@math.gl/projection 0.0.0-stage → 5.0.0-alpha.12

package/src/experimental/projection-pipeline.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,1053 @@
+// math.gl
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright (c) vis.gl contributors
+// SPDX-FileComment: Original typed orchestration inspired by PROJ's explicit pipeline model. Projection, geocentric and static Helmert equations reuse the proj4js adaptations in this package; see datum.ts and ../../PROJ4-LICENSE.md. The separate exact Helmert matrix is adapted from PROJ; see exact-helmert.ts and ../../PROJ-LICENSE.txt.
+import type {DeformationModel} from './deformation';
+import {CORE_PARAMETERS, normalizeCRS} from './crs/normalize';
+import {unsupportedStage} from './crs/types';
+import {
+  applyDatumGrids,
+  createHelmert,
+  geocentricToGeodeticInPlace,
+  geodeticToGeocentricInPlace
+} from './datum';
+import {projectionOperation} from './mutable-projection';
+import {ProjectionScratch} from './projection-scratch';
+import {createNumericFlat} from './numeric-flat';
+import type {NumericStep, NumericFlatOperation} from './numeric-flat';
+import {validateScalarOutput, writeScalarOutput} from './scalar-output';
+import type {ProjectionCoordinate, ProjectionOutput} from './scalar-output';
+export type {ProjectionCoordinate, ProjectionOutput} from './scalar-output';
+import {createHelmertFlat} from './helmert-flat';
+import {createExactHelmert} from './exact-helmert';
+import {createKinematicHelmert} from './kinematic-helmert';
+import {getLoadedProjection, preloadProjection} from './projection-descriptor';
+import {compileVerticalGrid} from './vertical-datum';
+import type {ProjectionDescriptor} from './projection-descriptor';
+import type {ProjectionParameters, ProjectionPlugin, ProjectionPoint} from './types';
+import type {ProjectionArray} from './typescript-projection';
+import type {DatumGridCollection, VerticalGridCollection} from './grids/types';
+
+/** Decimal years; a flat call accepts one epoch or one per coordinate record. */
+export type PipelineEpochs = number | Float32Array | Float64Array;
+export type PipelineHelmertRates = {
+  /** Metres per decimal year. */
+  readonly translation?: readonly [number, number, number];
+  /** Arcseconds per decimal year, using the step's rotation convention. */
+  readonly rotation?: readonly [number, number, number];
+  /** Parts per million per decimal year. */
+  readonly scalePPM?: number;
+};
+export type PipelineUnit = 'deg' | 'rad' | 'm' | 'ft' | 'us-ft';
+export type PipelineCoordinateSystem = {
+  readonly space: 'geographic' | 'projected' | 'geocentric';
+  /** Units in stored X/Y/Z order. Geographic steps require longitude/latitude order. */
+  readonly units: readonly [PipelineUnit, PipelineUnit, PipelineUnit];
+};
+export type PipelineEllipsoid = Readonly<
+  Partial<Record<'ellps' | 'a' | 'b' | 'rf' | 'f' | 'R', string>>
+>;
+export type PipelineProjectionOutput =
+  | {readonly space: 'geographic'; readonly unit: 'deg' | 'rad'}
+  | {readonly space: 'projected'; readonly unit: 'm'};
+type Direction = {
+  readonly inverse?: boolean;
+  /** Omit this step when calling project/projectFlat. */
+  readonly omitForward?: boolean;
+  /** Omit this step when calling unproject/unprojectFlat. */
+  readonly omitInverse?: boolean;
+};
+export type PipelineStep = Direction &
+  (
+    | {
+        readonly type: 'unitconvert';
+        readonly xy?: {readonly from: PipelineUnit; readonly to: PipelineUnit};
+        readonly z?: {readonly from: PipelineUnit; readonly to: PipelineUnit};
+      }
+    | {
+        readonly type: 'axisswap';
+        readonly order: readonly [number, number] | readonly [number, number, number];
+      }
+    | {
+        readonly type: 'projection';
+        readonly name: string;
+        readonly parameters?: ProjectionParameters;
+        /** Required for ob_tran; geographic helper output can be degrees or radians. */
+        readonly output?: PipelineProjectionOutput;
+      }
+    | {readonly type: 'cart'; readonly ellipsoid?: PipelineEllipsoid}
+    | {
+        readonly type: 'helmert';
+        readonly translation: readonly [number, number, number];
+        readonly rotation?: readonly [number, number, number];
+        readonly scalePPM?: number;
+        readonly convention?: 'position_vector' | 'coordinate_frame';
+        /** Use a full rotation matrix and its mathematical inverse. Default false. */
+        readonly exact?: boolean;
+        /** Decimal year at which the base parameters apply. Required with rates. */
+        readonly referenceEpoch?: number;
+        readonly rates?: PipelineHelmertRates;
+      }
+    | {
+        readonly type: 'deformation';
+        readonly model: DeformationModel;
+        /** 'coordinate' uses the separate scalar/batch/per-record epoch argument. */
+        readonly sourceEpoch: number | 'coordinate';
+        readonly targetEpoch: number;
+      }
+    | {readonly type: 'push' | 'pop'; readonly components: readonly (1 | 2 | 3)[]}
+    | {readonly type: 'hgridshift'; readonly grids: string}
+    | {readonly type: 'vgridshift'; readonly grids: string; readonly multiplier?: number}
+  );
+type Registration = ProjectionPlugin | ProjectionDescriptor;
+type Result<P, T> = Extract<P, ProjectionDescriptor> extends never ? T : Promise<T>;
+export type ProjectionPipelineOptions<P extends Registration = ProjectionPlugin> = {
+  readonly input: PipelineCoordinateSystem;
+  readonly steps: readonly PipelineStep[];
+  readonly projections?: readonly P[];
+  readonly datumGrids?: DatumGridCollection;
+  readonly verticalGrids?: VerticalGridCollection;
+};
+type Operation = (point: ProjectionPoint, stack: Float64Array, epoch?: number) => void;
+type StackEntry = {unit: PipelineUnit; space: PipelineCoordinateSystem['space']; slot: number};
+type State = {
+  space: PipelineCoordinateSystem['space'];
+  units: [PipelineUnit, PipelineUnit, PipelineUnit];
+  stacks: StackEntry[][];
+};
+const EMPTY_STACK = new Float64Array(0);
+// Typed-array buffers are ordinary or shared. The intrinsic getter checks the
+// backing-store brand across realms and cannot be fooled by Symbol.toStringTag.
