npm - @k2works/claude-code-booster - Versions diffs - 4.12.0 → 4.14.0 - Mend

@k2works/claude-code-booster 4.12.0 → 4.14.0

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@@ -1,915 +1,915 @@
-# Part III: エラーハンドリングと Maybe/Either
-本章では、関数型プログラミングにおける安全なエラーハンドリングを Haskell で学びます。`null` や例外に頼らず、`Maybe` と `Either` を使って型安全にエラーを扱う方法を習得します。
----
-## 第6章: Maybe 型による安全なエラーハンドリング
-### 6.1 なぜ Maybe が必要か
-従来のエラーハンドリングには問題があります。
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "従来のエラーハンドリング" {
-  rectangle "null を返す" as null_ret {
-    card "NullPointerException の危険"
-    card "コンパイル時に検出できない"
-  }
-  rectangle "例外をスローする" as exception {
-    card "制御フローが複雑化"
-    card "純粋関数ではなくなる"
-  }
-}
-rectangle "Maybe による解決" as maybe {
-  card "型で「値がないかもしれない」を表現"
-  card "コンパイル時にチェック"
-  card "純粋関数のまま"
-}
-null_ret --> maybe : 置き換え
-exception --> maybe : 置き換え
-@enduml
-```
-**Haskell には null が存在しません。** 値が「ない」可能性は `Maybe` 型で明示的に表現します。
-### 6.2 Maybe の基本
-`Maybe a` は「`a` 型の値があるか、ないか」を表す型です。
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "Maybe a" as maybe {
-  rectangle "Just value" as just {
-    card "値が存在する"
-    card "value :: a を保持"
-  }
-  rectangle "Nothing" as nothing {
-    card "値が存在しない"
-    card "null の代わり"
-  }
-}
-@enduml
-```
-```haskell
-data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a
--- 使用例
-Just 5    :: Maybe Int     -- 値がある
-Nothing   :: Maybe Int     -- 値がない
-Just "Hi" :: Maybe String  -- 文字列がある
-```
-**ソースファイル**: `app/haskell/src/Ch06/MaybeHandling.hs`
-### 6.3 TV番組のパース例
-TV番組の文字列をパースする例で Maybe の使い方を学びます。
-```haskell
-data TvShow = TvShow
-    { tvTitle     :: String
-    , tvStartYear :: Int
-    , tvEndYear   :: Int
-    } deriving (Show, Eq)
--- 入力例: "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
--- 期待する出力: TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013
-```
-#### 安全でない実装（パターンマッチの失敗）
-```haskell
-parseShow :: String -> TvShow
-parseShow rawShow =
-    let Just name      = extractName rawShow      -- 危険！
-        Just yearStart = extractYearStart rawShow -- 危険！
-        Just yearEnd   = extractYearEnd rawShow   -- 危険！
-    in TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
--- 正常ケース
-parseShow "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"  -- TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013
--- 異常ケース → パターンマッチ失敗で例外！
-parseShow "Invalid"  -- *** Exception: ...
-```
-#### Maybe を使った安全な実装
-```haskell
-parseShowSafe :: String -> Maybe TvShow
-parseShowSafe rawShow = do
-    name      <- extractName rawShow
-    yearStart <- extractYearStart rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
-    yearEnd   <- extractYearEnd rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
-    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
--- 正常ケース
-parseShowSafe "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
--- Just (TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013)
--- 異常ケース → Nothing が返される（例外なし）
-parseShowSafe "Invalid"
--- Nothing
-```
-### 6.4 小さな関数から組み立てる
-複雑なパース処理を小さな関数に分解します。
-```haskell
--- 名前を抽出
-extractName :: String -> Maybe String
-extractName rawShow =
-    let bracketOpen = elemIndex '(' rawShow
-    in case bracketOpen of
-        Just idx | idx > 0 -> Just $ trim $ take idx rawShow
-        _                  -> Nothing
--- 開始年を抽出
-extractYearStart :: String -> Maybe Int
-extractYearStart rawShow = do
-    bracketOpen <- elemIndex '(' rawShow
-    dash        <- elemIndex '-' rawShow
-    if dash > bracketOpen + 1
-        then readMaybe $ take (dash - bracketOpen - 1) $ drop (bracketOpen + 1) rawShow
-        else Nothing
--- 終了年を抽出
-extractYearEnd :: String -> Maybe Int
-extractYearEnd rawShow = do
-    dash         <- elemIndex '-' rawShow
-    bracketClose <- elemIndex ')' rawShow
-    if bracketClose > dash + 1
-        then readMaybe $ take (bracketClose - dash - 1) $ drop (dash + 1) rawShow
-        else Nothing
-```
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "パース処理の分解" {
-  card "\"Breaking Bad (2008-2013)\"" as input
-  rectangle "小さな関数" as funcs {
-    card "extractName" as name
-    card "extractYearStart" as start
-    card "extractYearEnd" as end
-  }
-  card "TvShow" as output
-  input --> funcs
-  funcs --> output : do 記法で合成
-}
-@enduml
-```
-### 6.5 orElse によるフォールバック
-`orElse` を使って、最初の Maybe が `Nothing` の場合に代替を試すことができます。
-```haskell
--- orElse の実装
-orElse :: Maybe a -> Maybe a -> Maybe a
-orElse (Just x) _ = Just x
-orElse Nothing  y = y
--- 使用例
-Just 7 `orElse` Just 8   -- Just 7 (最初が Just なのでそのまま)
-Nothing `orElse` Just 8  -- Just 8 (最初が Nothing なので代替を使用)
-Just 7 `orElse` Nothing  -- Just 7
-Nothing `orElse` Nothing -- Nothing
-```
-#### 単年の番組に対応する
-「Chernobyl (2019)」のような単年の番組をパースできるようにします。
-```haskell
-extractSingleYear :: String -> Maybe Int
-extractSingleYear rawShow =
-    case (elemIndex '-' rawShow, elemIndex '(' rawShow, elemIndex ')' rawShow) of
-        (Nothing, Just bo, Just bc) | bc > bo + 1 ->
-            readMaybe $ take (bc - bo - 1) $ drop (bo + 1) rawShow
-        _ -> Nothing
-parseShowSafe :: String -> Maybe TvShow
