesa di Massuh e il territorio della diocesi di Esbus', *Liber Annuus*, 33, 1983, pp.335–46.  \n  \nSchick, R., *The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study*, Princeton, 1995, pp.404–5.  \n  \nVan Elderen, B., 'Byzantine Churches and Mosaics in Transjordan' in: Geraty, L. and Herr, L., (eds.), *The Archaeology of Jordan and Other Studies*, \\[n.d.\\], pp.237–46.","dynasty":"Byzantine / post-Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghada Al-Yousef","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Church; iconoclasm; inscription; mosaic; tesserae; topoynm."],"materials":["Mosaic."]},"fcbd9f29-7966-5d95-9485-7fe900be4b80":{"name":"Plaster graffito.","description":"This is an engraving of a stylised horse of majestic demeanour. A rider holds the reins with his left hand and seems to be about to mount. The carefully drawn animal is seen depicted in profile. Its mane is indicated with a few short lines projecting from the neck. The left back leg is slightly raised and the left forearm and cannon-bone are elevated to form an inverted V-shape. The fetlock and hoof have been completely effaced.  \nThe rider is sketchily drawn and very faint. The artist seems to have drawn a man whose torso is set frontally whereas the right leg and the head are in profile. He wears a turban and his face is covered. The horse is typically Arab distinguished by the shape of its head and the gracefulness of its neck and legs. This drawing is unique in Ifriqiyan art. The overall posture of the horse is similar to an image on an Umayyad *caliph*'s goblet from Madinat Elvira in Spain.","short_description":"This is a hand-carved engraving of a majestic Arab horse, whose rider is barely visible, and is a drawing unique in Ifriqiyan art. The carefully drawn animal is seen in profile, with its mane rendered using oblique and radiating strokes.","type":"Graffito, stucco","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 30 cm, width 29 cm, thickness 3 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece comes from the excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, a place which survived for around a century (from 337 to 444 / 948 to 1053). This allows us to date it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No more precise dating is possible owing to the lack of published information from the excavations but the object's similarity to the Umayyad goblet (mid-4th / 10th century) suggests that we can limit the period to the end of the 4th / 10th century.","method_for_provenance":"Excavated object.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan).","obtention":"After the discovery of this piece in the Sabra al-Mansuriyya excavations between 1952 and 1956, it was stored and later displayed at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*De Carthage à Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.221.  \nZbiss, S. M., *Actes du 79e congrès national des* *sociétés savantes*, Algiers, 1954, p.302.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Incised stucco."]},"fd6f1970-6f1f-547d-882d-48ee08c260f8":{"name":"Cup","short_description":"Painting with lustred pigments on glass predates its use on ceramics. Glassmakers in Egypt were using this technique in the 8th century, when this piece was made.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"8th century","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 6.5cm, Width: 7.5cm","provenance":"Syria","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1932","bibliography":"Ashton, A.L.B, \"Three new glass vessels painted in lustre\", *Burlington Magazine*, LX (1932): 293-4, Plate A.  \nLamm, C.J., *An Oriental group of medieval date found in Sweden and the early history of lustre painting*, Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1941: 25.","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Glass, with lustre painted decoration"]},"feee4da0-04af-5864-b229-a94005de718d":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with rounded rim, circular mouth, slightly carinate hemispherical body and convex base with diagonal foot-ring. The exterior is glazed in honey-coloured monochrome and the interior is decorated in the *cuerda seca* technique in which the white, green and honey colours of the glaze are separated by lines of manganese. The decorative theme is a large flower created by a radial geometric composition which occupies all of the decorated space and which may correspond to a lotus flower viewed from above. Examples identical to this object have been found in various parts of the western Mediterranean, in particular in the citadel of Málaga, in Cartagena, Palma de Mallorca (Spain), Pisa (Italy) and Ceuta (Morocco). The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl decorated entirely using *cuerda seca* and decorated with a large flower created by a geometric radial pattern that occupies all of the decorative space. The central motif is a lotus flower seen from above. Similar pieces have been found around the western Mediterranean.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8.5 cm, diameter (of mouth) 26 cm, diameter (of base) 10.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects of similar shape and decorative technique from Málaga and Almería.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns have been found in which they were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these towns.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica*”*, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228 .  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.92.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Ceramic made from medium-grained orange-coloured paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and glazed using the cuerda seca technique throughout."]},"ff2ee02d-c01b-55f1-8514-320080faaf5a":{"name":"Nebamun tomb paintings","short_description":"Salt’s excavator, Yanni d’Athanasi, discovered and removed the exquisite wall paintings from the 18th Dynasty tomb of Nebamun. Here Nebamun counts the flocks of geese being brought before him.","type":"Wall painting","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"C14th BC; acquisition date: 1821","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; wall painting; museums; travel; traveller"]},"ffc2330e-9d6d-5852-b9cf-1e4ad8156ccf":{"name":"Kettle.","description":"An intact, zoomorphic kettle made of leaded bronze. A representation of a camel bearing a load or a seat, a tripod would once have held the kettle in place above a brazier to heat the contents; the mouth of the camel is the spout, and the lid contacted to the handle.  \n  \nThis kettle is an extremely important object not only because of the rarity of metalwork in the Umayyad period, but also symbolically, for the camel is a highly significant creature in the Arab world considering that only a few hundred years ago, caravans of 120,000 camels – up to six miles long – would have travelled across the desert linking Middle Eastern cities from Arabia to Jerusalem.","short_description":"A kettle of leaded bronze from Umm al-Walid, representing a camel bearing a load or a seat. The mouth of the camel is the spout. A tripod would once have held the kettle in place above a brazier to heat the contents.","type":"Kettle, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 14.8 cm, width 12.5 cm, weight 564 g.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context, and association with Umayyad pottery vessels and shards also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this kettle was produced is unknown but it was found during an archaeological excavation at Umm al-Walid near Madaba.","provenance":"Hallado en Umm al-Walid (Jordania).","obtention":"This kettle was found during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid (15 km south-east of Madaba) in 1992 where, earlier, a palace and a mosque were discovered. Ceramic vessels and other metalwork were also uncovered at this site.","bibliography":"Bujard, J., and Schweizer, F., *Entre Byzance et l'Islam: Umm er-Rasas et Umm el-Walid – Fouilles genevoises en Jordanie*, Geneva, 1992, p.17, fig. 11/4; p.18, fig. 14.  \nHaldimann, M. A., *Les Implantations omeyyades dans la Balqa: l'apport d'Umm el-Walid*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*,* XXXVI, 1992, pp.307–18 (especially p.315).","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Camel; metalwork; tripod kettle."],"materials":["Cast, leaded bronze."]}}
+{"008d8895-3ae0-522b-83a2-64ff01799f07":{"name":"Iron awl","description":"Iron point awl with a handle made of a branch of deer antler. Awls are used for piercing and fibre manipulation. The holes created by an awl may be used as a guide for thread.","type":"Iron awl","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"600-332 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 12cm, W: 1cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Iron and Deer antler"]},"03194f3e-048b-5d3e-a6af-514f37ac800f":{"name":"Winged colossus","short_description":"Massive Assyrian winged animals captured the imagination of Victorian England. Large scale reproductions of them were incorporated into “The Assyrian Court” at the Crystal Palace Exhibition.","type":"Statue","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Assyrian revival"]},"037e2e8a-4c21-57dd-b0a6-532274d43a0d":{"name":"Baalbec : engineers removing the Kaiser's commemoration stone from the Temple of Apollo","description":"British Royal Engineers at work on an ancient stone temple. Three engineers stand on the ground at the foot of a tall ladder, which leads up to a stone platform where three other engineers are removing a more recent German commemorative stone. They have attached a pulley to the top of the platform in readiness to move the stone. The composition is framed by two enormous pillars that are part of the temple.","type":"Artwork","holder":"IWM","owner":"IWM","initial_owner":"IWM","dates":"c.1917 - 1918","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 41,9 cm; width: 30,4 cm","place_of_production":"Lebanon","method_for_datation":"All details are held in the War Artists Archive at IWM.","method_for_provenance":"All details are held in the War Artists Archive at IWM.","provenance":"Department of Information commission transferred to the Ministry of Information and then to the Imperial War Museum.","obtention":"Artist commission for the UK government's Department of Information, subsequently transferred to the Imperial War Museum.","bibliography":"*Shadows and Light: The Extraordinary Life of James McBey*, Soussi A., Scotland Street Press, 2022.  \n*Visions of War: Art of the Imperial War Museums*, IWM, 2023.  \n*The War Artists*, Harries M. and Harries S., Michael Joseph, 1983.","dynasty":"1914-1918","artist_birthdate":"1883","artist_birthplace":"Aberdeenshire, Scotland","artist_deathdate":"1959","author":"Claire Brenard","keywords":["Military engineering; military personnel; architecture; landscape; First World War"],"materials":["Watercolour and ink on paper"]},"03a27e68-fae1-5950-a3b8-9e7fa5eb103e":{"name":"Goblet.","description":"A goblet that was found during archaeological excavations at Palace B, a building which bears an inscription on plaster associating it with the Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42). The goblet has a simple circular base and an inverted bell-shaped body; a twisted stem connects the two parts.  \nThe application of metallic lustre to decorate vessels is a quintessentially Islamic technique that first appeared in glasswork before becoming, famously, applied to pottery. The body of this goblet is decorated with vertical and horizontal lines of metallic lustre, that take the shape of sequential dots forming stylised vegetal motifs and bands of circular geometric patterns. The rim is articulated with line of cobalt-blue.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found in the region.","short_description":"This elegant blue-rimmed chalice with metallic-lustre and painted decoration is a masterpiece of royal glasswork. It was found in the Raqqa region during excavation of the palace of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah who reigned AH 218–27 / AD 833–41.","type":"Goblet, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu’tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–41.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 9.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of al-Mu'tasim's reign (218–27 / 833–41).","method_for_provenance":"The goblet was found during an archaeological excavation at Raqqa. There is no way of establishing whether it was made locally or imported, as similar glass production flourished in both Baghdad and Damascus.","obtention":"The object was obtained during archaeological excavations undertaken in the 1950s by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.102; fig. 19, plate  \n54b.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.420.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; goblet; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Harun al-Rashid; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Glass decorated with metallic lustre."]},"0659eb21-0d9f-5b11-ae51-0ba0f6eea1f1":{"name":"Reverent Baboon with Pharaoh figure","description":"The loud rejoicing of the Hamadryas baboon at the sunrise in its rocky habitat served as a model for the Egyptian celebration of the ascent and descent of the sun at the critical stages of its cycle. Baboons with upraised hands – the Egyptian gesture of reverence – became symbols for the “eastern souls”, the gods who cheer the sun at its appearance above the horizon. The king joins these gods in his role as sun priest.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"18th Dyn. Amenophis II, 1454-1419 BC; acquired in 1865/66","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 130 cm, Width 42 cm, Diameter 61,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Maximilian of Mexico; Miramare; Egypt"],"materials":["Pink granite"]},"0945b287-7bd5-56a6-8465-7ea419eb7485":{"name":"Adornment from small chest.","description":"Small quadrangular adornment from a chest, with a wider base, with plant-form decoration: two flowers with light blue and greyish green enamelled petals, surrounded by white enamel and the remaining spaces filled with light blue. Three incisions are visible on the base containing remnants of gilding. This style of object was used to decorate small chests covered with bone or marble sheets.","short_description":"Square adornment for a small chest with a wide base and plant decoration: two flowers with petals enamelled in light blue and grey-green surrounded by white enamel. The remaining spaces are coloured light blue.","type":"Adorment, copper","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th century – first half of 6th century / AD end of 11th century – first half of 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 3.7 cm, width (max.) 2.7cm and (min) 2.1 cm, weight 11.9 g.","method_for_datation":"By comparison with objects of the same type found in the citadel of Mértola and in other locations where archaeological excavations have taken place.","provenance":"Citadel of Mértola.","obtention":"Object found in the citadel area by an inhabitant of Mértola and donated to Mértola Museum in 1991.","bibliography":"*Guia do Museu. Museu de Mértola – Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2003, p.36.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2001, p.176.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Lígia Rafael","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["plant decoration"],"materials":["Enamelled copper in white, blue and greyish green. In the widest part (base) there are three incisions containing vestiges of gilding."]},"0b2e5db9-7b0b-58f7-bda2-af3bd45e294c":{"name":"Tombstone.","description":"Upper fragment of a rectangular stone, with smooth moulding, in which a 'symbolic' gently pointed arch is inscribed in relief. Inside the arch and between it and the moulding runs an epigraph in a pseudo-*kufic* archaic script which, together with its stylistic characteristics, might indicate its use in the Muslim community when the Christian period was already fully established. The text reads: 'God is eternal. Have compassion according to your mercy, oh you who rule everything, and look \\[with compassion\\] upon the place where I was sent \\[…\\]'.  \nThis stone was found in a rural house in Frielas, on the outskirts of Lisbon, at the end of the 19th century.","short_description":"Found in Frielas on the outskirts of Lisbon, this stone is one of the best known and most copied in the National Archaeological Museum’s epigraphic collection. It comes from an Islamic cemetery and was made for a member of the Islamic community who remained in Lisbon after the Christian *Reconquista*.","type":"Tombstone","holder":"National Museum of Archaeology.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Lisbon.","dimensions":"Height 33 cm, width 55 cm, depth 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The form of certain characters and the frequent use of diacritical marks, together with the plain stylisation of the arch, suggest a date at the end of 7th / 13th century.","method_for_provenance":"According to a report dated 1896 by Arabist David Lopes (see Bibliography), this stone was found in a rural house at Castanheira das Neves, in Frielas, on the outskirts of Lisbon.","provenance":"Frielas, Lisbon.","bibliography":"Barros, M. F. L., “Inscrição Funerária Árabe”, in *XVII Exposição Europeia de Arte Ciência e Cultura. Madre de Deus*, catalogue, Lisbon, 1983, pp.116–17.  \nBorges, A. G. M., “Lápide Funerária”, in *Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1999, p.251.  \nLabarta, A. and Barceló, C., “Inscripciones Árabes Portuguesas: situación actual”, *Al-Qantara*, 8, 1987, p.408.  \nLopes, D., “Cousas Arábico-Portuguesas”, *O Archeologo Português,* 2, Lisbon, 1896, p.207.  \nNykl, A. R., “Arabic Inscriptions in Portugal”, *Ars Islamica*, 11–12, 1946, pp.178–9.","dynasty":"From the Moorish community immediately after the Christian conquest of Lisbon in AH 541 / AD 1147","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Artur Goulart de Melo Borges","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Tomb; kufic; funerary object; funerary stele; funerary inscription; gravestone"],"materials":["Sculpted limestone."]},"0b91f97f-aa76-5d14-a2ae-6751b59baea3":{"name":"Ring-shaped flask.","description":"This is a particularly fine piece of ceramic art. Thinly coated with tin-based glaze, it has no slip coating. Simple, elegant and harmonious, its beauty lies in its absence of decoration and in the finesse of its shape. From a disc-shaped base rises a hollow ring which becomes slightly broader at its upper part. A long, cylindrical neck, with two buttress–like supports, has four circles incised around the top. A handle is attached at the base of the neck.","short_description":"Despite the absence of decoration, the elegant shape and the harmony and simplicity of its component parts make this piece a real work of art, with its beauty found in the sparseness of its structure. The flask has a round, flat base below a slightly inflated ring topped with a long cylindrical neck.","type":"Flask, terracotta","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada.","dimensions":"Height 27.5 cm, diameter 14.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital, was built in 263 / 876 by the Aghlabid prince Ibrahim II. Since the flask was discovered on the excavation site, this date must be a *terminus ante quem*. Moreover, the constituent shapes of the piece (base, neck …) are characteristic of the Aghlabid period, which means that we can date the piece from the 3rd / 9th century. Both its shape and decoration suggest it was a local production, from the Kairouan or Raqqada workshops.","method_for_provenance":"An archaeological find among a group of other pieces of Aghlabid pottery.","provenance":"Raqqada or Kairouan.","obtention":"The flask was among objects discovered on site during the 1960 excavations at Raqqada. It was acquired by the Great mosque at Kairouan in 1964 and transferred in 1986 to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.256.  \n*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis,  \n1992, p.277.  \nDaoulatli, A., *Poteries et ceramiques tunisiennes*, Tunis, 1979, pp.26–7, fig. 7.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"materials":["Lightly glazed terracotta."]},"0c5bacf8-49f2-5415-b7db-491e97a23a73":{"name":"Weaving shuttle","description":"A tool designed to neatly and compactly store weft yarn while weaving. To weave the weft, shuttles are passed back and forth through the 'shed', the threads of the warp.","type":"Weaving shuttle","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 6cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"0cec6aaa-8c9c-5003-8b7b-39389edbe2cf":{"name":"Stone relief of a lion.","description":"The area of Bab al-Faraj refers to the north and northwestern area of old Aleppo.  \nBab al-Faraj (Gate of Deliverance), also known as Bab al-Faradis (Paradise Gate), was built by the Ayyubid king al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi (d. AH 613 / AD 1216) as part of his expansion and refortification of the city. Today, the Bab al-Faraj area is almost completely destroyed. Some traces of the wall were revealed in archaeological excavations by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities, including a round tower that can feasibly be identified with the Burj al-Tha'abin (The Tower of the Serpents). Both serpents and lions were common decorative and talismanic features on city gates and city walls, long used as symbols of protection and of power.  \nThis lion, one of a pair, was carved in relief each from a single large block hewn in an inversed t-shape form. The rather affable beast is carved in profile as if walking, with uplifted paws and a long curving tail over the body. Although rather schematic, details such as the eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth and some muscular details along the shoulder have been accentuated by deeply cut lines.  \nSuch lions are extremely common in AH 6th- and 7th- / AD 12th– and 13th–century architectural decoration in Anatolia and Mesopotamia, often appearing as a pair on city walls, gates, and other places of fortification. In Aleppo a pair of lions, albeit in a quite different style, protect the entrance tower of the Ayyubid Citadel. A second further and much more similar pair of lions can be found along the western city wall, still integrated. A third pair of lions on the northern city wall is only documented by photography.  \nNot all the existing lion pairs are necessarily in their original location nor are they necessarily attributed to the same date.","short_description":"This stylised animal carving was found in the Bab al-Faraj (Gate of Deliverance) area in the northwest of Aleppo. Although it is difficult to establish the exact dating of this piece, it is known that the gates of Aleppo were fortified by the Ayyubid king al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi.","type":"Lionm stone","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 50 cm, length 104 cm, width 15.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It is difficult to date this object definitively: some scholars have proposed a Mamluk attribution, identifying the lion as the blazon of Sultan Baybars (r. AH 658–75 / AD 1260–77). While Baybars did use his famous lion emblem on coins and numerous architectural constructions, he is not known to have repaired or renovated any of Aleppo's fortifications or city walls. It is far more probable that the lions belong to the Ayyubid period and the major construction works of al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi.","method_for_provenance":"The carved lions were not found *in situ*, and therefore their attribution to the Bab al-Faraj is based on oral history. Given the local expertise in stone carving, it is probable that they were made in Aleppo, possibly as part of the Bab al-Faraj or the surrounding wall.","provenance":"Bab al-Faraj, Old Aleppo, Syria.","obtention":"This lion is one of a pair discovered in the Bab al-Faraj area of Aleppo in the 1980s when extensive construction works took place. Archaeological chance-finds were moved to the Museum by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities.","bibliography":"Gierlichs, J., *Mittelalterliche Tierreliefs in Anatolien und Mesopotamien*, Tübingen,  \n1996.  \nHerzfeld, E., *Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum: Syrie du Nord, Part 2: Inscriptions et monuments d'Alep,* 3 vols, Cairo, 1954–6, pp.39-43 ; plates. VII b, VIII d, e, IX, X a, XI b.  \nMeinecke, M., “Zur mamlukischen Heraldik”, *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Institutes*, Cairo, XXVIII/2, 1972, pp.217–19.  \nSaba, R., “Taqrir 'an a'mal kashf Sur madinat Halab fi mintaqat Bab al-Faraj”, *Les Annales Archéologique arabes syriennes*, XXXVI–VII, 1986–7, pp.25–32.  \nSauvaget, J., “Inventaire des Monuments Musulmans de la Ville d'Alep”, in *Revue des Études Islamiques*, V, 1931, p.74 ; cat. no. 5.  \nTabbaa, Y., *Constructions of Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo,* Pennsylvania, 1997, p.20, pp.28–30.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Lion; gates; stone carving; Aleppo; al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi; Sultan Baybars"],"materials":["Carved stone."]},"0dc391d9-1f9b-5c22-91bf-a9670c98fa1b":{"name":"Two Egyptian mummies","short_description":"The National Museum of Antiquities was founded in Wallachia in 1834. According to a museum catalogue from 1906, a section of one exhibition room was dedicated to “Egyptian religious objects” (more than 120 items, among which small statues of various gods and goddesses, amulets, clay or bronze scarabs, cameos, a mummified hand). The museum also owned three mummies, exhibited in the “Trophy Room”, along with very varied objects of different epochs. Two of the mummies, belonging to a little boy and girl, were donated by a certain captain Horovitz (no information about him is known), who brought them from Cairo. He also offered the museum a mummified ibis and four mummified parrots.","type":"Mummies","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"Undated; 1906 (included in the National Museum of Antiquities collection)","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"0ee82313-3b00-5065-9b57-8b032c634961":{"name":"Gold coin (*dinar*).","description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in AH 380 / AD 990. The legend is in *kufic* script.  \n  \nObverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: ''.لا اله الا الله، محمد رسول الله، علي خير صفوة الل'  \n  \n'There is no God except God, Muhammad is the Messenger. Ali is the best God's prime.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **محمد رسول الله أرسله بالهدى ودين الحق ليظهره على الدين كله ولو كره المشركون.**  \n  \n'Muhammad is the Messenger of God. He sent him with guidance and the true religion to prevail over all other religions, even though the idolaters may object.'  \n  \nReverse:  \n  \nCentre: raised point within two concentric circles.  \n  \nFirst margin: **عبد الله ووليه نزار الإمام العزيز بالله أمير المؤمنين.**  \n  \n'Abd Allah and his supporter the Imam Al-'Aziz Billah Commander of the Faithful.'  \n  \nSecond margin: **بسم الله ضرب هذا الدينار بالمهدية سنة ثمانون وثلثماية.**  \n  \n'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in the year 380.' (AD 990).","short_description":"A gold coin (*dinar*) from Ayla in Aqaba. On the reverse is the name of the fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz (r. AH 365–86 / AD 975–96), the place of minting, al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia, and the date 380 / 990. Ali is mentioned in addition to the Prophet Muhammad on the obverse. The legend is in *kufic* script.","type":"Coin, dinar, gold","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 380 / AD 990.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4 g.","method_for_datation":"The coin is dated and the place of mint recorded: 'In the name of God, this *dinar* was struck at al-Mahdiyya in Tunisia in the year 380.' (AD 990).","method_for_provenance":"The place of mint is inscribed on the coin as al-Mahdiyya.","provenance":"Al-Mahdiyya, Tunisia.","obtention":"The coin was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of historic Ayla (Aqaba) in 1993–4.","bibliography":"Unpublished, but for similar coins see:  \n  \nPool, R. S., The Coinage of Egypt: (AH 358–922) under the Fatimee Caliphs, the Ayyobees and the Mamlook Sultan, Classes XIV.XV.XVI, London, 1879, p.17 (year AH 384).  \n  \nالعجابي. حامد، \"جامع المسكوكات العربية بإفريقية\", تونس،1988، ص 228، قطعة رقم 296، اللوحه 28.  \n  \nداود. مايسه، \"المسكوكات الفاطمية بمجموعة متحف الفن الإسلامي بالقاهرة\"، دار الفكر العربي، القاهرة، ص 53-55.","dynasty":"Fatimid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_TN_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Coin; coinage; gold; kufic script; al-Mahdiyya; numismatics."],"materials":["Struck gold."]},"0f35b172-0d2a-596c-a8b4-04b40be2b1e8":{"name":"Panels of a small chest.","description":"Panels made of bone which were used to cover a small chest. No vestiges have survived of the chest itself, which was probably made of wood. The two sets of panels have identical decoration, are painted delicately and with great simplicity.  \nBy comparison with other known pieces, this appears to be one of the examples with the plainest decoration (it might even be said to have a certain primitivism), in the context of Islamic ivory and bone objects from the western Mediterranean.  \nThe designs are simple: the object is distinguished by a rose of interlaced patterns in the centre with human figures on either side (one of these is barely visible). The circles of the roses were drawn with a pair of compasses, and the figures then outlined with Indian ink or with lines of manganese using a paintbrush, and the rest filled with pigments.  \nThe anthropomorphic figures are represented in two dimensions, without any modelling of light or shade, and in a schematic style: the eyes are two small circles, and the direction of their gaze is shown by the relative position of the iris to the eyebrows. The mouth is symbolised by a single thin line.  \nThe figures on this piece seem to be wearing long garments of oriental tradition – possibly the *kaftan*, a long silk, velvet or satin tunic which went down to the knees or ankles, with long sleeves and open at the front. The style of the figures, with thick arched eyebrows and a long nose, is also an archetypal representation of men from the Near East.  \nAt the far ends of the composition are two groups of plant forms, which seem to be an attempt at a realistic representation, common in all Western Islamic art, the generalised use of which led to a certain conventionality, making their identification easier. Long flexible stems topped by globular forms are combined, in rows above one another, with lotus flowers surrounded by digitate palmettes.","short_description":"Bone plaques dating to the end of the Islamic presence (AH 596–629 / AD 1200–32) thought to have been used to cover a small wooden chest. The different motifs (human, plant and geometric) suggest it was made in the peninsula by a craftsman familiar with eastern influences.","type":"Panel, bone","holder":"Moura Municipal Museum.","owner":"Moura Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 596–629 / AD 1200–32.","location":"Moura., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 6.2 cm, width 12.8 cm.","method_for_datation":"Chronology was established by means of a comparative study of this piece with similar specimens from Spain, which suggests dates from the 7th–8th / 13th–14th centuries. The presence of the anthropomorphic elements (practically identical to those of pieces with scraffito design from Murcia from the first half of the 7th / 13th century, and the actual date of the reconquest of Moura allows us to put forward the beginning of the 7th / 13th century as a plausible date for the manufacture of this object.","method_for_provenance":"Found *in situ*.","provenance":"These panels, found in the castle of Moura, were possibly made in the region of Granada, Spain.","obtention":"Archaeological excavations at the castle of Moura (1980 or 1981).","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, Lisbon, 1998, p.103.  \nMacias, S., “A Arqueta Pintada de época Islâmica do Museu de Moura”, in *Actas das V Jornadas Arqueológicas (Lisboa, 1993)*, Vol. 2, Lisbon, 1994, pp.295–8.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C.*, O Legado Islâmico em Portugal*, Lisbon, 1998, p.168.","dynasty":"Final phase of the Almohad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Santiago Macias","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["small chest; bone; Moura; Almohad"],"materials":["Painted panels made of bone."]},"11882e61-41ff-533d-8ba1-acb37292e9e4":{"name":"The Rosetta Stone","short_description":"An iconic image of decipherment, since the same text is inscribed in three different scripts, including Greek, the ‘stone’ is actually part of a grey and pink granodiorite stela bearing a priestly decree concerning Ptolemy V in three blocks of text: Hieroglyphic (14 lines), Demotic (32 lines) and Greek (54 lines).","type":"Monument","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"196 BC; acquisition date: 1801","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; museums; inscription; Greek inscription; hieroglyph; Demotic; science"]},"14fa7435-2efe-5c6f-be7f-cc253ffd3d64":{"name":"A historical fake","short_description":"An early example of a fake antiquity. It was made by impressing a real tablet into new clay. The typology of fakes has changed as our familiarity with and understanding of tablets has grown.","type":"Fake clay tablet","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"c.1810","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; archaeology; exploration; archaeology; museums; collection; collector; travel; traveller; inscription"]},"170c8cf5-b614-5435-ab40-7ff0326cc97f":{"name":"Bottle.","description":"Small glass bottle, gilded and translucent, with greenish-brown tones. The flattened spherical form of the body, the tall truncated cone neck and the concave base give it stability and a formal coherence of great quality. The fragility of the material is thus combined with a solidity of form. The refined decoration of the body consists of oval-shaped motifs which become denser in the upper part, around where the neck rises up.  \nIts shape and refined decoration suggest that it was probably used to contain perfume.  \nIt was found with other luxury objects in the inside of a system of channels, where it is presumed to have been hidden at the end of the Muslim administration of the town, a very turbulent period which resulted in valuable objects being hidden away. This is probably the reason for its having survived intact over the centuries.  \nThis object has unique characteristics in the context of Islamic archaeology in Portugal.","short_description":"Small gilded glass bottle with green-brown hues. Its shape and decoration suggest that it was used to hold perfume. It was found alongside other luxury Almohad items in a drain, where it must have been hidden just before the town was taken by the Christians.","type":"Bottle, glass","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira second half of 6th – first half of 7th century / AD second half of 12th – first half of 13th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 13 cm, max. diameter (of body) 6.9 cm.","method_for_datation":"By comparison with identical objects of the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in the Castle at Silves, directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Excavation inventory number Q 20/C2-7.","provenance":"Silves Castle.","obtention":"Housed in the Museum after the excavation that was carried out in the 1990s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* Lisbon, 1998, p.189.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.76.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade"],"materials":["Gilded glass; moulded."]},"17666a11-01b4-52c2-96f9-bcfc12f3f7f7":{"name":"Brazier.","description":"An iron and bronze brazier of the AH 2nd / AD 8th century, perfect in both the craftsmanship of the relief and in the rendition of the figures in the round. This object is probably one of the best-known and complete of all the Umayyad heating stands to be found in Jordan.  \n  \nThe front plaque consists of six niches surrounded by arcades reposed over columns. The erotic scenes that appear in the niches probably represent the myth of Dionysus and his entourage. The brazier stands on four eagles, while the upper angles have four nude female figurines holding a bird in their left hand.  \n  \nThe combination of iron and bronze form a happy union and make for a beautiful design. The arcaded sides remind one of the vaulted halls at Qasr al-Amra, and the erotic scenes depicted (within) call to mind the frescoes on the walls of the apodyterium (dressing room) of the bath complex (*hammam*) at Qasr al-Amra. The eagles that support the stand, together with the nude female figurines that stand 47 cm high on their narrow pedestals. Part of the inherited oriental iconography, the artisan integrates Iranian cultural traits with the oriental Greco-Roman style.  \n  \nBronze braziers played an important role in the ceremonials of court life. The main function was to heat the caliph's room but they were also used as incense burners in the palace.","short_description":"An iron and bronze brazier from the Umayyad palace of al-Fudayn. Its front plaque bears erotic scenes that probably represent the myth of Dionysus. Part of the inherited oriental iconography, the artisan integrated Iranian cultural traits with the oriental Greco-Roman style.","type":"Brazier, metalwork","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 47 cm, length 58 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context, and association with Umayyad pottery vessels and shards also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was found during archaeological excavation work at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq.","provenance":"Hallado en al-Fudayn.","obtention":"The object was found during an excavation in 1986 that took place at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq which lies 70 km north-east of Amman, where a palace and a mosque were discovered. Many metal objects, steatite vessels, ivory and ceramic pots were also found, dating back to the Umayyad period.","bibliography":"Bienkowski. P., *The Art of Jordan* , Glasgow, 1991, p.99, cat. no 118.  \nHumbert, J. B., 'El-Fedein-Mafraq', *Liber Annuus* 36, 1986, pp.354–8, plate 75.  \nHumbert, J. B., 'El-Fedein-Mafraq' in *Contribution Française à l'Archéologie Française Jordanienne, Amman* , 1989, pp.125–31.  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.268.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; architectural motifs; brazier; eagles; erotic imagery; figurative representation; hammam; iconography; incense burner; metalwork; relief decoration"],"materials":["Iron and bronze, cast."]},"17a3121f-bb4b-5108-899a-81417b7512b6":{"name":"Ivory container (*pyxis*).","description":"A small, round ivory container (*pyxis*) with a lid; the lid now, unfortunately, missing. The decoration on the outside surface consists of a very simple geometrical pattern of an upper and lower narrow band filled with concentric circles. The space in between the bands is decorated with small tangent circles within which are dots forming semi-circular arches. There are traces of black pigment on the top band, and red on the lower one.","short_description":"Small carved ivory container (*pyxis*) from al-Fudayn in Mafraq. Its lid is now missing. The decoration on the outer surface consists of a geometrical pattern in two bands, with traces of black pigment on the top band, and red on the lower one.","type":"Container, ivory","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 9 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated to the Umayyad period by its stratigraphic context and by association with pottery shards from the same period.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out at al-Fudayn.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was recovered in 1986 during archaeological excavations carried out at al-Fudayn in Mafraq which lies about 70 km north-east of Amman.","bibliography":"Bienkowski, P., (ed), *The Art of Jordan*, Glasgow, 1991, p.106.  \n  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.278.  \n  \nZabern, P., *Der Königs Weg: 9000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur in Jordanien und Palästina*, exhibition catalogue, Mainz, 1987, p.351.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; ivory."],"materials":["Carved ivory."]},"1a94744a-6596-5190-8100-1548c229068b":{"name":"Ostracon.","description":"A triangular Ostracon that bears part of the Qur'anic sura 105 (the Elephant) written in simple *kufic* script. Unfortunately some words are missing because the sherd is incomplete. The function of this Ostracon was most probably for the study and memorisation of the sura by a student, but it is possible that it may have formed part of a vessel of some sort which would have been kept in the home to bring good luck and good fortune to its inhabitants.","short_description":"Ostracon (inscribed pot sherd) from Petra that bears part of the Qur'anic Sura 105 (the Elephant) in *kufic* script. It was probably used by a student to study the verse, or could have been part of a vessel kept in a house to bring good fortune to its inhabitants.","type":"Ostracon, pottery","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, width 3 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated on paleographical grounds to the early Islamic period.","method_for_provenance":"The object was found during the course of an archaeological excavation in Petra.","provenance":"Petra, Jordan.","obtention":"The object was acquired during an archaeological excavation conducted by G. Horsfield in the Palace Tomb at Petra in 1936.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Arabic inscription; kufic script; pottery; Qur’an."],"materials":["Inscribed pottery."]},"1bdcb311-686f-5698-aa9b-df0727b85070":{"name":"Incense Burner or Lamp","short_description":"The date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera), an enduring symbol of Oman, is identified with the early oasis Civilisation of Magan in the 3rd millennium BC and the taming of the desert. It is one of the few tree species specifically mentioned in the Holy Qur’an, and according to Islamic tradition Maryam (Mary) gave birth to 'Iesa (Jesus) in the shade of a palm.  \n  \nIn the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful:  \nAnd the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a date palm. She said, \"Would that I had  \ndied before this, and had been forgotten and out of sight!\" Then \\[the infant 'Iesa (Jesus)\\] cried unto her from below her, saying, \"Grieve not! Your Lord has provided a water stream under you\";  \nAnd shake the trunk of date palm towards you, it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon you.  \n  \nMary Chapter (Surat Maryam) (19:23-25)  \n  \nHighly simplified palm motifs appear as design elements on such diverse items as wooden doors, coffee pots, forefinger rings and copper spoons. The date palm is often combined with geometric or floral elements to create circular or linear patterns as a repetitive motif.","type":"Archaeological Artefact","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"1,300–300 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Length: 26cm, Weight: 751g, Diameter: 6.7cm","provenance":"Sallut (ad-Dakhiliyah Governorate)","obtention":"Museum of the Frankincense Land","dynasty":"Iron Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Incense Burner; Lamp; Date Palm; Floral"],"materials":["Pottery"]},"1db2b71c-1b13-500e-b0ba-c510c7396de5":{"name":"Fragment of a mural painting.","description":"This fragment belongs to a group of fresco paintings that once adorned the walls of the second floor of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. It shows the face of a woman in three-quarter profile with a fashionable, delicate shawl wrapped around her head and draping over her shoulders. She wears earrings and the black curls of her hair frame her forehead and cheeks. She is situated amidst a background of geometric and stylised vegetal patterns.  \nHer features are those of an Arab woman. Archaeologists believe she is a songstress from the palace. Historical sources mention that songstresses were brought from the Hijaz region, in the western Arabian Desert, to sing in the Umayyad palaces of the Syrian Desert.","short_description":"This Umayyad painting presents distinctly Arab features of female beauty: the big almond-shaped kohl-lined eyes, the whiteness of the eyeball contrasting with the dark pupil, the Bedouin-style earrings and the distinctively draped headscarf.","type":"Painting, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. 105-125 / 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 41 cm, width 39 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription located on the door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace. The inscription specifies the year AH 109 / AD 727 as the year the building was constructed and the Umayyad Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik is named as its patron.","method_for_provenance":"The wall painting was produced *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"This mural fragment was discovered during the 1936 French archaeological excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was directed by the archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. When the entrance façade of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi was prepared for relocation at the National Museum of Damascus during the 1940s, this painting was selected from a large group of paintings and exhibited in the upper level of the relocated section of the palace.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982, p.232, p.272.  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, plate 37.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Painting; fresco; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Qasr; desert palace; Daniel Schlumberger; Hijaz"],"materials":["Plaster, using the fresco technique."]},"1e282c8c-3fed-5331-b88b-4c2782ff7968":{"name":"Fragment of a painted wooden panel.","description":"In Palace B in the Raqqa region, we find a group of applied ornamental techniques executed in various materials. These include the use of plaster frames for doors and windows as well as wooden panels to cover walls and ceilings of formal imperial halls. Similar forms and techniques existed in the Umayyad period and may be found in Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. This indicates a continuation of this type of palatial decoration between the Umayyad and Abbasid periods.  \nThis rectangular fragment from a painted wooden panel is decorated with stylised floral and vegetal motifs bracketed by geometric designs. The decoration is executed in black, red, yellow and brown applied in gradual shades to make the drawings seem three-dimensional.","short_description":"A painted wooden panel that once decorated the reception hall of an 'Abbasid palace in Raqqa reveals a high degree of expertise in three-dimensional shading of floral motifs.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 52.2 cm, width 11.1 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was found in Palace B in the Raqqa region. An inscription on plaster was found on one of the walls of the palace associating it with the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27/ 833–42). The palace is thought to have been built in around 220 (835).","method_for_provenance":"This piece of architectural ornamentation was found in palace B in the Raqqa region and was probably made *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The object was recovered during archaeological excavations carried out in 1952 by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.158.  \nAndalucia, J., de- (ed), *El esplendor de los Omeyas cordobeses*, exhibition  \ncatalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Wood; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi"],"materials":["Painted wood."]},"201e230b-e913-5349-b14d-69a729ecf657":{"name":"Disk","short_description":"The disk in green glass with a golden square foil is considered of remarkable interest because of its label, attributed to Ippolito Rosellini, which proves that the relic was found inside a tomb in Thebes. Rosellini, one of the main figures of the Franco-Tuscan expedition in Egypt, wrote on it \"Disco di vetro con entro una lamina d'oro. Trovato in una tomba a Tebe, Egitto, da I. Rosellini 1824 -dono di Elenina Ox Sicard, dicembre 1902\". The relic was later acquired by Enrico Hillyer Giglioli. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini decided to expand the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" which he directed at that time. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, with the main body of the collection donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Archaeological find","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"New Kingdom (16th–11th century BC); discovered in 1824","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Diameter 7.2 cm; length of the golden foil 4,6 cm; glass thickness 0,6 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Glass; gold"]},"21203aaf-bad1-5324-9ce5-01be5dd93e89":{"name":"Bowl with inscription.","description":"Round-based bowl with chamfered rim, coated with a green copper oxide glaze. In the centre of the bowl are four rows of *kufic* script written using a brown glaze (manganese oxide) with the word ‘al-Mulk’ (Sovereignty) written twice over. This expression occurs right through AH 3rd- / AD 9th-century Muslim pottery, from al-Andalus to India. The letters are drawn with split ascenders, a practice which became frequent in Ifriqiya from the second half of the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. The background colour of the lettering is yellow ochre based on antimony oxide or iron oxide and the script is surrounded by a frame of four brown rectangles.  \nGreen, brown and yellow ochre are the three colours typically used in Aghlabid pottery. Interestingly, these three colours have been consistently employed in Tunisian pottery through the centuries and up to the present day.","short_description":"Dish with a ring base and bevelled rim. The green, brown and yellow ochre colours used are the same as those typically found in Aghlabid ceramics, and they have remained an almost constant part of Tunisian ceramics through the centuries to the present day.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, last third of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 24 cm, diameter (at base) 9 cm, thickness 1 cm.","method_for_datation":"Raqqada, where the bowl was found, was the Aghlabid capital city, built in 263 / 876 by Prince Ibrahim II, which makes this date a *terminus ante quem*. Moreover, the bowl is characteristic in its shape, colour and decoration of that of the Aghlabid period just before the advent of the Fatimids in 296 / 909. It is therefore likely that the *terminus post quem* can be taken at the latter date.  \nUnfortunately, these excavations were not carried out methodically and scientifically and no excavation record was compiled, so a more accurate dating is not possible. It is probable that the same shapes, colours and techniques were carried over to the Fatimid era.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this bowl on the Raqqada site, painted in the Aghlabid manner and of Ifriqiyan-style manufacture, would confirm that this was a local piece from the Raqqada potteries or from those at Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Raqqada or Kairouan.","obtention":"This bowl was found during the Raqqada site excavations in the 1960s. At first it was kept on site, but since 1986 it has been on display at the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada.","bibliography":"Daoulatli, A., *Poteries et céramiques tunisiennes*, 1979, pp.32–3.  \n*Tunisie: du christianisme à l'islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.184.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Calligraphy; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"21b91c4b-40fa-5696-96fc-cfe01762acda":{"name":"A Khorsabad barrel","short_description":"During the archaeological mission led in Khorsabad by French consul Victor Place (1851–1854), fourteen Assyrian barrels were discovered. However, only four were preserved, since most of Place’s findings were lost in a shipwreck that took place in April 1855 on the Shatt el-Arab. As a reward for his archeological activity, the French government offered Place one of the barrels. Between 1855-1863 he was a consul in Moldavia, where he settled and started a family. In 1987 the Romanian state bought the barrel from one of Place’s descendants after the authorities found out that he was trying to sell it abroad. The barrel is made of clay, is nine-sided and bears an inscription recounting the reign of Assyrian king Sargon II, founder of a new capital, Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad).","type":"Barrel cylinder","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"721–705 BC (reign of Sargon II); discovered in 1851–1854","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Khorsabad"},"27a8bc2c-716a-5b73-bc30-dce11b765646":{"name":"Pilgrim’s flask.","description":"One of the specialities of Mamluk Syrian potters was the unglazed moulded pilgrim's flasks for the transportation of cool water on long journeys. These sturdy flasks became extremely popular in the AH 7th and 8th / AD 13th and 14th centuries and were certainly produced by a number of Syrian kilns. They were all made in the same manner: the globular body with its flattened sides was created from two identical moulds; the two handles on the shoulders and the short slightly tapering mouthpiece were then added separately. The moulded decoration on the body is various, including hunting scenes, mythical creatures, floral motifs, knotted designs, inscriptions and heraldic emblems which, no doubt, were meant to identify the ownership of the Mamluk officers who carried them.  \nThis well-preserved pilgrim's flask from the National Museum of Aleppo was uncovered during the course of recent Syrian-German excavations at Aleppo Citadel. Its decoration is highly unusual: it shows a large crescent on top of a solid triangular base, flanked by a pair of swords inscribed in a roundel. The background is covered with small impressed circles. The upper segment of the roundel is separated and decorated with foliage. Knotted bands run along the outer edges of the body.  \nThe unusual central composition is obviously meant to represent a Mamluk blazon, albeit the emblem depicted here is completely unknown in the canon of Mamluk heraldry. It might possibly be the result of a misunderstanding or indeed an inspired fantasy of the potter who mixed the crescent with the more popular cup symbol. It is possible that these decorations were only meant to look like heraldic emblems without actually being such. The piece has not been produced very carefully: although the same mould was used on both sides as usual, the impression on the back is seriously off centre.","short_description":"This pilgrim's flask from the Mamluk period was found during recent excavations in the Citadel of Aleppo. Although its shape is typical, its decoration is highly unusual as the emblem is unknown in the repertory of Mamluk heraldry.","type":"Flask, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department.","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 23.8 cm, diameter16.5, diameter (of mouthpiece) 3.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The flask was dated by stylistic considerations and by comparison with similar flasks.","method_for_provenance":"The flask was found during archaeological excavations in the area of Aleppo Citadel.","provenance":"Although this flask was discovered during an archaeological excavation at Aleppo Citadel, its place of production is unknown, but it was possibly produced in Syria.","obtention":"The flask was brought to the Museum in 2004.","bibliography":"Riis, P. J., and Poulsen, V., “Hama: Fouilles et Recherches de la Foundation Carlsberg,1931–8, IV/2” in *Les verreries et poteries médiévales,* Copenhagen, 1957.  \nSarre, F., *Keramik und andere Kleinfunde der islamischen Zeit von Baalbek*, Berlin–Leipzig, 1925.  \nSauvaget, J., *Poteries Syro-Mésopotamiennes du XIVe siècle*, Damascus, 1932.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["pilgrim flasks; canteen; earthenware; pottery; moulded; emblem; pilgrimage"],"materials":["Moulded earthenware."]},"2cb4ecb2-82f2-509d-b8a0-99acaa4537d9":{"name":"Two steatite (soapstone) oil lamps: a) star-shaped oil lamp; b) triplet oil lamp.","description":"Steatite, known technically as chlorite and commonly known as soapstone, was used for only a few utilitarian stone items, such as these lamps, cooking pots, and incense burners, due to its ability to absorb and conduct heat.  \n  \na) A simply decorated saucer-like lamp in the shape of a star with ten triangular nozzles decorated with incised lines and dots. There is a round hole through which oil is poured directly into the reservoir; ten corresponding holes at the bottom of the reservoir are connected to the nozzles.  \n  \nb) A triplet oil lamp with six nozzles on ribs and angles, three of which are on the rim. Simply decorated with incised lines, it has a round hole in the middle through which oil is poured directly into the reservoir; openings in the reservoir allow oil to travel down the channels and feed the nozzles with oil.","short_description":"Two steatite oil lamps from Ayla in Aqaba. Steatite, known technically as chlorite and commonly known as soapstone, was used for some utilitarian items due to its ability to absorb and conduct heat, and was usually imported from Yemen or western Arabia.","type":"Oil lamp, steatite","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"a) Height 3.8 cm, diameter 17.8 cm, depth: 2.9 cm; b) Height 5 cm, rib of the triangle 20.2 cm, depth (of each triangle) 2.5 cm, depth (of central circle) 3.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"These lamps were dated by stratigraphic context and by comparison with other objects on this and other sites, for instance, al-Fudayn (Mafraq).","method_for_provenance":"These lamps were found at the ancient site of Ayla (Aqaba) during archaeological excavations; they might have been imported from Yemen or western Arabia (Hijaz). The steatite mines of Yemen have been studied; although it is known that earlier mines were active in the Hijaz during the 2nd and 3rd / 8th and 9th centuries.","provenance":"Unknown, probably Yemen or western Arabia.","obtention":"These lamps were obtained during an archaeological excavation carried out at the site of Ayla (Aqaba) in 1987.","bibliography":"Whitcomb, D., *Aqaba: Fort of Palestine on the China Sea*, Amman, 1988, p.25, figs. C, D.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Lamp; steatite; domestic vessels"],"materials":["Carved steatite (technically known as chlorite, commonly known as soapstone)."]},"2ce846c0-44cf-593b-a417-5ec441dd4212":{"name":"Bas-relief in carved marble.","description":"In the right-hand section of the bas-relief is a seated figure wearing a richly embroidered tunic. The heavy crown on his head defines him as a sovereign or military leader. With his right hand he lifts a cup to his lips. To his right a musician plays the flute. The man's head is covered with a veil and the sleeves of his tunic are decorated with bands containing geometric motifs. His eyes are almond-shaped and very prominent.  \nThis bas-relief is one of those rare gems of Ifriqiyan art representing people and their daily life. The artist is totally unconcerned with anatomical detail. The musician's face does not betray age, type or expression. This work probably has its roots in a very ancient North African tradition. Some art historians hold that the style recalls various funeral stelae which the Romano-Africans dedicated particularly to Saturn and to Caelestis. Common features are the frontal poses, their rigidity, the indifference to spatial considerations and the prominence of the eyes. The similarities of this piece to several carvings in wood and ivory from the Spanish Umayyad, the Egyptian Fatimid and the Eastern Abbasid eras are astonishing, especially the face of the flute player, the costumes and the veils. The crown has been described as Norman by some experts. Similar crowns have been found on ivory panels from Fatimid Egypt and also on Mesopotamian pottery from the same era.","short_description":"This bas-relief is one of the few Ifriqiyan pieces depicting an animal scene. A person dressed in a rich, embroidered tunic is sat on the right side of the bas-relief. He is wearing a crown on his head, suggesting that he is a king or military leader. To his right, a musician is playing the flute.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 53 cm, width 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The bas-relief was discovered at Mahdiyya, capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids during the 4th–5th / 10th–11th centuries, which tends to establish its dating in that era. This is corroborated by the large number of human figures and scenes from daily life produced in Ifriqiya at the same time.","method_for_provenance":"The Ifriqiyan origin of the decoration suggests the object was carved *in situ* re-using an old piece of Italian marble.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"Following its chance discovery at Mahdiyya, the piece was acquired and shown at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (catalogue de l'exposition de Séville)*,* Tunis*,* 1992, p.265.  \nMahfoudh F., “Entre Mahdiyya et la Sicile: Analyse d'un bas-relief sculpté”, *Africa*, 20, 2004, pp.5–33.  \nMarçais, G., “L'art musulman du XIe siècle en Tunisie d'après quelques trouvailles récentes”, *Revue de l'art ancien et moderne*, XLIV, 1923, pp.161–73.  \nMarçais, G., *L'architecture musulmane d'Occident*, Paris, 1954, p.197.  \nYacoub, M., *Chefs-d'œuvre du musée du Bardo, Tunis, 1978, pp.230–2.*","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; marble; Zirid; relief"],"materials":["Carved marble."]},"32add590-3c53-51d7-af55-57212f399b39":{"name":"Equestrian figurine.","alternate_name":"Horseman of Raqqa.","description":"A figurine of a bearded horseman with Asian Turkoman facial features, long braided hair and a helmet. Around the right front hoof of the horse is a snake that is climbing towards the rider from his left. The snake is shown opening its mouth to bite the rider through his armour, but he repels it with his shield. He carries a straight sword lifted into the air, ready to strike. There is a grooved cylindrical column coming out of the stomach of the horse that probably supported the statue, keeping it upright. The horse wears blue reins that are executed in relief. The reins continue around the horse's mouth and hang in front of its neck, then, like a harness, run across the sides of the horse's body down to the lower part of its hind legs.  \nThe object is glazed in off-white and blue and, therefore, can be compared to the laqabi-style ware of Persia, also known to have been produced in Raqqa. Laqabi ware is often seen as luxury bowls and dishes with moulded decorations. Production probably centred on the city of Kashan in Persia. Raised areas were often coloured in bright- blue, yellow, green, purple and pink to differentiate them from the white or off-white background.","short_description":"Known as the 'Horseman of Raqqa', this masterpiece of Syrian polychrome underglaze sculptural ceramics clearly displays the influence of the Central Asian military elite on artistic taste and local production.","type":"Figurine, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 46.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object is similar to wares produced in Persia during the Seljuq period in the 12th century; a period that saw significant trade activity and migration between Abbasid domains and those of the Seljuq and other Turkoman peoples.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this object is difficult to determine because there was substantial trade activity in ceramics between various centres of production and wealthy consumers. Therefore, it is impossible to determine whether it was made in Persia and imported to Raqqa, or made in Raqqa after exposure to wares from Seljuq Persia. Its “Eastern” features and its similarity to the *laqabi* wares reveals a strong Persian influence in either case.","provenance":"Possibly Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"Salim ‘Adil ‘Abd al-Haqq, Director General of Antiquities and Museums in the 1950s, referred to this figurine as the “Horseman of Raqqa” in the *Syrian Archaeological Annals*. It was found along with two others in a man-made pond during archaeological excavations in Raqqa. The pieces were then sold and taken to Paris where this figurine was deposited in a French bank. In 1949, after negotiations with the French government, the Horseman was returned to Syria and the National Museum of Damascus.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.161.  \nDelpont, E. (ed), *L'Orient de Saladin: l'art des Ayyoubides*, Paris, 2001, pp.56–8; fig. 53.  \nPapadopoulo, A., *Islam and Muslim Art*, New York, 1979, p.429; fig. 413.  \nRice, D. T., *Islamic Art*, London, 1965, p.131; fig. 131.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004, pp.56–9.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Earthenware; ceramics; horse; polychrome; Raqqa; Aleppo; Paris; Salim ‘Adil ‘Abd al-Haqq; M. E. de Lorey"],"materials":["Earthenware, polychrome painted."]},"385662fc-85ab-5e90-a9e6-c6b945d3350c":{"name":"Egyptian mummy","short_description":"Romanian politician and doctor Nicolae Kretzulescu, his wife and their daughter spent the winter of 1868-1869 in Egypt at the invitation of the German consul, whose wife was Mrs. Kretzulescu’s aunt. They were very well treated by Isma'il Pasha, khedive of Egypt, who offered them a three weeks’ cruise on the Nile and put at their disposal a translator, all on his expenses. Before they left Egypt, Isma'il Pasha gave Kretzulescu a sarcophagus with an Egyptian mummy, which according to a description made by French Egyptologist Auguste Marriete, belonged to Bes-An, priest of Ammon from Thebes and dated from the 16th century BC. Back in Bucharest, Kretzulescu invited prince Carol of Hohenzollern to see the mummy and then donated it to the National Museum of Antiquities.","type":"Mummy","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"22nd dynasty (c. 950–730 BC); beginning of the 20th century","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"388495f6-3f6d-567c-a227-5d28fc8523c3":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"The cosmetic palette in slate is fish-shaped, as are many other objects found in both men and women’s graves in Egypt. It is linked to the practice of painting bodies with colours, probably for magical belief. The palette comes from a tomb excavated by David Randall-MacIver in 1902, who subsequently donated it to the Pigorini Museum in Rome. Along with the palette were found three clay scale models of ships. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" decided to increase the Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada II; excavated in 1902","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 15cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Slate"]},"38ac8909-b6b3-578f-84ca-ee3dab9091b2":{"name":"Ma’in mosaic.","description":"Ma\\`in lies west of Madaba and was the last inhabited village on the road that led to the hot springs of Baaru (modern day Hammamat Ma\\`in) and Callirhoe (modern day Zara). During archaeological excavations carried out in 1973 by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan a monastic complex with a church was uncovered on a hill to the southwest of Ma'in.  \n  \nAt the site some floor mosaics were found, the most significant of which was that in the nave of the Acropolis Church, dated by its inscription to AH 100 / AD 719–20.  \n  \nThe mosaic measures 9.5 m x 16.5 m and includes a central panel framed by borders of varying widths (some measure over two meters wide). One border consists of yellowish squares and black ellipses; another is composed of acanthus scrolls that depict hunting scenes showing wild animals and pastoral motifs; most of this type of imagery was damaged during the iconoclastic period (carried out by decree of the Emperor Leo in AH 221 / AD 726) and replaced with floral motifs. Another of these borders depicts a series of buildings surrounded by fruit trees; it includes 11 buildings each with a toponym in Greek identifying them as representing the cities on the east and west banks of the Jordan River. These cities were all bishoprics except for Ma'in itself, which was included here purely out of civic pride.  \n  \nThe central field is composed of geometrical designs and figures; the figurative imagery suffered intensive iconoclastic damage and was replaced by motifs such as, for example, a basket filled with fruit and a boat with its sail unfurled; a bull, which was destroyed and replaced with a tree, but its hind hooves and tail, a front hoof and its hump are still visible. To the east of the nave there is a rectangular panel with a flower border, it has an inscription, enclosed in a tabula ansata that sits between a geometric motif and three wreathes formed by a grape vine emerging from a small jar.  \n  \nThere is another less well preserved floor mosaic in the room to the north of the church which measures 6.8 m x 3.5 m. This mosaic once comprised three panels: in the central panel only the upper part of a medallion with interloped circles still exists; in the eastern panel a tail, two paws, a bush, a hoof, a hump and the points of two horns can still be detected, above there is an inscription in Greek. This mosaic was damaged by iconoclasts; in its original state it would have depicted a Zebu and a lion facing a tree, but these were replaced by a bush to the left and a jar to the right. The leaves of the central tree were also replaced.","short_description":"Mosaic floors of the Acropolis Church at Ma’in, dated by an inscription to AH 100 / AD 719–20. The nave includes depictions of 11 buildings representing cities in Jordan and Palestine, as identified by Greek toponyms. All figures were damaged by iconoclasts and carefully replaced with various motifs.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Park.","dates":"Hegira 100–101 / AD 719–20.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"9.5 m x 16.5 m.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was dated by its dedicatory inscription, dating it to the Umayyad period (100-101 /719–20). Regards the repairs to the original mosaic, the style of the repairs indicates that the artists who laid the original mosaic were also the people who carried out the systematic iconoclastic damage, made obvious by the identical style of the fruit trees in the original mosaic and the tree that replaced the bull in the central field of the post-iconoclast mosaic.","method_for_provenance":"The mosaic was found in a church that belonged to part of a monastic complex on a hill to the southwest of Ma'in.","provenance":"Ma’in, Jordan.","obtention":"This mosaic floor was found during excavations carried out at the site in 1973. For the purposes of conservation it was lifted from its original site and is now at the Madaba Archaeological Park.","bibliography":"Piccirillo, M., *The Mosaics of Jordan*, Amman, 1993, pp.195–204.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., \"Le antichita bizantine de Ma'in e dintorni\", *Liber Annuus*, 35, 1985, pp.339–64.  \n  \nSchick, R., *The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study*, Princeton, 1995, pp.398-400.  \n  \nDe Vaux, R., \"Une mosaïque byzantine à Ma'in (Transjordanie)\", *Revue Biblique*, 1938, pp.227–58.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghada Al-Yousef","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Church; iconoclasm; inscription; mosaic; nave; tesserae; topoynm"],"materials":["Mosaic."]