+const ordinaryByteLength = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(ArrayBuffer.prototype, 'byteLength').get;
+function sharedBuffer(buffer: ArrayBufferLike): boolean {
+  try {
+    ordinaryByteLength.call(buffer);
+    return false;
+  } catch {
+    return true;
+  }
+}
+
+type Pair = {
+  forward: Operation;
+  inverse: Operation;
+  forwardNumeric?: NumericStep;
+  inverseNumeric?: NumericStep;
+  forwardFlat?: NumericFlatOperation;
+  inverseFlat?: NumericFlatOperation;
+};
+function compileFlat(pairs: readonly Pair[]): NumericFlatOperation | undefined {
+  if (pairs.length === 1 && pairs[0].forwardFlat) return pairs[0].forwardFlat;
+  // Pure axis measurements were inconsistent; retain general dispatch for that subset.
+  return pairs.every(pair => pair.forwardNumeric) &&
+    pairs.some(pair => pair.forwardNumeric[0] !== 2)
+    ? createNumericFlat(pairs.map(pair => pair.forwardNumeric))
+    : undefined;
+}
+type Factory = () => Pair;
+const factors: Record<PipelineUnit, number> = {
+  deg: Math.PI / 180,
+  rad: 1,
+  m: 1,
+  ft: 0.3048,
+  'us-ft': 1200 / 3937
+};
+const geometryKeys = ['ellps', 'a', 'b', 'rf', 'f', 'R'];
+const angular = (unit: PipelineUnit): boolean => unit === 'deg' || unit === 'rad';
+const own = (value: object, name: string): boolean =>
+  Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(value, name);
+function keys(value: object, allowed: readonly string[]): void {
+  if (!value || typeof value !== 'object' || Array.isArray(value))
+    throw new Error('Expected operation object');
+  for (const name of Object.keys(value))
+    if (!allowed.includes(name)) unsupportedStage('Unsupported pipeline parameter: ' + name);
+}
+function definition(name: string, parameters: ProjectionParameters = {}): string {
+  if (!/^[a-z][a-z0-9_]*$/i.test(name)) throw new Error('Invalid projection name');
+  return (
+    '+proj=' +
+    name +
+    Object.entries(parameters)
+      .map(([key, value]) => {
+        if (
+          !/^[a-z][a-z0-9_]*$/i.test(key) ||
+          (value !== undefined &&
+            (typeof value !== 'string' ||
+              !value ||
+              /[\s=]/.test(value) ||
+              /\+/.test(value.slice(1).replace(/[eE]\+/g, ''))))
+        )
+          throw new Error('Invalid pipeline projection parameter: ' + key);
+        return ' +' + key + (value === undefined ? '' : '=' + value);
+      })
+      .join('')
+  );
+}
+function finite(point: ProjectionPoint): void {
+  if (!Number.isFinite(point.x) || !Number.isFinite(point.y) || !Number.isFinite(point.z))
+    throw new Error('Pipeline coordinate must be finite');
+}
+function triple(values: readonly number[]): void {
+  if (!Array.isArray(values) || values.length !== 3 || !values.every(Number.isFinite))
+    throw new Error('Expected three finite Helmert parameters');
+}
+
+/** Explicit forward/reverse operations; no CRS/epoch inference or string pipeline parser.
+ * General execution reuses guarded scratch; specialized flat stages use numeric
+ * locals and never allocate coordinate arrays inside the flat loop. M and additional ordinates are preserved, never interpreted.