-parseShowSafe rawShow = do
-    name      <- extractName rawShow
-    yearStart <- extractYearStart rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
-    yearEnd   <- extractYearEnd rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
-    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
--- これで単年の番組もパースできる
-parseShowSafe "Chernobyl (2019)"
--- Just (TvShow "Chernobyl" 2019 2019)
-```
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "orElse のフロー" {
-  card "extractYearStart rawShow" as first
-  card "extractSingleYear rawShow" as second
-  card "結果" as result
-  first --> result : Just の場合
-  first --> second : Nothing の場合
-  second --> result
-}
-@enduml
-```
-### 6.6 Maybe の主要関数
-| 関数 | 説明 | 例 |
-|------|------|-----|
-| `fmap` / `<$>` | 値があれば変換 | `fmap (*2) (Just 5)` → `Just 10` |
-| `>>=` | Maybe を返す関数を適用 | `Just 5 >>= \x -> Just (x * 2)` → `Just 10` |
-| `<\|>` | Nothing なら代替を使用 | `Nothing <\|> Just 5` → `Just 5` |
-| `fromMaybe` | Nothing ならデフォルト値 | `fromMaybe 0 Nothing` → `0` |
-| `maybeToList` | List に変換 | `maybeToList (Just 5)` → `[5]` |
-| `catMaybes` | Just だけ抽出 | `catMaybes [Just 1, Nothing, Just 3]` → `[1,3]` |
-```haskell
-import Data.Maybe
-let year   = Just 996
-let noYear = Nothing :: Maybe Int
--- fmap / <$>
-fmap (*2) year     -- Just 1992
-fmap (*2) noYear   -- Nothing
-(*2) <$> year      -- Just 1992
--- >>= (bind)
-year >>= \y -> Just (y * 2)    -- Just 1992
-noYear >>= \y -> Just (y * 2)  -- Nothing
--- <|> (Alternative)
-import Control.Applicative
-year <|> Just 2020     -- Just 996
-noYear <|> Just 2020   -- Just 2020
--- fromMaybe
-fromMaybe 0 year    -- 996
-fromMaybe 0 noYear  -- 0
-```
-### 6.7 エラーハンドリング戦略
-複数の要素をパースする場合、2つの戦略があります。
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "エラーハンドリング戦略" {
-  rectangle "Best-effort 戦略" as best {
-    card "パースできたものだけ返す"
-    card "エラーは無視"
-    card "[TvShow] を返す"
-  }
-  rectangle "All-or-nothing 戦略" as all {
-    card "全部成功するか、全部失敗"
-    card "一つでも失敗したら Nothing"
-    card "Maybe [TvShow] を返す"
-  }
-}
-@enduml
-```
-#### Best-effort 戦略
-```haskell
-parseShowsBestEffort :: [String] -> [TvShow]
-parseShowsBestEffort rawShows =
-    concatMap (maybe [] (:[]) . parseShowSafe) rawShows
--- または catMaybes を使用
-parseShowsBestEffort' :: [String] -> [TvShow]
-parseShowsBestEffort' = catMaybes . map parseShowSafe
-let rawShows = [ "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
-               , "Invalid Format"
-               , "Mad Men (2007-2015)"
-               ]
-parseShowsBestEffort rawShows
--- [TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013, TvShow "Mad Men" 2007 2015]
--- 無効なものは無視される
-```
-#### All-or-nothing 戦略
-```haskell
-parseShowsAllOrNothing :: [String] -> Maybe [TvShow]
-parseShowsAllOrNothing = traverse parseShowSafe
--- 全部成功 → Just [...]
-parseShowsAllOrNothing ["Breaking Bad (2008-2013)", "Mad Men (2007-2015)"]
--- Just [TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013, TvShow "Mad Men" 2007 2015]
--- 一つでも失敗 → Nothing
-parseShowsAllOrNothing ["Breaking Bad (2008-2013)", "Invalid"]
--- Nothing
-```
----
-## 第7章: Either 型と複合的なエラー処理
-### 7.1 Maybe の限界
-`Maybe` は「値があるかないか」しか表現できません。**なぜ失敗したのか**を伝えられません。
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "Maybe vs Either" {
-  rectangle "Maybe a" as opt {
-    card "Just value" as just
-    card "Nothing" as nothing
-    nothing -[hidden]-> just
-  }
-  rectangle "Either e a" as either {
-    card "Right value" as right
-    card "Left error" as left
-    left -[hidden]-> right
-  }
-  opt --> either : 進化
-}
-note bottom of nothing
-  失敗理由が分からない
-end note
-note bottom of left
-  エラー情報を保持できる
-end note
-@enduml
-```
-### 7.2 Either の基本
-`Either e a` は「`e` 型のエラーか、`a` 型の成功値か」を表す型です。
-- `Right value`: 成功（慣例的に「正しい」= right）
-- `Left error`: 失敗（エラー情報を保持）
-```haskell
-data Either e a = Left e | Right a
--- 使用例
-Right 5     :: Either String Int  -- 成功
-Left "oops" :: Either String Int  -- 失敗（エラーメッセージ付き）
-```
-**ソースファイル**: `app/haskell/src/Ch07/EitherHandling.hs`
-### 7.3 Either を使ったパース
-```haskell
-extractNameE :: String -> Either String String
-extractNameE rawShow =
-    case elemIndex '(' rawShow of
-        Just idx | idx > 0 -> Right $ trim $ take idx rawShow
-        _                  -> Left $ "Can't extract name from " ++ rawShow
-extractNameE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right "The Wire"
-extractNameE "(2022)"                -- Left "Can't extract name from (2022)"
-```
-### 7.4 Either を使った完全なパーサー
-```haskell
-extractYearStartE :: String -> Either String Int
-extractYearStartE rawShow =
-    case (elemIndex '(' rawShow, elemIndex '-' rawShow) of
-        (Just bo, Just d) | d > bo + 1 ->
-            let yearStr = take (d - bo - 1) $ drop (bo + 1) rawShow
-            in maybeToEither ("Can't parse year: " ++ yearStr) (readMaybe yearStr)
-        _ -> Left $ "Can't extract start year from " ++ rawShow
-extractYearStartE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right 2002
-extractYearStartE "The Wire (-2008)"      -- Left "Can't extract start year from ..."
