@depup/effect 3.20.0-depup.0

package/src/Graph.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,3764 @@
+/**
+ * @experimental
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ */
+
+import * as Data from "./Data.js"
+import * as Equal from "./Equal.js"
+import { dual } from "./Function.js"
+import * as Hash from "./Hash.js"
+import type { Inspectable } from "./Inspectable.js"
+import { format, NodeInspectSymbol } from "./Inspectable.js"
+import * as Option from "./Option.js"
+import type { Pipeable } from "./Pipeable.js"
+import { pipeArguments } from "./Pipeable.js"
+import type { Mutable } from "./Types.js"
+
+/**
+ * Unique identifier for Graph instances.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category symbol
+ */
+export const TypeId: "~effect/Graph" = "~effect/Graph" as const
+
+/**
+ * Type identifier for Graph instances.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category symbol
+ */
+export type TypeId = typeof TypeId
+
+/**
+ * Node index for node identification using plain numbers.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type NodeIndex = number
+
+/**
+ * Edge index for edge identification using plain numbers.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type EdgeIndex = number
+
+/**
+ * Edge data containing source, target, and user data.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export class Edge<E> extends Data.Class<{
+  readonly source: NodeIndex
+  readonly target: NodeIndex
+  readonly data: E
+}> {}
+
+/**
+ * Graph type for distinguishing directed and undirected graphs.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type Kind = "directed" | "undirected"
+
+/**
+ * Graph prototype interface.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface Proto<out N, out E> extends Iterable<readonly [NodeIndex, N]>, Equal.Equal, Pipeable, Inspectable {
+  readonly [TypeId]: TypeId
+  readonly nodes: Map<NodeIndex, N>
+  readonly edges: Map<EdgeIndex, Edge<E>>
+  readonly adjacency: Map<NodeIndex, Array<EdgeIndex>>
+  readonly reverseAdjacency: Map<NodeIndex, Array<EdgeIndex>>
+  nextNodeIndex: NodeIndex
+  nextEdgeIndex: EdgeIndex
+  isAcyclic: Option.Option<boolean>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Immutable graph interface.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface Graph<out N, out E, T extends Kind = "directed"> extends Proto<N, E> {
+  readonly type: T
+  readonly mutable: false
+}
+
+/**
+ * Mutable graph interface.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface MutableGraph<out N, out E, T extends Kind = "directed"> extends Proto<N, E> {
+  readonly type: T
+  readonly mutable: true
+}
+
+/**
+ * Directed graph type alias.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type DirectedGraph<N, E> = Graph<N, E, "directed">
+
+/**
+ * Undirected graph type alias.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type UndirectedGraph<N, E> = Graph<N, E, "undirected">
+
+/**
+ * Mutable directed graph type alias.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type MutableDirectedGraph<N, E> = MutableGraph<N, E, "directed">
+
+/**
+ * Mutable undirected graph type alias.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type MutableUndirectedGraph<N, E> = MutableGraph<N, E, "undirected">
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Proto Objects
+// =============================================================================
+
+/** @internal */
+const ProtoGraph = {
+  [TypeId]: TypeId,
+  [Symbol.iterator](this: Graph<any, any>) {
+    return this.nodes[Symbol.iterator]()
+  },
+  [NodeInspectSymbol](this: Graph<any, any>) {
+    return this.toJSON()
+  },
+  [Equal.symbol](this: Graph<any, any>, that: Equal.Equal): boolean {
+    if (isGraph(that)) {
+      if (
+        this.nodes.size !== that.nodes.size ||
+        this.edges.size !== that.edges.size ||
+        this.type !== that.type
+      ) {
+        return false
+      }
+      // Compare nodes
+      for (const [nodeIndex, nodeData] of this.nodes) {
+        if (!that.nodes.has(nodeIndex)) {
+          return false
+        }
+        const otherNodeData = that.nodes.get(nodeIndex)!
+        if (!Equal.equals(nodeData, otherNodeData)) {
+          return false
+        }
+      }
+      // Compare edges
+      for (const [edgeIndex, edgeData] of this.edges) {
+        if (!that.edges.has(edgeIndex)) {
+          return false
+        }
+        const otherEdge = that.edges.get(edgeIndex)!