+ */
+export class ProjectionPipeline<P extends Registration = ProjectionPlugin> {
+  readonly input: PipelineCoordinateSystem;
+  readonly output: PipelineCoordinateSystem;
+  private readonly forwardFactories: Factory[] = [];
+  private readonly inverseFactories: Factory[] = [];
+  private stackSize = 0;
+  private readonly coordinateScratch = new ProjectionScratch();
+  private coordinateStack?: Float64Array;
+  private readonly required: Registration[] = [];
+  private readonly deferred: boolean;
+  private requiresZ = false;
+  private requiresEpoch = false;
+  private compiled?: {
+    forward: Operation[];
+    inverse: Operation[];
+    forwardFlat?: NumericFlatOperation;
+    inverseFlat?: NumericFlatOperation;
+  };
+  private pending?: Promise<this>;
+
+  constructor(options: ProjectionPipelineOptions<P>) {
+    keys(options, ['input', 'steps', 'projections', 'datumGrids', 'verticalGrids']);
+    keys(options.input, ['space', 'units']);
+    const {space, units} = options.input;
+    if (
+      !['geographic', 'projected', 'geocentric'].includes(space) ||
+      !Array.isArray(units) ||
+      units.length !== 3 ||
+      units.some(unit => !own(factors, unit)) ||
+      angular(units[2]) ||
+      (space === 'geographic'
+        ? !angular(units[0]) || !angular(units[1])
+        : angular(units[0]) || angular(units[1]))
+    )
+      throw new Error('Invalid pipeline input space/units');
+    if (!Array.isArray(options.steps) || options.steps.length === 0)
+      throw new Error('Pipeline requires at least one step');
+    this.requiresZ = space === 'geocentric';
+    this.input = Object.freeze({
+      space,
+      units: Object.freeze([...units]) as PipelineCoordinateSystem['units']
+    });
+    const state: State = {space, units: [...units] as State['units'], stacks: [[], [], []]};
+    const projections = [...(options.projections || [])];
+    this.deferred = projections.some(projection => !('create' in projection));
+    // Each direction has its own validated metadata and stack layout. Share equation
+    // implementations by step so custom plugin factories still run once per step.
+    const caches = options.steps.map(() => ({}) as {pair?: Pair});
+    for (const [index, step] of options.steps.entries()) {
+      for (const name of ['inverse', 'omitForward', 'omitInverse'] as const)
+        if (step?.[name] !== undefined && typeof step[name] !== 'boolean')
+          throw new Error('Invalid pipeline ' + name + ' flag');
+      if (step?.omitForward && step.omitInverse)
+        throw new Error('A pipeline step cannot omit both directions');
+      if (!step?.omitForward)
+        this.forwardFactories.push(
+          this.prepare(step, state, {...options, projections}, caches[index])
+        );
+    }
+    this.balanced(state);
+    this.output = Object.freeze({
+      space: state.space,
+      units: Object.freeze([...state.units]) as PipelineCoordinateSystem['units']
+    });
+    const reverse: State = {space: state.space, units: [...state.units], stacks: [[], [], []]};
+    for (let index = options.steps.length - 1; index >= 0; index--) {
+      const step = options.steps[index];
+      if (!step.omitInverse)
+        this.inverseFactories.push(
+          this.prepare(
+            {...step, inverse: !step.inverse},
+            reverse,
+            {...options, projections},
+            caches[index]
+          )
+        );
+    }
+    this.balanced(reverse);
+    if (reverse.space !== space || reverse.units.some((unit, index) => unit !== units[index]))
+      throw new Error('Inverse pipeline output does not match declared input space/units');
+    if (this.required.every(projection => getLoadedProjection(projection))) this.compile();
+    this.project = this.project.bind(this);
+    this.unproject = this.unproject.bind(this);
+    this.projectSync = this.projectSync.bind(this);
+    this.unprojectSync = this.unprojectSync.bind(this);
+    this.projectTo = this.projectTo.bind(this);
+    this.unprojectTo = this.unprojectTo.bind(this);
+    this.projectToSync = this.projectToSync.bind(this);
+    this.unprojectToSync = this.unprojectToSync.bind(this);
+    this.projectFlat = this.projectFlat.bind(this);
+    this.unprojectFlat = this.unprojectFlat.bind(this);
+    this.projectFlatSync = this.projectFlatSync.bind(this);
+    this.unprojectFlatSync = this.unprojectFlatSync.bind(this);
+  }
+
+  /** Load only implementations named by pipeline steps; failures can be retried. */
+  preload(): Promise<this> {
+    if (this.compiled) return Promise.resolve(this);
+    this.pending ||= Promise.all(this.required.map(preloadProjection))
+      .then(() => {
+        this.compile();
+        return this;
+      })
+      .catch(error => {
+        this.pending = undefined;
+        throw error;
+      });
+    return this.pending;
+  }
+  project(coordinate: readonly number[], epoch?: number): Result<P, number[]> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.preload().then(() => this.projectSync(coordinate, epoch))
+        : this.projectSync(coordinate, epoch)
+    ) as Result<P, number[]>;
+  }
+  unproject(coordinate: readonly number[], epoch?: number): Result<P, number[]> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.preload().then(() => this.unprojectSync(coordinate, epoch))
+        : this.unprojectSync(coordinate, epoch)
+    ) as Result<P, number[]>;
+  }
+  /** Reuse a scalar output; the epoch remains separate from all coordinate ordinates. */
+  projectTo<T extends ProjectionOutput>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    output: T,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): Result<P, T> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.scalarToLoaded(coordinate, output, false, epoch)
+        : this.projectToSync(coordinate, output, epoch)