-extractYearStartE "The Wire (oops-2008)"  -- Left "Can't parse year: oops"
-```
-### 7.5 Maybe から Either への変換
-`maybeToEither` で `Maybe` を `Either` に変換できます。
-```haskell
-maybeToEither :: e -> Maybe a -> Either e a
-maybeToEither _ (Just x) = Right x
-maybeToEither e Nothing  = Left e
-let year   = Just 996
-let noYear = Nothing :: Maybe Int
-maybeToEither "no year given" year    -- Right 996
-maybeToEither "no year given" noYear  -- Left "no year given"
-```
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "maybeToEither の動作" {
-  card "Just value" as just
-  card "Nothing" as nothing
-  card "Right value" as right
-  card "Left errorMsg" as left
-  just --> right : maybeToEither errorMsg
-  nothing --> left : maybeToEither errorMsg
-}
-@enduml
-```
-### 7.6 Either による完全なパーサー
-```haskell
-parseShowE :: String -> Either String TvShow
-parseShowE rawShow = do
-    name      <- extractNameE rawShow
-    yearStart <- extractYearStartE rawShow `orElseE` extractSingleYearE rawShow
-    yearEnd   <- extractYearEndE rawShow `orElseE` extractSingleYearE rawShow
-    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
-parseShowE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right (TvShow "The Wire" 2002 2008)
-parseShowE "Mad Men ()"            -- Left "Can't extract single year from Mad Men ()"
-parseShowE "(2002-2008)"           -- Left "Can't extract name from (2002-2008)"
-```
-### 7.7 Either の主要関数
-| 関数 | 説明 | 例 |
-|------|------|-----|
-| `fmap` / `<$>` | Right の値を変換 | `fmap (*2) (Right 5)` → `Right 10` |
-| `>>=` | Right なら Either を返す関数を適用 | `Right 5 >>= \x -> Right (x * 2)` → `Right 10` |
-| `either` | Left/Right で異なる処理 | `either show id (Right "ok")` → `"ok"` |
-| `fromRight` | Left ならデフォルト値 | `fromRight 0 (Left "err")` → `0` |
-| `partitionEithers` | Left と Right を分離 | `partitionEithers [Left "e", Right 1]` → `(["e"], [1])` |
-```haskell
-import Data.Either
-let year   = Right 996 :: Either String Int
-let noYear = Left "no year" :: Either String Int
--- fmap / <$>
-fmap (*2) year     -- Right 1992
-fmap (*2) noYear   -- Left "no year"
--- >>= (bind)
-year >>= \y -> Right (y * 2)              -- Right 1992
-noYear >>= \y -> Right (y * 2)            -- Left "no year"
-year >>= \_ -> Left "can't progress"      -- Left "can't progress"
--- either
-either length id year    -- 996
-either length id noYear  -- 7 ("no year" の長さ)
--- fromRight
-fromRight 0 year    -- 996
-fromRight 0 noYear  -- 0
-```
-### 7.8 音楽アーティスト検索の例
-より複雑な例として、音楽アーティストの検索機能を見てみましょう。
-#### 代数的データ型（ADT）によるモデリング
-```haskell
--- 音楽ジャンル（直和型）
-data MusicGenre
-    = HeavyMetal
-    | Pop
-    | HardRock
-    | Grunge
-    | Punk
-    deriving (Show, Eq)
--- 場所（直和型）
-data Location
-    = USA
-    | England
-    | Australia
-    | Canada
-    deriving (Show, Eq)
--- 活動期間（直和型）
-data YearsActive
-    = StillActive Int           -- 活動中（開始年）
-    | ActiveBetween Int Int     -- 活動終了（開始年、終了年）
-    deriving (Show, Eq)
--- アーティスト（直積型）
-data Artist = Artist
-    { artistName        :: String
-    , artistGenre       :: MusicGenre
-    , artistOrigin      :: Location
-    , artistYearsActive :: YearsActive
-    } deriving (Show, Eq)
-```
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "代数的データ型（ADT）" {
-  rectangle "直積型（Product Type）" as product {
-    card "data ... = Constructor field1 field2"
-    card "A AND B AND C"
-    card "フィールドの組み合わせ"
-  }
-  rectangle "直和型（Sum Type）" as sum {
-    card "data ... = A | B | C"
-    card "A OR B OR C"
-    card "選択肢のいずれか"
-  }
-}
-note bottom of product
-  Artist = name AND genre AND origin AND yearsActive
-end note
-note bottom of sum
-  YearsActive = StillActive OR ActiveBetween
-end note
-@enduml
-```
-### 7.9 パターンマッチング
-直和型は**パターンマッチング**で処理します。
-```haskell
-wasArtistActive :: Artist -> Int -> Int -> Bool
-wasArtistActive artist yearStart yearEnd =
-    case artistYearsActive artist of
-        StillActive since        -> since <= yearEnd
-        ActiveBetween start end_ -> start <= yearEnd && end_ >= yearStart
-activeLength :: Artist -> Int -> Int
-activeLength artist currentYear =
-    case artistYearsActive artist of
-        StillActive since        -> currentYear - since
-        ActiveBetween start end_ -> end_ - start
-```
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "パターンマッチング" {
-  card "artistYearsActive artist" as input
-  rectangle "case ... of" as match_block {
-    card "StillActive since -> ..." as case1
-    card "ActiveBetween start end -> ..." as case2
-  }
-  card "結果" as result
-  input --> match_block
-  match_block --> result
-}
-note bottom
-  全てのケースを網羅する必要がある
-  （コンパイラがチェック）
-end note
-@enduml
-```
-### 7.10 検索条件のモデリング
-検索条件も ADT でモデリングできます。
-```haskell
-data SearchCondition
-    = SearchByGenre [MusicGenre]
-    | SearchByOrigin [Location]
-    | SearchByActiveYears Int Int
-    deriving (Show, Eq)
-searchArtists :: [Artist] -> [SearchCondition] -> [Artist]
-searchArtists artists conditions =
-    filter (satisfiesAll conditions) artists
-  where
-    satisfiesAll conds artist = all (satisfies artist) conds
-    satisfies artist (SearchByGenre genres) =
-        artistGenre artist `elem` genres
-    satisfies artist (SearchByOrigin locations) =
-        artistOrigin artist `elem` locations
-    satisfies artist (SearchByActiveYears start end_) =
-        wasArtistActive artist start end_
--- 使用例
-let metallica = Artist "Metallica" HeavyMetal USA (StillActive 1981)