},"3a0eac5c-b039-57d4-9958-f23bbfce364b":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Group of Musicians’.","description":"Music making and dancing is a recurring theme in the frescoes at Qusayr ‘Amra. In the north-east spandrel of the central aisle, near the entrance to the audience hall, is a depiction of a female dancer and three musicians: a tambourine player, a flutist, and a third-badly damaged player, holding a cymbal. The flutist wears a tight-necked long garment with an all-over pattern of double circles, diamonds and florets. The garment is held at the waist by a girdle knotted at the side with two strands. The flutist holds the flute to his mouth with two hands.","short_description":"This fresco is located near the entrance to the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra; it depicts a female dancer and three musicians: a tambourine player, a flutist, and a player holding a cymbal. Music and dancing is a recurrent theme at Qusayr ‘Amra.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescoes date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is located near the entrance to the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, plates VI a-b.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr ‘Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.66-67.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Audience hall; fresco; music"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"3ef00d87-7d99-5046-8489-348689e5698a":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Hunting Scene’.","description":"A hunting scene that occupies the entire upper register of the western wall in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra. The scene depicts a group of onagers within a fenced enclosure; they are being driven towards a net where they will be trapped. Alongside the fence are a number of puppet-like figures holding torches, apparently to scare the animals into the trap.  \n  \nIn between the onagers (seemingly running at full speed) one can detect three men mounted on galloping horses; the horseman on the extreme left (south) side has just fallen off his horse. This scene, rendered with so much feeling for movement, savours strongly the hunting scenes in the mosaic pavements of Piazza Armerina in Sicily, and in Tunisia, for unlike Sassanid hunting scenes where the king appears as the central figure and the aim of the scene is to glorify the king and his prowess, the hunting scene at Qusayr ‘Amra depicts hunting as a pleasurable pastime and thus comes closer to the Mediterranean representation of hunting. What may well be a sequence to this scene is represented on the north wall of the eastern bay. The panel here depicts the trapped animals being speared and disembowelled by hunters, who are bare-footed and wear knee-length tunics with long, loose sleeves.","short_description":"This fresco is in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra and depicts a group of onagers driven through a fenced enclosure towards a net. Rendered with a sense for movement, similar to Mediterranean scenes, it shows hunting as a pleasurable pastime.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sassanid emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is inside the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, p.61; plates XX–XXII, XXX–XXXI.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.85–114.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Fresco; Hunting scene."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"3fb68c28-e2b3-5087-9283-6b67b63e3936":{"name":"Wellhead","description":"Wellhead in the shape of an external octagonal and internal semicircular prism, made of sifted reddish clay on which various decorative motifs have been stamped and complemented with green glaze. On a circular and smooth base, a prismatic shape rises, which is reinforced by the moldings that vertically decorate each of the walls, ending at the top with lobed modillions. Two decorative motifs alternate on its eight fronts. The first consists of a decoration of quadrilobed flowers included in a rhomboidal pattern, in the manner of the sebka network, all glazed in green and bordering its contours with manganese oxide. The second has a trilobed arch, whose central lobe is a sharp pointed horseshoe arch, and which houses a decoration with a mirror pseudoepigraphic motif ending in palmettes that end in a twisted stem. It ends, under the mouth of the border, with two borders: the lower one with a stamped seven-point star decoration, on which three bands with incised zig-zag lines and a central one with knife-corded thread, and the upper one contains a inscription in florid Kufic, transcribed by Sahwki Zayed (2015) as *at-tawfiq*, \"The Providence\", repeated five times on each side of the octagon. The presence of this inscription is confirmed in numerous Almohad works, and is common in the Merinid and Mudéjar works, but not in the Nasrid works. Its upper edge, thickened on the outside and rectangular in profile, is octagonal and smooth.  \n  \nSuch wellheads can be understood within the broader development of water management systems in al-Andalus. Methods and objects were introduced and disseminated to optimise the water usage, an essential resource that significantly shaped everyday life. As part of these innovations, systems for water collection, distribution, and storage were devised. Among these, wells played a key role in accessing underground water, and wellheads such as this one were installed both in public spaces and in domestic courtyards.","type":"Wellhead","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","owner":"Spanish State","initial_owner":"Unknown / Daniel Aguilera Camacho (owner of the Córdoba house)","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th century / AD 12th–13th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height: 70cm, inside diameter: 55cm, outside diameter: 70cm","place_of_production":"Córdoba (attributed)","method_for_datation":"The techniques of stamping and the *cuerda seca* technique (original and innovative technique, created in al-Andalus at the end of the 10th century that will continue to be used in later centuries), become widespread and reach their best expression in the AH 6th - 7th / AD 12th–13th centuries. Decorative motifs such as stars are frequent in pieces from the Almohad, Mudejar and Nasrid periods, throughout the AH 6th - 8th / 12th–14th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"The stamping and the dry rope techniques (which were created in al-Andalus at the end of the 10th century and would continue to be used long afterwards) became widespread and reached their best expression in the Hegira 6th–7th / AD 12th–13th centuries. Decorative motifs such as stars are frequent in pieces from the Almohad, Mudéjar and Nasrid periods throughout the Hegira 6th–8th / AD 12th–14th centuries.","provenance":"House No. 6, Ambrosio de Morales Street, Córdoba.","obtention":"Bought from the antique dealer Apolinar Sánchez Villalba in 1943.","bibliography":"Galván, M. L., “Brocal de pozo morisco”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940-1945)*. Madrid: Aldus, S.A. Imp., 1947: 168.  \n  \nSantos Gener, S., “Nuevos brocales de pozo hispano-mahometanos”, *Boletín de la Real Academia de Ciencias Bellas Letras y Nobles Artes de Córdoba*, Año XV: No. 49 (1944): 71-86.  \n  \nBernus-Taylor, M., “Brocal de pozo”, en Marte Bernus-Taylor (Com), *Las Andalucías. De Córdoba a Damasco.* Exposition presented in the Institut du Monde Arabe from 28 November 2000 to 15 April 2001, Paris: Ed. Hazan-IMA-Fundación El Legado Andalusí, 2000: 148.  \n  \nArias Sánchez, I., “Brocal” en Félix Jiménez Villalba (Dir.), *España, encrucijada de civilizaciones*. México. Madrid: Lundwerg Editores, 2007: 221.  \n  \nShawky Sayed, Z., *Brocales de pozo y aljibes andalusíes y mudéjares*. Doctoral thesis. Univesidad Complutense de Madrid, 2015: 135-137. \\[Date accessed: 3 January 2024 https://produccioncientifica.ucm.es/documentos/5d1df62d29995204f76639e1\\]","dynasty":"Kingdom of Castile","author":"Beatriz Campderá Gutiérrez, Al Blooshi Khuloud","copy_editor":"Judy Harter, Alvaro Miranda","translator":"Dept. of Medieval Antiquities of the MAN, Ruth Checa","keywords":["Water, dwelling, *cuerda seca* technique, stamped decoration"],"materials":["Clay, kaolin, metal oxide; Stamping, engraving, firing, partial dry rope"]},"42311da9-1496-5d35-a0ea-56b7ce7ff0f7":{"name":"Water pot.","description":"Water pot with everted rim with quadrangular lip, circular mouth, neck in the shape of an inverted truncated cone, globular body with two wing-form handles with an upper protuberance on the shoulder and a convex base. The neck and body are covered in a green glaze and profusely decorated with finger and nail impressions, and stamped with protective signs based on plants (rosettes, palmettes), calligraphic and architectural motifs (horseshoe and trefoil arches). The object has been restored.","short_description":"Almohad pitcher used to store water. The care taken to protect the content of the pitcher is evident from the profusion of prophylactic symbols stamped on it. It includes plant (rosettes and palmettes), calligraphic and architectural (horseshoe and trilobed arches) motifs.","type":"Pot, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira second half of 6th or early 7th century / AD second half of 12th or early 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 70.5 cm, width 59 cm, diameter (of mouth) 28 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the Almohad houses vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–36 / AD 1238. This dating has been confirmed by comparison with similar decorative features on a water jar from Tetuan (Morocco) with an inscription dating it to AH 585 / AD 1190.","method_for_provenance":"Stamps used to decorate this type of water jar have been found in Mértola.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.163.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.150.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; water; daily life; protective signs"],"materials":["Ceramic made from compact greyish straw and paste mix, and made using a combination of coil technique for the lower part and thrown on a wheel for the upper part. It has a stamped decoration and is partially glazed."]},"475e49ee-eb2e-5fd2-a068-1be681fa5929":{"name":"Mercenary’s helmet","description":"It began when a farmer in the canton of Ticino found an old gravestone in 1900. Soon it became clear that what lay buried there was not just a collection of old bones. In fact, there were over 500 such graves, all dating from the Iron Age. About one-fifth of the burials were warriors who had been interred with their lances, shields, swords, and helmets.The Roman Empire had taken to hiring mercenaries to aid its expansion to the north towards the end of the Iron Age. Mercenaries used their own weapons and armour, and the helmet found in the grave has been identified as belonging to a mercenary who came from the Central Alps. The mercenaries would return to their homes after completing their period of service. When they died, they were given a warrior’s funeral as befitted their status, like this man from Giubiasco, whose origins are revealed by the shape of his helmet. It’s all in the shape. Even in archaeology.","type":"Negau helmet","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"50-30 BC (Iron Age)","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 22cm, L: 24cm, Diameter: 27.5cm","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","obtention":"Found in an excavation in Giubiasco (tomb 119)","bibliography":"Pernet, Lionel, Carlevaro, Eva, *et al.*, Musée national suisse (edited by), *La necropoli di Gubiasco (TI). Vol. II. Les tombes de la tène finale et d'epoque romaine*, Collectio Archaeologica 4, Zurich: Schweizerisches Landesmuseum Zürich, Bundesamt für Kultur, 2006; Zurich: Chronos Verlag, 2006.","keywords":["Helmet; Mercenary; Iron Age; Bronze; Excavation; Ticino"],"materials":["Bronze, chased, adorned"]},"47fcbd3c-bf49-59d2-b9ac-7634939dbb18":{"name":"Islamic pottery from Ephesus","short_description":"Excavated by John Turtle Wood, an architect and surveyor. He was employed by the Ottoman Railway Company from 1858. Between 1863–1874 he excavated on behalf of the British Museum at ancient Ephesus, where he discovered the Temple of Artemis.","type":"Ceramics","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"Excavated 1870; 14-15th century","location":"London","provenance":"Turkey","keywords":["archaeology"]},"4ad5424f-dc5c-51b8-ae7b-00f62d3a6860":{"name":"Fragment of a glass floor tile with a plaster base.","description":"A fragment of a glass floor tile that was found amongst a group of glass tiles in the southern wing of the palace, in the formal reception hall no. 9, which was paved with glass tiles. The floor of the hall was first covered with a thick layer of plaster and then green glass tiles were placed on top. The bottom surface of the glass tiles is toothed to allow the glass to be embedded into the plaster. The upper face of the glass tiles is smooth but also wavy to prevent those walking on it from slipping.  \nThe Abbasid period is distinguished by prosperity and extravagance. Historical sources contain references to luxurious palaces, the floors of which were paved with glass tiles. Palace B, located in the Raqqa region, extending to the east of the Euphrates River and bordered by its tributary the Balikh River, is one such palace.","short_description":"The use of glass floor tiles, reminiscent of the glass floor in King Solomon's legendary meeting with Queen Sheba as described in the Holy Qur'an, is here found at the 'Abbasid palaces of Raqqa.","type":"Tile, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 20 cm, diameter 14 cm.","method_for_datation":"An inscription found in the palace refers to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim and scholars date the palace to around 220 / 835.","method_for_provenance":"The tile fragment was found in Palace B and was probably produced *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The tile fragment was found during archaeological excavations undertaken during the 1950s by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.100; fig. 17.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; floor tile; plaster; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Moulded glass; plaster."]},"4aea7da2-77b0-548c-ab58-60e5f4c3f6e5":{"name":"Stele of King Nabonidus","short_description":"Upper part of a stele (once approx. 1.3 m high) with the carved representation of a standing royal figure looking towards right in front of a panel with a cuneiform inscription. Above, there are three symbols of Mesopotamian astral gods (moon disc / crescent for the moon god Sîn, the winged sun for the sun god Shamash, the star for the goddess of love and war, Ishtar). Style of the representation and text are Late Babylonian, and although the name is not preserved, the object can be attributed to the last king of Babylon, Nabû-na’id, who, for ten years, stayed at Tayma, when trying to establish control over Northwest Arabia, most probably because of economic reasons, i.e. his interest in the Arabian long distance trade. The preserved part of the inscription, however, reports on activities in his hometown Babylon.","type":"Arched stele of Mesopotamian type with cuneiform inscription","holder":"Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities, Antiquities and Museums Sector, Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography","dates":"Mid 6th century BC (between 552 and 542 BC)","location":"Tayma, Tabuk Province","dimensions":"Height: 60 cm, Width: 58.5 cm, Depth/Thickness: 13 cm","provenance":"Accumulation of debris east of a former temple building","author":"Jamal S. Omar","keywords":["Stele; Northwestern Arabia; archaeology; Arabian peninsula; Mesopotamia; Babylonia; cuneiform"],"materials":["Sandstone"]},"4cd253cf-44cf-56c0-9d8c-9c6924980524":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘The Family of Kings’.","description":"A fresco situated at the southern end of the audience hall on the lower register of the western wall at Qusayr 'Amra. Much discussed and extremely damaged, the fresco is known as 'The Family of Kings'.  \n  \nIn its original state, the fresco panel depicted six kings arranged in two rows: the most important rulers are in the front row, and the less important ones are at the back. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sassanid emperor; 'Negus', the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Fortunately parts of the scene including the Sassanid king and certain sections of the Byzantine emperor are still preserved. The fresco shows figures extending their hands as if paying homage. The figure to the left–south (the Byzantine emperor), whose head is destroyed, is dressed in an imperial robe decorated with an all-over pattern of small circles; the central figure (the Sassanid king) shows a beardless youth wearing a long robe (*chiton*) with a golden hem and a mantle (*chlamys*) fastened on his right shoulder by a *fibula*. The Sassanid king's crown is not typical and shows a stand topped by two superimposed knobs with a crescent.  \n  \nAs it has already been pointed out by Oleg Grabar (1954), the scene does not stress defeat in the usual Sassanid or Byzantine manner, and therefore might be interpreted as a harmonious representation of a 'Family of Kings'. This scene was also thought to supply the date of the building, since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed by the Umayyad armies in AH 92 / AD 711. It has been assumed that the Qusayr 'Amra complex was built by al-Walid I (r. AH 986–96 / AD 705–15). This date AH 92 / AD 711, however, provides a *terminus post quem* for the construction of the monument and it is more likely that it was built by Al-Walid's nephew and synonym, Al-Walid II, who is known to have lived in the Azraq area.","short_description":"This fresco panel is situated in the audience hall of Qusayr ‘Amra. Its original state depicted the six rulers of Byzantium, Persia, Abyssinia, Spain, China and the Turks, whose names were written in Arabic and Greek. Roderick of Spain ruled only in AH 92 / AD 711 providing a terminus post quem for construction.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being this fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco panel is located in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, plates XXII a-b.  \nCreswell, K. A. C., *A short Account of Early Muslim Architecture*, Revised by J. W. Allen, Cairo, 1989, pp.112–13, plate 69.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.197–226.  \nGrabar, 0, 'The Painting of the Six Kings at Qusayr Amra', *Ars Orientalis*, 1, 1954, pp.185–7.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Fresco; Roderick."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"4e167204-1a3f-5a86-944d-ab0b42f8681b":{"name":"Parthian Monument: the adoption of the Emperors","description":"During his reign, the Emperor Hadrian (figure right) adopted Antoninus Pius (centre left), who in turn adopted the 17-year-old Marcus Aurelius (left) and the eight-year-old Lucius Verus. A head stares from behind Hadrian’s left shoulder, presumably representing the guardian spirit of Aelius Verus, late father of Lucius. A bull is being offered to the gods as a sacrifice.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"After 169 AD","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Width 150 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Ephesos"],"materials":["Marble"]},"4f4aebf4-ad51-596f-8d75-02d79f90d769":{"name":"Sphinx","short_description":"This sphinx was found in Rafiqa, Raqqa’s twin city, in 1924 together with the cock in the David Collection and the figure of a horseman in Syria’s National Museum. As ceramic sculptures, they are unique not only in Syria, but also in the rest of the Islamic world. They are fountain figures, and all have pipes to carry water up to the figures’ heads.","type":"Fountain figure","holder":"The David Collection","dates":"Hegira 2nd half of the 6th century / AD 2nd half of the 12th century","location":"Copenhagen","provenance":"Syria, Raqqa","dynasty":"Zangid","keywords":["Syria; Fritware; zangids; imaginary animal; zoomirphic imagery"],"materials":["Cast, modelled, and carved fritware painted in an opaque white and a turquoise glaze"]},"4f5a9a60-32ea-5f5b-8f48-76aa1c556539":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"This slate palette, characterized by an unusual shape and an articulated decoration along one of the sides, was used to pulverize cosmetics. The absence of information about the context in which it was found make it difficult to propose a dating. Roberto Paribeni (later named superintendent of the antiquities of Rome and Lazio from 1928 to 1933) bought the palette in 1904 from the antique dealer Ghirghis in Quena on behalf of \"Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico\" in Rome. In 1878 Luigi Pigorini decided to enlarge the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", which he directed at the time. The main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, from excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. In 1905 the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin offered more artifacts for purchase. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Bought in 1904","location":"Rome","dimensions":"4.8 x 10 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver; dealer"],"materials":["Slate"]},"5319542a-7b08-534a-801f-e2b18cb78aef":{"name":"Hemispherical plate.","description":"A fragment corresponding to a section of the body including part of the rim and the complete base. The rim has a lip semi-circular in cross-section and the base has a high foot-ring. It is made from pinkish beige paste. Both surfaces are coated in white enamel with a slight sheen. The interior surface has a motif of intersecting lines, painted green, creating eight equidistant spokes radiating from the centre. The quality and fine grain of the paste of this flattened hemispherical plate reflects the sophistication of domestic articles used in Silves in this period.","short_description":"Hemispherical bowl from the Almohad period. It is decorated with a star painted in green consisting of eight evenly spaced spokes radiating from the centre. The quality and finesse of this piece suggest a refined environment and probable domestic use in the town on Silves during that time.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","dates":"Hegira 6th–7th  century / AD 12th–13th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 6.4 cm, diameter (of rim) 22.6 cm, diameter (of foot) 7.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"From its archaeological context, stratigraphy and style.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in the castle at Silves directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Inventory number: Cast. Q 110/C3-3.","provenance":"Castelo de Silves.","obtention":"It has been housed in the museum since the excavation carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"Gomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.62.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII),* Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., 'Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcáçova', *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia*, Lisbon, 2004, p.402.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade"],"materials":["Enamelled and glazed ceramic with decoration of intersecting lines in a star."]},"55179813-b0e7-5c56-9d77-119429fc40fd":{"name":"Human head.","description":"Face of a man in his prime. A part of the head and the right side of the face are damaged. The man wears a moustache and a very full beard. The curls of his beard end in circular, shell-like orifices. The iris of the eye is indicated by a fragment of iridescent glass, ovoid in shape. This work has its roots in an ancient North African tradition. It brings to mind numerous stelae dedicated particularly to Saturn, which share the frontal aspect, the beard and the importance accorded to the eyes. However, the statue does bear a strong resemblance to the bas-relief of the prince and the musician found at Mahdiyya. The face appears Oriental but the absence of clothing obviates any definite conclusions.","short_description":"This plaster sculpture shows the face of a man in the prime of life. The style and emphasis of the eyes, forehead and beard are reminiscent of numerous stelae dedicated to Saturn, and the piece also presents some similarities to a piece found in Mahdiyya.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 16 cm, width 12 cm, thickness 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya.","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.258.  \n*Tunez, Tierra de Culturas* (exhibition catalogue), Valencia, 2004, p.220.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Carved plaster."]},"55ec1f26-ba55-52bc-a1b6-556c48ff41e4":{"name":"A bronze Greek cross.","description":"The Christian cross is a familiar religious symbol. Its significance lies in the belief that the governor of Judea executed Jesus Christ on a large wooden cross. The cross was the first of the instruments of the passion that came to be venerated in the form of a relic.  \n  \nThis bronze cross is of Greek form, decorated with concentric incised circles on each arm and on both faces of the cross. Two of three iron nails are still preserved on the vertical arm while the third, at the bottom, is missing.  \n  \nIt seems that this cross was nailed to a wooden box as a reliquary in the Church of St Stephen at Umm al-Rasas. The upper part of the vertical arm is broken into two pieces and has been mended recently.  \n  \nThe importance of this cross is linked to its discovery at the Church of St Stephen, which was paved with mosaic floors in AH 138 / AD 756, according to the dedicatory inscriptions on either side of the altar. The inscription is significant because it indicates that there was an active Christian community present at Umm al-Rasas six years after the end of the Umayyad period and after more than a century of Islamic rule in the region.","short_description":"A bronze cross of Greek form from the Church of St Stephen at Umm al-Rasas, decorated on both faces. This cross was probably nailed to a wooden box by three iron nails, two of which are still preserved on the vertical arm.","type":"Cross, Greek, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira, first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, width 6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The cross was dated by a dedicatory inscription discovered at the Church of St Stephen.","method_for_provenance":"The cross was discovered at Umm al-Rasas during archaeological excavations but where it was originally manufactured is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The cross was acquired by the Museum as a result of an archaeological excavation carried out at Umm al-Rasas by the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, on-going since 1986.","bibliography":"Desreumaux, A., et Humbert, J. B., *Khirbet es-Samara. Contribution à l'épigraphie syro-palestinienne*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan XXV, 1981, p.50, type Ec, Pl. XVI.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., and Alliata, E., *Umm al-Rasas Mayfa'ah I: Gli scavi del complesso ecclesiastico di Santo Stefano*, Jerusalem, 1993.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; cross; Christian community; dedicatory inscription; Greek form; incised; religious symbol; religious object"],"materials":["Cast bronze."]},"5628ecb6-07a3-5d56-a952-4ec168b169ea":{"name":"Spindle","description":"Spindle, made of stone or bone that has been shaped into a rounded rod tapered on each end. This tool was used in hand spinning to twist threads into fibres drawn from the distaff.","type":"Spindle","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3500-3000 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 2-5cm","method_for_datation":"Excavation team in Jericho","provenance":"Jericho","obtention":"Excavation/Jericho","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Stone / bone"]},"56acaf8e-1d2d-5882-9b67-7d024e5744ff":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Dancers’.","description":"A fresco in one of the compartments of the apodyterium (vestiary) at Qusayr ‘Amra. The apodyterium is covered by a tunnel-vault, which is divided into diamond-shaped compartments by frescoed leafy bands, containing an agglomeration of isolated pastoral scenes. One compartment depicts a female dancer dancing to the accompaniment of a flutist. She wears a long undergarment indicated by a band of dark red colour. The whirling folds at the bottom of her skirt suggest motion which is accentuated by the raised left arm and the tilt of her head.  \n  \nOn the intrados of the western arch in the audience hall, near its southern curve, is another dancing woman. She is naked except for a loin cloth, and wears wristlets, armlets, and a bracelet. The figure, although voluptuous, shows vivid movement, achieved through the active twist of the body, the counter-poised position of the arms, and the forward-thrust of the right leg, all of which acts to accentuate the sense of motion. Her vigorous movement is reminiscent of one of the dancing bacchante from the 'Bacchic Procession' now at Madaba Archaeological Museum.","short_description":"One fresco is in a compartment of the apodyterium (vestiary) at Qusayr ‘Amra and depicts a female dancer and a flutist; on the intrados of an arch in the audience hall is another dancing woman. Both show movement reminiscent of images of dancing bacchantes.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"One of the fresco panels is in the apodyterium, and the other is in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, platesXLII b-c.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.67–8.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; fresco; dance"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"574ec553-46f8-5bdf-871c-23a4e10a1779":{"name":"Bellino copy","short_description":"Hand drawing by Bellino of BM 22502. Bellino’s technique produced wonderfully accurate copies, despite the fact that cuneiform was not yet deciphered.","type":"Drawing","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"c. 1810–1820","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; drawing; archaeology; exploration; collection; collector; museums; travel; traveller; inscription"]},"57af1dd9-6f7e-59ac-a49a-549fb3d6d750":{"name":"Bowl","short_description":"Probably used to keep cosmetics, the artwork is part of the purchases bought by Roberto Paribeni (later Soprintendente alle antichità di Roma e Lazio, 1928–1933) in 1904 from Ghirghis, the antiquities dealer in Quena, on behalf of \"Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico\" in Rome. In 1878 Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", decided to expand the museum’s Egyptian archaeological collection. The main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from the Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Stone bowl","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Second Dynasty; purchased in 1904","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Height 3.4 cm; diameter 7.5 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver; dealer"],"materials":["Breccia"]},"58b37312-2a63-52d9-9118-d73987819f0b":{"name":"Plate with metallic glaze.","description":"A bowl with a circular base and curved sides. The cruciform decoration is set off by four green areas glazed with copper oxide which cover the area outside the cross. The cross itself is decorated with dotted and stylised leaves and bordered with four twisted-rope motifs set within parallel lines.  \nThis plate is the only example of passementerie decoration that we have for this period. There are no other similar objects in Mesopotamian ceramics of this era, which could mean that this is an Ifriqiyan artefact. The floral decoration is quite similar to that of the wooden half-dome of the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan and also to the braiding found on Kairouanese bookbinding of the AH 3rd–5th / AD 9th–11th centuries. However, there is undoubtedly a connection in the colouring and the decoration between this piece and the façade tiles of the *mihrab* of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. The Mesopotamian origin of these tiles is firmly established. The metallic-glazing technique is a Muslim innovation which spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt in the early 3rd / 9th century and probably reached Ifriqiya in the second half of that century. It moved through the Maghreb and on to Spain before reaching Europe in the AH 6th or 7th / AD 12th or 13th centuries.","short_description":"The lustre technique originated in Mesopotamia, spreading to Egypt and Ifriqiya, the Maghreb and Spain, before finally conquering Europe. The floral decoration and the colours used in this dish are reminiscent of the demicupola of the *mihrab* in the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, late 3rd–early 4th centuries / AD 9th–10th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 9.2 cm, diameter 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece comes from the excavation sites at Raqqada, a city founded in 263 / 876, which survived until the middle of the 5th / 11th century. Unfortunately, the excavations were never published and the archives do not include the reports of the excavation which would have identified the different stratigraphic layers. However, the colouring and decoration of the piece are typically Aghlabid. It would appear from the evidence of this example and of mosaic flooring found on site that the ceramists had achieved a considerable mastery of the technique of metallic glazing, which could not have reached Ifriqiya before the middle of the 3rd / 9th century. This evidence would allow us to date the piece from the last quarter of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"As the decoration of this plate fits in the Ifriqiyan repertoire, it is plausible to consider that it was produced at the workshops in Kairouan","provenance":"The Raqqada excavations.","obtention":"This piece was found on the site of the Raqqada excavations during the 1960s. From 1966 it was on display at the museum of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, transferring to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1994, p.127, plate no. 65.  \n*De Carthage a Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.223, plate no. 301.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.249.  \nLings, M. and Safadi, Y.-H., *The Arts of Islam* (exhibition catalogue), London, 1976, p.216.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–5.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed and polished ceramic."]},"5dcd5e36-d273-5b03-a8de-93f266c0b45c":{"name":"Floor painting.","description":"Islamic art began as a continuation of elements from previous periods that were common and well-known in the area. This panel offers a clear example of the influence of Roman myths. It was painted using the *secco* technique, where the paint is applied only after the plaster is dried and then the plaster is remoistened with a bit of water. This panel covered the floor of the reception hall in the west wing of the Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which is located in the Syrian Desert between Damascus and Palmyra.  \nThe panel is rectangular with a vine-scroll border and allegorical figures. A female portrait within a circular frame dominates the composition. She faces the viewer in a frontal position. Her face is welcoming and in her hands she offers a cloth filled with colourful fruits. She wears a necklace around her neck beneath which a snake coils. Archaeologists consider the woman in this painting to be Gaea, the mother-goddess of Roman mythology who emerges bountifully out of the Earth. The circle surrounding her is defined by two white lines filled-in in red and accentuated by smaller white circles, each containing a bouquet of flowers.  \nThe upper part of the painting shows two “marine centaurs” that are half man and half beast. They are surrounded by foliage and both grasp a spear in their left hand and reach out with their right. In the lower part of the painting there is a group of animals, including two cranes, two foxes, and a dog.  \nThis floor painting belonged in the reception hall, and in the upper section of it there are traces of the round column that stood on top of it.","short_description":"This fresco painting comes from the Umayyad palace Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in the deserts of Syria. It displays an image from classical Roman mythology, the earth goddess, Gaea, signifying bounty and fruitfulness. It also indicates artistic and cultural continuity from Late Antiquity to early Islam.","type":"Floor, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 5.21 m, width 4.43 m.","method_for_datation":"The floor, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription on the door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace. The lintel carries the date AH 109 (AD 727) and indicates that the complex was built by Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik.","method_for_provenance":"The floor painting was produced *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert, 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The floor painting was discovered during the 1936 French excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was led by archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. It was the discovery of this site that led to the development of the Islamic Arts section in the Damascus National Museum. This floor painting, along with the palace's plaster façade which now adorns the museum's entry, were prepared for relocation at the National Museum during the 1940s. The Umayyad wing was formally inaugurated in 1950.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962, p.35.  \nGrabar, O., *Formation of Islamic Art*, New Haven, 1987, fig. 88.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria,* California, 2004, p.71; fig. 22.  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, XIV, plate 35.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Qasr; desert palace; floor painting; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Daniel Schlumberger; Gaea"],"materials":["Plaster, painted using the *secco* technique."]},"5fc4c91c-9fc3-5456-98a6-0dd4aa412e7f":{"name":"Water jug.","description":"Fragment of a water jug with a curved everted rim, circular mouth and neck shaped as an inverted truncated cone with a central moulding, which is joined to the body by a vertical handle with an oval cross-section. The body is globular with a zoomorphic tubular spout rising from its shoulder. The overall design suggests the shape of an animal with a long narrow neck such as a camel or dromedary, whose hunched back forms the neck of the vessel. It is decorated with fine lines of white painted plant forms on a reddish background.","short_description":"Spout and neck from a water jug, whose shape is reminiscent of an animal with a long, thin neck such as a camel or a dromedary, with the hump being the neck of the jug. It is decorated with fine, phytomorphic lines in white paint on the red background of the piece.","type":"Jug, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Hegira end 5th – beginning 6th century / AD end 11th – beginning 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 22.5 cm, width 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects with similar decoration in the west of the Al-Andalus region.","obtention":"It was found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.110.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.108.","dynasty":"Taifa or Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; water jug; zoomorphic"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from fairly coarse reddish paste, modelled on a wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"60cbffe7-3b9d-561d-b0f5-035566910673":{"name":"Bone needle","description":"Carved bone needle which could have been used for preparing leather, weaving and basketry.","type":"Bone needle","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"8800-6900 BC Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 4cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"612c0f2a-80e1-56d4-ad55-7c2f2f82cb8d":{"name":"Bowl with golden-brown metallic glaze.","description":"This deep bowl with round base and curved sides is decorated with scrolls of foliage and stems with palm leaves. They interweave exuberantly, revealing a bunch of grapes. Clearly defined rings divide the decoration into concentric areas, but the overall effect is one of unity and uninterrupted movement, enhanced by the harmony of the golden-brown motifs against the cream background. The space is well-covered but not overloaded.  \nThe formula for producing ceramics with a golden glaze has been roughly described since the AH 6th / AD 12th century. Red ochre (iron oxide or *almazzaron*) is added to a precisely measured mixture of copper and silver. This mixture is then diluted with vinegar. The golden-glazed ceramics which spread throughout al-Andalus from the AH 7th–8th / AD 13th–14th centuries were in vogue in Egypt at the same time. Both floral and animal decorations were used. The discovery of this bowl of al-Andalus origin in Tunis has highlighted the importance of the trade established from the AH 7th / AD 13th century between Ifriqiya and Muslim Spain.","short_description":"This is a typical example of the golden-glazed ceramics that spread through al-Andalus and Egypt from the AH 7th / AD 13th century, combining floral and zoomorphic motifs. The discovery of this dish of Andalusian origin in Tunis underlines the importance of trade between Ifriqiya and Muslim Spain.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Sidi Qasim al-Jalizi Museum.","dates":"Hegira, 7th–8th centuries / AD 13th–14th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Height 9.5 cm, diameter 21 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece was discovered in a cistern during the digs at the *Kasbah* in Tunis in the early 1980s. It was found buried next to other Hafsid plates and bowls dating from the 7th and 8th / 13th and 14th centuries in a tank containing 270 pieces.","method_for_provenance":"Its Andalusian origin was established by comparison with other pieces. The workshops of al-Andalus were indeed producing similar bowls during the 7th and 8th / 13thand 14th centuries.","provenance":"Al-Andalus.","obtention":"After its discovery at the *Kasbah* excavations, this bowl was kept in Tunis at the National Patrimony Institute at Dar ibn Khaldun and then was selected for display at the Sidi Qasim al-Jalizi Museum in 1978.","dynasty":"Hafsid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glazed ceramic; floral decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"614be63b-02e7-5f3d-b90a-32e42c8270fa":{"name":"Cast of a Neo-Hittite relief","short_description":"Plaster cast of a Neo-Hittite relief. The original was excavated at Carchemish by Hogarth, Woolley and Lawrence between 1911 and 1913. The originals, since damaged, are now in Ankara.","type":"Cast","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"8thC BC; Exavacted 1911–13","location":"London","provenance":"Turkey","keywords":["archaeology; museums; collection; collector; relief"]},"615a7562-84b5-53a8-94c7-e0939cd2dc65":{"name":"Perforated baton with incised wild horses","description":"15,000 years ago, towards the end of the last Ice Age, human beings found an ideal campsite under a rock spur in Canton Schaffhausen. Here they ate, drank, worked flint stones, and did sewing work. The campsite was discovered in Herblingen, a district in the town of Schaffhausen, in the nineteenth century. Among the finds was a perforated baton made from reindeer antlers, featuring two incised wild horses. It is one of the oldest figurative representations ever found in Switzerland. It would be interesting to know what the baton was used for in the late Stone Age. Archaeologists assume that it served ritual purposes in connection with hunting. Drawing was considered a thaumaturgic act through which humans hoped to gain control over wild game and thus enhance their hunting luck.","type":"Perforated baton","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Paleolithic","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 29,4cm, W: 4,3cm, Depth: 2,4cm, Weight: 152g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Schaffhausen","obtention":"Found in the 19th century, purchased in 1894","keywords":["archaeology; Paleolithic; perforated baton"],"materials":["Reindeer antlers; incised"]},"63946b1b-16ea-516e-a633-bafee1467d3f":{"name":"Ionian capital from the *Ptolemaion*","description":"This fragmented capital, displaying a Greek-scrolled valuta and a wealth of floriform decoration on the cushion, originates from the so-called Ptolemaion, a gateway built in Samothrace for the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus.","type":"Architectural sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"3rd century BC; excavated in 1873–1875","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 38 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Samothrace; Alexander Conze"],"materials":["Marble"]},"66718328-7241-56c8-a45c-d60aff5e7c2d":{"name":"Cup with inscription.","description":"Cup with inverted bevelled rim, circular mouth, body in the shape of a bi-truncated cone with low carination, a vertical handle oval in cross-section which joins the carination to the rim, and a flat base with a diagonal foot-ring. The decoration was made using the partial *cuerda seca* technique, with the calligraphic motif drawn with a line of manganese and filled in with green glaze. The text is incomplete although we can read in *kufic* characters *baraka kamila \\[wani\\]ma ^sa\\[mila\\]* – 'full blessing and total happiness'. The sentence is not accompanied by any secondary motifs. This is one of the oldest objects with partial *cuerda seca* decoration conserved at Mértola and its ornamental and calligraphic style are somewhat different from the other objects which we can date to the AH 6th / AD 12th century. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Cup decorated in part using *cuerda seca* with a *kufic* inscription reading ‘*baraka kamila \\[wani\\]ma sa\\[mila*\\]’ (‘full blessing and total happiness’). It suggests the need to protect the content of this piece of tableware from Mértola Castle.","type":"Cup, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Hegira second half of 5th or beginning of 6th century / AD second half 11th  or beginning 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 10.2 cm, width 10.2 cm, diameter (of mouth) 9.1 cm, diameter (of base) 5.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to either the end of the Taifa period or the Almoravid era through stratigraphy.","method_for_provenance":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the Castle of Mértola.","provenance":"Al-Andalus.","obtention":"This is a type of ceramic made in various regions of al-Andalus, but whose production has not yet been recorded in the west of the Iberian Peninsula.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Taifa or Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; cuerda seca; calligraphy; inscription"],"materials":["Ceramic made with coarse-grained straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated with the partial *cuerda seca* technique."]},"6ad7e7f5-5b8d-5bfc-afb9-c3c90a19d9a8":{"name":"Vase.","description":"Vase with vertical bevelled rim, circular mouth, cylindrical neck, globular body, with two grooved strap handles with a pinnacle-shaped protuberance at the top which join the neck and belly of the vessel, and a convex base with diagonal foot-ring. It shows remnants of the base of a filter between the neck and body. The exterior is decorated using the partial *cuerda seca* technique, in which only some parts of the design are filled with green or greenish honey-coloured glaze and others with dotted lines. The decoration is divided into six successive horizontal bands of plant, wavy and calligraphic motifs. On the rim is a narrow border of schematic palmettes. Most of the neck is occupied by a wide band with large lotus flowers, and below this is a frieze of tooth-shaped motifs. On the shoulder is a calligraphic ornamental border in which the word '*baraka*' is repeated several times in florid *kufic* script and, on the belly, a band of phytomorphic medallions. Next to the base is a frieze of palmette leaves. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Almoravid or Almohad pot decorated in part using *cuerda seca*. The decoration is arranged into six successive horizontal bands with plant, undulating and calligraphic motifs. The lotus-flower motifs and the band inscribed with the word ‘*baraka*’ in flowery *kufic* script are particularly noteworthy.","type":"Vase,ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 34.8 cm, width 32 cm, diameter (of mouth) 17.8 cm, diameter (of base) 13.4 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated by comparison with objects of similar form, decorative technique and theme, in particular from Almería and Málaga.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns in which they were made have been found, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.89.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Ceramic made from porous pink paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated using the partial *cuerda seca* technique."]},"6af07b8a-a412-5ec3-a872-6ecb7dc189c5":{"name":"Disc fibula","description":"This brooch, called a fibula, belonged to a woman living in what is today the canton of Solothurn around the year AD 600. It is made of gold and set with semi-precious stones. The fibula was used to fasten a cloak over the wearer’s chest – a fashion the Germanic tribes had brought to Switzerland. The Germanic migration not only brought changes in fashion, customs, and diet to Switzerland, but also multilingualism. While the Alemannians imposed their own language on the north of the country, the Germanic tribes of the Langobards and Burgundians in the south and south-west adopted the Latin language of the local population. So it is thanks to the Germans that Switzerland is divided into German-speaking and Romance-speaking residents today.","type":"Fibula","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Around AD 600","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"Depth: 0,3cm, Diameter 2,8 cm, Weight: 6,6g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Oberbuchsiten, Canton Solothurn","obtention":"Found in Oberbuchsiten. Bought in 1909","keywords":["Disc fibula; Early Middle Ages; Jewellery; Solothurn"],"materials":["Filigree decoration, Inserts with semi-precious stones (garnet)"]},"6e327e6c-97a6-5021-bdda-e534a67a0765":{"name":"Reserve head","description":"The *Reserve head* is one of the major works of the Viennese collection, found in an early tomb in the burial grounds of Giza. Though stylized, the visage is still full of life, with simultaneously idealized and very regular features. Scholars still disagree about the purpose of this type of object. Traditional explanations proffer their use as surrogate heads for the soul (mummifying having then been only in its earliest stages).","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"4th Dyn. c. 2600 BC; acquired by Hermann Junker during his excavation in Giza 1912–1929","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 27,7 cm, B 17,3 cm, Diameter 24,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Giza; Egypt; Hermann Junker"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"703bcca9-4c28-508b-8d25-b6f6138c138c":{"name":"Fresco on the Cupola.","description":"The caldarium or hot room in the *hammam* (bath) at Qusayr ‘Amra has a fresco of the constellations on the cupola; the earliest surviving representation of the stars on a spherical surface. The painting was apparently copied from a manuscript and transferred to the cupola. A number of errors in the placement of the constellations indicate the painting was executed by someone who was not familiar with Astrology.","short_description":"The fresco of the constellations on the cupola of the caldarium at Qusayr ‘Amra is the earliest surviving representation of the stars on a spherical surface. A number of errors in the placements indicate that the painter was not familiar with astrology.","type":"Cupola, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr ‘Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco decorates the cupola in the caldarium of the hammam at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Beer, A., 'The Astronomical Significance of the Zodiac of Qusayr Amra', in K. A. C. Creswell, *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1, Oxford, 1932, pp.296–303.  \nBrunet, J.-P., 'The Fresco of the Cupola of Qusayr Amra', *Centaurus*, Vol. 40, 1998, pp.97–123.  \nSaxl, F., 'The Zodiac of Qusayr Amra', in K. A. C. Creswell, *Early Muslim Architecture*, Vol. 1, Oxford, 1932, pp.289–94.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Astrology; caldarium; constellations; cupola; Fresco"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"736a018e-a855-56c6-a0e4-184b1dba4cd5":{"name":"Male head","description":"South Arabia (Yemen) has always been famous for its incense. The cultivation and widespread trade of this desirable product turned Yemen into a very important region with a highly autonomous culture. This kind of head, sculpted on tombstones, portrayed the subject partly as abstract idealization and yet in a very naturalistic way.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"Beginning of 1st millenium AD South-Arabia; brought to Vienna by Edward Glaser in 1882–1894","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 24 cm, Width 12,5 cm, Diameter 11,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Yemen; Eduard Glaser; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Alabaster"]},"758017b1-e777-564d-bac6-2f8e62ea8bad":{"name":"Bowl.","description":"An open bowl with a circular body on a flat base. The rim is semi-circular in cross-section, marked and slightly inverted.  \nThe ceramic is made from very light-coloured almost white paste, with a brown, almost sepia decoration. The surfaces have slips in the same colour as the paste.  \nThe decoration is centred on the inside of the object with a star-shaped or flower motif which spreads out from a broad circle decorated with a geometric pattern inside. Small semi-circles with a dot in the centre form a border around this circle, interspersed with groups of three lines which radiate outwards and are repeated seventeen times.  \nThe rim of the bowl was also decorated with stripes of the same colour, in seven sets of small dashes producing a very subtle effect.  \nThis type of decoration is common on the inside of similar pieces, but also on the outer walls of small pots. A very similar decoration has been observed on ceramics from Vilamoura (Loulé, Algarve, Portugal) and on ceramics unearthed in the Castle at Silves.  \nIn the archaeological excavations carried out at Silves, this type of ornamentation was not found in objects from archaeological levels dating after the AH 4th / AD 10th century.  \nThis may be a locally produced object.","short_description":"The elegance of the geometric motif on the inside of this bowl is particularly noteworthy, depicting a star or flower in the centre radiating from a circle containing a geometric bar motif. The whole is reminiscent of traditional formulas from the region, characteristic of indigenous art.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 2nd–3rd century / AD 8th–9th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Hegira 2nd–3rd century / AD 8th–9th century.","method_for_datation":"From its archaeological, stratigraphic and typological context. The date attributed (2nd–3rd / 8th–9th century) is disputed by Cláudio Torres, of the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola, who believes that it is probably a later piece, in comparison with others coming from the region of Gharb al-Andalus.","method_for_provenance":"An excavation carried out in the courtyard next to the cistern in Silves, directed by Mário and Rosa Varela Gomes. Inventory number Q 41/C3-silo 1.","provenance":"Courtyard adjacent to the cistern (now Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum), Silves.","obtention":"Housed in the Museum after the excavation that was carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1998, p.162–3.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.54.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., “Silves (Xelb): Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcáçova”, *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia,* Lisbon, 2004.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["trade; floral decoration"],"materials":["Ceramic modelled on a wheel, with a star-shaped decoration."]},"78a0a931-9669-5643-bd59-4f57da550407":{"name":"Relief","description":"Cereals and olive oil were the bases of the local diet, wealth and trade. Their production expanded in al-Andalus thanks to technical innovations such as hydraulic and irrigation systems. Their implementation facilitated the control of agricultural cycles and changed working methods. Farming expanded into arid lands, increasing and diversifying harvests. The diversity of cultivated grains –wheat, rye, etc.– made it possible to develop multiple recipes for bread, an essential food shared by the whole of society.","type":"Relief","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","initial_owner":"Unknown","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height: 30cm, Width: 22.2cm, Thickness: 7.5cm","place_of_production":"Madinat al-Zahra","method_for_datation":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra.","method_for_provenance":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain","obtention":"The fragment was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the Comisión Provincial de Monumentos of Córdoba on 18 April 1901.","bibliography":"Hidalgo López, R. et al., “Elaboración de pan según indicaciones documentales hispanas de fines de la Edad Media”, *Meridies. Estudios de Historia y Patrimonio de la Edad Media*, 14, 2023: 7-33.  \n  \nRevilla Vielva, R., *El Patio arabe del Museo Arqueológico Nacional*. Descriptive catalogue, Madrid: Imprenta de Estanislao Maestre, 1932: 19, fig. 17.","workshop":"Madinat al-Zahra workshops","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus","author":"Helena Lahoz Kopiske","copy_editor":"Alvaro Miranda","keywords":["Agriculture; Technical innovation; Diet; Trade"],"materials":["Limestone; carved, bevelled"]},"7a7a871e-70a7-5428-91b9-c5c8fd581ce1":{"name":"Ishtar Gate","short_description":"The Museum of the Ancient Near East, dating back to 1899, considers itself as a place where cultures of the region can be studied, but also as the custodian of the rich excavation finds from German field studies. The most eminent examples of the custodial work are the Processional Way and the Ishtar Gate of ancient Babylon, of whom only the foundational walls were exposed during excavations in 1902. Only after thousands of fragments had been put together, the reconstruction could be integrated into the museum.","type":"Gate; archaeological find","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum, State Museums","dates":"605–562 BC; excavated in 1902","location":"Berlin","author":"Stefan Weber"},"7aeb03eb-d2c3-50a9-9ca0-0776ebf921fd":{"name":"Sarcophagus of the mourning women","short_description":"In the Sarcophagus of the Crying Women, found at the Royal Necropolis in Sidon like the Alexander Sarcophagus, nothing could be found other than the bones of its owner and a bronze belt buckle, since it had been robbed in an earlier time. From the partial traces on the marble that remained until today, it is understood that it had been dyed in blue and red initially. It is the best example of the group called by archaeologists \"Sarcophagi with Columns\", and it is considered as a final resting place, like the \"Mausoleum of Halicarnassus\" or the \"Nereid Monument\", rather than a tomb. Its architectural features were used in the architecture of the old building of the İstanbul Archaeological Museums. It is an example of Greek sculpture displaying Eastern influences. The shaved heads, bare feet, ragged clothes of the figures and their movements and expressions of sadness are features of Semitic societies. It is thought to be the sarcophagus of the King of Sidon, Straton (374-358 BC), who was said to have led a life of pleasure. The sarcophagus has the shape of an Ionian temple.","type":"sarcophagus; archaeological find","holder":"Istanbul Archaeological Museums","dates":"It is thought to be the sarcophagus of the King of Sidon, Straton (374-358 BC)","location":"Istanbul","provenance":"Sidon","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Sarcophagus Sidon; The Hellenistic Period; Istanbul Archaeological Museums"],"materials":["Stone work"]},"7ca1dc85-dab9-5c72-9c8c-cd23bd775961":{"name":"Bone awls","description":"Bone awls made of animal bones, were polished to use for weaving. These implements were also used for piercing and sewing leather.","type":"Bone awls","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"10200-5000 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 6cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Neolithic","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Bone"]},"7eacd600-e860-593a-aed7-a9329d9d9011":{"name":"Fragment of the Parthenon frieze","description":"The climax of the Greater Panathenaia, the chief festival of Athens, held in honour of Athena, was a procession which ended with the presentation of the newly woven *peplos* (a woman’s garment) to the tutelary goddess of the city. This is the subject of the frieze around the cella of the Parthenon, the temple on the Athenian Acropolis. This fragment depicts the garment being handed over in the presence of the goddess.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"c. 440 BC","location":"Vienna","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Athens; Acropolis; Franz Ferdinand"],"materials":["Stone"]},"8181fe27-473a-532e-986e-e0786c511a39":{"name":"Aquamanile in the form of a ram.","description":"This standing animal sculpture has lost its front paws, ears and horns. With its long neck and head too small for its body, it exudes a feeling of great strength. On its breast is a crescent which seems to have a medicinal significance. Around its neck it wears a collar, decorated with an incised saw-tooth pattern, from which the crescent hangs. The eyes are circles sculpted around globular protrusions for the iris. This aquamanile was probably a fountain-head embellishing one of the local palaces or large houses. The water ran up a tube from under the ram's belly and emerged from the open spout of its mouth.  \nThis example can be included within a whole series of animal-shaped aquamaniles discovered in various Muslim countries, especially Egypt and Spain. They were generally deer, dogs or birds.","short_description":"Aquamaniles were probably used as fountain heads to decorate palaces and grand residences. This example belongs to a series of aquamaniles in the shape of animals, usually stags, dogs or birds, found in some Muslim countries including Egypt and Spain.","type":"Aquanmanile, metalwork","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira 4th–early 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Bardo.","dimensions":"Height 32.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This aquamanile has definite affinities to other pieces found at Madinat al-Zahra, dating from the mid-4th / 10th century, and in Egypt, dating from the 5th century (11th). From the Ifriqiyan historical context and the simple decoration the piece can be dated to somewhere between the 4th–early 5th / 10th–11th centuries.","method_for_provenance":"This piece was a fortuitous discovery made at Beni Khalad probably during the 1930s. In spite of its resemblance to the aquamaniles of al-Andalus, its Ifriqiyan origin appears beyond doubt.","provenance":"Ifriqiya(?).","obtention":"This piece was presented to the Museum by the Friends of the Bardo in May 1941, where it has been on display since.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.271.  \nZbiss, S. M., *Actes du congres national des societes savantes*, Alger, 1954, p.303.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Cast-bronze."]},"84046e76-f5c4-58c1-bb91-359397489ded":{"name":"Fragment of an ivory dagger.","description":"A triangle-shaped ivory dagger that is broken with some pieces missing. Finely decorated with flora, fauna and architecture, it has incised decoration on both faces. On one side there is a central palm tree together with a trace of the columns that form an arch either side of it and a lamp hanging in the middle, unfortunately the upper part of the arch is missing. The other side depicts a she-camel with her young. Similar architectural motifs to those used on this ivory dagger appear on the steatite vessels found at the same site.  \n  \nBackgammon dice and other ivory objects were found together with this piece in the same area of excavation. The function of such an object is not entirely clear but it was probably a decorative element used in the palace.","short_description":"Fragment of a carved triangular ivory dagger from al-Fudayn in Mafraq. It is finely decorated with flora, fauna and architecture on both faces. Backgammon dice and other ivory objects were found together with this piece, the function of which is not entirely clear.","type":"Dagger, ivory, arms, armours","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Length 28 cm, width 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context and association with other Umayyad vessels.","method_for_provenance":"Where this object was produced is unknown but it was found during archaeological excavation work at al-Fudayn, a site located in Mafraq.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was obtained in 1986 during an archaeological excavation that took place at al-Fudayn in Mafraq which lies about 70 km north-east of Amman.","bibliography":"*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.369, fig. 355.  \n  \nZabern, P., *Der Königs Weg: 9000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur in Jordanien und Palästina*, exhibition catalogue, Mainz, 1987, p.350.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Architecural motifs; camel; floral decoration; arms; armours; weapon"],"materials":["Cut and incised ivory."]},"8473d6b1-ff39-54e8-aa27-a77f671d0068":{"name":"Lower half of a sculpturesque high relief.","description":"This is one of a prominent group of sculpturesque high-relief representing human figures, animals, and vegetal motifs found in Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. It consists of the lower half of a man sitting on a throne with his feet on a small stool. The stool is in the shape of a colonnaded portico that is supported by seven arches that rest on pairs of pillars. While other statues in the palace appear to be based on Sassanid prototypes, some prominent historians have also linked this figure with those at Qusayr Amra, which show clear Byzantine or Mediterranean influences.  \nThere is speculation that the figure represents Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik who commissioned the building of the Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi complex. This is based on the fact that the statue exhibits luxurious clothing with traces of red, green and brown paint. The building under his feet symbolises his power and the extent of his rule. It is clearly intended to emphasise the glory and majesty of the ruler.  \nSculptures in stucco are part of the pre-Islamic Iraqi, Iranian and Central Asian tradition. Extremely high-relief pieces such as this, or even stand-alone sculptures in the round, are a new development in this tradition, although they can be compared to the relief sculptures found in Palmyrene tombs of ancient Syria.  \nThis sculpture was located on the second floor of the palace, along the interior façade that overlooks the courtyard colonnade.","short_description":"Although fragmentary, this figurative carving in high-relief may have represented the Umayyad Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik dressed in Persian-inspired royal garb and sitting on his throne.","type":"Relier, stone","holder":"National Museum of Damascus.","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira about 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 1.06 m, width 0.9 m.","method_for_datation":"This object, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscription on the lintel of the door of the *khan* adjoining the palace, which carries the date 109 (727).","method_for_provenance":"The object was found and probably carved *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The object was found during the archaeological excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi completed by the French Expedition of 1936 under the direction of Daniel Schlumberger.","bibliography":"Ettinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and*  \n*Architecture 650–1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.44; fig. 52.  \nGrabar, O., *Formation of Islamic Art*, New Haven, 1987, fig. 80.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986.","dynasty":"Umayyad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Umayyad; desert palaces; statue; sculpture; Daniel Schlumberger; limestone; Sassanid"],"materials":["Carved limestone."]},"893326f6-9a4d-57db-bdf6-56796de6ef99":{"name":"Fragment from a carved wooden piece.","description":"In the Raqqa region one can find fragments of wood that once decorated the formal halls of its Abbasid royal palaces. It is possible to classify these fragments into three types according to their techniques of decoration. The first group is adorned with relatively realistic coloured and gilded carved ornamentation that includes floral and calligraphic motifs. The second group is carved in a slanted manner so that the edges of the carved objects appear curved and not sharp. The examples of this group are influenced by the Abbasid Samarra motifs identified as \"Samarra Style C\". The third group, to which this piece belongs, has decorative motifs carved in a vertical manner so that the panel appears to have an upper surface and a lower background. The decorative carving is flat with sharp edges and the groove to the background is deep, as can be seen in the small deep holes indicating the circular part of the calligraphic letters. The piece is decorated with Arabic *kufic* script that reads “Commander of the Faithful.” It seems to have been partially burned in a fire.","short_description":"This calligraphic wooden panel with its sharp vertically carved angles and deep circular grooves is one example of the many carving styles that were developed in the Abbasid period and spread throughout the region.","type":"Woodwork, panel, wood","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Around hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 43 cm, width 13 cm.","method_for_datation":"The carving technique used on this wood fragment is distinctly Abbasid-Islamic and was developed during the Abbasid period in Iraq and Syria.","method_for_provenance":"The wooden piece was discovered in the vicinity of the Abbasid palaces in the Raqqa region, and therefore it is assumed that it was made *in situ*.","provenance":"Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The piece was accidentally discovered by a resident of the Raqqa region during the early 1950s. He presented it to the archaeological expedition working there at that time.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.158.  \nAndalucia, J., de- (ed), *El esplendor de los Omeyas cordobeses*, exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Wood; carved; Raqqa; Samarra; kufic script"],"materials":["Carved wood."]},"8c32bee4-0f68-56fc-9da8-59caa6e72f6d":{"name":"Cup/Bowl.","description":"An open vessel, hemispherical in shape. It has a slightly everted semi-circular rim, a foot-ring, and is made from light-coloured paste. The surfaces are enamelled with polychrome decoration. In the centre there is a simple and charming depiction of a lotus bulb which is a symbol of eternal life. This type of piece, from its shape, especially its ring foot, indicates Iberian production in imitation of an oriental style. In addition to the decorated base the rim of the object also has a discontinuous decorative wavy line interrupted in three places.","short_description":"Bowl made in the Iberian Peninsula based on oriental models. This AH 4th / AD 10th century piece has a quite naïve representation of a lotus bulb in its centre, a symbol of the eternity of life.","type":"Cup, ceramic","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 4th century / AD 10th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 4 cm, diameter (of rim) 15.6 cm, diameter (of base) 6.8 cm.","method_for_datation":"On the basis of its archaeological context and ceramics of a  similar style.","method_for_provenance":"Excavation carried out in Silves in the courtyard next to the cistern, directed by Mário Varela Gomes. Inventory number Silves 3, Q37 – C3.","provenance":"Courtyard adjacent to the cistern (now the site of Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum), Silves.","obtention":"Housed in the Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum after the excavation carried out in the 1980s.","bibliography":"*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo,* 1998, p.98.  \nGomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.57. (37)  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \nGomes, R. V., “Silves (Xelb): Uma cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus: A Alcaçova”, *Cadernos do Instituto Portuguès de Arqueologia*, Lisbon, 2004, p.402.","dynasty":"Umayyad of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["floral decoration"],"materials":["Ceramic with polychrome decoration."]},"8d436c70-8d15-5b93-b5b5-044a974ad60d":{"name":"Cooking pot.","description":"Pot with vertical straight rim with flattened lip and external flange, circular mouth and cylindrical neck. The body is shaped like a truncated cone with sharp carination close to the base. It has two strap handles with a central ridge and convex base. There are horizontal incisions around the rim, neck and body and fire marks indicate that it was used in cooking. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Kitchen implement with an extremely simple form and very little decoration. This type of pot was found in an Almohad oven excavated in Mértola and appears almost exclusively in this region, which helps to identify it as a local product.","type":"Pot, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Early Hegira 7th century / early AD 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 21.5 cm, width 35 cm, diameter (of rim) 23.5 cm, diameter (of base) 19 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"This type of pot has been found in an Almohad kiln excavated in Mértola and is almost exclusive to this region. This indicates that it was produced locally.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.107–67.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.155.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["daily life; cooking; food"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"8e2d8258-5733-5cff-a71b-a0329ecb34b2":{"name":"Portable stove.","description":"A portable stove consisting of an upper or fire chamber, a grate and a lower chamber or ash collector. The upper chamber has a vertical rim or moulding into which another object is fitted, a circular mouth, a cylindrical body with sharp carination, holes to ventilate the fire and two vertical strap handles with a conical protuberance at the top. The grate is convex with circular openings between the upper chamber and the ash collector, which is almost cylindrical with an oval opening and flat base. It is decorated with a cord of impressed fingernail marks at the point of carination, three parallel wavy incised lines and white paint on a reddish background which traces interlacing vertical and horizontal lines. The object has many fire marks from its use as a portable stove for cooking or heating. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Kitchen utensil from the Almohad era, probably produced locally. The stove consists of an upper (or fire) chamber, a grill and a lower (or ash) chamber. This type of item has been used up to the present day in this region.","type":"Stove, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira early 7th century / AD early 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 22.2 cm, width 33.5 cm, diameter (of mouth) 29.2 cm, diameter (of base) 15.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"This type of object was usually traded locally. Moreover it is a very common form in the region, with technical and formal characteristics typical of items produced in Mértola.","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.107–67.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica Decorada Islámica de Mértola”, in *VI Colloque International sur la Céramique Médiévale en Méditerranée, Aix-en-Provence, 1995*, Aix-en-Provence, 1997, pp.311–25.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Contenedores de Fuego en el Garb al-Andalus”, in *Actas do III Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular. Vila Real de Trás-os-Montes, Setembro de 1999, vol. VII: Arqueologia da Idade Média da Península Ibérica*, Porto, 2000, pp.421–34.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.155.","dynasty":"Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["fire; daily life; kitchenware; domestic vessels; furnishing"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from moderately fine reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an alternating oxidising and reducing atmosphere."]},"8ecca203-295e-576b-be2c-1ce60f86ab0e":{"name":"Erstfeld treasure","description":"The Erstfeld (UR) treasure is discovered by chance in a rock crevice in August 1962. The extraordinary assemblage is one of the most prominent masterpieces of Celtic goldsmithing. It consists of four torques and three arm rings made of high-carat gold (up to 95%) weighing 640 g in total. The rings are decorated with figural friezes, plant motifs and mythical creatures. One of the motifs shows the «Lord/Lady of the wild animals»: this deity is widely known, both in the Celtic tradition and in the mythology of the Mediterranean region.The gold rings are made in the 4th century BC in a workshop on the Swiss Plateau or in southern Germany. The gold treasure is quite probably a votive offering to a deity to ask for a safe crossing of the Alps.","type":"Neck ring","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"4th century BC","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H/L: 16.3cm, W: 13.5cm, Diameter: 17.3cm, Weight :128.7g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic and typological analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Erstfeld","obtention":"Found in Erstfeld, Switzerland","dynasty":"Iron Age","keywords":["archaeology; Erstfeld treasure; neck ring"]},"90ac8914-3124-5940-a90b-536222104ba2":{"name":"Pergamon altar","short_description":"The Pergamon Museum building owes its name to a spectacular finding in Turkey. The story of this discovery of the past starts in 1864 with the German engineer Carl Humann, who urged the Berlin museums to undertake proper excavations when he saw local lime burners burning ancient remains on the acropolis. The subsequent research unveiled important remains of Hellenistic art. With the museum opening in 1930 and the architectural reconstructions of the Ancient, Hellenistic, Roman and Islamic Middle East the museum developed in one of the most famous institutions of its kind.","type":"Altar; archaeological find","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art at the Pergamon Museum, State Museums","dates":"170 BC; discovered in 1864","location":"Berlin","author":"Stefan Weber"},"91accd64-ec4c-56b4-b2f4-b293a427f8c4":{"name":"Carved figure of a mammal.","description":"This mammal looks like a cow with no horns or like a hippopotamus with no tail. The lower part of the two hind legs and of one of the fore-legs is also missing. Face on, the features are quite clear but highly simplified; just rough cavities for the eyes, a hole to indicate the nostrils and a hollowed-out line for the mouth. Seen from the back, the face is totally unrecognisable. The neck and the rest of the body are thick-set. It is unclear what this animal was used for. Could it have decorated the facade of a wall or have been part of a bas-relief? This is very difficult to ascertain because of the rarity of such objects in both Occidental and Oriental Muslim art. We do have clay figures of horses, camels and mules from Iran and Samarkand, but their function is well-defined. They were used as toys or ornaments and are completely different from Kairouanese figures, which are unique in Muslim art.","short_description":"This animal figure in stucco appears to be a bull with no horns or a hippopotamus with no tail. The purpose of this mammal is unknown, given the rarity of such objects in Islamic art. Kairouanese figurines are entirely different.","type":"Mammal, stucco","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 33 cm, height 16 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya.","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.226  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1986, p.257.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Stucco."]},"94369548-7782-52b0-adae-f3a0d1f1caf6":{"name":"Lower part of a semi-naked female statue.","description":"The lower part of a semi-naked female figure found at Qasr al-Mushatta. Carved out of limestone, the figure has a drape over her thighs the edge of which she holds with her left hand along with a basket or bag. In her right hand she holds an unidentified object.  \n  \nThe proportions of this female figure are curvaceous and voluptuous. Such figures obviously flouted Muslim principles and were not supposed to be seen by the public.","short_description":"The lower part of a semi-naked female figure found at Qasr al-Mushatta. Carved out of limestone, the figure has a drape over her thighs. Such figures flouted Muslim principles and were not supposed to be seen by the public.","type":"Statue, stone","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 75 cm, width 52 cm.","method_for_datation":"Qasr al-Mushatta, where this figure was found, dates to the end of the Umayyad period (first half of the 2nd / first half of the 8th century).","method_for_provenance":"The figure was found within the Umayyad palace of al-Mushatta.","provenance":"al-Mushatta, Jordan.","obtention":"The figure was found during the course of restoration work and an archaeological excavation that was carried out in 1962 by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan at the Umayyad palace of al-Mushatta; the object was then transferred to Jordan Archaeological Museum.","bibliography":"Enderlein, V., and Meinecke, M., *Mschatta-Fassade*, Berlin, 1992, p.144, fig. 8.  \n  \nTrumpelmann, L., 'Die Skulpturen von Mschatta', *Archaologischer Anzeiger*, Berlin, 1965, pp.235–76; A1.1–4 (for other sculptures from al-Mushatta).","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative representation; statue; stone; women"],"materials":["Carved limestone."]},"952ab9d3-ae66-55d8-89bd-8e1f14d55203":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Tall Standing Woman at the Edge of a Pool’.","description":"A fresco on the central section of the lower register in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra that depicts a remarkably tall woman standing at the edge of a pool. She is naked except for a loin cloth and is decked with wristlets, armlets, and a necklace with pendants around her neck; another, longer necklace with three pear-shaped pendants hangs between her rounded breasts. Her right arm is lowered, slightly bent towards her right thigh, while the index and little finger of her right hand are extended; the left arm is raised and bent towards her shoulder as if pulling back a curtain behind her. A turban covers her hair with a circular pin at the front.  \n  \nThis female bather puts on a really bold display, evidently much admired by the crowd of figures watching from behind a balustrade in the left arcade. Behind her to the right is a gesturing attendant. In the background is an impressive architectural vista: a two-storey arcade with a curtain and balustrades, which may well represent pool architecture similar to that of the palace forecourt at Khirbet al-Mafjar in Jericho. The central position of the tall, semi-naked woman, her size and her attitude all indicate that she must have been an important personage, perhaps the favourite concubine of the patron of Qusayr ‘Amra.  \n  \nThis bathing beauty brings to mind images of the Goddess of love, Aphrodite, whose image may have served as a source of inscription for this panel.","short_description":"This fresco is in the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra and is inspired by images of Aphrodite. Her central position, size and attitude indicate that she was an important personage, perhaps a favourite concubine of the patron.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly al-Walid II (AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira first third of the 2nd century / AD second third of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of china and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a *terminus post quem* for construction of the monument.","method_for_provenance":"The panel is located on the western wall of the audience hall at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr ‘Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"The fresco is *in situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., et al, *Qusayr 'Amra: Residencia y baños omeyas en el desierto de Jordania,* Madrid, 1975, p.56; p.102; plates XVIa, XIX a-b; XXa-b.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, Los Angeles, 2004, pp.227–47.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Audience hall; bath; fresco."],"materials":["Fresco."]},"9550bb5f-dcd9-54bc-a521-b59609c24581":{"name":"The Tavira Vase.","description":"Vessel made from red clay.The sides, sloping slightly outwards, become thicker at the top to form an invisible channel through which water could pass after having been poured into a kind of funnel-neck which stands out clearly from the overall piece. The water would run through the channel and then be poured into the interior of the vase through eight of the 14 figurines standing around its edge.Two armed and mounted knights, accompanied by a dismounted archer, stand on either side of a woman also on horseback. Then come two musicians, who would have been part of a quartet, now incomplete. This set of human figures was followed by five animals, four of which remain: a bovine, a camel, a deer or gazelle, another camel and a lion. A flock of doves is perched on the funnel-neck.This is an extraordinary piece of popular art probably representing the ceremonial abduction that took place before a wedding ceremony, in which the animals are intended to be an allegory of good fortune for the couple. The water coming from the eight gargoyles would be for a shrub planted in the vase, possibly basil as this plant was associated with the cult of love in Iberian and Mediterranean traditions.","short_description":"This pot, an example of popular art, represents the ceremonial abduction enacted before a wedding ceremony. The human figures (woman, crossbowman, knights and musicians) are accompanied by animals, intended as a good omen for the newly weds. The pot would have contained a plant.","type":"Vase, ceramic","holder":"Tavira Municipal Museum.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th or beginning of 6th century / AD end of 11th or beginning of 12th century.","location":"Tavira., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 36 cm, width 42 cm.","method_for_datation":"By stratigraphic references and typological comparison with related artefacts.","method_for_provenance":"Collected during archaeological excavations directed by Maria and Manuel Maia, near the Porta de D. Manuel in Tavira.","provenance":"Tavira, Portugal.","obtention":"Deposited in Tavira Municipal Museum following archaeological excavations.","bibliography":"Maia, M., “O Vaso de Tavira e o Seu Contexto”, in *Actas do Colóquio Internacional sobre Portugal, Espanha e Marrocos. O Mediterrâneo e o Atlântico*, Faro, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nTorres, C., *O Vaso de Tavira*, Mértola, 2004.","dynasty":"Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Cláudio Torres","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["vase; Tavira; ceramic; firing in an oxidising atmosphere; wheel; modelled; popular art; wedding; marriage"],"materials":["Ceramic fired in oxidising atmosphere, made on the wheel and modelled."]},"96da7333-2414-5c15-9ce1-3664f7119887":{"name":"Mummy board and inner coffin for Nes-pauti-taui","description":"An entire set of coffins was made in Thebes for the Amun priest Nes-pauti-taui. The mummy board and both coffin lids bear the same decorative scheme. We see enormous ornamental collars of foliage and flowers. The hands are separately applied and hold the djed-pillar and the Blood of Isis. The faces and wigs are also superimposed.","type":"Woodwork","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"21st Dyn, c. 1000 BC; excavated in 1891","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Mummy Board: Length 173cm, Width 36 cm; Coffin: Length 183 cm, Width 50 cm, Height 35,5 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Theben; Egypt; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Wool covered with linen cartonnage; painted, vanished"]},"98897be0-18bb-5f36-beaa-b28285fbeb42":{"name":"Earring.","description":"The main pendant-ring has an opening for insertion in the earlobe. Attached at the lower edge of this ring and pointing downwards are three spheres, each joined to the other and each extended at the base into cylindrical projections. These forms are decorated with radial grooves and lateral bands. Pointing upwards from the same lower part of the ring is a short spoke coiled at the top. Its purpose is unknown.  \nThese spherical shapes may well occur in some Muslim jewellery from both Eastern and Western areas, but we have not found anything similar to the Raqqada earring in the various collections that we have seen. Only a very few pieces of jewellery from the early centuries of Islam survive. Tombs have not yielded much and Islamic religious institutions do not have treasures like Christian churches do.  \nThe dearth of documentation makes affiliation, evolutionary research and the dating of new finds within a coherent series very difficult. Things become clearer from the AH 5th / AD 11th century.","short_description":"Although their spherical shape is similar to other Eastern and Western Islamic jewellery, these earrings are different from Raqqada Zirid and Fatimid pieces in their technique and decoration. Only a small quantity of jewellery has survived from the early centuries of Islam to enable them to be dated.","type":"Jewellery","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira 3rd–early 4th centuries / AD 9th–10th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 2.2 cm, width 2 cm.","method_for_datation":"This earring was found during the excavations undertaken in the 1960s on the Raqqada site. Raqqada was founded by the Aghlabids in the year 263 / 876. Its active life as a city continued up to the mid-5th / 11th century, when it was sacked by the Hilalian tribes. So the date of the earring could fall anywhere over the span of these two centuries. We unfortunately do not possess any information as to which archaeological layer the piece came from. However, this piece is technically and decoratively different from Fatimid and Zirid pendants. It has a more archaic and a definitely more classical appearance, which leads us to date it to between the 3rd and the early 4th centuries (9th to 10th centuries).","method_for_provenance":"Archaeological find.","provenance":"Unknown. Probably of Ifriqiyan fabrication.","obtention":"The earring was discovered on the Raqqada site, this earring was kept at the Institut National du Patrimoine de Kairouan. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada in 1993 and displayed there.","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Adornment; geometric decoration; jewellery"],"materials":["Chased gold leaf."]},"9894288e-e20a-599a-a609-d59380647196":{"name":"Floor mosaic","description":"During refurbishment of the villa in the late 18th-century, commissioned by Marco Antonio IV Borghese, the architect Antonio Asprucci decided to entirely relay the floor of the “Room of the Hermaphrodite” with ancient mosaics, a popular custom at the time, and whose decorative impact was powerfully suggestive. In fact, for visitors, the interior of a room with its authentic “mosaic carpet” covering the floor, became both an integral part of the modern refurbishment and a museum object. For the assemblage, which took place in 1781, Asprucci used mosaics from the excavation of a large Roman thermal complex situated in Castellarcione, a property of the Borghese family, located on Via Tiburtina at Bagni di Tivoli, not far from the famous Villa Adriana. The most ancient part of the mosaic, “little stars” on a white background (constructed from four black tiles juxtaposed in a form similar to a star), is surrounded by a frame, reproducing a polychrome meander. At the centre of the room, a panel, produced later, depicts a fishing scene, surrounded by multiple frames of braid motifs with acanthus leaves in the corners. A second panel, from the same period and depicting another fishing scene, is placed on the step in the window recess. The fashion for using authentic mosaic tiles to recall Antiquity is characteristic of the last decades of the 18th century. This is demonstrated in various buildings of the era, such as the Pontifical Galleries (for example the famous Sala Rotonda of the Pio-Clementino Museum with mosaics of the 3rd century BC) and in aristocratic residences, such as in the noble Cabinet of Palazzo Altieri in Rome.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Borghese Gallery","dates":"200 BC‒AD 300","location":"Rome","dimensions":"455cm x 685cm","method_for_datation":"Based on stylistic analysis, the part of the mosaic with “little stars” on a white background framed by a multicolour meander is from the 1st century BC; the “emblemata” with fishing scenes is from BC 200‒AD 300. The assemblage was made in 1781.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance is documented in the description of the Villa of 1796 (see Lamberti and Visconti, 1796).","provenance":"Excavations at Castellarcione near Bagni di Tivoli (Rome)","obtention":"The two panels with fishing scenes come from excavations carried out in the 18th century in Castellarcione near Tivoli, a property belonging to the Borghese family.","bibliography":"Guadalupi, Gianni, et al., “Villa Borghese”, *Grand Tour*, no. 30, Milan, 2002.  \nLamberti, Luigi, and Visconti, Ennio Quirino, *Sculture del Palazzo della Villa Borghese*, Rome, 1796.  \nMoreno, Paolo, and Viacava, Antonella, *I marmi antichi della Galleria Borghese: La collezione archeologica di Camillo e Francesco Borghese*, Rome, 2003.","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","materials":["Marble tiles"]},"9905bf41-30f3-505a-84b5-5d1abdf32a88":{"name":"Jug.","description":"A magnificent squat-shaped applied bronze jug with a high loop handle attached to the body and lid with a chain. Three discs, decorated with incised rosette and concentric circles, form a collar that surrounds the neck and which is nailed to a twisted arm that ends with a curled spiral on the lower part of the handle.","short_description":"An applied bronze jug from a house on the Citadel of Amman. Its high loop handle is attached to the body and lid with a chain. Three discs decorated with incised rosette and concentric circles form a collar around the neck.","type":"Jug, metalwork","holder":"Spanish Mission.","owner":"Department of Antiquities of Jordan.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 40 cm, diameter (of body) 27 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its archaeological context and associated pottery *in situ*.","method_for_provenance":"The object was recovered during an archaeological excavation at Amman Citadel; but where this object was produced is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was recovered curing the course of an archaeological excavation in 1999–2000 in a house that lay south of the mosque on the Citadel of Amman.","bibliography":"Unpublished object: information about this object has been gained through personal communication with Dr Ignacio Arce, Director of the Spanish Archaeological Mission in Amman. Smith, R., and Day, L., *Pella of the Decapolis*, Vol. II, London, 1989, p.69, object no. 350126; plate 38H.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; incision; daily life; geometric decoration; geometric pattern"],"materials":["Applied bronze."]},"9ba14117-d905-597a-95be-0025b3200e4e":{"name":"‘The Younger Memnon’","short_description":"Henry Salt and J.L. Burckhardt donated this colossal bust of Ramesses II to the British Museum in 1817 where it created a sensation and became known as the Younger Memnon. It was removed from the Ramesseum in Thebes by the explorer Giovanni Belzoni, who transported it to Alexandria, from where it was shipped to England.","type":"Statue","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"19th Dynasty; donated to the British Museum in 1817","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; museums; travel; traveller; statue"]},"9e674f9b-6875-58c3-9a9a-b05a50df35bb":{"name":"Bellino Cylinder","short_description":"One of the first objects from Nineveh to reach the West. Studied by Rich’s secretary, Karl Bellino. Bellino was a talented scholar of Middle Eastern languages. His new style of copying set the standard for rigorous study of cuneiform. His life ended tragically short; he died of fever in Mosul in 1820. Many European explorers and excavators lost their lives in the Middle East to disease or one of many other dangers.","type":"Clay cylinder","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC; acquisition date: 1825","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["Cuneiform; archaeology; exploration; travel; traveller; collection; collector; museums; clay; inscription"]},"9ece1ead-7c0b-528b-bdd1-e15c148b868c":{"name":"Medallion","short_description":"In Rome in the 4th century, glass-makers fully exploited the technique of sandwiched gold glass. Religious subjects - predominantly Christian but also Jewish - as well as portraits of families and individuals such as this piece were depicted in gold leaf with stippled and painted decoration. This was then placed between two layers of colourless glass that were fused together.  \n  \nThe identity of the man in this portrait is not known, but the costly process of this technique means it was somebody of high status. Medallions formed by this method were sometimes made as decorative pendants for wearing, but most were set into the base of bowls and dishes to commemorate a special occasion or present as a wedding gift. The portrait disks were later broken out of the dishes to be re-used as grave markers.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"200 - 400 AD","location":"London","dimensions":"Diameter: 4.4cm","provenance":"Italy","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868","bibliography":"Harden, Donald B., et al. (eds), *Glass of the Caesars*, Milan: Olivetti, 1987: 262.  \nHoney, W. B., \"Gold-Engraving under Glass\", *Connoisseur*, 92, (1933): 376, no.5.  \nLiefkes, Reino (ed), *Glass*, London: V&A Publications, 1997: 21-22, pl. 19.  \nWilliamson, Paul (ed), *The Medieval Treasury: The Art of the Middle Ages in the Victoria and Albert Museum*, London: V&A Publications, 1986: 42-43.","dynasty":"Roman Empire","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Gold lead applied to dark blue glass then finely scratched and stippled with a needle point and protected with a fused layer of colourless glass"]},"9fbdeae7-8d2e-57e7-91e7-ef25446597b8":{"name":"Necklace","short_description":"Fishing Communities at Ra's al-Hamra (6000—4000 BC) Archaeologists have identified 14 prehistoric sites in the Ra's al-Hamra area of modern - day Muscat dating from 6,000 to 4,000 BC. The sites, commonly known as shell middens, consist of layered deposits resulting from food preparation and consumption of local species including shells, fish remains and the bones of marine and land mammals. The communities of fisher-gatherers that settled in the Ra's al-Hamra area at this time exploited ecological niches related to the sea and the mangrove stands, and also had access to resources of the interior through Wadi Aday. The material culture of these early communities is represented by finds of tools and ornaments made of shells (pendants, beads and fishhooks), mammal bones (beads, points and gorge hooks) and stones (beads, earrings and lithic industry). This object is another example illustrating the dot-in-circle design.","type":"Archaelogical Artefact","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"4,000 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Length: 19cm, Weight: 25g","provenance":"Ra's al-Hamra, al-Qurm (Muscat Governorate)","obtention":"Ministry of Heritage and Culture Collection","dynasty":"Stone Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Necklace; Jewellery"],"materials":["Chlorite, with shell pendant"]},"9fd48483-773e-56ef-a4ac-80ac9b4f89d0":{"name":"*Ataifor* (bowl).","description":"This *ataifor* is a dish with a convex base, curved sides and a smooth rim. The piece is made from reddish clay; the outside is covered with a honey-coloured greenish glaze and the inside with a white glaze. The inside of the receptacle is decorated with elements in green and manganese on a white base. The large circular border that runs round the edge of the plate, with fan-shaped palmettes joined by undulating stems, gives the piece a tri-lobed appearance. The central strip completes the decoration with an inscription in archaic *kufic*, where the phrase ‘al-Mulk’ (power) is repeated. The letters outlined using dark manganese lines are filled with copper green, creating a contrast with the white base that was common in the ceramics of the era.","short_description":"This bowl or *ataifor*, produced in the palace workshops of Madinat al-Zahra, is thought to have symbolic significance: the word ‘al-Mulk’, ‘the power’, represents sovereignty, while the white, green and black represent the Umayyad dynasty, Muhammad, and the austerity of the Qur’an respectively as well as the sovereignty of the caliph.","type":"Ataifor, bowl, ceramics","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 324–66 / AD 936–76.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 26 cm.","method_for_datation":"The writing style could date it to the second third of the 4th / 10th century. The simple *kufic* inscription belongs to an initial stage of production at Madinat al-Zahra, before the reign of al-Hakam II (350–66 / 961–76).","method_for_provenance":"The *ataifor* came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra. Both its shape and decoration are characteristic of palatine production at Madinat al-Zahra.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"The *ataifor* was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the State on 5 February 1943.","bibliography":"*Al-Andalus: Las Artes Islámicas en España*,Exhibition catalogue, Madrid, 1992, p.232. English edition: *Al-Andalus: The Art Of Islamic Spain* (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York, 1992.  \nCamps Cazorla, E., “Cerámica y Vidrios Califales de Medina Azahara”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940–1945)*, Madrid, 1947, pp.148–54.  \nCastejón y Martínez de Arizala, R., *Excavaciones del Plan Nacional de Medina Azahara (Córdoba), Campaña de 1943.* Informes y Memorias no. 8, Madrid, 1945.  \n*El Esplendor de los Omeyas Cordobeses*, Exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.  \nPavón Maldonado, B., *El Arte Hispanomusulmán en Su Decoración Floral, Madrid, 1981, pp.115–25.*","workshop":"Madinat al-Zahra workshops (Córdoba).","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","author":"Margarita Sánchez Llorente","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Epigraphy; floral decoration; ceramic; patronage"],"materials":["Ceramic; wheel-thrown, fired, green and manganese, glazed."]},"9fdca272-4041-5355-84f2-5cf19779524e":{"name":"Fragment from a mosaic floor.","description":"This panel was part of a 50 sq m mosaic floor. With a border made up of alternate geometric and floral motifs, the main area of the floor consists of a tracery of four-lobed flowers which combine to form various geometric patterns. When the floor was lifted, several panels were shared between various Tunisian museums. In the panel at the Raqqada Museum, red, white and blue-black lines alternate to represent a lilac-leaf in an octagon and four diamond-shaped petals in a circle. These elements are held within a pattern of twisting semi-circular fringes.  \nThis mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art of the Fatimid era. Some historians hold that this example attests to the survival of mosaic art in mediaeval Tunis. The techniques used in the Mahdiyyan mosaic certainly show continuity with the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine North Africa. But evidence suggests that the floor was made by Byzantine artisans or '*Rums*' who were probably taken prisoner during the many armed incursions by al-Qa'im in Italy and Sicily.","short_description":"This mosaic is unique in Ifriqiyan art from the Fatimid era, with some art historians believing that it is a continuance of the ancient traditions of Roman and Byzantine Africa. This panel was part of a mosaic covering some 58 square metres, and it combines geometric forms with floral motifs.","type":"Floor, stone","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","initial_owner":"The Fatimid prince, al-Qa’im.","dates":"Hegira 303 / AD 916.","location":"Raqqada, Kairouan","dimensions":"Length 107 cm, width 106 cm.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was discovered in 1956 during the excavations under a reception room at al-Qa'im Palace. One could logically date it from the building of the palace in 303 / 916 (date confirmed by historical sources) but it could possibly have been constructed at a later date, when we believe improvements and refurbishments to the original building were made. These would have been accomplished during the relatively peaceful period of al-Qa'im's reign and just before the Kharijite rebellion of 332 / 944 that was led by Abu Yazid, known as the 'man on the donkey'.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic, discovered *in situ* at the al-Qa'im Palace, was obviously built there. But we still cannot prove the origin of the artisans who built it.","provenance":"Mahdiyya.","obtention":"After being dismantled at al-Qa'im Palace at Mahdiyya, the mosaic was kept at the Bardo Museum. In 1986 three panels from this mosaic were sent to the National Institute of the Patrimony of Kairouan. In 1993 one of these panels was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada for display in the second section, currently being refurbished.","bibliography":"Ennaïfer, M., “La mosaïque africaine à la fin de l'antiquité et au début de l'époque médiévale”, *Fifth international colloquium on ancient mosaics,* USA, 1994, pp.307–18.  \nLouhichi, A., “La mosaïque de Mahdia: contexte et interprétation”, *Africa*, XX, 2004, pp.143–66.  \nZbiss, S. M., “Mahdia et Sabra Mansouriya: nouveaux documents d'art fatimide d'Occident”, *Journal asiatique,* CCXLIV, 1956, pp.79–93.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.176–7.","dynasty":"Fatimid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"MWNF","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Mosaic; geometric decoration; floral decoration"],"materials":["Limestone *tessera* (mosaic tiles)."]},"9fe1e828-67e2-5249-a654-e86e4a5b6c0c":{"name":"Irrigation bucket","description":"The cylindrical object features a straight mouth and pointed base, with retaining recesses located at the start of the mouth and base. The surface shows traces of hand modelling, leaving indentations on the body in the form of perimeter circumferences and on the base in parallel lines following the conical shape.  \n  \nMade of whitish porous, unglazed clay, it retains traces of *almagra* (reddish pigment) drips on both the exterior and interior. Functionally, such objects can be understood within the context of irrigation and hydraulic systems in al-Andalus. Their development enabled the introduction of new plant species, the expansion of arable land, and the diversification of the diet. These innovations changed working methods, the agricultural cycle, and the landscape.  \n  \nWaterwheels spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula. The waterwheel buckets, which were secured with ropes at the top and halfway down their cylindrical body, underwent technical improvements. These elements reflect a series of small but significant technical advances. The earliest ones, with an annular or pointed bottom, gradually were replaced by others with a perforated bottom that prevented their tilting and breakage in addition to the backward movement of the wheel.","type":"Irrigation bucket","holder":"National Archaeological Museum","initial_owner":"Unknown","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Length: 28.7cm, diameter: 12.2cm","method_for_datation":"Comparative study of typologies; references provided by previous owner.","method_for_provenance":"References provided by previous owner on file.","provenance":"Arcos de la Frontera, Cádiz","obtention":"The bucket was donated to the National Archaeological Museum on 1 January 1987.","bibliography":"Cara Barrionuevo, L. and Malpica Cuello, A. (coord), *II Coloquio Historia y medio Físico. Agricultura y regadío en al-Andalus*. Conference proceedings. Almería, 9–10 June 1995, Almería: Instituto de Estudios Almerienses, 1995.  \n  \nGómez Espín, J.M. and Hervás Avilés, R. M. (coord), *Patrimonio hidráulico y cultura del agua en el Mediterráneo*, Murcia: Fundación Séneca, AECID, 2012.  \n  \nPoveda Sánchez, Á., “Un estudio sobre las norias de sangre de origen andalusí: el caso de la alquiería de Benassal (Castellón)”, *Historia Agraria*, 32 (April 2004): 37-58.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Taifas","author":"Helena Lahoz Kopiske","copy_editor":"Alvaro Miranda","materials":["Ceramic, pigment"]},"a2b5fe1a-f5c9-5895-8b11-f75c5d9b9d7e":{"name":"Sewing needle","description":"A sewing needle shaped from ivory or bone. A large opening called the eye allows the thread to be pulled through the needle to prepare for sewing.","type":"Needle","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3500 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"L: 10cm","method_for_datation":"Unknown","provenance":"Unknown","obtention":"Excavation/unknown","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Ivory / bone"]},"a7d32c3d-fe87-5afb-b350-091e02c5d6d1":{"name":"Pendant","short_description":"This ivory tooth-shaped amulet, decorated with a series of diagonal parallel lines, comes from the excavations conducted between 1900 to 1901 by David Randall-MacIver and Luigi Pigorini. As a result of earlier excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Pigorini, an archaeologist and the director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\", decided to increase the museum’s Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by Randall-MacIver in 1901, from excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905.  The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Amulet","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada I-II; discovered in 1900–1901","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 6 x 9cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Ivory"]},"a7db21f3-7be7-5d4b-8f81-38cd6e153579":{"name":"Glass tumbler.","description":"Found in Palace B, a translucent, honey-coloured glass tumbler that is entirely decorated with floral and vegetal motifs organised in multiple horizontal bands along the edges and alternating vertical fields along the body. The decoration is incised into the glass, incorporating styles that are occasionally found on carved wood or metal from the period, but not usually on glass.  \nTechnically speaking the tumbler is of great importance since the thin, engraved glass was worked with a sharp tool, and although the technique was known in the Roman period, it was usually used in tandem with other techniques. In the Islamic period, however, it was used as a stand-alone technique, and the incisions were cut deeper into the glass.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found there.","short_description":"Although the production and ornamentation of glass in Syria has an ancient heritage, this glass tumbler reveals an example of delicate and precise decoration by incision, a technique which flourished under early Islamic rule.","type":"Tumbler, glass","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 218–27 / AD 833–42.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 8.2 cm, diameter 8.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The tumbler is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27 / 833–41).","method_for_provenance":"The tumbler was found during an archaeological excavation at Raqqa. There is no way of establishing whether it was made locally or imported, as similar glass production flourished in both Baghdad and Damascus.","provenance":"Probably the Raqqa region, Syria.","obtention":"The tumbler was found during archaeological excavations undertaken by a delegation from the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities during the 1950s under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.253.  \nAbu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., “Incised Islamic Glass,” *Archaeology* 24:3, 1971, pp.202–  \n3.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994, p.420; cat. no.  \n312.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982, pp.276–7; plate 251.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; tumbler; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Incised glass."]},"a80ae3b6-0e85-5e1b-93e6-f4552c3eac51":{"name":"*Ataifor* (bowl).","description":"This *ataifor*, with a ring in the base and curved sides, is made of yellowish material and coated with a white glaze. The inside is decorated in green and manganese. The decorative theme is made up of a large circular border running round the edge of the plate in which it is possible to see the remains of a *kufic* inscription with the phrase ‘al-Mulk’ (power). The decoration is finished with two narrower strips that cross in the centre, with markings that appear to be a simplification of *kufic* writing but that are in fact meaningless. The decorative technique used, epigraphic motifs in copper green and manganese black visible through the white glaze, produces an impressive chromatic effect.  \nMadinat al-Zahra was the most important centre for the production and distribution of ceramics glazed and decorated in green and manganese during the Caliphate. Ornamentally, the clarity of the design and the austerity of the compositions, with extensive areas of the base undecorated, differentiates them from other works produced at the same time in al-Andalus.  \nThe function of this type of ceramic is still unclear, but what is clear is that production at Madinat al-Zahra constituted a fundamental technological advance. The use of copper and manganese oxides in the decoration and the glazing, which made the containers waterproof and stopped liquids soaking the earthenware, created a type of special crockery which was considered a luxury.","short_description":"Found in an archaeological dig at the palatine city of Madinat al-Zahra, this bowl or *ataifor* would have been part of the domestic crockery at the caliph’s home. This can be inferred from the inscription ‘al-Mulk’, ‘the power’, presumably referring to the power of the caliph.","type":"Ataifor, bowl, ceramics","holder":"National Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 324–66 / AD 936–76.","location":"Madrid","dimensions":"Height 7 cm, diameter 22 cm.","method_for_datation":"The *kufic* script belongs to an initial stage of production at Madinat al-Zahra, before the reign of al-Hakam II (350–66 / 961–76).","method_for_provenance":"The piece came from archaeological excavations at Madinat al-Zahra. Most of the ceramics are characterised by an open not a closed shape, and the majority of them are *ataifors*. The phrase ‘al-Mulk’, related to Umayyad power and legitimacy, is the inscription most frequently found in this type of ceramic.","provenance":"Córdoba, Spain.","obtention":"The *ataifor* was given to the National Archaeological Museum by the State on 5 February 1943.","bibliography":"Camps Cazorla, E., “Cerámica y Vidrios Califales de Medina Azahara”, in *Adquisiciones del Museo Arqueológico Nacional (1940–1945)*, Madrid, 1947, p.154.  \nCastejón y Martínez de Arizala, R., *Excavaciones del Plan Nacional de Medina Azahara (Córdoba). Campaña de 1943*. Informes y Memorias no. 8, Madrid, 1945.  \n*El Esplendor de los Omeyas Cordobeses*, Exhibition catalogue, Granada, 2001.","dynasty":"Umayyads of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","author":"Margarita Sánchez Llorente","copy_editor":"Rosalía Aller","translator":"Laurence Nunny","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Geometric decoration; epigraphy; ceramic"],"materials":["Ceramics; wheel-thrown, fired, green and manganese, glazed."]},"a8912ca5-9dcf-581c-885c-df8260626ef3":{"name":"Plate with battle scene.","description":"Round-based plate. The rim is ribbed on the outer wall and slopes slightly outwards. The glaze has been applied direct onto the grey clay with no slip coating. Shape and technique are typical of Ifriqiyan ceramics of the high Middle Ages.  \nThe plate is illustrated with a battle scene in which horsemen at the gallop brandish shields in their left hands. This stylised, imaginative decoration is Mesopotamian and was very much in vogue in the Fatimid era. Although seeming to derive from contemporary Oriental sources, it probably has its origin in a distant, Roman, North African past. In fact, the horses drawn on this plate are less naturalistic, more stylised than those of similar Mesopotamian artefacts. From their freedom of line and their particular decoration they are more reminiscent of contemporary Ifriqiyan plates. Moreover, the riders' faces possess that huge eye which is a common denominator of almost all Ifriqiyan human figures of the time and which would confirm the fundamental North African influence behind the decoration of this plate.","short_description":"This dish has a round base and sloping sides. It is illustrated with a war scene, suggesting a North African influence, while the stylised, fantasy decoration suggests a link with contemporary Eastern decoration. This type of decoration was extremely popular during the Fatimid era.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th century / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11 cm, diameter 31 cm.","method_for_datation":"This object comes from the site of Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the short-lived capital of the Fatimids and then of the Zirids, (337–444 / 948–1053). This dates it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No publication exists identifying exactly the stratigraphic layer the object came from and so a more precise dating is not possible.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this plate on the Sabra site painted with Fatimid–Zirid decoration and made in the Ifriqiyan manner suggests it was produced locally at the Sabra potteries or at those of Kairouan, the nearest economic capital.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya or Kairouan.","obtention":"The plate was among objects discovered on site during the 1979 excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya. It was acquired by the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada where it has been displayed since 1986.","bibliography":"*Couleurs de Tunisie* (exhibition catalogue), 1994, p.133, plate no. 73.  \n*30 ans au service du patrimoine* (exhibition catalogue), 1986, p.250, plate nos. 4-40.  \n*Tunisie: du Christianisme a l'Islam* (exhibition catalogue), Lattes, 2001, p.188.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; arms; Zirid"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"a955d465-0ca9-595d-bd2a-f998ffb85fd5":{"name":"Bas-relief with bull.","description":"A bas-relief of a bull carved in marble. The right-hand and lower parts of the carving are missing. The head of the bull is full-face and the body and the neck are in profile. The head looks, oddly, at a complete right angle to the neck. The features are strongly sculpted, with the nose suggested by folds ending in a cavity. The eyes are round, the iris well-carved and the lower eyelids stand out aggressively from the eyeballs. The forehead is two deep folds under a plaited mane.  \nOnly one horn remains, next to the ear, the other having been broken off. The body of the animal is harmonious but gives no impression of robust strength. From the position of the legs, the bull seems to be rubbing up against a tree composed of a trunk and a few branches. Behind the animal's body two buds and three open vine-leaves emerge. Each element has several lobes and is sculpted in a naturalistic style. The carving is set within a frame decorated with grooved arcs and points similarly to an 'egg and dart' design. The naturalistic manner of the carving has led some historians to attribute a Byzantine origin to the piece and suggest that it was re-used in the Aghlabid era. But, in fact, several similar pieces exist in Muslim art and the frontal muzzle is very frequently found. Moreover, we should not forget that Byzantine and classical influences are characteristic of early Aghlabid art.","short_description":"The decoration of this bas-relief is quite common in Islamic art, and is evidence of the survival of Byzantine and classical influences. The body of the animal, a bull, is sculpted harmoniously and the sculpture is framed by arcs and points similar to 'egg and dart' design.","type":"Bas-relief, marble","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 38 cm, length 57 cm, thickness 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece decorated one of the walls in the state rooms of the as-Sahn Palace on the Raqqada site, which was excavated between 1961 and 1969. We know that this second Aghlabid capital was built in 263 / 876, which puts a *terminus post quem* date on the bas-relief. The chronological period covers two centuries, up until the desertion of Raqqada at the time of the Hilalian invasions in 449 / 1057. Not possessing an excavation file with information on the archaeological layer in which the object was found, we are unable to date it more precisely. However, the classical style of the decoration would suggest the second half of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"An architectural decoration found *in situ*, the piece was probably carved at Raqqada, re-using some old marble of Italian origin.","provenance":"Very probably Raqqada.","obtention":"After its discovery at the Raqqada excavations in 1960 the bas-relief was conserved at the site storehouse until 1993. It was then transferred to the Museum of Islamic Art at Raqqada and displayed there.","bibliography":"*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; carving; relief; animal decoration"],"materials":["Carved marble."]},"ab5f529a-54db-5914-b779-6e088fe95b11":{"name":"Fresco panel: ‘Seated Bear Playing a Musical Instrument’.","description":"A fresco in one of the diamond-shaped sections in the apodyterium or dressing room belonging to the bath complex (hammam) at Qusayr ‘Amra. It depicts a bear playing a musical instrument; seated on a stool, the bear's left leg is dangling, while the right one is bent and rests on the stool, touching the left thigh. He plays a long-handled, stringed musical instrument which looks like an *\\`ud*. Next to the bear is a standing monkey clapping his front paws. It is likely that this scene depicts two people masquerading as a monkey and a bear.","short_description":"Fresco from the baths complex at Qusayr ‘Amra, of a bear playing a musical instrument. Next to the bear is a standing monkey clapping its front paws. It is likely that this scene depicts two people masquerading as animals.","type":"Panel, fresco","holder":"*In situ* at Qusayr ‘Amra.","initial_owner":"Possibly Al-Walid II (r. AH 125–6 / AD 743–4).","dates":"Hegira, first third of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","dimensions":"n/a","method_for_datation":"Qusayr 'Amra and its frescos date to the Umayyad period, an accurate dating achieved primarily through analysis of some of the paintings *in situ*, the most important being the fresco panel depicting six rulers; 'The Family of Kings'. Their names, written above their heads in Arabic and Greek, identify them as: 'Caesar', the Byzantine emperor; 'Kisra', the Sasanian emperor; the king of Abbyssinia (Ethiopia); and 'Roderick', the Visigothic king of Spain. Historical inference has established the identities of the other two as the emperor of China and the ruling prince 'khaqan' of the Turks. Since Roderick ruled for only one year before he was killed in AH 92 / AD 711, this date provides a terminus post quem for construction of the palace.","method_for_provenance":"The fresco is located in the apodyterium (vestry) of the bath complex (hammam) at Qusayr ‘Amra.","provenance":"Qusayr Amra, Jordan.","obtention":"*In situ* at Qusayr Amra.","bibliography":"Almagro, M., *Qusayr ‘Amra*, Madrid, 1975, Lamina XLII  \nEttinghausen, R., \"The Dance with Zoomorphic Masks and other Forms of Entertainment seen in Islamic Art\" In *Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honour of H. A. R. Gibb*, Cambridge, Mass., 1965, p.219.  \nFowden, G., *Qusayr ‘Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria*, L.A., 2004, p.68; fig. 19.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghazi Bisheh","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Apodyterium; fresco; musical instruments"],"materials":["Fresco."]},"aecdf245-c267-5f1f-8bd4-3d182a56e623":{"name":"Loom weight","description":"Early loom weights found in the ancient city of Assoss, today known as Behramkale, a small historically rich town in the Ayvacık district of the Çanakkale Province, Turkey. These provide evidence the textile industry existed in the region since the Chalcolithic Period and the Bronze Age. Loom weights prevented tangling by weighting to give tension on individual yarns to enable weaving.","type":"Loom weight","holder":"Department of Antiquities","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"3000-2500 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 5-8cm","method_for_datation":"Excavation team in Amman Citadel","provenance":"Amman Citadel","obtention":"Excavation/Amman Citadel","bibliography":"Ibrahim, Moawiyah, *et al.*, *Museum of Jordanian Heritage*, Amman-Jordan: Yarmouk University, 1988.","dynasty":"Chalcolithic Period and Bronze age","author":"Samia Khouri","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Clay / mud"]},"aee4fe30-32cf-540e-ab4a-7a1e2e832504":{"name":"Grindstone","short_description":"The stone grinder was used to pulverise colours or cosmetics. It represents an important relic for the history of the foundation of the Pigorini Museum. Its label, signed by Giglioli, attests that the object was discovered in Thebes by Ernesto Schiaparelli in January 1892 and then donated by him to Giglioli three months later. The grinder cannot be dated as its origins are unknown. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the First dynasty, Luigi Pigorini decided to enlarge the Egyptian archaeological collection in the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano\" which he directed at the time. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, from the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. In 1905 Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin, offered for purchase the excavation of Hammamiye by the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Stone grinder","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Discovered in Thebes in January 1892","location":"Rome","dimensions":"3 x 8.6 x 5.6 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Stone"]},"b07925c9-6a74-5708-ae78-2988cae0e279":{"name":"Flask","short_description":"Core-formed cobalt blue unguent jar, of krateriskos form, with a lip and foot rimmed with yellow. The neck and body is decorated with applied thread decoration in white bordered by yellow, and there are separately formed handles in blue.  \n  \nThis vessel was made at the time of Amenhotep III and perhaps for the pharaoh himself. Excavation of numerous fragments at Amenhotep's palace at Malkata suggests that it was the site of an important glasshouse.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"1401 - 1336 BC","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 6.4cm, Width: 5.5cm","provenance":"Malkata or el-Amarna, Egypt","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868 from the dealer John Webb","bibliography":"Freed, Rita E., *Egypts Golden Age: The Art of Living in the New Kingdom 1558 - 1085 BC*, Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1983: 163 no. 175.  \nHoney, W. B., *Victoria and Albert Museum - Glass: A Handbook for the Study of glass Vessels of All Periods and Countries & A Guide to the Museum Collection*, London: Victoria & Albert Museum 1946: 17 pl. 1b.  \nKozloff, A. P., and Bryan, B. M., *Egypt's Dazzling Sun*, Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art, 1992: 384-5 no. 92.  \nNesbitt, A., *A Descriptive Catalogue of the Glass Vessels in the South Kensington Museum*, London: 1878, 7.  \nNolte, B., *Die Glassgefaesse im Alten Agypten*, Berlin: Hessling, 1968: 84 No. 8, Pl. 3.","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Glass, core-formed, with applied thread decoration"]},"b0c35ccd-b16d-5ff5-98a0-4001791ebd8b":{"name":"Head of a sphinx of Sesostris III","description":"The 12th Dynasty was the most important period of the Middle Kingdom. Its founder, Amenemhat I, vizier to the last Mentu-hotep (11th Dynasty), usurped the throne. His greatest challenge was to reintegrate the two parts of the country, Upper and Lower Egypt, which had split and subsequently grown apart during the First Intermediate Period.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"12th Dyn. Sesostris III, 1878-1843 BC; brought to Vienna in 1893","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 21,9 cm, Width 33,2 cm, Diameter 32,1 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Deir el-Bahari; Deir el-Bahri"],"materials":["Green schist"]},"b269b5d1-fa64-52f1-83ee-615537fde662":{"name":"Golden bowl of Altstetten","description":"In Zurich, gold is something one expects to find in and around the financial centre at Paradeplatz. So you can imagine the surprise of the man working on the rail tracks in Altstetten in 1906 when his eye caught sight of a glint of gold shimmering through the mud. What came to light was a richly decorated bowl. It turned out to be one the most significant Bronze Age finds. The precious bowl had been lying in the ground, well protected, for about 3,000 years. Suns, full moons and crescents decorate the bowl. The noble material’s bright gloss also represents the heavenly lights. Even back in the Bronze Age people made use of the celestial bodies to orient themselves and keep track of the course of the seasons. They were aware of the sun and moon’s influence on the growth of crops and relied on them as symbols in their rituals.","type":"Bowl","holder":"Swiss National Museum","owner":"Swiss Confederation","dates":"Bronze Age","location":"Zurich","dimensions":"H: 12cm, Diameter Ø: 25cm, Weight: 907,8g","method_for_datation":"Stylistic analysis","provenance":"Switzerland, Altstetten","obtention":"Found in Altstetten, Switzerland","keywords":["archaeology; golden bowl; Altstetten"],"materials":["Gold"]},"b33144e1-5551-5a5c-a7ba-4cefefd46e94":{"name":"Funeral statue of Lady Khent and her youngest child","description":"The funerary statues of the *mastaba* tombs in the Old Kingdom were kept in sealed rooms called *serdabs*. The statues were believed to be alter egos of the deceased, apt to receive the mortuary rites, which were then completed in the adjacent tomb chapel. Khen (full name, Khentit-ka) was the wife of a high official. The sculpture is a magnificent example of the Old Kingdom canonical sculpture in the round.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"c. 2300 BC; acquired by Hermann Junker during his excavation in Giza 1912–1929","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 53 cm, B 26 cm, Diameter 38 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Giza; Egypt; Hermann Junker"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"b8c52c07-1db7-5b7e-a968-695ff14489a0":{"name":"Ceramic bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with vertical rounded rim, circular mouth, body shaped as inverted truncated cone with low carination and base with diagonal foot-ring. Covered with honey-coloured monochrome glaze and decorated in *cuerda seca* with white, green and honey colours separated by lines of manganese. The central theme is the word '*baraka'* written in *kufic* characters, surrounded by a frieze of palmette leaves which runs around the rim of the bowl. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl decorated entirely using *cuerda seca* from the Almoravid or Almohad periods. The central motif is the word ‘*baraka*’ written in *kufic* characters and surrounded by a frieze of palmettes that runs around the brim of the bowl. Similar pieces have been found around the western Mediterranean.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter (of mouth) 25 cm, diameter (of base) 10.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects of similar form, decorative technique and theme, in particular from Almería and Málaga.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga, in which very similar calligraphy is found, and Almería (Spain) where kilns have been found in which objects with this type of decoration were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica”, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.93.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made from coarse-grained paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated using the *cuerda seca* technique throughout."]},"b8ecf061-5f47-5eb8-bd73-a5714784eff0":{"name":"Plate.","description":"A ceramic plate decorated with geometric designs in yellow pigment on a brown background and under a transparent glaze.  \n  \nThe inner surface is divided into four zones, each pair corresponding with each other. One pair consists of curved triangles filled with crossed lines forming, net-like, small indented squares; the other two zones show crisscrossed curved lines which form an arrow–head design.","short_description":"Ceramic plate from Tall Hisban, decorated with geometric designs in yellow pigment on a brown background and under a transparent glaze. The inner surface is divided into four zones, forming two pairs of crisscrossed curved designs.","type":"Plate, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 7th century / AD 13th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 8.8 cm, diameter 30.3 cm, diameter (of base) 10.7cm.","method_for_datation":"The plate was dated by its stratigraphic context in the archaeological excavation.","method_for_provenance":"The plate was recovered from Tall Hisban during an archaeological excavation.","provenance":"Tall Hisban, Jordan.","obtention":"The plate was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out at Tall Hisban in 1993.","bibliography":"ساري. صالح، الفخار الأيوبي المملوكي في بلاد الشام 567-923 ه / 1171-1517 م، رسالة ماجستير، الجامعة الأردنية، 1979، ص 178-179، شكل 73، 74.  \n  \nBienkowski, P., The Art of Jordan, Glasgow, 1991, p.85, cat. no. 101.  \n  \nBoras, R., and Geraty, L., Heshbon 1976, Andrews University Seminary Studies, Miami, 16.1, 1978, pp.1–17.  \n  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.283, cat. no. 385.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic."]},"b93fd12a-4d27-5f35-9bfe-b260f6a56e42":{"name":"Bowl","short_description":"This ribbed bowl is made of coloured strip mosaic, employing short strips of coloured cane, a technique employed in Italian factories and notably in Rome itself. This masterpiece is possibly the only surviving complete example of the ouput of this city.  \n  \nThe bowl came to the museum in 1868, as part of a large collection of 'Ancient glass' owned by the antique dealer John Webb. The bowl, and the rest of the collection, was first shown in the South Kensington Museum's 1862 'Special Exhibition of Works of Art of the Medieval, Renaissance, & More Recent Periods', which coincided with the large International Exhibition of the same year. The bowl stayed on loan to the museum until acquired six years later.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"25 BC - 50 AD","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 11.5cm, Width: 15.5cm","provenance":"Italy","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1868","dynasty":"Roman Empire","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Mosaic glass, fused and slumped, with applied foot. Clear marks of lathe turning around the outside of the rim and foot and on the interior of the bowl."]},"bc31e6e4-7f37-5725-b63d-89472dbadb64":{"name":"Fragment of a pottery bowl.","description":"The Raqqa region contains a group of Abbasid palaces that have been labelled with the letters A, B, C and D. This ceramic fragment was found during archaeological excavations carried out in Palace A. The fragment is part of a delicate bowl that was made in a mould and decorated around its girth with Arabic *kufic* script that reads: “from the work of Ibrahim al-Nasrani that has been made in Hira for the Amir Sulayman, son of the Commander of the Faithful.\" The Commander of the Faithful, or Caliph, in question is the Abbasid Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75). The text indicates that this piece was made in Hira by Ibrahim al-Nasrani and transported to Raqqa. The name of the craftsperson (al-Nasrani, i.e. the Christian) indicates that he was probably a master craftsman in the Christian ceramic-producing quarter of al-Hira.  \nThe base of the bowl was stamped with geometric and stylised vegetal motifs including palm trees.","short_description":"Although this bowl is delicate and fragmented, its moulded band of early *kufic* inscription has mostly survived. It includes the name of the craftsman, Ibrahim al-Nasrani, evidently a Christian, the place of production in Hira and the dedication to Sulayman, '\\[son\\] of the commander of the faithful'.","type":"Bowl, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Prince Sulayman (son of the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. AH 136–58 / AD 754–75).","dates":"Hegira 136–58 / AD 754–75.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 7.5 cm, diameter 12.2 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription on the fragment associates it with the rule of the Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (136–58 / 754–75).","method_for_provenance":"The text inscribed on the vessel fragment specifies Hira, in Mesopotamia (Iraq) as the place of production.","provenance":"Produced in Hira in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq).","obtention":"The fragment was found during an archaeological excavation carried out in 1948 in Palace A by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of archaeologist Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.160.  \nKohlmeyer, K. (ed), *Land des Baal,* Mainz, 1982.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.  \nWeiss, H. (ed), *Ebla to Damascus*, Washington DC, 1985, p.518.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Ceramic; earthenware; pottery; moulded; stamped; Iraq; Ibrahim al-Nasrani; Christian; Raqqa; Prince Sulayman; Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur; kufic script; Hira; Nasib Salibi"],"materials":["Earthenware; moulded and stamped."]},"bf2d1e63-7381-51a0-93c7-f275d473108c":{"name":"Glass tumbler.","description":"A white, translucent glass tumbler that was found in Palace B, where an inscription was found on the wall plaster thus associating the palace with the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah. The glass is decorated with five vertically arranged lines of Arabic inscription that read: “drink and be filled with delight” and “made in Damascus.” It is, therefore, likely that the piece was made in Damascus and then transported to the Raqqa region. The spaces in between the inscriptions are decorated with a floral design. The object's decorative arrangement is executed in an applied coating of brown metallic lustre. It is believed that this type of lustre coating was used on glass before the technique was adapted for use on ceramics.  \nRaqqa, a region that lies between the Euphrates and Balikh rivers, flourished during the Abbasid period. A group of Abbasid palaces, parts of which were excavated during the 1950s and labelled with the letters A, B, C and D, are found in the region.","short_description":"The application of metallic lustre was first used on glass, as evidenced by this Damascene tumbler dating to the 'Abbasid period, before it was famously applied on pottery.","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph al-Mu’tasim Billah (r. AH 218–27 / AD 833–42).","dates":"Hegira 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5.8 cm, diameter 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The tumbler is believed to be contemporary to Palace B, which has been dated to the period of Caliph al-Mu'tasim Billah (r. 218–27 / 833–42).","method_for_provenance":"The inscription on the tumbler specifies that it was made in Damascus.","provenance":"Damascus, Syria.","obtention":"The tumbler was found during archaeological excavations during the 1950s undertaken by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nCarboni, S., and Whitehouse, D., *Glass of the Sultans*, New York, 2001.  \nCluzan, S. et al (eds), *Syrie: Mémoire et Civilisation*, Paris, 1994.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.103; fig. 20,  \nplates 51d, 51e.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985, p.420.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Glass; tumbler; metallic lustre; Raqqa; Nasib Salibi; Damascus; Euphrates; Balikh"],"materials":["Glass decorated with a coating of metallic lustre."]},"c01c0ea8-09eb-5aa5-9b63-e27164389d77":{"name":"Lustre bowl with a sun motif.","description":"A large dark-brown lustre bowl from Qal'at Ja'bar, which is a particularly remarkable example of so-called Raqqa-ware. It was uncovered in the 1973/4 archaeological excavations by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities within the medieval fortress of Qal'at Ja'bar on the left bank of the Middle Euphrates, thus making it one of the few pieces that reached the Museum not via the art market but from a particular archaeological site.  \nThe decoration of this piece is highly original: it is dominated by an impressive sun with a female face, almond-shaped eyes, beauty marks on the cheeks and loosely curled hair. The solar-shaped face is framed by two halos of radiating rays which cover the central surface of the bowl.  \nThe astrological sign of the sun is a common iconographic motif on contemporary metalwork where it is usually surrounded by the planets and signs of the zodiac forming a cosmic circle. On medieval Syrian pottery, however, such a depiction is unique. Interestingly enough, the potter replaced the circle of planets with eight medallion-like ornaments – alternating red-on-white vegetal motifs with white-on-red lunar cartouches. This must be a specific “Raqqa” variation on the metalwork theme. The rim of the bowl is freely painted with dotted and curvilinear motifs that are regularly punctuated by a pair of vertical lines, a feature echoing calligraphic decoration.  \nThe dish belongs to the rare group of lustre-painted pieces with figurative decoration. Its shallow shape with convex profile, flat, everted rim and flaring foot is standard and particularly popular with lustre-wares. Its exterior is undecorated. The greenish transparent glaze covers only the top two-thirds of the vessel in typical Raqqa manner.","short_description":"This Raqqa-ware was found during excavations at the Ayyubid fortress Qal'at Ja'bar. Decorated in characteristic brown metallic lustre, the dish portrays a radiating sun with feminine facial features and jewellery. Planetary symbols were a common feature on Islamic luxury items, particularly on inlaid metalwork, more rarely on ceramics.","type":"Bowl, fritware","holder":"National Museum of Aleppo, Islamic Department","dates":"Hegira early 7th century / AD early 13th century.","location":"Aleppo","dimensions":"Height 14.1 cm, diameter 41.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"Stylistic considerations and archaeological excavation point to the region of Raqqa in which the production of lustre-painted pottery flourished during the 6th / 12th century up until the Mongol invasion of 655–6 / 1258–9.","method_for_provenance":"It is unlikely that the bowl was made *in situ*, although archaeological excavations have recently uncovered evidence of fritware production in Qal'at Ja'bar. Rather, the high quality of the piece points to a manufacture in a more specialised centre, most likely in one of the thriving pottery workshops in nearby Raqqa.","provenance":"Qal'at Ja'bar, Raqqa, Syria.","obtention":"The bowl was uncovered during archaeological excavations led by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities in 1973/4.","bibliography":"*Land des Baal Syrien*, exhibition catalogue, Berlin, 1982, p.279 ; cat. no. 255.  \n*Au pays de Baal et d'Astarté: 10000 ans d'art en Syrie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1983, p.304; cat. no. 355.  \nTonghini, C., *Qal'at Dja'bar Pottery: A Study of a Syrian Fortified Site of the Late 11th-14th Centuries*, London, 1998.","dynasty":"Ayyubid","author":"Julia Gonnella","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Pottery; lustre-ware; Raqqa; metalwork; astrology; sun; Ayyubid"],"materials":["Fritware with dark-brown lustre decoration on transparent glaze with a strong greenish tinge."]},"c54044a4-ab1f-5f49-9976-d677360bd140":{"name":"Distaffs (five examples).","description":"Set of distaffs made from carved bone, with an upper circular horizontal section and lower circular or quadrangular horizontal section. These distaffs have different finishes from simple surface polishing to elaborate incised decorations forming single or groups of parallel lines in rows, circles with a central hole oriented in lines or in groups and concentric semi-circles intersecting one another. These objects correspond to the most decorated part of the distaff, which was an extremely important tool used in hand spinning.","short_description":"A set of distaffs, the most ornate element of a spinning wheel and an essential part of the spinning process. These examples taken from Mértola Castle are decorated simply with incisions forming single or grouped parallel lines and interlinked concentric semi-circles.","type":"Distaff, born","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira end of 5th–first half of 6th century / AD end of 11th–first half of 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"OS/TR/003: height 7.4 cm, width (max.) 2.4 cm; OS/TR/037: height 6.1 cm, width (max.) 2.1 cm, weight 29.4 g; OS/TR/042: height 7.9 cm, diameter (max.) 2.4 cm, weight 33.4 g; OS/TR/046: height 6.5cm, width (max.) 2.6 cm, diameter (max.) 1.9 cm, weight 29.4","method_for_datation":"On the basis of the stratigraphy established in the various archaeological excavations carried out on the hillside and in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola and by comparison with other materials collected on the same levels of excavation and with other objects with the same characteristics.","provenance":"Hillside and citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","obtention":"By means of archaeological excavations organised by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola, carried out on the hillside of the Castle in 1986 and in the citadel of Mértola in 1978, 1992 and 1996.","bibliography":"Macias, S., *Mértola Islâmica. Estudo Histórico-Arqueológico do Bairro da Alcáçova (Sécs. XII/XIII)*, Mértola, 1996, p.89.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., *Museu de Mértola: Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2001, p.171.  \nMacias, S. and Torres, C., (eds.), *Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, Lisbon, 1998, p.170.  \n*Guia do Museu. Museu de Mértola – Arte Islâmica*, Mértola, 2003, p.36.  \nTorres, C. and Silva, L. A. da, *Mértola Vila Museu*, Mértola, 1989, p.56.","dynasty":"Almoravid","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Lígia Rafael","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["geometric decoration; popular art; furnishing; spinning; wool; textile; carved"],"materials":["Animal bone. Carved from the bone with incised geometric decoration."]},"c69cb729-5a18-54d1-b7ac-2cfc3ae623ed":{"name":"Inscription stone.","description":"A rectangular inscribed stone that has a Qur'anic verse known as 'Ayat al-Kursi' ('the Throne Verse') from Sura 2 (al-Baqara), verse 255:  \n  \n'God! There is no God but he, the living, the self-subsisting: neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him! To him belong what so ever is in heaven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with him, but through his good pleasure? He knows that which is past, and that which is it come unto them, and they shall not comprehend anything of his knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended over heaven and earth, and preservation of both is no burden unto him. He is the high, the mighty.'  \n  \nThe inscription in *kufic* script is deeply incised into the stone. Comprising about ten lines, the letters are long and angular in shape, an indication that this stone inscription is of an early date. The function of the stone was to protect the owner, his family and the house from the 'evil eye'. This custom is still alive very much alive today; in many Jordanian houses one will still see such blessings on ceramic panels, laminated copper panels, embroideries, and for women and children, gold pendants.","short_description":"An inscribed stone from Amman with a Qur’anic verse known as Ayat al-Kursi from Sura 2 (al-Baqara), verse 255. The *kufic* script is typically Umayyad. The function of the stone was to protect the owner, his family and the house from the ‘evil eye’. This custom is still very much alive today.","type":"Inscription, stone","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira, first half of the 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height 70 cm, width 38 cm.","method_for_datation":"The inscription stone was dated by stylistic analysis of the script and by dating pottery shards that were found in the in the archaeological strata close by.","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this inscription stone is known because it was found during an archaeological excavation at in the centre of Amman.","provenance":"Amman, Jordan.","obtention":"The inscription stone was found in 1958 in the course of a rescue excavation carried out by the Department of Antiquities of in the centre of Amman.","bibliography":"العابدي. محمود، الآثار الإسلامية في فلسطين و الأردن، عمان، 1973، ص 238.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Inscription; kufic script; Qur’an; Shahada."],"materials":["Engraved stone."]},"cd05b644-c357-52ab-89b2-eb3a5e54560e":{"name":"Parian ware colossus","short_description":"Figurines based on the Assyrian sculptures were popular collecting pieces. Owners displayed their interest current events. Buyers included the rich and famous, as well as museums. These Parian ware figurines were also exhibited. Winged bull.","type":"Ceramic","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"1882","location":"London","provenance":"United Kingdom","keywords":["Assyrian revival"]},"cd191826-9521-5bf9-9d19-dd2913e5662a":{"name":"Egyptian vases","short_description":"In 1870 historian, numismatist and academician Mihail C. Șutu travelled to Egypt accompanied by his wife. They took a cruise on the Nile, visited Cairo, where he studied antique Egyptian units of measure for weight (one of his of domains of interest). A passionate collector, he purchased a series of Egyptian coins and antiquities, among which some vessels that are considered to be part of a funerary inventory and have been dated in the first phase of the Naqada culture (c. 3900–3300 BC).","type":"Ceramic vases","holder":"National History Museum of Romania","dates":"3800–3500 BC; bought by Mihail C. Sutu in 1870","location":"Bucharest","provenance":"Egypt"},"ce2320b1-90a7-587e-a23e-2b91e7aba0bb":{"name":"Tomb relief from Palmyra","short_description":"Late antique relief of a woman and a man from Palmyra. This relief was given to the Imperial collection by k.k. Legationsrat Dr James Samson, an Austrian diplomat in the Ottoman Empire.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"AD 3rd century","location":"Vienna","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Palmyra; Syria;"],"materials":["Stone"]},"cf9875f4-0d50-59fb-b1f9-fb072d1e4cc5":{"name":"Vessel with lid","short_description":"Stone vessels are among the most well-preserved products of prehistoric culture in south-eastern Arabia. The earliest versions were fashioned in the 3rd millennium BCE, most often from a locally occurring form of soft stone known as chlorite. The limited range of shapes made at this time includes squarish boxes, beakers and open bowls.  Decoration often consisted of multiple horizontally cut lines or one or more rows of engraved circles, each with a central dot. This object illustrates the theme of engraved circles, each with a central dot.","type":"Stone","holder":"National Museum Oman","dates":"2,500–2,000 BC","location":"Muscat","dimensions":"Weight: 487.7g, Height: 3.5cm; Lid Diameter: 9.3cm, Vessel Diameter: 9.7cm","provenance":"Bahla (ad-Dakhiliyah Governorate)","obtention":"Ministry of Heritage and Culture Collection","dynasty":"Early-Middle Bronze Age","copy_editor":"Valerie Pulsifer","keywords":["Vessel"],"materials":["Steatite"]},"d31728a3-910c-5617-b017-90928de933e6":{"name":"Ivory panel.","description":"An ivory panel that has been worked from a flat sheet; it varies in color from a very light brown to a rich brownish gray (burnt in antiquity). This panel is 90 per cent extant; carved in relief the scene represents a frontally disposed male figure standing in an archway. On his head, in profile, he is wearing military headgear. He holds in both his hands, vertically, what looks like either a long rod or an oar. The designs are carved carefully into the panel, in a vigorous, round style. The highest surface of the figure is at the same level as the surrounding frame, which is richly decorated with geometric motifs.  \n  \nSmall holes have been drilled into the panel, along with some other perforations, suggesting that several of these panels were assembled together by iron fasteners to decorate the doors of a small cabinet in the 'fresco room' in the palace of the Abbasid family at al-Humayma.  \n  \nThe Abbasid Caliphs based their claim to the caliphate on their direct descent from ‘Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (AD 566–652) one of the youngest uncles of the Prophet Mohammad, by virtue of which they regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the caliphate and overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. This panel is a luxury object that has stylistic affinities with Persian, central Asian, Indian and Coptic Art.","short_description":"An ivory panel that was part of the decoration of a cabinet from the Abbasid family *qasr* (palace) at al-Humayma. Carved in relief, this is a luxury object that has stylistic affinities with Persian, central Asian, Indian and Coptic art.","type":"Panel, ivory","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira, first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Length 30 cm, width 10 cm, depth 3–5 mm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by location in the archaeological strata and through related pottery objects found in the same context.","method_for_provenance":"The object was recovered during an archaeological excavation at the site of a-Humayma, but where it was originally produced is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"The object was found during an archaeological excavation carried out in the site of al-Humayma in 1993–8.","bibliography":"Foote, R., Oleson, P., *Humayma Excavation Project 1995–6*, Max van Berchem Bulletin No. 10, December 1996, Geneva, pp.2–4.  \n  \nOleson, J. P., Amr, K., Foote, R., *Preliminary Report of the Humayma Excavation Project 1993*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, XXXIX, 1995, pp.317–54, fig. 28; p.347.  \n  \nOleson, J. P., Amr, K., Foote, R., *Preliminary Report of the Humayma Excavation Project 1995, 1996, 1998*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, XLIII, 1999, pp.411–50, fig. 20; p.442.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Armour; figurative representation; geometric motifs; luxury ware; military wear; Prophet Mohammad; relief decoration; soldier."],"materials":["Carved ivory."]},"d3253a8b-e29d-5956-a599-90638d365b17":{"name":"The Flood Tablet","short_description":"Inspired by Layard’s discoveries, George Smith began to study cuneiform. His dedication was rewarded with the amazing discovery of a version of the Biblical Flood Story. The British Prime Minister came to his lecture. The news amazed the world. The Daily Telegraph financed an expedition to Nineveh to find the missing piece. Having found it, Smith died of fever on his way home.","type":"Clay tablet","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"7th century BC","location":"London","provenance":"Iraq","keywords":["archaeology; exploration; travel; traveller; collection; museums; cuneiform; inscription; clay; Gilgamesh; science"]},"d39f33c7-ab99-570d-9745-2ca9481fd5e0":{"name":"Font.","description":"Font with eight lobes. The inside is hollowed out, with the rim moulded on the top and on the outside. It has a hole at the bottom. The base is truncated, with a base or foot missing. The exterior moulding has a decoration of small engraved geometric patterns (lozenges, squares and circles). The upper rim has an Arabic inscription in *kufic* script running all the way round, in which it is possible to read the expression ‘al-Mulk’, repeated in a chain.","short_description":"The evidence for the prolonged presence of a Muslim community in Lisbon is supported by this octagonal ablutions font sculpted from local *pedra lioz* (lias) limestone. It was found during restoration work in Lisbon’s Moorish quarter, to whose mosque it belonged.","holder":"City Museum.","dates":"Hegira 8th–9th centuries / AD 14th–15th centuries.","location":"Lisbon.","dimensions":"Total height 11.4 cm, diameter 22.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"External, historical dating. The mosque in the Moorish quarter, to which it is supposed to have belonged, was dismantled in the early 16th century, in the reign of Dom Manuel I of Portugal.","method_for_provenance":"Found during urban regeneration work, re-used in the masonry of one the walls of the building on no. 67 Rua João do Outeiro (Moorish quarter, Lisbon). The building probably dated originally from the 16th century.","provenance":"Lisbon.","obtention":"Donated to the Museum.","bibliography":"*Lisboa Subterrânea*, exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1994.","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_PT_001","author":"Rodrigo Banha da Silva","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["font; lias stone; Kufic script; al-mulk"],"materials":["Lias stone."]},"d3f8650a-4599-5d0e-a22f-cd44a5f3ea38":{"name":"The Pietroasa Treasure","short_description":"One of the most valuable gold treasures of Romania is the Pietroasa hoard, which consists of five golden vessels and seven golden pieces of jewelry with a total weight of 19 kg. Dating from the centuries 4-5 AD, the hoard is attributed to the Goths. It was discovered accidentally in April 1837 by two peasants who sold it to an Albanian contractor named Verussi. Knowing that all treasures found in the Romanian soil had to be handed in to the authorities, Verussi tried to hide the hoard and even smashed some of the items to make them smaller. Even though he was eventually caught by the police, from the initial 22 items of the hoard only 12 were recuperated. The Pietroasa treasure was first internationally exhibited in 1867 at the universal exposition in Paris, where it enjoyed a great success.","type":"Archaeological find","holder":"National Museum of Romanian History","dates":"4th century AD; discovered in 1837; exhibited in 1867","location":"Bucharest"},"d4bd63d5-45fe-58a2-9476-795fe33754f5":{"name":"Copper coin (*fils*).","description":"A copper coin (*fils*) of the standing caliph type from the transitional period (AH 74–7/8 / AD 694–8) that preceded Abd al-Malik's coinage reform of AH 77 / AD 696, and which saw the removal of images, and the issue of a pure Islamic type distinguished by the formula of the faith, the Shahada, and a purely epigraphic style that incorporated Qur'anic verses.  \n  \nOn the obverse is the figure of a standing caliph, he wears a long robe with his right hand on his sword; his head is covered with an Arabic headdress. The marginal legend begins from the top going clockwise, spelling the title and name of the Caliph ‘Abdallah ‘Abd al-Malik commander of the faithful written in simple *kufic* script.  \n  \nOn the reverse there is a transformed cross, distinguished by its simplified form and globular top, which sits on four steps with a star to the left and the name of the mint (Amman) on the right, which was one of the cities of Jund Demashq (one of the five military and administrative provinces established in the early Islamic period).  \n  \nThe marginal legend is written in inverted *kufic* script. It starts from the bottom, going clockwise spelling: 'La 'ilaha illa-Allah' ('There is one God; Muhammad is the messenger of God'), which is the second part of the Shahada, written in Arabic.","short_description":"Copper *fils* from the Amman Forum, of the ‘standing Caliph type’ from the transitional period that preceded ‘Abd al-Malik’s coinage reform in AH 77 / AD 696. The legend on the obverse is the title and name of ‘Abdallah ‘Abd al-Malik commander of the faithful. On the reverse is the mint name ‘Amman.","type":"Coin, metalwork","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 74–8 / AD 694–8.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Diameter 18 mm, weight 4.59 g.","method_for_datation":"This type of coin belongs to the transitional period (74–7/8 / 694–8) which preceded the coinage reform of Abd al-Malik in 77 / 696.","method_for_provenance":"The coin was recovered from an archaeological excavation in the Forum of Amman, and the name of the mint (Amman) is inscribed on the coin.","provenance":"Amman, Jordan.","obtention":"The coin was recovered during the course of an archaeological excavation carried out by the Department of Antiquities in Amman's Forum in three stages, between 1965–7.","bibliography":"الحديدي. عدنان، فلوس نحاسية اموية من عمان، حولية دائرة الاثار الاردنية، المجلد 20، 1975، ص 9-14، لوحة 7 و 8 رقم 11.  \n  \nالقسوس. نايف، نميات نحاسية اموية جديدة من مجموعة خاصة: متحف البنك الاهلي الاردني، عمان، 2004، ص 363، مسكوكة رقم 405.  \n  \nWalker, J., A Catalogue of the Arab-Byzantine and Post-Reform Umayyad Coins, London, 1956, Vol. II, p.29, cat. no. 96.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative representation; forum; kufic script; Qur’an; coin; coinage; numismatics"],"materials":["Cast, stroked copper."]},"d861eea4-5eaf-5a74-81c8-1ecb64d9a358":{"name":"Floor painting.","description":"The Umayyad desert palaces show clearly the influence of earlier artistic traditions – both from the Byzantine Empire in the West, and the Sassanid Empire in the East, what is now modern Iran. This painting shows the influence of the art and mythology of the Sassanids. It covered the floor of the reception room in the east wing of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.  \nThe upper section shows two court minstrels playing musical instruments, a *nai* (a woodwind instrument) and an *oud* (a string instrument), beneath a pair of ornamented arches. The lower section portrays a clean-shaven hunter galloping on horseback. The hunter is dressed in Sassanid-style fashion; his head-scarf flying behind him, his bow and arrow are drawn tight for the catch. On the lower right-hand corner is a gazelle, running away while looking back. It is possible that this scene is based on a famous Persian epic, possibly Bahram Gur's *Hunting Feats*.  \nSome scholars have deduced that this fresco reflects a choice by the Caliph to re-orient his empire to look East instead of West especially after Muslim attempts to conquer Constantinople failed. Thus the Caliph chose to adopt the Sassanid imperial heritage as a model for the language of power.  \nThis painting lay on the floor of the reception hall, and one can notice in its upper section traces of a round column that stood on top of it.","short_description":"The iconographic traditions of courtly activity, such as the image of a prince galloping on horseback flaunting his hunting expertise, is derived from the pre-Islamic Sassanid Empire of Persia. It is here depicted on an Umayyad painting from the Syrian palace of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","type":"Floor, plaster","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik (r. AH 105–25 / AD 724–43).","dates":"Hegira 109 / AD 727.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Length 5 m, width 4.85 m.","method_for_datation":"The floor, along with the rest of the palace complex, was dated according to the inscribed door lintel of the *khan* adjoining the palace complex. The lintel carries the date 109 / 727, and indicates that the complex was built by Caliph Hisham bin 'Abd al-Malik.","method_for_provenance":"This floor painting was produced on *in situ* at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.","provenance":"Syrian Desert; 80 km southwest of Palmyra.","obtention":"The floor painting was discovered during the 1936 French excavation of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, which was led by archaeologist Daniel Schlumberger. When the plaster façade from the front of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi was prepared for relocation at the National Museum during the 1940s this floor painting was stabilised on the wall of the main room of the new Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi wing, formally inaugurated by the Museum in 1950.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, pp.151–2.  \nEttinghausen, R., *Arab Painting*, Lausanne, 1962, p.37.  \nPapadopoulo, A., *Islam and Muslim Art, New York, 1979, p.387, fig. 179.*  \nSchlumberger, D., “Deux fresques Omeyyades”, *Syria*, XXV, 1946–8, pp.86–102.  \nSchlumberger, D., *Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi*, Paris, 1986, XIX, plate 34.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Qasr; desert palace; figurative painting; plaster; Caliph Hisham bin Abd al-Malik; Daniel Schlumberger; musician; musical instruments; hunters"],"materials":["Plaster, painted using the *secco* technique."]},"dc31ffa1-da00-5df9-9b60-5eca4bdaeb38":{"name":"Frieze","short_description":"Frieze of ram heads from South Arabia found by Eduard Glaser during one of his four expeditions in Yemen from 1882 to 1894.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Egyptian Collection","dates":"4-3th century BC; brought to Vienna by Edward Glaser in 1882–1894","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 12 cm, B 20 cm, Diameter 15 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Yemen; Eduard Glaser; Museum of Fine Arts Vienna"],"materials":["Stone (Kalksinter)"]},"dc345fef-438d-5088-994a-47a78663e585":{"name":"Ablution jug.","description":"A cylindrical jug of leaded bronze without a handle and with a tall neck divided into two unequal parts by a decorative 'rope' band. The cylindrical body is plain, although the shoulder is divided into narrow bands that are filled with short vertical strokes.  \n  \nThis vessel may once have been used as an ablution jug for ritual washing before prayer; many other such metal and ceramic jugs have been found associated with this ritual. This particular jug was found during archaeological excavations in the hammam that was part of the qasr (palace) at Umm al-Walid.","short_description":"A jug of leaded bronze, without a handle and made from four parts welded together. Found during excavations at the baths of the Umayyad qasr at Umm al-Walid, it may have been used as an ablution jug for ritual washing before prayer.","type":"Jug, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","owner":"Now on display at Jordan Museum","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 41.8 cm, diameter (of neck) 7 cm.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context and association with Umayyad pottery vessels also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this vessel was produced is unknown but it was recovered during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid near Madaba.","provenance":"Objeto hallado en Umm al-Walid.","obtention":"The object was recovered during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid in 1992.","bibliography":"Bujard, J., and Schweizer, F., *Entre Byzance et l'Islam: Umm er-Rasas et Umm el-Walid – Fouilles genevoises en Jordanie*, Geneva, 1992, p.17, fig. 11/6.  \nHaldimann, M. A., *Les Implantations omeyyades dans la Balqa: l'apport d'Umm el-Walid*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*,* XXXVI, 1992, pp.307–18.  \nJoguin, M., 'Des pots et des hommes; l'exemple d'Umm el-Walid', *Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan*, Vol. VII, 2001, pp.641–5, fig. 5.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Ablution; metalwork"],"materials":["Leaded bronze; four parts joined together."]},"de6e2f8b-9a8b-550e-bef8-94cf2f8b25ed":{"name":"The goddess Maat","short_description":"The fragment comes from the parietal relief from the tomb of Sethy I (1289-1279 A.C.), discovered in 1817 and located in the Valley of the Kings. The relief is part of one of the most important group of the Franco-Tuscan expedition (1828–1829) and has been brought to Florence by Ippolito Roselllini. The relief shows the goddess Maat, recognised by the feather on her head.","type":"Bas-relief; archaeological find","holder":"Egyptian Museum","dates":"19th Dynasty (14th–13th centuries BC); found in 1828–29","location":"Florence","dimensions":"74 x 47 cm","provenance":"Egypt, Valley of the Kings, tomb of Pharaoh Sethy Ist (XIX Dynasty)","copyright":"Copyright image: Su concessione del Ministero per i Beni Culturali e del Turismo - Museo Egizio di Firenze.","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Campaign in Egypt; Egyptomania; archaeology; Leopoldo II; Charles X; scientific expedition; university; museums; collection; collector; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; Thebes; languages; hieroglyph; epigraphy; Orientalist; travelling artist; botany"],"materials":["Limestone"]},"e25630b9-4eae-5a54-82aa-8350634cc2c3":{"name":"Pot.","description":"Globular vessel with a foot-ring at the base and with a semi-circular cross-section and slightly everted rim. The paste is orange and the surfaces are glazed in a honey colour. On the exterior surface is a plant-form decoration in columns around the whole body, bordered with dark brown to black manganese.  \nThis type of decoration emerged in Silves in items dating from the AH 5th / AD 11th century, although they became more frequent in the AH 6th / AD 12th century.  \nThey are thought to be everyday ceramics. The shape suggests that they were used as receptacles for holding oil or other domestic liquids such as water. Smaller versions of this pot may have been used for cosmetics or simply as decorative objects.  \nThe characteristics of the piece are similar to those with a metallic lustre decoration from Egypt and Iran, dating from the AH 3rd and 4th / AD 9th and 10th centuries. The use of decorative motifs with borders in manganese, but enamelled, dates back to the previous period and may have originated in the East. The decoration of this piece, in spite of its stylistic similarities to oriental ceramics, is similar to other pieces found in Silves, so it may have been produced locally in the region of al-Gharb, and even in Silves itself, in imitation of oriental models.  \nCeramic objects of this kind were made in the region of Gharb al-Andalus throughout the Muslim period.","short_description":"Locally produced jar probably inspired by Iranian or Egyptian models. The outside is decorated with plant motifs that create columns around the entire body. The configuration of the piece suggests that it was used to store liquids.","holder":"Silves Municipal Archaeology Museum.","owner":"Silves Town Council.","dates":"Hegira 4th–5th century / AD 10th–11th century.","location":"Silves., Faro.","dimensions":"Height 19.6 cm, diameter 11.2 cm, diameter (of base) 10.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"From the archaeological and stratigraphic context in which it was found. A stylistic analysis has found comparisons with similar objects from the same period.","method_for_provenance":"An excavation carried out at Rua da Arrochela (the historic centre of Silves) directed by Rosa Varela Gomes. Excavation inventory number: AR Q5/E15/C2-1.","provenance":"Arrochela (historic centre of Silves).","obtention":"It has been housed in the museum since the excavations carried out in the 1990s.","bibliography":"Gomes, R. V., *Palácio Almóada da Alcáçova de Silves*, Lisbon, 2001, p.59.  \nGomes, R. V., *Silves (Xelb), Uma Cidade do Gharb Al-Andalus, Arqueologia e História (Séculos VIII–XIII)*, Lisbon, 1999.  \n*Portugal Islâmico: Os últimos Sinais do Mediterrâneo*, exhibition catalogue, Lisbon, 1998, p.158.","dynasty":"Umayyad of al-Andalus, Caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Maria da Conceição Amaral","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["Cosmetic; water"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic with manganese decoration."]},"e28848aa-7436-5518-abe8-0e71a1e0d924":{"name":"Weights.","description":"Bronze weights that are not inscribed but which have a variety of shapes and decoration, the typology includes: the barrel form, a truncated bi-conical shape; the polyhedral type, with sides cut into polygonal facets; the very common brick shape; and the square shape. They are often pierced in the centre for safe-keeping, to keep them together as a unit, and in order to carry them easily.  \n  \nThese bronze weights relate to two monetary systems: the values for the *dirham* (silver) and *dinar* (gold) coins. The stratigraphic contexts of the Aqaba weights give some idea about the variations seen in these weights; heavier weights are more elaborate, the lighter weights simpler. The heavier weights could have been used to weigh merchandise heavier than coins.","short_description":"Cast bronze weights from Ayla in Aqaba of a variety of shapes and decoration relating to two monetary systems: the values for the *dirham* (silver) and *dinar* (gold) coins. The heavier weights could have been for goods heavier than coins.","type":"Weight, metalwork","holder":"Aqaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Aqaba","dimensions":"Height (in the range) 4–25 mm, width (in the range) 1.3–2.5 cm, weight (in the range) 2.1–149 g.","method_for_datation":"The weights were dated by their stratigraphic context and in relation to pottery shards found at the same site.","method_for_provenance":"The weights were recovered during an archaeological excavation in Aqaba, the original place of production is uncertain.","provenance":"Unknown.","obtention":"These weights were obtained during an archaeological excavation carried out in Aqaba in 1987–94.","bibliography":"Whitcomb, D., *Ayla: Art and Industry in the Islamic Fort of Aqaba*, Chicago, 1995, p.19.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy, Manal Basyouni","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Bronze; coinage; coin; numismatics; commerce; incise; measuring instrument"],"materials":["Moulded bronze."]},"e6457ad1-6126-508a-9c14-e66c394d18f0":{"name":"Lamp and base.","description":"An oval-shaped pottery lamp made using two moulds; one for the upper half and another for the lower, the two halves being joined together by a ridge.  \n  \nThe lamp is decorated with multiple motifs such as small circles within half volutes, wavy and straight lines on both sides of the filling hole, as well as birds and palm branches. The sides of the lower part are decorated with alternate circles and palm branches. The handle is tall and curved, terminating in a crude animal head. The base is a pointed oval, decorated with a chalice within which is a sequence of fish. Similar lamps bear Greek and Arabic inscriptions and are sometimes decorated with crosses.","short_description":"A pottery lamp from Jarash made using two moulds, one for the top and the other for the base, which is decorated with a chalice within which is a sequence of fish. Similar lamps bear Greek and Arabic inscriptions and are at times decorated with crosses.","type":"Lamp, base, ceramic","holder":"Jordan Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira 1st–2nd century / AD 7th–8th century.","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Height: 4.2 cm, length 11 cm.","method_for_datation":"The lamp was dated according to stratigraphic context and associated Umayyad pottery vessels.","method_for_provenance":"The lamp was found at Jerash during an archaeological excavation.","provenance":"Jarash, Jordan.","obtention":"The lamp was recovered in 1968 during the course of an excavation carried out at Jarash by the Jordan Department of Antiquities.","bibliography":"دعنا.سليمان، \"حفرية الفسيفساء – الاستراحة- جرش، 1968\"، حولية دائرة الآثار الأردنية، المجلد الرابع عشر، 1969، ص58-60، اللوح 22.  \n  \nBisheh, G., *The Second Season of Excavations at Hallabat, 1980*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, Vol. XXVI, 1982, pp.134–5, plate 37, 1-3.  \n  \n*La voie royale: 9000 ans d'art au royaume de Jordanie*, exhibition catalogue, Paris, 1986, p.272.","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Arabic inscription; floral decoration; geometric decoration; Greek inscription; lamp; mould."],"materials":["Moulded ceramic."]},"e8e2873a-17d1-558a-a507-0fd33c1cc8ae":{"name":"Palette","short_description":"The cosmetic palette is fish-shaped and reproduces the form of a fish from the Nile River, *Tilapia nilotica*. The palette was found in a woman's tomb along with a turtle-shaped cosmetic palette, ivory findings, a comb, a huge ring and ceramics. As a result of the excavations by W. Petrie and J. De Morgan, who documented the existence of an era preceding the 1st dynasty, Luigi Pigorini, director of the \"Museo Preistorico Etnografico e Kircheriano”, decided to expand the Egyptian archaeological collection. In 1878 he began to acquire important groups, but the main body of the collection was donated by David Randall-MacIver in 1901, after the excavations he carried out on the behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund in the town of el-Amrah, Upper Egypt. Another major purchase — from the Italian Archaeological Mission in Egypt (excavations of Hammamiye) led by Ernesto Schiaparelli, director of the Egyptian Museum in Turin — followed in 1905. The last main acquisition took place in 1913 when the Egyptian objects from Enrico Hillyer Giglioli’s collection entered the museum collection.","type":"Slate palette","holder":"National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography “Luigi Pigorini”","dates":"Naquada I; acquired in 1901","location":"Rome","dimensions":"Length 10 cm","provenance":"Egypt","author":"Marina Minozzi","copy_editor":"Anne Dowell","keywords":["Egyptomania; Gaetano Rosellini; university; collector; photograph; anthropology; palaeoethnology; material culture; Florence; Pisa; Egyptology; Nubia; languages; hieroglyph; William Matthew Flinders Petrie; Jacques de Morgan; David Randall-MacIver"],"materials":["Slate"]},"ea27369f-92ec-55ab-9c95-e957b5b3e6a5":{"name":"Spindle whorls","description":"Spherical-shaped stone spindle whorl which has been perforated to allow the spindle or rod to fit in. The spindle whorl acts like a flywheel increasing momentum and weight while spinning the fibre to produce thread.","type":"Spindle whorls","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 1cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Stone"]},"eb8190e3-fac0-5bea-9481-b7f582447f70":{"name":"Inkwell.","description":"This inkwell is cubic in shape and consists of a central cylindrical pot to take the ink, and hollow areas on each side to take the pens.  \nEach facet of the inkwell is simply decorated with geometric patterns. In the centre a grooved diamond shape contains four deeply sculpted triangles. The whole is framed by a square, the four corners of which make four more triangles.  \nOn each side of the central pattern a honeycomb effect is achieved by gouging out large numbers of very small triangles.  \nThis decoration recalls that of certain Berber carpets, but it also resembles the brick decoration on ancient doorways at the Great Mosque of Kairouan dating from the AH 3rd / AD 9th century. Since this is the only surviving inkwell from the mediaeval age in Tunis, it is difficult to trace its origin. However, certain inkwells from the Samarkand excavations, which date from the AH 2nd–4th / AD 8th–10th centuries and which are more or less cylindrical, show similarities to the central pot of this Kairouanese inkwell and have similar hollowed-out geometric patterns.","short_description":"The geometric decoration on this cubic inkwell is reminiscent of some Berber tapestries. The similarity to the brickwork patterns used on the ancient blocked doorways in the Great Mosque of Kairouan is also striking. This inkwell is the only surviving example of its type from Mediaeval Tunisia.","type":"Inkwell, stucco","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 3rd century / AD 9th century.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Length 8 cm, width 5 cm, height 4 cm.","method_for_datation":"This inkwell comes from the Raqqada site. The city of Raqqada was founded by Prince Ibrahim II in 263 / 876, which gives us a *terminus ante quem* date for the piece. However, Raqqada remained the capital city of the Aghlabids and then the Fatimids until 308 / 916. The city survived until the mid-5th / 11th century, when it became a purely residential town. This gives us a very broad dating period where precise choice is rendered even more difficult by the absence of published information from the various excavations. But the inkwell's decorative simplicity and its comparability with other contemporary inkwells allow us to place it in the second half of the 3rd / 9th century.","method_for_provenance":"The discovery of this piece on the Raqqada site and its Ifriqiyan decoration would tend to confirm its local origin.","provenance":"Probably Raqqada.","obtention":"After its discovery during the extensive excavations at Raqqada between 1961 and 1968, the inkwell was kept for many years at the site storehouse. It was acquired by the Raqqada Museum in 1986.","bibliography":"*De Kairouan a Carthage* (exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1995, p.65.  \n*Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia*, pp.174–6.","dynasty":"Aghlabid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Geometric decoration; sciences"],"materials":["Carved stucco."]},"ee1f0807-ca9d-507c-adf4-27f446a10f42":{"name":"Statue of Athlete – Ephesos","description":"After competitions in the *palestra* (sports arena), it was customary for the athletes to clean the sand from their oiled bodies with a strigil, or scraping iron. The Ephesian athlete seen here has already finished this task and – with his hair still soaking in sweat – is cleaning the strigil itself. This statue cannot be attributed to any Greek artist with certainty, yet Roman reproductions in marble and depictions on pottery reliefs and engraved stones speak to a high degree of familiarity with the original.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"2nd century AD (copy after a Greek original from the last quarter of the 4th century BC); found in 1895","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 192 cm","provenance":"Ephesos","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Ephesos; Abdul Hamid II; Emperor Franz Joseph"],"materials":["Bronze"]},"eefabf6a-3ca7-5c93-ade3-a4e5bbb13859":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with bevelled rounded rim, circular mouth, semi-oval body with gentle carination towards the bottom and convex base with a diagonal foot-ring. The exterior of the piece is glazed in honey-coloured monochrome, while the interior is decorated entirely using the *cuerda seca* technique in which the white, green and honey colours of the glaze are separated by lines of manganese. The central ornamental theme, enclosed in a circle, consists of a deer or antelope in a static pose, with its head raised in an alert posture, ready to flee. Indeterminate plant motifs fill the empty spaces, and seem to suggest the landscape around the animal. Around this, on the wall of the bowl, the composition is completed with a frieze of palmettes made by finger impressions. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl made entirely using *cuerda seca*. The central motif of the piece, enclosed by a circle, is a deer or antelope in a static pose with its head raised, alert and preparing to flee. The empty space is filled with plant motifs, which represent the landscape around the animal.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hejira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8 cm, diameter (of mouth) 25.5cm, diameter (of base) 10.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century on the basis of comparison with objects of similar form and decorative technique from Málaga and Almería.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns have been found in which they were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these localities.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga (Spain).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica”, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*.exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with porous pink straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated with the *cuerda seca* technique throughout."]},"ef21b96c-da0c-528c-bc8d-e3d1e18531f7":{"name":"Clay loom weight","description":"Loom weights are made from a roll of clay twisted and shaped into spheres, flattened cylinders, or conical shapes. They are used to keep the warp threads of the loom taut and provide even tension in order to weave with ease.","type":"Loom weight","holder":"The Jordan Museum","owner":"Department of Antiquities","dates":"1000-539 BC","location":"Amman","dimensions":"Dia: 5cm","method_for_datation":"The excavation team in Dayer 'Alla dated this tool based on the pottery found in the near vicinity.","obtention":"Loan","dynasty":"Iron Age II","author":"Najd Sweidan","copy_editor":"Lisa Kelman","materials":["Clay"]},"f03adf8f-d5b8-514b-88b4-1fa35cd992e2":{"name":"Plate.","description":"Chinese earthenware ceramics with a dichromatic decorative scheme of white and blue were very popular and widely admired in the Islamic world. Their export to the eastern Mediterranean began as early as the AH 2nd / AD 8th century. This type of vessel with its bright whiteness and extensive blue decoration was the most popular export ware during the Chinese reigns of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. They exported profusely, both by land and sea, especially during the AH 8th / AD 14th century.  \nArtisans in the Islamic world imitated these Chinese ceramics because of its popularity and because they were not always readily available. Thus imitative Chinese ceramics were themselves a valuable commodity.  \nThis plate is decorated with a bouquet of flowers that incorporates gracefully sweeping stems bound with a ribbon. A decorative band of stylised vegetal motifs surround the bouquet, and a band of stylised geometric motifs articulates the rim of the plate. The decoration is executed in various shades of blue on a white base.","short_description":"This ceramic dish was found in the Citadel of Hama and it clearly indicates the intercultural influence of exported Chinese blue-and-white porcelain on Syrian and Egyptian Mamluk pottery.","type":"Plate, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","dates":"Hegira 8th century / AD 14th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 5.5 cm, diameter 35 cm.","method_for_datation":"The Danish excavations revealed objects that have been dated to the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, primarily from the 7th–8th / 13th–14th centuries. However, since this piece is influenced by Chinese ceramics, especially in the use of blue and white, and since such ceramics were exported to the Islamic world beginning in the 8th / 14th century, it is believed that the object belongs to this later period.","method_for_provenance":"This object was found in Hama, known as a production centre for this kind of ware. However, the underglaze painted wares found in Syria (Hama and Damascus) and Egypt (Fustat and Alexandria) are essentially identical, so it is difficult to assign a definitive provenance.","provenance":"Possibly Hama, Syria.","obtention":"The plate was found during archaeological excavations that took place in the Citadel of Hama between 1931 and 1938 by a Danish expedition under the direction of Harold Ing Holt. The piece was registered in the Museum in 1934.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,* Damascus, 1969, p.221.  \nPorter, V., *Medieval Syrian Pottery*, Oxford, 1981.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.  \nWatson, O., *Ceramics from Islamic Lands*, London, 2004.","dynasty":"Mamluk","linkcatalogs":"IAM_EG_EN_001","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Plate; earthenware; ceramics; Chinese; Hama citadel; Harold Ing Holt; blue-and-white; Chinese motifs"],"materials":["Earthenware with blue-and-white underglaze."]},"f26b90aa-a82b-52f5-8ce6-f87882cade6c":{"name":"Lamp.","description":"A spherical object with a distinctive slightly convex base, a handle at the top that is oval in cross-section, a semi-circular front opening and a conical vertical spike inside. It has a decoration of finger impressions, wavy incised lines and traces of white paint on a reddish background.  \nThis unusual object was used as a lantern for lighting out of doors. Its closed form protected the flame from the wind and its large horizontal handle made it easy to carry. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Unusual object similar to a lamp that was used to light open spaces. The semi-circular front opening allowed the light to come out, while the closed shape protected the flame from the wind and the horizontal handle made it easy to carry. This piece of popular art dates to the Almohad era.","type":"Lamp, ceramic","holder":"Mértola Museum.","dates":"Early hegira 7th century / Early AD 13th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 18.2 cm, width 16.2 cm, diameter (of base) 12.7 cm.","method_for_datation":"It was dated to the Almohad period on the basis of stratigraphy, since it was found in the abandoned levels of one of the houses of the citadel vacated after the Christian conquest of Mértola in AH 635–6 / AD 1238.","method_for_provenance":"The technical and formal characteristics of this piece are typical of items produced in Mértola, although many similar items are to be found in the Valencia region (Spain).","provenance":"Mértola.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.130.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Contenedores de Fuego en el Garb al-Andalus”, in Actas do III Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular. Vila Real de Trás-os-Montes, Setembro de 1999, Vol. VII: Arqueologia da Idade Média da Península Ibérica, Porto, 2000, pp.421–4.","dynasty":"Almohad period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["fire; lighting; daily life"],"materials":["Common ceramic made from fine reddish paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel and fired in an oxidising atmosphere."]},"f4d8be9c-5207-5d6b-9a80-d65d6b7fa366":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with everted rim with small horizontal edge, circular mouth, hemispherical body and convex base with vertical foot-ring. The exterior is coated in an almost transparent whitish glaze. The interior is decorated with a polychrome glaze in white, green, purple and yellow, with an unusual schematic figurative style. The central motif consists of a lively hunting scene in which a hound and a bird (perhaps a hawk or eagle) are simultaneously attacking a gazelle. The bird carries in its mouth a spiral-shaped object which may be a snake or a branch. The rim has a scalloped pattern of black arcs filled with green glaze.  \nWhen it was in use, the object was repaired with clamps. There are also holes in the base which were probably used for hanging the bowl on the wall. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl depicting a hunting scene in which a greyhound and a falcon attack a gazelle. There is a spiral-shaped object in the bird’s mouth. This piece, dated to the second half of the AH 5th / AD 11th century, is similar to others from the western Mediterranean and was imported from Kairouan (Tunisia).","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira second half of 5th century / AD second half of 11th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 13 cm, maximum diameter 39 cm, diameter (of base) 13.6 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated by comparison with objects of similar form from Qal'a Banu Hammad (Algeria), Tunis and Kairouan (Tunisia), Denia and Cartagena (Spain), and Pisa (Italy).","method_for_provenance":"The provenance of this type of ceramic is currently disputed. The abundance of objects with this decorative style in Kairouan has led researchers to attribute it to this origin, but analyses of pastes carried out on the objects from Mértola and Pisa contradict this theory and suggest that they may in fact come from the south of the Iberian Peninsula.","provenance":"Kairouan, Tunisia (?).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, pp.108–9.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica de Verde y Morado de Mértola”, *Arqueologia Medieval*, no. 3, 1994, pp. 113–32.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “Producciones Cerámicas en la Mértola Islámica”, in *Actes du VIIeme Congrès International sur la Céramique Médiévale en Méditerranée. Thessaloniki, 11–16 Octobre 1999*, Athens, 2003, pp.653–8.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., \"Le Vert et Brun au Portugal\", in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.100.","dynasty":"Taifa","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["ceramic; zoomorphic imagery; trade; hunting; animal decoration; bird"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with coarse-grained straw and paste mix, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated in green and purple."]},"f5c68eab-37f6-5a2c-b181-f87cfef70a15":{"name":"Human head.","description":"The face is that of an apparently fine-featured man but the damage to the nose and mouth is very serious. He wears a turban in the Oriental manner. It reminds us of certain pictures of human figures on pottery of the Samanid era of Nishabour (Iran). The turban is V-shaped and a deep fold extends right across its width. The face is covered with a veil, like several other images of heads from Fatimid Egypt and Umayyad Spain in the AH 4th and 5th / AD 10th and 11th centuries. The man's eyes are quite prominent and seem originally to have been covered by two pieces of glass indicating the irises, like other images found on site at Sabra.  \nThe head's discovery in the Fatimid capital gives weight to the opinion that the Shi'ites, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites, tolerated human representation in their sculptures.","short_description":"The discovery of this piece in Sabra al-Mansuriyya, the Fatimid capital, supports the idea that Shi'ite Muslims tolerated sculptures of human forms, unlike the very iconoclastic Malikites. This image is similar to others originating from Spain and Egypt at that time.","type":"Human head, plaster","holder":"Museum of Islamic Art.","dates":"Hegira, mid-4th–mid-5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Raqqada., Kairouan.","dimensions":"Height 11.5 cm, width 11.5 cm, thickness 7.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"This stucco head was found, among other human and animal carvings, in the excavations carried out at Sabra al-Mansuriyya in 1978. It was found in a very ploughed-up area with no clear archaeological layering. The objects were scattered around in a random manner. One has the impression that someone had tried to eradicate or hide these figurative objects for no obvious reason except that there could be a connection with the changing religious mentality in Ifriqiya. This action could indeed coincide with the persecution of the Shi'ites during the troubles in 407 / 1016 or following the split between the Zirid emirate and the Fatimid caliphate in 440 / 1048–9. This date could be a *terminus post quem*. The *terminus ante quem* is just after the founding of Sabra in 337 / 948. Any further precision is rendered impossible due to the lack of a definite archaeological layer.","method_for_provenance":"The manufacture of these objects, which is unique in Ifriqiya and in the Maghreb, appears to have taken place in Sabra al-Mansuriyya and to have been commissioned by the Shi'ites.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya","obtention":"After its discovery at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, this piece was placed in the site storehouse. It was acquired in 1992 by the Museum at Raqqada. It will be displayed in the second section of the Museum, currently under construction.","bibliography":"*Tunisie, terre de rencontres et de civilisation* (Seville exhibition catalogue), Tunis, 1992, p.229.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration; human figure"],"materials":["Carved plaster."]},"f68ad2e3-66ed-57d2-8adb-c0e1504537b3":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with rounded everted rim, circular mouth, semi-oval body and flat base. The object has an exterior finish in honey-coloured monochrome glaze, and a polychrome glaze of white, green and purple in the interior, representing a plant motif consisting of a radial composition of eight lotus flowers topped by another set of eight oval lotus flowers. On the rim is a composition in four parts with alternating semi-circles and phytomorphic motifs. It has a defect at the bottom caused by the glaze coming into contact with another object in the kiln. The object has been restored.","short_description":"Glazed bowl with a plant motif consisting of a radial composition of eight triangular lotus flowers each topped with an oval lotus flower. This piece is similar to others found in Madinat al-Zahra and probably came from the Córdoba region.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 339–90 / AD 950–1000.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 6 cm, maximum diameter 29 cm, diameter (of base) 17 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the second half of the 4th / 10th century, by comparison with objects of identical form found in Madinat al-Zahra (Córdoba, Spain).","method_for_provenance":"The shape, ornamental theme and type of paste used are very similar to ceramics from the Córdoba area.","provenance":"Probably Córdoba (Spain).","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., “Catálogo da Cerâmica”, in *Museu de Mértola. Arte Islâmica*, ed. S. Macias, Mértola, 2001, p.111.  \nGómez Martínez, S., “La Cerámica de Verde y Morado de Mértola”, *Arqueologia Medieval*, no. 3, 1994, p.125.  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.97.","dynasty":"Umayyad al-Andalus / caliphate period","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["floral decoration; tableware"],"materials":["Glazed ceramic made with compact pink paste, modelled on a wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and decorated in green and purple."]},"f9701508-d881-5449-97c9-5004df541485":{"name":"Ceramic jar.","description":"A large, green ceramic jar with an ornamented globular body and near-cylindrical neck. It has a slightly outward-slanting lip and three handles connect the lip to the shoulder. Each handle is decorated with a finial cap coloured ivory-yellow resembling a small jar. The jar was made in a mould and the joins of the moulded pieces are deftly camouflaged by decorative motifs including interlocking circles containing scale-like patterns and medallions containing stylised vegetal and geometric motifs.  \nThe bottom of the neck has an Arabic inscription written in an early *kufic* script, the text of which may be translated as follows:  \n“Drink in health and relaxation, and thank God for this fresh water. This was made in Basra by Yahya bin Umayya for the ruler of Hira, who is generous and good.”  \nThe production of ceramics during the Umayyad period shows continuities with methods and styles known in previous periods in the area. This piece was most probably made during the Umayyad Dynasty and preserved at the 'Abbasid Raqqa palace B. It clearly displays an ancient pre-Islamic influence with its designs dating back to Roman moulded earthenware and Parthian pottery. Its attribution to Islamic civilisation is affirmed by its Arabic inscription in an early *kufic* script.","short_description":"This ceramic jug with its antique shape and moulded decoration includes a band of *kufic* inscription that indicates it was made in the city of Basra by the craftsman Yahya bin Umayya and was dedicated to the ruler of Hira.","type":"Jar, earthenware","holder":"National Museum of Damascus","initial_owner":"A ruler (*amir*) of Hira; a city in southeastern Mesopotamia (Iraq).","dates":"Hegira 2nd century / AD 8th century.","location":"Damascus","dimensions":"Height 43.6 cm, diameter 34.3 cm.","method_for_datation":"Due to its eclectic and archaic design, the jar points to the Umayyad period (2nd / 8th century). As it was found in Palace B in the Raqqa region, which is dated by an inscription to the reign of the 'Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 218–27 / 833–42), the vessel continued to be used during the 'Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"The inscription specifies that the jar was made in Basra, a city in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Basra was settled by the Arabs in 1237 / 635 and continued to be an important manufacturing centre.","provenance":"Basra, Mesopotamia (Iraq).","obtention":"The jar was obtained during archaeological excavations undertaken in 1952 by the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities under the direction of archaeologist Nasib Salibi.","bibliography":"Abu al-Faraj al-Ush, M., *A Concise Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,*  \nDamascus, 1969, p.161.  \nDaiber, V., and Becker, A., *Raqqa III*, Mainz, 2004, p.98; fig. 15.  \nEttinghausen, R., Grabar, O., and Jenkins-Madina, M., *Islamic Art and*  \n*Architecture 650-1250*, New Haven, 2001, p.62; fig. 90.  \nRice, D. T., *Islamic Art*, London, 1965, p.10; fig. 2.  \nSoustiel, J., and Kiefer, C., *La céramique islamique*, Fribourg, 1985.","dynasty":"Abbasid","author":"Mona al-Moadin","translator":"Hilary Kalmbach (from the Arabic)","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Pottery; moulded; glaze; monochrome; Yahya bin Umayyad; Nasib Salibi; Basra; Raqqa; Hira"],"materials":["Earthenware produced in a mould, glazed and monochrome-painted."]},"f9783fd3-09a2-5548-be22-593259d96e06":{"name":"Fragment of the Parthenon frieze","description":"The climax of the Greater Panathenaia, the chief festival of Athens, held in honour of Athena, was a procession which ended with the presentation of the newly woven peplos (a woman’s garment) to the tutelary goddess of the city. This is the subject of the frieze around the cella of the Parthenon, the temple on the Athenian Acropolis. This fragment shows two bearded elder citizens of Athens in conversation.","type":"Sculpture","holder":"Kunsthistorisches Museum, Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities","dates":"c. 440 BC","location":"Vienna","dimensions":"Height 26 cm","copy_editor":"Daniel de la Vega","keywords":["Athens; Acropolis; Franz Ferdinand"],"materials":["Marble"]},"fc496894-497a-5358-b6b4-2e9135336e42":{"name":"The church at Massuh mosaic.","description":"The church at Massuh lies 10 km north of Madaba in Hisban. During archaeological excavations in 1970 various phases of construction were revealed dating from the late AD 5th century (that is prior to the Muslim era, which corresponds to 16 July 622 in the Christian calendar), through to the AH 1st / AD 7th century.  \n  \nTwo layers of floor mosaics were revealed, the lower one, dating to the AD 6th century, had not suffered any iconoclastic damage. The upper layer, however, which dates back to the AH 1st / AD 7th century, suffered systematic and thorough iconoclastic damage, which had been subsequently carefully repaired by patches of larger sized tesserae.  \n  \nThe mosaic consists of a central panel decorated with a rectangular grid of florets, inside some of these grid panels appear figures of animals, one is a lion facing an inscription which dates this church. An inscription provides the names of the members of the clergy and donors who built the church at the time of Bishop Theodore of Esbus.  \n  \nThe floor mosaic in the apse at the northern side of the church is partially preserved. It is decorated with vine scrolls framed by an acanthus border; in the scrolls are animal and floral motifs that were damaged by the iconoclasts.  \n  \nIn the nave, the floor mosaic consists of an acanthus border that surrounds two panels decorated with figurative motifs, and a pattern of tangent crosses with concave ends. The eastern panel depicts a boatman and a fisherman with a rod and hook, as well as circles filled with birds and flowers. The figures were destroyed by iconoclasts and replaced with yet more floral motifs, crosses and architectural motifs. The hunting scenes, part of a decorative mosaic band in the presbytery, were also destroyed by iconoclasts during the AH 1st / AD 7th century.  \n  \nAfter the AH 1st / AD 7th century the church was rebuilt. Half the original columns were eliminated, their foundations sealed with white tesserae.","short_description":"The church at Massuh has two layers of floor mosaics. The lower one, from the AD 6th century, has no iconoclastic damage, while the upper layer, from the AH 1st /AD 7th century, was systematically altered by iconoclasts. Figures were carefully replaced by crosses, or floral and architectural motifs.","type":"Mosaic","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Park.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 1st–first half of the 2nd century / AD second half of the 7th–first half of the 8th century.","location":"Hisban","dimensions":"25 m x 15 m.","method_for_datation":"The mosaic was dated by its dedicatory inscription, which mentions that the church was built at the time of Bishop Theodore of Esbus (late 6th century AD). Van Elderen (1986) concludes from the archaeological phasing of the church that the iconoclastic damage occurred at the end of the AD 6th century. Schick (1995) says that Massuh was attended in the early Abbasid period.","method_for_provenance":"This mosaic was found during archaeological excavations in the church complex in Hisban in 1970.","provenance":"Hisban, Jordan.","obtention":"This mosaic floor was found during archaeological excavations carried out at the church in 1970 for the purposes of conservation and protection it was lifted from its original site in 1993 and is now housed at the Madaba Archaeological Park.","bibliography":"Piccirillo, M., *The Mosaics of Jordan*, Amman, 1993, pp.252–3.  \n  \nPiccirillo, M., 'La chiesa di Massuh e il territorio della diocesi di Esbus', *Liber Annuus*, 33, 1983, pp.335–46.  \n  \nSchick, R., *The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study*, Princeton, 1995, pp.404–5.  \n  \nVan Elderen, B., 'Byzantine Churches and Mosaics in Transjordan' in: Geraty, L. and Herr, L., (eds.), *The Archaeology of Jordan and Other Studies*, \\[n.d.\\], pp.237–46.","dynasty":"Byzantine / post-Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Ghada Al-Yousef","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Church; iconoclasm; inscription; mosaic; tesserae; topoynm."],"materials":["Mosaic."]},"fcbd9f29-7966-5d95-9485-7fe900be4b80":{"name":"Plaster graffito.","description":"This is an engraving of a stylised horse of majestic demeanour. A rider holds the reins with his left hand and seems to be about to mount. The carefully drawn animal is seen depicted in profile. Its mane is indicated with a few short lines projecting from the neck. The left back leg is slightly raised and the left forearm and cannon-bone are elevated to form an inverted V-shape. The fetlock and hoof have been completely effaced.  \nThe rider is sketchily drawn and very faint. The artist seems to have drawn a man whose torso is set frontally whereas the right leg and the head are in profile. He wears a turban and his face is covered. The horse is typically Arab distinguished by the shape of its head and the gracefulness of its neck and legs. This drawing is unique in Ifriqiyan art. The overall posture of the horse is similar to an image on an Umayyad *caliph*'s goblet from Madinat Elvira in Spain.","short_description":"This is a hand-carved engraving of a majestic Arab horse, whose rider is barely visible, and is a drawing unique in Ifriqiyan art. The carefully drawn animal is seen in profile, with its mane rendered using oblique and radiating strokes.","type":"Graffito, stucco","holder":"Bardo Museum.","dates":"Hegira, second half of the 4th–first half of the 5th centuries / AD 10th–11th centuries.","location":"Tunis.","dimensions":"Length 30 cm, width 29 cm, thickness 3 cm.","method_for_datation":"This piece comes from the excavations at Sabra al-Mansuriyya, a place which survived for around a century (from 337 to 444 / 948 to 1053). This allows us to date it from the second half of the 4th / 10th century to the first half of the 5th / 11th century. No more precise dating is possible owing to the lack of published information from the excavations but the object's similarity to the Umayyad goblet (mid-4th / 10th century) suggests that we can limit the period to the end of the 4th / 10th century.","method_for_provenance":"Excavated object.","provenance":"Sabra al-Mansuriyya (Kairouan).","obtention":"After the discovery of this piece in the Sabra al-Mansuriyya excavations between 1952 and 1956, it was stored and later displayed at the Bardo Museum.","bibliography":"*De Carthage à Kairouan* (exhibition catalogue), Paris, 1982, p.221.  \nZbiss, S. M., *Actes du 79e congrès national des* *sociétés savantes*, Algiers, 1954, p.302.","dynasty":"Fatimid–Zirid","author":"Mourad Rammah","copy_editor":"Margot Cortez","translator":"David Ash","translation_copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Figurative decoration"],"materials":["Incised stucco."]},"fd6f1970-6f1f-547d-882d-48ee08c260f8":{"name":"Cup","short_description":"Painting with lustred pigments on glass predates its use on ceramics. Glassmakers in Egypt were using this technique in the 8th century, when this piece was made.","holder":"Victoria & Albert Museum","dates":"8th century","location":"London","dimensions":"Height: 6.5cm, Width: 7.5cm","provenance":"Syria","obtention":"Purchased by the museum in 1932","bibliography":"Ashton, A.L.B, \"Three new glass vessels painted in lustre\", *Burlington Magazine*, LX (1932): 293-4, Plate A.  \nLamm, C.J., *An Oriental group of medieval date found in Sweden and the early history of lustre painting*, Stockholm: Wahlström & Widstrand, 1941: 25.","author":"Simon Spier","materials":["Glass, with lustre painted decoration"]},"feee4da0-04af-5864-b229-a94005de718d":{"name":"Glazed bowl.","description":"Glazed bowl with rounded rim, circular mouth, slightly carinate hemispherical body and convex base with diagonal foot-ring. The exterior is glazed in honey-coloured monochrome and the interior is decorated in the *cuerda seca* technique in which the white, green and honey colours of the glaze are separated by lines of manganese. The decorative theme is a large flower created by a radial geometric composition which occupies all of the decorated space and which may correspond to a lotus flower viewed from above. Examples identical to this object have been found in various parts of the western Mediterranean, in particular in the citadel of Málaga, in Cartagena, Palma de Mallorca (Spain), Pisa (Italy) and Ceuta (Morocco). The object has been restored.","short_description":"Bowl decorated entirely using *cuerda seca* and decorated with a large flower created by a geometric radial pattern that occupies all of the decorative space. The central motif is a lotus flower seen from above. Similar pieces have been found around the western Mediterranean.","type":"Bowl, ceramic","holder":"Museum of Mértola.","dates":"Hegira 6th century / AD 12th century.","location":"Mértola., Beja.","dimensions":"Height 8.5 cm, diameter (of mouth) 26 cm, diameter (of base) 10.5 cm.","method_for_datation":"The stratigraphic context in which the object was found was very disordered, which led to its being dated to the 6th / 12th century by comparison with objects of similar shape and decorative technique from Málaga and Almería.","method_for_provenance":"The abundance of this type of ceramic in Málaga and Almería (Spain), where kilns have been found in which they were made, has led researchers to attribute its production to these towns.","provenance":"Almería or Málaga, Spain.","obtention":"Found in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Campo Arqueológico de Mértola in the citadel of the Castle of Mértola.","bibliography":"Gómez Martínez, S., *A Cerâmica em Corda Seca de Mértola*, Mértola, 2002.  \nTorres, C., “Um Lote Cerâmico da Mértola Islâmica*”*, in *I Congreso de Arqueología Medieval Española. Huesca, 1985*, vol. IV, Saragossa, 1986, pp.193–228 .  \nTorres, C. and Gómez, S., “Le Vert et Brun au Portugal”, in *Le Vert et le Brun de Kairouan à Avignon: Céramiques du Xe au XVe Siècle*,exhibition catalogue, Marseilles, 1995, pp.98–102.  \nTorres, C. and Macias, S. (eds.), *O Portugal Islâmico*, Lisbon, 1998, p.92.","dynasty":"Almoravid or Almohad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_PT_EN_001","author":"Susana Gómez Martínez","translator":"Gilla Evans","translation_copy_editor":"Monica Allen","keywords":["cuerda seca; ceramic; trade"],"materials":["Ceramic made from medium-grained orange-coloured paste, modelled on a potter’s wheel, fired in an oxidising atmosphere and glazed using the cuerda seca technique throughout."]},"ff2ee02d-c01b-55f1-8514-320080faaf5a":{"name":"Nebamun tomb paintings","short_description":"Salt’s excavator, Yanni d’Athanasi, discovered and removed the exquisite wall paintings from the 18th Dynasty tomb of Nebamun. Here Nebamun counts the flocks of geese being brought before him.","type":"Wall painting","holder":"The British Museum","dates":"C14th BC; acquisition date: 1821","location":"London","provenance":"Egypt","keywords":["archaeology; Egyptomania; exploration; collection; collecting; wall painting; museums; travel; traveller"]},"ffc2330e-9d6d-5852-b9cf-1e4ad8156ccf":{"name":"Kettle.","description":"An intact, zoomorphic kettle made of leaded bronze. A representation of a camel bearing a load or a seat, a tripod would once have held the kettle in place above a brazier to heat the contents; the mouth of the camel is the spout, and the lid contacted to the handle.  \n  \nThis kettle is an extremely important object not only because of the rarity of metalwork in the Umayyad period, but also symbolically, for the camel is a highly significant creature in the Arab world considering that only a few hundred years ago, caravans of 120,000 camels – up to six miles long – would have travelled across the desert linking Middle Eastern cities from Arabia to Jerusalem.","short_description":"A kettle of leaded bronze from Umm al-Walid, representing a camel bearing a load or a seat. The mouth of the camel is the spout. A tripod would once have held the kettle in place above a brazier to heat the contents.","type":"Kettle, metalwork","holder":"Madaba Archaeological Museum.","dates":"Hegira first half of the 2nd century / AD first half of the 8th century.","location":"Madaba","dimensions":"Height 14.8 cm, width 12.5 cm, weight 564 g.","method_for_datation":"The object was dated by its stratigraphic context, and association with Umayyad pottery vessels and shards also found at the site.","method_for_provenance":"Where this kettle was produced is unknown but it was found during an archaeological excavation at Umm al-Walid near Madaba.","provenance":"Hallado en Umm al-Walid (Jordania).","obtention":"This kettle was found during archaeological excavations at Umm al-Walid (15 km south-east of Madaba) in 1992 where, earlier, a palace and a mosque were discovered. Ceramic vessels and other metalwork were also uncovered at this site.","bibliography":"Bujard, J., and Schweizer, F., *Entre Byzance et l'Islam: Umm er-Rasas et Umm el-Walid – Fouilles genevoises en Jordanie*, Geneva, 1992, p.17, fig. 11/4; p.18, fig. 14.  \nHaldimann, M. A., *Les Implantations omeyyades dans la Balqa: l'apport d'Umm el-Walid*, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan*,* XXXVI, 1992, pp.307–18 (especially p.315).","dynasty":"Umayyad","linkcatalogs":"IAM_JO_EN_001","author":"Aida Naghawy","copy_editor":"Mandi Gomez","keywords":["Camel; metalwork; tripod kettle."],"materials":["Cast, leaded bronze."]}}