+    ) as Result<P, T>;
+  }
+  unprojectTo<T extends ProjectionOutput>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    output: T,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): Result<P, T> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.scalarToLoaded(coordinate, output, true, epoch)
+        : this.unprojectToSync(coordinate, output, epoch)
+    ) as Result<P, T>;
+  }
+  projectToSync<T extends ProjectionOutput>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    output: T,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): T {
+    validateScalarOutput(coordinate, output, coordinate.length);
+    return this.scalar(coordinate, false, epoch, output);
+  }
+  unprojectToSync<T extends ProjectionOutput>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    output: T,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): T {
+    validateScalarOutput(coordinate, output, coordinate.length);
+    return this.scalar(coordinate, true, epoch, output);
+  }
+  private scalarToLoaded<T extends ProjectionOutput>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    output: T,
+    inverse: boolean,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): Promise<T> {
+    validateScalarOutput(coordinate, output, coordinate.length);
+    const input = coordinate.slice();
+    return this.preload().then(() =>
+      inverse
+        ? this.unprojectToSync(input, output, epoch)
+        : this.projectToSync(input, output, epoch)
+    );
+  }
+  projectFlat<T extends ProjectionArray>(
+    coordinates: T,
+    dimension = 2,
+    epochs?: PipelineEpochs
+  ): Result<P, T> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.preload().then(() => this.projectFlatSync(coordinates, dimension, epochs))
+        : this.projectFlatSync(coordinates, dimension, epochs)
+    ) as Result<P, T>;
+  }
+  unprojectFlat<T extends ProjectionArray>(
+    coordinates: T,
+    dimension = 2,
+    epochs?: PipelineEpochs
+  ): Result<P, T> {
+    return (
+      this.deferred
+        ? this.preload().then(() => this.unprojectFlatSync(coordinates, dimension, epochs))
+        : this.unprojectFlatSync(coordinates, dimension, epochs)
+    ) as Result<P, T>;
+  }
+  projectSync(coordinate: readonly number[], epoch?: number): number[] {
+    return this.scalar(coordinate, false, epoch);
+  }
+  unprojectSync(coordinate: readonly number[], epoch?: number): number[] {
+    return this.scalar(coordinate, true, epoch);
+  }
+  projectFlatSync<T extends ProjectionArray>(
+    coordinates: T,
+    dimension = 2,
+    epochs?: PipelineEpochs
+  ): T {
+    return this.flat(coordinates, dimension, false, epochs);
+  }
+  unprojectFlatSync<T extends ProjectionArray>(
+    coordinates: T,
+    dimension = 2,
+    epochs?: PipelineEpochs
+  ): T {
+    return this.flat(coordinates, dimension, true, epochs);
+  }
+
+  private compile(): void {
+    if (this.compiled) return;
+    for (const registration of this.required)
+      if (!getLoadedProjection(registration))
+        unsupportedStage('Pipeline projection requires preload(): ' + registration.name);
+    const forward = this.forwardFactories.map(factory => factory()),
+      inverse = this.inverseFactories.map(factory => factory());
+    this.compiled = {
+      forward: forward.map(pair => pair.forward),
+      inverse: inverse.map(pair => pair.forward),
+      forwardFlat: compileFlat(forward),
+      inverseFlat: compileFlat(inverse)
+    };
+  }
+  private operations(inverse: boolean): Operation[] {
+    this.compile();
+    return inverse ? this.compiled.inverse : this.compiled.forward;
+  }
+  private scalar<T extends ProjectionOutput = number[]>(
+    coordinate: ProjectionCoordinate,
+    inverse: boolean,
+    epoch?: number,
+    output?: T
+  ): T {
+    this.coordinateEpoch(epoch);
+    if (coordinate.length < (this.requiresZ ? 3 : 2))
+      throw new Error('Pipeline requires ' + (this.requiresZ ? 'XYZ' : 'XY') + ' coordinates');
+    const operations = this.operations(inverse);
+    const point = this.coordinateScratch.acquire();
+    try {
+      point.x = coordinate[0];
+      point.y = coordinate[1];
+      point.z = coordinate.length >= 3 ? coordinate[2] : 0;
+      let stack: Float64Array = EMPTY_STACK;
+      if (this.stackSize) {
+        if (point === this.coordinateScratch.point) {
+          this.coordinateStack ||= new Float64Array(this.stackSize);
+          stack = this.coordinateStack;
+        } else {
+          stack = new Float64Array(this.stackSize);
+        }
+      }
+      this.run(point, operations, stack, epoch);
+      if (output) return writeScalarOutput(coordinate, output, point, coordinate.length);
+      const result = [...coordinate];
+      result[0] = point.x;
+      result[1] = point.y;
+      if (coordinate.length >= 3) result[2] = point.z;
+      return result as T;
+    } finally {
+      this.coordinateScratch.release(point);
+    }
+  }
+  private flat<T extends ProjectionArray>(
+    coordinates: T,
+    dimension: number,
+    inverse: boolean,
+    epochs?: PipelineEpochs
+  ): T {
+    if (
+      !(coordinates instanceof Float32Array || coordinates instanceof Float64Array) ||
+      !Number.isSafeInteger(dimension) ||
+      dimension < (this.requiresZ ? 3 : 2) ||
+      coordinates.length % dimension
+    )
+      throw new Error('Pipeline requires Float32Array/Float64Array and a valid XY/XYZ stride');
+    if (epochs === undefined) this.coordinateEpoch(undefined);
+    else if (typeof epochs === 'number') this.coordinateEpoch(epochs);
+    else {
+      if (
+        !(epochs instanceof Float32Array || epochs instanceof Float64Array) ||
+        epochs.length !== coordinates.length / dimension
+      )
+        throw new Error('Epoch buffer requires one Float32/Float64 value per coordinate record');
+      if (