-let madonna   = Artist "Madonna" Pop USA (StillActive 1982)
-searchArtists [metallica, madonna] [SearchByGenre [HeavyMetal]]
--- [metallica]
-searchArtists [metallica, madonna] [SearchByOrigin [USA], SearchByGenre [Pop]]
--- [madonna]
-```
-### 7.11 バリデーションの例
-```haskell
-validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
-validateAge age
-    | age < 0   = Left "Age cannot be negative"
-    | age > 150 = Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
-    | otherwise = Right age
-validateEmail :: String -> Either String String
-validateEmail email
-    | '@' `notElem` email = Left "Email must contain @"
-    | '.' `notElem` email = Left "Email must contain a domain"
-    | otherwise           = Right email
--- 組み合わせ
-validateUser :: Int -> String -> Either String (Int, String)
-validateUser age email = do
-    validAge   <- validateAge age
-    validEmail <- validateEmail email
-    return (validAge, validEmail)
-validateUser 25 "test@example.com"  -- Right (25, "test@example.com")
-validateUser (-5) "test@example.com" -- Left "Age cannot be negative"
-validateUser 25 "invalid"            -- Left "Email must contain @"
-```
----
-## まとめ
-### Part III で学んだこと
-```plantuml
-@startuml
-!theme plain
-rectangle "Part III: エラーハンドリング" {
-  rectangle "第6章" as ch6 {
-    card "Maybe a"
-    card "Just / Nothing"
-    card "orElse"
-    card "do 記法"
-    card "エラーハンドリング戦略"
-  }
-  rectangle "第7章" as ch7 {
-    card "Either e a"
-    card "Right / Left"
-    card "エラーメッセージの保持"
-    card "ADT（代数的データ型）"
-    card "パターンマッチング"
-  }
-}
-ch6 --> ch7
-@enduml
-```
-### Maybe vs Either の使い分け
-| 状況 | 使用する型 |
-|------|------------|
-| 値があるかないかだけが重要 | `Maybe a` |
-| 失敗理由を伝える必要がある | `Either e a` |
-| 検索結果が見つからない | `Maybe a` |
-| バリデーションエラーを伝える | `Either String a` |
-| 複数のエラー種別がある | `Either ErrorType a` |
-### Scala との対応
-| Scala | Haskell | 説明 |
-|-------|---------|------|
-| `Option[A]` | `Maybe a` | 値の有無 |
-| `Some(x)` | `Just x` | 値がある |
-| `None` | `Nothing` | 値がない |
-| `Either[E, A]` | `Either e a` | 成功/失敗 |
-| `Right(x)` | `Right x` | 成功 |
-| `Left(e)` | `Left e` | 失敗 |
-| `opt.getOrElse(d)` | `fromMaybe d opt` | デフォルト値 |
-| `opt.orElse(alt)` | `opt <\|> alt` | 代替 |
-| `opt.toRight(e)` | `maybeToEither e opt` | Maybe→Either |
-### キーポイント
-1. **Maybe**: 値の有無を型で表現する（Haskell には null がない）
-2. **Either**: 成功/失敗とエラー情報を型で表現する
-3. **do 記法**: Maybe/Either を組み合わせて使う
-4. **orElse / <|>**: フォールバックを提供する
-5. **ADT**: 直積型と直和型でドメインを正確にモデリング
-6. **パターンマッチング**: 直和型を安全に処理する（網羅性チェック付き）
-### 次のステップ
-Part IV では、以下のトピックを学びます:
-- IO モナドの導入
-- 副作用の管理
-- ストリーム処理
----
-## 演習問題
-### 問題 1: Maybe の基本
-以下の関数を実装してください。
-```haskell
-safeDivide :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
-safeDivide = ???
--- 期待される動作
-safeDivide 10 2 == Just 5
-safeDivide 10 0 == Nothing
-safeDivide 7 2 == Just 3
-```
-<details>
-<summary>解答</summary>
-```haskell
-safeDivide :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
-safeDivide _ 0 = Nothing
-safeDivide a b = Just (a `div` b)
-```
-</details>
-### 問題 2: Maybe の合成
-以下の関数を実装してください。2つの数値文字列を受け取り、その合計を返します。
-```haskell
-addStrings :: String -> String -> Maybe Int
-addStrings = ???
--- 期待される動作
-addStrings "10" "20" == Just 30
-addStrings "10" "abc" == Nothing
-addStrings "xyz" "20" == Nothing
-```
-<details>
-<summary>解答</summary>
-```haskell
-import Text.Read (readMaybe)
-addStrings :: String -> String -> Maybe Int
-addStrings a b = do
-    x <- readMaybe a
-    y <- readMaybe b
-    return (x + y)
-```
-</details>
-### 問題 3: Either によるバリデーション
-以下の関数を実装してください。年齢を検証し、エラーメッセージを返します。
-```haskell
-validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
-validateAge = ???
--- 期待される動作
-validateAge 25 == Right 25
-validateAge (-5) == Left "Age cannot be negative"
-validateAge 200 == Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
-```
-<details>
-<summary>解答</summary>
-```haskell
-validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
-validateAge age
-    | age < 0   = Left "Age cannot be negative"
-    | age > 150 = Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
-    | otherwise = Right age
-```
-</details>
-### 問題 4: パターンマッチング
-以下のデータ型とパターンマッチングを使った関数を実装してください。
-```haskell
-data PaymentMethod
-    = CreditCard String String  -- カード番号、有効期限
-    | BankTransfer String       -- 口座番号
-    | Cash
-    deriving (Show, Eq)
-describePayment :: PaymentMethod -> String
-describePayment = ???
--- 期待される動作
-describePayment (CreditCard "1234" "12/25") == "Credit card ending in 1234"
-describePayment (BankTransfer "9876") == "Bank transfer to account 9876"
-describePayment Cash == "Cash payment"
-```
-<details>
-<summary>解答</summary>
-```haskell
-describePayment :: PaymentMethod -> String
-describePayment method = case method of
-    CreditCard number _ -> "Credit card ending in " ++ number
-    BankTransfer account -> "Bank transfer to account " ++ account
-    Cash -> "Cash payment"
-```
-</details>
-### 問題 5: all と any
-以下の条件に合うユーザーを抽出する関数を実装してください。
-```haskell
-data User = User
-    { userName  :: String
-    , userEmail :: Maybe String
-    , userAge   :: Int
-    } deriving (Show, Eq)
-let users = [ User "Alice" (Just "alice@example.com") 25
-            , User "Bob" Nothing 30
-            , User "Charlie" (Just "charlie@test.com") 17
-            ]
--- 1. メールアドレスが設定されていないか、example.com ドメインのユーザー
-f1 :: [User] -> [User]
-f1 = ???
--- 2. メールアドレスが設定されていて、test.com ドメインのユーザー
-f2 :: [User] -> [User]
-f2 = ???
-```
-<details>
-<summary>解答</summary>
-```haskell
-import Data.List (isSuffixOf)
--- 1. メールアドレスが設定されていないか、example.com ドメイン
--- maybe True ... は Scala の forall に相当
-f1 :: [User] -> [User]
-f1 = filter (\u -> maybe True ("@example.com" `isSuffixOf`) (userEmail u))
--- [Alice, Bob]
--- 2. メールアドレスが設定されていて、test.com ドメイン
--- maybe False ... は Scala の exists に相当
-f2 :: [User] -> [User]
-f2 = filter (\u -> maybe False ("@test.com" `isSuffixOf`) (userEmail u))
--- [Charlie]
-```
-</details>
+# Part III: エラーハンドリングと Maybe/Either
+本章では、関数型プログラミングにおける安全なエラーハンドリングを Haskell で学びます。`null` や例外に頼らず、`Maybe` と `Either` を使って型安全にエラーを扱う方法を習得します。
+---
+## 第6章: Maybe 型による安全なエラーハンドリング
+### 6.1 なぜ Maybe が必要か
+従来のエラーハンドリングには問題があります。
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "従来のエラーハンドリング" {
+  rectangle "null を返す" as null_ret {
+    card "NullPointerException の危険"
+    card "コンパイル時に検出できない"
+  }
+  rectangle "例外をスローする" as exception {
+    card "制御フローが複雑化"
+    card "純粋関数ではなくなる"
+  }
+}
+rectangle "Maybe による解決" as maybe {
+  card "型で「値がないかもしれない」を表現"
+  card "コンパイル時にチェック"
+  card "純粋関数のまま"
+}
+null_ret --> maybe : 置き換え
+exception --> maybe : 置き換え
+@enduml
+```
+**Haskell には null が存在しません。** 値が「ない」可能性は `Maybe` 型で明示的に表現します。
+### 6.2 Maybe の基本
+`Maybe a` は「`a` 型の値があるか、ないか」を表す型です。
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "Maybe a" as maybe {
+  rectangle "Just value" as just {
+    card "値が存在する"
+    card "value :: a を保持"
+  }
+  rectangle "Nothing" as nothing {
+    card "値が存在しない"
+    card "null の代わり"
+  }
+}
+@enduml
+```
+```haskell
+data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a
+-- 使用例
+Just 5    :: Maybe Int     -- 値がある
+Nothing   :: Maybe Int     -- 値がない
+Just "Hi" :: Maybe String  -- 文字列がある
+```
+**ソースファイル**: `app/haskell/src/Ch06/MaybeHandling.hs`
+### 6.3 TV番組のパース例
+TV番組の文字列をパースする例で Maybe の使い方を学びます。
+```haskell
+data TvShow = TvShow
+    { tvTitle     :: String
+    , tvStartYear :: Int
+    , tvEndYear   :: Int
+    } deriving (Show, Eq)
+-- 入力例: "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
+-- 期待する出力: TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013
+```
+#### 安全でない実装（パターンマッチの失敗）
+```haskell
+parseShow :: String -> TvShow
+parseShow rawShow =
+    let Just name      = extractName rawShow      -- 危険！
+        Just yearStart = extractYearStart rawShow -- 危険！
+        Just yearEnd   = extractYearEnd rawShow   -- 危険！
+    in TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
+-- 正常ケース
+parseShow "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"  -- TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013
+-- 異常ケース → パターンマッチ失敗で例外！
+parseShow "Invalid"  -- *** Exception: ...
+```
+#### Maybe を使った安全な実装
+```haskell
+parseShowSafe :: String -> Maybe TvShow
+parseShowSafe rawShow = do
+    name      <- extractName rawShow
+    yearStart <- extractYearStart rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
+    yearEnd   <- extractYearEnd rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
+    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
+-- 正常ケース
+parseShowSafe "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
+-- Just (TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013)
+-- 異常ケース → Nothing が返される（例外なし）
+parseShowSafe "Invalid"
+-- Nothing
+```
+### 6.4 小さな関数から組み立てる
+複雑なパース処理を小さな関数に分解します。
+```haskell
+-- 名前を抽出
+extractName :: String -> Maybe String
+extractName rawShow =
+    let bracketOpen = elemIndex '(' rawShow
+    in case bracketOpen of
+        Just idx | idx > 0 -> Just $ trim $ take idx rawShow
+        _                  -> Nothing
+-- 開始年を抽出
+extractYearStart :: String -> Maybe Int
+extractYearStart rawShow = do
+    bracketOpen <- elemIndex '(' rawShow
+    dash        <- elemIndex '-' rawShow
+    if dash > bracketOpen + 1
+        then readMaybe $ take (dash - bracketOpen - 1) $ drop (bracketOpen + 1) rawShow
+        else Nothing
+-- 終了年を抽出
+extractYearEnd :: String -> Maybe Int
+extractYearEnd rawShow = do
+    dash         <- elemIndex '-' rawShow
+    bracketClose <- elemIndex ')' rawShow
+    if bracketClose > dash + 1
+        then readMaybe $ take (bracketClose - dash - 1) $ drop (dash + 1) rawShow
+        else Nothing
+```
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "パース処理の分解" {
+  card "\"Breaking Bad (2008-2013)\"" as input
+  rectangle "小さな関数" as funcs {
+    card "extractName" as name
+    card "extractYearStart" as start
+    card "extractYearEnd" as end
+  }
+  card "TvShow" as output
+  input --> funcs
+  funcs --> output : do 記法で合成
+}
+@enduml
+```
+### 6.5 orElse によるフォールバック
+`orElse` を使って、最初の Maybe が `Nothing` の場合に代替を試すことができます。
+```haskell
+-- orElse の実装
+orElse :: Maybe a -> Maybe a -> Maybe a
+orElse (Just x) _ = Just x
+orElse Nothing  y = y
+-- 使用例
+Just 7 `orElse` Just 8   -- Just 7 (最初が Just なのでそのまま)
+Nothing `orElse` Just 8  -- Just 8 (最初が Nothing なので代替を使用)
+Just 7 `orElse` Nothing  -- Just 7
+Nothing `orElse` Nothing -- Nothing
+```
+#### 単年の番組に対応する
+「Chernobyl (2019)」のような単年の番組をパースできるようにします。
+```haskell
+extractSingleYear :: String -> Maybe Int
+extractSingleYear rawShow =
+    case (elemIndex '-' rawShow, elemIndex '(' rawShow, elemIndex ')' rawShow) of