+        epochs.byteOffset < coordinates.byteOffset + coordinates.byteLength &&
+        coordinates.byteOffset < epochs.byteOffset + epochs.byteLength &&
+        (epochs.buffer === coordinates.buffer ||
+          (sharedBuffer(epochs.buffer) && sharedBuffer(coordinates.buffer)))
+      )
+        throw new Error('Epoch and coordinate buffers must not overlap or alias shared storage');
+    }
+    const operations = this.operations(inverse);
+    const specialized = inverse ? this.compiled.inverseFlat : this.compiled.forwardFlat;
+    if (specialized) {
+      specialized(coordinates, dimension, epochs);
+      return coordinates;
+    }
+    const point = this.coordinateScratch.acquire();
+    try {
+      const float32 = coordinates instanceof Float32Array;
+      let stack: Float64Array = EMPTY_STACK;
+      if (this.stackSize) {
+        if (point === this.coordinateScratch.point) {
+          this.coordinateStack ||= new Float64Array(this.stackSize);
+          stack = this.coordinateStack;
+        } else stack = new Float64Array(this.stackSize);
+      }
+      const epochBuffer = typeof epochs === 'number' ? undefined : epochs;
+      let epoch = typeof epochs === 'number' ? epochs : undefined;
+      for (let i = 0; i < coordinates.length; i += dimension) {
+        point.x = coordinates[i];
+        point.y = coordinates[i + 1];
+        point.z = dimension >= 3 ? coordinates[i + 2] : 0;
+        if (epochBuffer) {
+          epoch = epochBuffer[i / dimension];
+          this.coordinateEpoch(epoch);
+        }
+        this.run(point, operations, stack, epoch);
+        if (
+          float32 &&
+          Math.max(Math.abs(point.x), Math.abs(point.y), Math.abs(point.z)) > 3.4028234663852886e38
+        )
+          throw new Error('Pipeline output exceeds Float32 range');
+        coordinates[i] = point.x;
+        coordinates[i + 1] = point.y;
+        if (dimension >= 3) coordinates[i + 2] = point.z;
+      }
+      return coordinates;
+    } finally {
+      this.coordinateScratch.release(point);
+    }
+  }
+  private coordinateEpoch(epoch: number | undefined): void {
+    if (epoch === undefined) {
+      if (this.requiresEpoch) throw new Error('Pipeline requires an explicit coordinate epoch');
+    } else if (typeof epoch !== 'number' || !Number.isFinite(epoch))
+      throw new Error('Coordinate epoch must be a finite decimal year');
+  }
+  private run(
+    point: ProjectionPoint,
+    operations: readonly Operation[],
+    stack: Float64Array,
+    epoch?: number
+  ): void {
+    finite(point);
+    for (const operation of operations) {
+      operation(point, stack, epoch);
+      finite(point);
+    }
+  }
+  private balanced(state: State): void {
+    if (state.stacks.some(stack => stack.length))
+      throw new Error('Pipeline stack has unbalanced push/pop operations');
+  }
+  private prepare(
+    step: PipelineStep,
+    state: State,
+    options: ProjectionPipelineOptions<Registration>,
+    cache: {pair?: Pair}
+  ): Factory {
+    const allowed: Record<PipelineStep['type'], string[]> = {
+      unitconvert: ['xy', 'z'],
+      axisswap: ['order'],
+      projection: ['name', 'parameters', 'output'],
+      cart: ['ellipsoid'],
+      helmert: [
+        'translation',
+        'rotation',
+        'scalePPM',
+        'convention',
+        'exact',
+        'referenceEpoch',
+        'rates'
+      ],
+      deformation: ['model', 'sourceEpoch', 'targetEpoch'],
+      push: ['components'],
+      pop: ['components'],
+      hgridshift: ['grids'],
+      vgridshift: ['grids', 'multiplier']
+    };
+    if (!step || !own(allowed, step.type))
+      unsupportedStage('Unsupported pipeline operation: ' + step?.type);
+    keys(step, ['type', 'inverse', 'omitForward', 'omitInverse', ...allowed[step.type]]);
+    if (step.inverse !== undefined && typeof step.inverse !== 'boolean')
+      throw new Error('Invalid pipeline inverse flag');
+    const inverse = Boolean(step.inverse);
+    const orient = (pair: Pair): Pair =>
+      inverse
+        ? {
+            forward: pair.inverse,
+            inverse: pair.forward,
+            forwardNumeric: pair.inverseNumeric,
+            inverseNumeric: pair.forwardNumeric,
+            forwardFlat: pair.inverseFlat,
+            inverseFlat: pair.forwardFlat
+          }
+        : pair;
+    const pair =
+      (
+        forward: Operation,
+        backward: Operation,
+        forwardNumeric?: NumericStep,
+        inverseNumeric?: NumericStep,
+        forwardFlat?: NumericFlatOperation,
+        inverseFlat?: NumericFlatOperation
+      ): Factory =>
+      () => {
+        cache.pair ||= {
+          forward,
+          inverse: backward,
+          forwardNumeric,
+          inverseNumeric,
+          forwardFlat,
+          inverseFlat
+        };
+        return orient(cache.pair);
+      };
+    const requireState = (
+      space: PipelineCoordinateSystem['space'],
+      expected: readonly PipelineUnit[]
+    ) => {
+      if (state.space !== space || expected.some((unit, index) => state.units[index] !== unit))
+        throw new Error(
+          'Pipeline step ' + step.type + ' requires ' + space + ' ' + expected.join('/')
+        );
+    };
+    switch (step.type) {
+      case 'unitconvert': {
+        if (!step.xy && !step.z) throw new Error('Empty unit conversion');
+        const scale = [1, 1, 1];
+        for (const [conversion, indices] of [
+          [step.xy, [0, 1]],
+          [step.z, [2]]
+        ] as const) {
+          if (!conversion) continue;
+          keys(conversion, ['from', 'to']);
+          const {from, to} = conversion;
+          if (!own(factors, from) || !own(factors, to) || angular(from) !== angular(to))
+            throw new Error('Incompatible pipeline units');
+          for (const index of indices) {