+        (Nothing, Just bo, Just bc) | bc > bo + 1 ->
+            readMaybe $ take (bc - bo - 1) $ drop (bo + 1) rawShow
+        _ -> Nothing
+parseShowSafe :: String -> Maybe TvShow
+parseShowSafe rawShow = do
+    name      <- extractName rawShow
+    yearStart <- extractYearStart rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
+    yearEnd   <- extractYearEnd rawShow `orElse` extractSingleYear rawShow
+    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
+-- これで単年の番組もパースできる
+parseShowSafe "Chernobyl (2019)"
+-- Just (TvShow "Chernobyl" 2019 2019)
+```
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "orElse のフロー" {
+  card "extractYearStart rawShow" as first
+  card "extractSingleYear rawShow" as second
+  card "結果" as result
+  first --> result : Just の場合
+  first --> second : Nothing の場合
+  second --> result
+}
+@enduml
+```
+### 6.6 Maybe の主要関数
+| 関数 | 説明 | 例 |
+|------|------|-----|
+| `fmap` / `<$>` | 値があれば変換 | `fmap (*2) (Just 5)` → `Just 10` |
+| `>>=` | Maybe を返す関数を適用 | `Just 5 >>= \x -> Just (x * 2)` → `Just 10` |
+| `<\|>` | Nothing なら代替を使用 | `Nothing <\|> Just 5` → `Just 5` |
+| `fromMaybe` | Nothing ならデフォルト値 | `fromMaybe 0 Nothing` → `0` |
+| `maybeToList` | List に変換 | `maybeToList (Just 5)` → `[5]` |
+| `catMaybes` | Just だけ抽出 | `catMaybes [Just 1, Nothing, Just 3]` → `[1,3]` |
+```haskell
+import Data.Maybe
+let year   = Just 996
+let noYear = Nothing :: Maybe Int
+-- fmap / <$>
+fmap (*2) year     -- Just 1992
+fmap (*2) noYear   -- Nothing
+(*2) <$> year      -- Just 1992
+-- >>= (bind)
+year >>= \y -> Just (y * 2)    -- Just 1992
+noYear >>= \y -> Just (y * 2)  -- Nothing
+-- <|> (Alternative)
+import Control.Applicative
+year <|> Just 2020     -- Just 996
+noYear <|> Just 2020   -- Just 2020
+-- fromMaybe
+fromMaybe 0 year    -- 996
+fromMaybe 0 noYear  -- 0
+```
+### 6.7 エラーハンドリング戦略
+複数の要素をパースする場合、2つの戦略があります。
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "エラーハンドリング戦略" {
+  rectangle "Best-effort 戦略" as best {
+    card "パースできたものだけ返す"
+    card "エラーは無視"
+    card "[TvShow] を返す"
+  }
+  rectangle "All-or-nothing 戦略" as all {
+    card "全部成功するか、全部失敗"
+    card "一つでも失敗したら Nothing"
+    card "Maybe [TvShow] を返す"
+  }
+}
+@enduml
+```
+#### Best-effort 戦略
+```haskell
+parseShowsBestEffort :: [String] -> [TvShow]
+parseShowsBestEffort rawShows =
+    concatMap (maybe [] (:[]) . parseShowSafe) rawShows
+-- または catMaybes を使用
+parseShowsBestEffort' :: [String] -> [TvShow]
+parseShowsBestEffort' = catMaybes . map parseShowSafe
+let rawShows = [ "Breaking Bad (2008-2013)"
+               , "Invalid Format"
+               , "Mad Men (2007-2015)"
+               ]
+parseShowsBestEffort rawShows
+-- [TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013, TvShow "Mad Men" 2007 2015]
+-- 無効なものは無視される
+```
+#### All-or-nothing 戦略
+```haskell
+parseShowsAllOrNothing :: [String] -> Maybe [TvShow]
+parseShowsAllOrNothing = traverse parseShowSafe
+-- 全部成功 → Just [...]
+parseShowsAllOrNothing ["Breaking Bad (2008-2013)", "Mad Men (2007-2015)"]
+-- Just [TvShow "Breaking Bad" 2008 2013, TvShow "Mad Men" 2007 2015]
+-- 一つでも失敗 → Nothing
+parseShowsAllOrNothing ["Breaking Bad (2008-2013)", "Invalid"]
+-- Nothing
+```
+---
+## 第7章: Either 型と複合的なエラー処理
+### 7.1 Maybe の限界
+`Maybe` は「値があるかないか」しか表現できません。**なぜ失敗したのか**を伝えられません。
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "Maybe vs Either" {
+  rectangle "Maybe a" as opt {
+    card "Just value" as just
+    card "Nothing" as nothing
+    nothing -[hidden]-> just
+  }
+  rectangle "Either e a" as either {
+    card "Right value" as right
+    card "Left error" as left
+    left -[hidden]-> right
+  }
+  opt --> either : 進化
+}
+note bottom of nothing
+  失敗理由が分からない
+end note
+note bottom of left
+  エラー情報を保持できる
+end note
+@enduml
+```
+### 7.2 Either の基本
+`Either e a` は「`e` 型のエラーか、`a` 型の成功値か」を表す型です。
+- `Right value`: 成功（慣例的に「正しい」= right）
+- `Left error`: 失敗（エラー情報を保持）
+```haskell
+data Either e a = Left e | Right a
+-- 使用例
+Right 5     :: Either String Int  -- 成功
+Left "oops" :: Either String Int  -- 失敗（エラーメッセージ付き）
+```
+**ソースファイル**: `app/haskell/src/Ch07/EitherHandling.hs`
+### 7.3 Either を使ったパース
+```haskell
+extractNameE :: String -> Either String String
+extractNameE rawShow =
+    case elemIndex '(' rawShow of
+        Just idx | idx > 0 -> Right $ trim $ take idx rawShow
+        _                  -> Left $ "Can't extract name from " ++ rawShow
+extractNameE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right "The Wire"
+extractNameE "(2022)"                -- Left "Can't extract name from (2022)"
+```
+### 7.4 Either を使った完全なパーサー
+```haskell
+extractYearStartE :: String -> Either String Int
+extractYearStartE rawShow =
+    case (elemIndex '(' rawShow, elemIndex '-' rawShow) of
+        (Just bo, Just d) | d > bo + 1 ->
+            let yearStr = take (d - bo - 1) $ drop (bo + 1) rawShow
+            in maybeToEither ("Can't parse year: " ++ yearStr) (readMaybe yearStr)
+        _ -> Left $ "Can't extract start year from " ++ rawShow
+extractYearStartE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right 2002
+extractYearStartE "The Wire (-2008)"      -- Left "Can't extract start year from ..."