+            if (state.units[index] !== (inverse ? to : from))
+              throw new Error('Pipeline unit mismatch');
+            state.units[index] = inverse ? from : to;
+            scale[index] = factors[from] / factors[to];
+          }
+        }
+        this.requiresZ ||= Boolean(step.z);
+        const [xScale, yScale, zScale] = scale;
+        return pair(
+          p => {
+            p.x *= xScale;
+            p.y *= yScale;
+            p.z *= zScale;
+          },
+          p => {
+            p.x /= xScale;
+            p.y /= yScale;
+            p.z /= zScale;
+          },
+          [0, xScale, yScale, zScale],
+          [1, xScale, yScale, zScale]
+        );
+      }
+      case 'axisswap': {
+        const order = [...step.order];
+        if (
+          ![2, 3].includes(order.length) ||
+          order.some(
+            index =>
+              !Number.isInteger(index) || Math.abs(index) < 1 || Math.abs(index) > order.length
+          ) ||
+          new Set(order.map(Math.abs)).size !== order.length
+        )
+          throw new Error('Axis order must be a signed permutation');
+        if (order.length === 2) order.push(3);
+        this.requiresZ ||= step.order.length === 3;
+        const reverse = [0, 0, 0];
+        order.forEach((index, target) => {
+          reverse[Math.abs(index) - 1] = Math.sign(index) * (target + 1);
+        });
+        const selected = inverse ? reverse : order;
+        state.units = selected.map(index => state.units[Math.abs(index) - 1]) as typeof state.units;
+        const operation = (indices: number[]): Operation => {
+          const [a, b, c] = indices.map(Math.abs);
+          const [sx, sy, sz] = indices.map(Math.sign);
+          return p => {
+            const {x, y, z} = p;
+            p.x = sx * (a === 1 ? x : a === 2 ? y : z);
+            p.y = sy * (b === 1 ? x : b === 2 ? y : z);
+            p.z = sz * (c === 1 ? x : c === 2 ? y : z);
+          };
+        };
+        return pair(
+          operation(order),
+          operation(reverse),
+          [2, order[0], order[1], order[2]],
+          [2, reverse[0], reverse[1], reverse[2]]
+        );
+      }
+      case 'projection': {
+        const output: PipelineProjectionOutput =
+          step.output === undefined ? {space: 'projected', unit: 'm'} : {...step.output};
+        keys(output, ['space', 'unit']);
+        if (
+          output.space === 'geographic'
+            ? !['rad', 'deg'].includes(output.unit)
+            : output.space !== 'projected' || output.unit !== 'm'
+        )
+          throw new Error('Invalid projection output space/unit contract');
+        requireState(
+          inverse ? output.space : 'geographic',
+          inverse ? [output.unit, output.unit] : ['rad', 'rad']
+        );
+        state.space = inverse ? 'geographic' : output.space;
+        state.units[0] = state.units[1] = inverse ? 'rad' : output.unit;
+        const key = (name: string) => name.toLowerCase().replace(/[\s_-]/g, '');
+        if (typeof step.name !== 'string') throw new Error('Invalid projection name');
+        const registration = options.projections?.find(p =>
+          [p.name, ...(p.aliases || [])].some(name => key(name) === key(step.name))
+        );
+        if (!registration) unsupportedStage('Pipeline projection is not registered: ' + step.name);
+        if (!this.required.includes(registration)) this.required.push(registration);
+        const parameters = {...step.parameters};
+        for (const name of Object.keys(parameters))
+          if (CORE_PARAMETERS.includes(name) && !geometryKeys.includes(name) && name !== 'over')
+            unsupportedStage('Unsupported pipeline parameter: ' + name);
+        const oblique = key(registration.name) === 'obtran';
+        const geographicChild = ['longlat', 'latlong', 'latlon', 'lonlat', 'identity'].includes(
+          key(parameters['o_proj'] || '')
+        );
+        if (oblique && (!step.output || !parameters['o_proj']))
+          unsupportedStage(
+            'Oblique helper pipelines require an explicit output-unit contract and o_proj'
+          );
+        if ((oblique && geographicChild) !== (output.space === 'geographic'))
+          throw new Error('Projection output contract does not match its algorithm');
+        const scale = geographicChild && output.unit === 'rad' ? Math.PI / 180 : 1;
+        const normalized = normalizeCRS(definition(registration.name, parameters));
+        if (normalized.kind !== 'projected')
+          unsupportedStage('Use a cart step for geocentric conversion');
+        return () => {
+          if (cache.pair) return orient(cache.pair);
+          const plugin = getLoadedProjection(registration);
+          if (!plugin)
+            unsupportedStage('Pipeline projection requires preload(): ' + registration.name);
+          if ((key(plugin.name) === 'obtran') !== oblique)
+            unsupportedStage(
+              'Pipeline projection requires a matching projected-metre output contract: ' +
+                plugin.name
+            );
+          if (
+            [
+              'geocent',
+              'geocentric',
+              'identity',
+              'longlat',
+              'latlong',
+              'latlon',
+              'lonlat'
+            ].includes(key(plugin.name))
+          )
+            unsupportedStage(
+              'Pipeline projection requires a projected-metre output contract: ' + plugin.name
+            );
+          keys(parameters, [...geometryKeys, 'over', ...plugin.parameters]);
+          for (const [name, value] of Object.entries(parameters)) {
+            const flag = name === 'over' || plugin.flags?.includes(name);
+            if (flag && value !== undefined)
+              throw new Error('Expected a flag without a value: ' + name);
+            if (!flag && value === undefined)
+              throw new Error('Pipeline parameter requires a value: ' + name);
+          }
+          const implementation = plugin.create({
+            parameters: {...normalized.parameters, proj: plugin.name},
+            semiMajorAxis: normalized.ellipsoid.semiMajorAxis,
+            semiMinorAxis: normalized.ellipsoid.semiMinorAxis,
+            eccentricitySquared: normalized.ellipsoid.eccentricitySquared
+          });
+          const forward = projectionOperation(implementation, false),
+            backward = projectionOperation(implementation, true);
+          cache.pair = oblique
+            ? {
+                forward: p => {
+                  if (Math.abs(p.y) > Math.PI / 2) throw new Error('Invalid geographic latitude');
+                  forward(p);
+                  p.x *= scale;
+                  p.y *= scale;
+                },
+                inverse: p => {
+                  if (geographicChild && Math.abs(p.y) > (output.unit === 'deg' ? 90 : Math.PI / 2))
+                    throw new Error('Invalid rotated geographic latitude');
+                  p.x /= scale;
+                  p.y /= scale;
+                  backward(p);
+                }
+              }
+            : {forward, inverse: backward};
+          return orient(cache.pair);
+        };
+      }
+      case 'cart': {
+        requireState(
+          inverse ? 'geocentric' : 'geographic',
+          inverse ? ['m', 'm', 'm'] : ['rad', 'rad', 'm']
+        );
+        state.space = inverse ? 'geographic' : 'geocentric';
+        state.units = inverse ? ['rad', 'rad', 'm'] : ['m', 'm', 'm'];
+        this.requiresZ = true;
+        keys(step.ellipsoid || {}, geometryKeys);
+        const ellipsoid = normalizeCRS(definition('longlat', step.ellipsoid)).ellipsoid;
+        return pair(
+          p => geodeticToGeocentricInPlace(p, ellipsoid),
+          p => geocentricToGeodeticInPlace(p, ellipsoid)
+        );
+      }
+      case 'helmert': {
+        requireState('geocentric', ['m', 'm', 'm']);
+        this.requiresZ = true;
+        triple(step.translation);
+        if (step.rotation) triple(step.rotation);
+        if ((step.rotation || step.rates?.rotation) && !step.convention)
+          throw new Error('Helmert rotation requires a convention');
+        if (
+          step.convention !== undefined &&
+          !['position_vector', 'coordinate_frame'].includes(step.convention)
+        )
+          throw new Error('Invalid Helmert convention');
+        const scale = step.scalePPM ?? 0;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(scale) || scale <= -1e6)
+          throw new Error('Helmert requires positive finite scale');
+        if (step.exact !== undefined && typeof step.exact !== 'boolean')
+          throw new Error('Invalid exact Helmert flag');
+        if (step.rates !== undefined) {
+          keys(step.rates, ['translation', 'rotation', 'scalePPM']);
+          if (
+            step.rates.translation === undefined &&
+            step.rates.rotation === undefined &&
+            step.rates.scalePPM === undefined
+          )
+            throw new Error('Helmert rates require at least one parameter');
+          if (step.rates.translation !== undefined) triple(step.rates.translation);
+          if (step.rates.rotation !== undefined) triple(step.rates.rotation);
+          if (step.rates.scalePPM !== undefined && !Number.isFinite(step.rates.scalePPM))
+            throw new Error('Helmert scale rate must be finite');
+          if (typeof step.referenceEpoch !== 'number' || !Number.isFinite(step.referenceEpoch))
+            throw new Error('Helmert rates require a finite referenceEpoch');
+          this.requiresEpoch = true;
+          const operation = createKinematicHelmert(
+            step.translation,
+            step.rotation || [0, 0, 0],
+            scale,
+            step.rates,
+            step.referenceEpoch,
+            step.convention === 'coordinate_frame',
+            Boolean(step.exact)
+          );
+          return pair(
+            (p, _stack, epoch) => operation.forward(p, epoch),
+            (p, _stack, epoch) => operation.inverse(p, epoch),
+            undefined,
+            undefined,
+            operation.forwardFlat,
+            operation.inverseFlat
+          );
+        }
+        if (step.referenceEpoch !== undefined)
+          throw new Error('Helmert referenceEpoch requires rates');
+        if (step.exact) {
+          const exact = createExactHelmert(
+            step.translation,
+            step.rotation || [0, 0, 0],
+            scale,
+            step.convention === 'coordinate_frame'
+          );
+          return pair(
+            exact.forward,
+            exact.inverse,
+            undefined,
+            undefined,
+            createHelmertFlat(exact.coefficients, false, true),
+            createHelmertFlat(exact.coefficients, true, true)
+          );
+        }
+        const sign = step.convention === 'coordinate_frame' ? -1 : 1;
+        const values = [
+          ...step.translation,
+          ...(step.rotation || [0, 0, 0]).map(value => sign * value),
+          scale
+        ];
+        const radians = Math.PI / (180 * 3600);
+        const coefficients = [
+          (values[3] || 0) * radians,
+          (values[4] || 0) * radians,
+          (values[5] || 0) * radians,
+          0,
+          0,
+          0,
+          0,
+          0,
+          0,
+          values[0],
+          values[1],
+          values[2],
+          1 + (values[6] || 0) / 1e6
+        ];
+        return pair(
+          createHelmert(values, false),
+          createHelmert(values, true),
+          undefined,
+          undefined,
+          createHelmertFlat(coefficients, false, false),