+extractYearStartE "The Wire (oops-2008)"  -- Left "Can't parse year: oops"
+```
+### 7.5 Maybe から Either への変換
+`maybeToEither` で `Maybe` を `Either` に変換できます。
+```haskell
+maybeToEither :: e -> Maybe a -> Either e a
+maybeToEither _ (Just x) = Right x
+maybeToEither e Nothing  = Left e
+let year   = Just 996
+let noYear = Nothing :: Maybe Int
+maybeToEither "no year given" year    -- Right 996
+maybeToEither "no year given" noYear  -- Left "no year given"
+```
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "maybeToEither の動作" {
+  card "Just value" as just
+  card "Nothing" as nothing
+  card "Right value" as right
+  card "Left errorMsg" as left
+  just --> right : maybeToEither errorMsg
+  nothing --> left : maybeToEither errorMsg
+}
+@enduml
+```
+### 7.6 Either による完全なパーサー
+```haskell
+parseShowE :: String -> Either String TvShow
+parseShowE rawShow = do
+    name      <- extractNameE rawShow
+    yearStart <- extractYearStartE rawShow `orElseE` extractSingleYearE rawShow
+    yearEnd   <- extractYearEndE rawShow `orElseE` extractSingleYearE rawShow
+    return $ TvShow name yearStart yearEnd
+parseShowE "The Wire (2002-2008)"  -- Right (TvShow "The Wire" 2002 2008)
+parseShowE "Mad Men ()"            -- Left "Can't extract single year from Mad Men ()"
+parseShowE "(2002-2008)"           -- Left "Can't extract name from (2002-2008)"
+```
+### 7.7 Either の主要関数
+| 関数 | 説明 | 例 |
+|------|------|-----|
+| `fmap` / `<$>` | Right の値を変換 | `fmap (*2) (Right 5)` → `Right 10` |
+| `>>=` | Right なら Either を返す関数を適用 | `Right 5 >>= \x -> Right (x * 2)` → `Right 10` |
+| `either` | Left/Right で異なる処理 | `either show id (Right "ok")` → `"ok"` |
+| `fromRight` | Left ならデフォルト値 | `fromRight 0 (Left "err")` → `0` |
+| `partitionEithers` | Left と Right を分離 | `partitionEithers [Left "e", Right 1]` → `(["e"], [1])` |
+```haskell
+import Data.Either
+let year   = Right 996 :: Either String Int
+let noYear = Left "no year" :: Either String Int
+-- fmap / <$>
+fmap (*2) year     -- Right 1992
+fmap (*2) noYear   -- Left "no year"
+-- >>= (bind)
+year >>= \y -> Right (y * 2)              -- Right 1992
+noYear >>= \y -> Right (y * 2)            -- Left "no year"
+year >>= \_ -> Left "can't progress"      -- Left "can't progress"
+-- either
+either length id year    -- 996
+either length id noYear  -- 7 ("no year" の長さ)
+-- fromRight
+fromRight 0 year    -- 996
+fromRight 0 noYear  -- 0
+```
+### 7.8 音楽アーティスト検索の例
+より複雑な例として、音楽アーティストの検索機能を見てみましょう。
+#### 代数的データ型（ADT）によるモデリング
+```haskell
+-- 音楽ジャンル（直和型）
+data MusicGenre
+    = HeavyMetal
+    | Pop
+    | HardRock
+    | Grunge
+    | Punk
+    deriving (Show, Eq)
+-- 場所（直和型）
+data Location
+    = USA
+    | England
+    | Australia
+    | Canada
+    deriving (Show, Eq)
+-- 活動期間（直和型）
+data YearsActive
+    = StillActive Int           -- 活動中（開始年）
+    | ActiveBetween Int Int     -- 活動終了（開始年、終了年）
+    deriving (Show, Eq)
+-- アーティスト（直積型）
+data Artist = Artist
+    { artistName        :: String
+    , artistGenre       :: MusicGenre
+    , artistOrigin      :: Location
+    , artistYearsActive :: YearsActive
+    } deriving (Show, Eq)
+```
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "代数的データ型（ADT）" {
+  rectangle "直積型（Product Type）" as product {
+    card "data ... = Constructor field1 field2"
+    card "A AND B AND C"
+    card "フィールドの組み合わせ"
+  }
+  rectangle "直和型（Sum Type）" as sum {
+    card "data ... = A | B | C"
+    card "A OR B OR C"
+    card "選択肢のいずれか"
+  }
+}
+note bottom of product
+  Artist = name AND genre AND origin AND yearsActive
+end note
+note bottom of sum
+  YearsActive = StillActive OR ActiveBetween
+end note
+@enduml
+```
+### 7.9 パターンマッチング
+直和型は**パターンマッチング**で処理します。
+```haskell
+wasArtistActive :: Artist -> Int -> Int -> Bool
+wasArtistActive artist yearStart yearEnd =
+    case artistYearsActive artist of
+        StillActive since        -> since <= yearEnd
+        ActiveBetween start end_ -> start <= yearEnd && end_ >= yearStart
+activeLength :: Artist -> Int -> Int
+activeLength artist currentYear =
+    case artistYearsActive artist of
+        StillActive since        -> currentYear - since
+        ActiveBetween start end_ -> end_ - start
+```
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "パターンマッチング" {
+  card "artistYearsActive artist" as input
+  rectangle "case ... of" as match_block {
+    card "StillActive since -> ..." as case1
+    card "ActiveBetween start end -> ..." as case2
+  }
+  card "結果" as result
+  input --> match_block
+  match_block --> result
+}
+note bottom
+  全てのケースを網羅する必要がある
+  （コンパイラがチェック）
+end note
+@enduml
+```
+### 7.10 検索条件のモデリング
+検索条件も ADT でモデリングできます。
+```haskell
+data SearchCondition
+    = SearchByGenre [MusicGenre]
+    | SearchByOrigin [Location]
+    | SearchByActiveYears Int Int
+    deriving (Show, Eq)
+searchArtists :: [Artist] -> [SearchCondition] -> [Artist]
+searchArtists artists conditions =
+    filter (satisfiesAll conditions) artists
+  where
+    satisfiesAll conds artist = all (satisfies artist) conds
+    satisfies artist (SearchByGenre genres) =
+        artistGenre artist `elem` genres
+    satisfies artist (SearchByOrigin locations) =
+        artistOrigin artist `elem` locations
+    satisfies artist (SearchByActiveYears start end_) =
+        wasArtistActive artist start end_
+-- 使用例
+let metallica = Artist "Metallica" HeavyMetal USA (StillActive 1981)
+let madonna   = Artist "Madonna" Pop USA (StillActive 1982)
+searchArtists [metallica, madonna] [SearchByGenre [HeavyMetal]]
+-- [metallica]
+searchArtists [metallica, madonna] [SearchByOrigin [USA], SearchByGenre [Pop]]
+-- [madonna]
+```
+### 7.11 バリデーションの例