+          createHelmertFlat(coefficients, true, false)
+        );
+      }
+      case 'deformation': {
+        requireState('geocentric', ['m', 'm', 'm']);
+        this.requiresZ = true;
+        const source = step.sourceEpoch,
+          target = step.targetEpoch;
+        if (
+          (source !== 'coordinate' && (typeof source !== 'number' || !Number.isFinite(source))) ||
+          typeof target !== 'number' ||
+          !Number.isFinite(target)
+        )
+          throw new Error('Explicit finite deformation source/target epochs required');
+        if (
+          !step.model ||
+          typeof step.model.forward !== 'function' ||
+          typeof step.model.inverse !== 'function'
+        )
+          throw new Error('Prepared deformation model required');
+        this.requiresEpoch ||= source === 'coordinate';
+        const forward = step.model.forward.bind(step.model),
+          backward = step.model.inverse.bind(step.model);
+        return pair(
+          (p, _stack, epoch) => forward(p, source === 'coordinate' ? epoch : source, target),
+          (p, _stack, epoch) => backward(p, source === 'coordinate' ? epoch : source, target)
+        );
+      }
+      case 'push':
+      case 'pop': {
+        if (
+          !Array.isArray(step.components) ||
+          !step.components.length ||
+          step.components.some(
+            component => !Number.isInteger(component) || component < 1 || component > 3
+          ) ||
+          new Set(step.components).size !== step.components.length
+        )
+          throw new Error('Stack components must be distinct ordinates 1, 2 or 3');
+        const components = [...step.components];
+        this.requiresZ ||= components.includes(3);
+        const pushing = (step.type === 'push') !== inverse;
+        const entries = components.map(component => {
+          const index = component - 1;
+          if (pushing) {
+            const entry = {unit: state.units[index], space: state.space, slot: this.stackSize++};
+            state.stacks[index].push(entry);
+            return entry;
+          }
+          const entry = state.stacks[index].pop();
+          if (!entry) throw new Error('Pipeline stack underflow for ordinate ' + component);
+          return entry;
+        });
+        if (!pushing) {
+          const horizontal = components
+            .map((component, index) => ({component, entry: entries[index]}))
+            .filter(({component}) => component < 3);
+          const space = horizontal[0]?.entry.space || state.space;
+          if (
+            horizontal.some(({entry}) => entry.space !== space) ||
+            (horizontal.length === 1 && space !== state.space)
+          )
+            throw new Error('Stack restore would mix horizontal coordinate spaces');
+          state.space = space;
+          components.forEach((component, index) => {
+            state.units[component - 1] = entries[index].unit;
+          });
+        }
+        const save: Operation = (p, stack) => {
+          for (let index = 0; index < components.length; index++)
+            stack[entries[index].slot] =
+              components[index] === 1 ? p.x : components[index] === 2 ? p.y : p.z;
+        };
+        const restore: Operation = (p, stack) => {
+          for (let index = 0; index < components.length; index++) {
+            const value = stack[entries[index].slot];
+            if (components[index] === 1) p.x = value;
+            else if (components[index] === 2) p.y = value;
+            else p.z = value;
+          }
+        };
+        // Unlike equations, stack slots are direction-local and must not use the
+        // shared pair cache. Their matching push is known at construction.
+        return () =>
+          pushing ? {forward: save, inverse: restore} : {forward: restore, inverse: save};
+      }
+      case 'hgridshift': {
+        requireState('geographic', ['rad', 'rad']);
+        if (typeof step.grids !== 'string') throw new Error('Horizontal grid names required');
+        const crs = normalizeCRS(definition('longlat', {nadgrids: step.grids}));
+        // Normalization collapses sole null/@null lists to no datum-grid metadata.
+        if (!crs.datum.grids)
+          return pair(
+            () => {},
+            () => {}
+          );
+        const grids = crs.datum.grids.map(reference => {
+          const grid = own(options.datumGrids || {}, reference.name)
+            ? options.datumGrids[reference.name]
+            : undefined;
+          if (reference.name !== 'null' && !grid && !reference.optional)
+            unsupportedStage('Required datum grid is not registered: ' + reference.name);
+          if (grid && typeof grid.shift !== 'function')
+            throw new Error('Invalid datum grid: ' + reference.name);
+          return {...reference, grid};
+        });
+        const datum = {...crs.datum, grids};
+        return pair(
+          p => applyDatumGrids(p, datum, false),
+          p => applyDatumGrids(p, datum, true)
+        );
+      }
+      case 'vgridshift': {
+        requireState('geographic', ['rad', 'rad', 'm']);
+        this.requiresZ = true;
+        if (typeof step.grids !== 'string') throw new Error('Vertical grid names required');
+        const offset = compileVerticalGrid(step.grids, options.verticalGrids);
+        const multiplier = step.multiplier ?? -1;
+        if (!Number.isFinite(multiplier))
+          throw new Error('Vertical grid multiplier must be finite');
+        return pair(
+          p => {
+            p.z += multiplier * offset(p.x, p.y);
+          },
+          p => {
+            p.z -= multiplier * offset(p.x, p.y);
+          }
+        );
+      }
+      default:
+        throw new Error('Unsupported pipeline step');
+    }
+  }
+}