+```haskell
+validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
+validateAge age
+    | age < 0   = Left "Age cannot be negative"
+    | age > 150 = Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
+    | otherwise = Right age
+validateEmail :: String -> Either String String
+validateEmail email
+    | '@' `notElem` email = Left "Email must contain @"
+    | '.' `notElem` email = Left "Email must contain a domain"
+    | otherwise           = Right email
+-- 組み合わせ
+validateUser :: Int -> String -> Either String (Int, String)
+validateUser age email = do
+    validAge   <- validateAge age
+    validEmail <- validateEmail email
+    return (validAge, validEmail)
+validateUser 25 "test@example.com"  -- Right (25, "test@example.com")
+validateUser (-5) "test@example.com" -- Left "Age cannot be negative"
+validateUser 25 "invalid"            -- Left "Email must contain @"
+```
+---
+## まとめ
+### Part III で学んだこと
+```plantuml
+@startuml
+!theme plain
+rectangle "Part III: エラーハンドリング" {
+  rectangle "第6章" as ch6 {
+    card "Maybe a"
+    card "Just / Nothing"
+    card "orElse"
+    card "do 記法"
+    card "エラーハンドリング戦略"
+  }
+  rectangle "第7章" as ch7 {
+    card "Either e a"
+    card "Right / Left"
+    card "エラーメッセージの保持"
+    card "ADT（代数的データ型）"
+    card "パターンマッチング"
+  }
+}
+ch6 --> ch7
+@enduml
+```
+### Maybe vs Either の使い分け
+| 状況 | 使用する型 |
+|------|------------|
+| 値があるかないかだけが重要 | `Maybe a` |
+| 失敗理由を伝える必要がある | `Either e a` |
+| 検索結果が見つからない | `Maybe a` |
+| バリデーションエラーを伝える | `Either String a` |
+| 複数のエラー種別がある | `Either ErrorType a` |
+### Scala との対応
+| Scala | Haskell | 説明 |
+|-------|---------|------|
+| `Option[A]` | `Maybe a` | 値の有無 |
+| `Some(x)` | `Just x` | 値がある |
+| `None` | `Nothing` | 値がない |
+| `Either[E, A]` | `Either e a` | 成功/失敗 |
+| `Right(x)` | `Right x` | 成功 |
+| `Left(e)` | `Left e` | 失敗 |
+| `opt.getOrElse(d)` | `fromMaybe d opt` | デフォルト値 |
+| `opt.orElse(alt)` | `opt <\|> alt` | 代替 |
+| `opt.toRight(e)` | `maybeToEither e opt` | Maybe→Either |
+### キーポイント
+1. **Maybe**: 値の有無を型で表現する（Haskell には null がない）
+2. **Either**: 成功/失敗とエラー情報を型で表現する
+3. **do 記法**: Maybe/Either を組み合わせて使う
+4. **orElse / <|>**: フォールバックを提供する
+5. **ADT**: 直積型と直和型でドメインを正確にモデリング
+6. **パターンマッチング**: 直和型を安全に処理する（網羅性チェック付き）
+### 次のステップ
+Part IV では、以下のトピックを学びます:
+- IO モナドの導入
+- 副作用の管理
+- ストリーム処理
+---
+## 演習問題
+### 問題 1: Maybe の基本
+以下の関数を実装してください。
+```haskell
+safeDivide :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
+safeDivide = ???
+-- 期待される動作
+safeDivide 10 2 == Just 5
+safeDivide 10 0 == Nothing
+safeDivide 7 2 == Just 3
+```
+<details>
+<summary>解答</summary>
+```haskell
+safeDivide :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
+safeDivide _ 0 = Nothing
+safeDivide a b = Just (a `div` b)
+```
+</details>
+### 問題 2: Maybe の合成
+以下の関数を実装してください。2つの数値文字列を受け取り、その合計を返します。
+```haskell
+addStrings :: String -> String -> Maybe Int
+addStrings = ???
+-- 期待される動作
+addStrings "10" "20" == Just 30
+addStrings "10" "abc" == Nothing
+addStrings "xyz" "20" == Nothing
+```
+<details>
+<summary>解答</summary>
+```haskell
+import Text.Read (readMaybe)
+addStrings :: String -> String -> Maybe Int
+addStrings a b = do
+    x <- readMaybe a
+    y <- readMaybe b
+    return (x + y)
+```
+</details>
+### 問題 3: Either によるバリデーション
+以下の関数を実装してください。年齢を検証し、エラーメッセージを返します。
+```haskell
+validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
+validateAge = ???
+-- 期待される動作
+validateAge 25 == Right 25
+validateAge (-5) == Left "Age cannot be negative"
+validateAge 200 == Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
+```
+<details>
+<summary>解答</summary>
+```haskell
+validateAge :: Int -> Either String Int
+validateAge age
+    | age < 0   = Left "Age cannot be negative"
+    | age > 150 = Left "Age cannot be greater than 150"
+    | otherwise = Right age
+```
+</details>
+### 問題 4: パターンマッチング
+以下のデータ型とパターンマッチングを使った関数を実装してください。
+```haskell
+data PaymentMethod
+    = CreditCard String String  -- カード番号、有効期限
+    | BankTransfer String       -- 口座番号
+    | Cash
+    deriving (Show, Eq)
+describePayment :: PaymentMethod -> String
+describePayment = ???
+-- 期待される動作
+describePayment (CreditCard "1234" "12/25") == "Credit card ending in 1234"
+describePayment (BankTransfer "9876") == "Bank transfer to account 9876"
+describePayment Cash == "Cash payment"
+```
+<details>
+<summary>解答</summary>
+```haskell
+describePayment :: PaymentMethod -> String
+describePayment method = case method of
+    CreditCard number _ -> "Credit card ending in " ++ number
+    BankTransfer account -> "Bank transfer to account " ++ account
+    Cash -> "Cash payment"
+```
+</details>
+### 問題 5: all と any
+以下の条件に合うユーザーを抽出する関数を実装してください。
+```haskell
+data User = User
+    { userName  :: String
+    , userEmail :: Maybe String
+    , userAge   :: Int
+    } deriving (Show, Eq)
+let users = [ User "Alice" (Just "alice@example.com") 25
+            , User "Bob" Nothing 30
+            , User "Charlie" (Just "charlie@test.com") 17
+            ]
+-- 1. メールアドレスが設定されていないか、example.com ドメインのユーザー
+f1 :: [User] -> [User]
+f1 = ???
+-- 2. メールアドレスが設定されていて、test.com ドメインのユーザー
+f2 :: [User] -> [User]
+f2 = ???
+```
+<details>
+<summary>解答</summary>
+```haskell
+import Data.List (isSuffixOf)
+-- 1. メールアドレスが設定されていないか、example.com ドメイン
+-- maybe True ... は Scala の forall に相当
+f1 :: [User] -> [User]
+f1 = filter (\u -> maybe True ("@example.com" `isSuffixOf`) (userEmail u))
+-- [Alice, Bob]
+-- 2. メールアドレスが設定されていて、test.com ドメイン
+-- maybe False ... は Scala の exists に相当
+f2 :: [User] -> [User]
+f2 = filter (\u -> maybe False ("@test.com" `isSuffixOf`) (userEmail u))
+-- [Charlie]
+```
+</details>