+        if (!Equal.equals(edgeData, otherEdge)) {
+          return false
+        }
+      }
+      return true
+    }
+    return false
+  },
+  [Hash.symbol](this: Graph<any, any>): number {
+    let hash = Hash.string("Graph")
+    hash = hash ^ Hash.string(this.type)
+    hash = hash ^ Hash.number(this.nodes.size)
+    hash = hash ^ Hash.number(this.edges.size)
+    for (const [nodeIndex, nodeData] of this.nodes) {
+      hash = hash ^ (Hash.hash(nodeIndex) + Hash.hash(nodeData))
+    }
+    for (const [edgeIndex, edgeData] of this.edges) {
+      hash = hash ^ (Hash.hash(edgeIndex) + Hash.hash(edgeData))
+    }
+    return hash
+  },
+  toJSON(this: Graph<any, any>) {
+    return {
+      _id: "Graph",
+      nodeCount: this.nodes.size,
+      edgeCount: this.edges.size,
+      type: this.type
+    }
+  },
+  toString(this: Graph<any, any>) {
+    return format(this)
+  },
+  pipe() {
+    return pipeArguments(this, arguments)
+  }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Errors
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Error thrown when a graph operation fails.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category errors
+ */
+export class GraphError extends Data.TaggedError("GraphError")<{
+  readonly message: string
+}> {}
+
+/** @internal */
+const missingNode = (node: number) => new GraphError({ message: `Node ${node} does not exist` })
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Constructors
+// =============================================================================
+
+/** @internal */
+export const isGraph = (u: unknown): u is Graph<unknown, unknown> => typeof u === "object" && u !== null && TypeId in u
+
+/**
+ * Creates a directed graph, optionally with initial mutations.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * // Directed graph with initial nodes and edges
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "B->C")
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category constructors
+ */
+export const directed = <N, E>(mutate?: (mutable: MutableDirectedGraph<N, E>) => void): DirectedGraph<N, E> => {
+  const graph: Mutable<DirectedGraph<N, E>> = Object.create(ProtoGraph)
+  graph.type = "directed"
+  graph.nodes = new Map()
+  graph.edges = new Map()
+  graph.adjacency = new Map()
+  graph.reverseAdjacency = new Map()
+  graph.nextNodeIndex = 0
+  graph.nextEdgeIndex = 0
+  graph.isAcyclic = Option.some(true)
+  graph.mutable = false
+
+  if (mutate) {
+    const mutable = beginMutation(graph as DirectedGraph<N, E>)
+    mutate(mutable as MutableDirectedGraph<N, E>)
+    return endMutation(mutable)
+  }
+
+  return graph
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates an undirected graph, optionally with initial mutations.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * // Undirected graph with initial nodes and edges
+ * const graph = Graph.undirected<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A-B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "B-C")
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category constructors
+ */
+export const undirected = <N, E>(mutate?: (mutable: MutableUndirectedGraph<N, E>) => void): UndirectedGraph<N, E> => {
+  const graph: Mutable<UndirectedGraph<N, E>> = Object.create(ProtoGraph)
+  graph.type = "undirected"
+  graph.nodes = new Map()
+  graph.edges = new Map()
+  graph.adjacency = new Map()
+  graph.reverseAdjacency = new Map()
+  graph.nextNodeIndex = 0
+  graph.nextEdgeIndex = 0
+  graph.isAcyclic = Option.some(true)
+  graph.mutable = false
+
+  if (mutate) {
+    const mutable = beginMutation(graph)
+    mutate(mutable as MutableUndirectedGraph<N, E>)
+    return endMutation(mutable)
+  }
+
+  return graph
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Scoped Mutable API
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Creates a mutable scope for safe graph mutations by copying the data structure.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+ * const mutable = Graph.beginMutation(graph)
+ * // Now mutable can be safely modified without affecting original graph
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const beginMutation = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T>
+): MutableGraph<N, E, T> => {
+  // Copy adjacency maps with deep cloned arrays
+  const adjacency = new Map<NodeIndex, Array<EdgeIndex>>()
+  const reverseAdjacency = new Map<NodeIndex, Array<EdgeIndex>>()
+
+  for (const [nodeIndex, edges] of graph.adjacency) {
+    adjacency.set(nodeIndex, [...edges])
+  }
+
+  for (const [nodeIndex, edges] of graph.reverseAdjacency) {
+    reverseAdjacency.set(nodeIndex, [...edges])
+  }
+
+  const mutable: Mutable<MutableGraph<N, E, T>> = Object.create(ProtoGraph)
+  mutable.type = graph.type
+  mutable.nodes = new Map(graph.nodes)
+  mutable.edges = new Map(graph.edges)
+  mutable.adjacency = adjacency
+  mutable.reverseAdjacency = reverseAdjacency
+  mutable.nextNodeIndex = graph.nextNodeIndex
+  mutable.nextEdgeIndex = graph.nextEdgeIndex
+  mutable.isAcyclic = graph.isAcyclic
+  mutable.mutable = true
+
+  return mutable
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts a mutable graph back to an immutable graph, ending the mutation scope.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+ * const mutable = Graph.beginMutation(graph)
+ * // ... perform mutations on mutable ...
+ * const newGraph = Graph.endMutation(mutable)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const endMutation = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): Graph<N, E, T> => {
+  const graph: Mutable<Graph<N, E, T>> = Object.create(ProtoGraph)
+  graph.type = mutable.type
+  graph.nodes = new Map(mutable.nodes)
+  graph.edges = new Map(mutable.edges)
+  graph.adjacency = mutable.adjacency
+  graph.reverseAdjacency = mutable.reverseAdjacency
+  graph.nextNodeIndex = mutable.nextNodeIndex
+  graph.nextEdgeIndex = mutable.nextEdgeIndex
+  graph.isAcyclic = mutable.isAcyclic
+  graph.mutable = false
+
+  return graph
+}
+
+/**
+ * Performs scoped mutations on a graph, automatically managing the mutation lifecycle.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+ * const newGraph = Graph.mutate(graph, (mutable) => {
+ *   // Safe mutations go here
+ *   // mutable gets automatically converted back to immutable
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const mutate: {
+  /**
+   * Performs scoped mutations on a graph, automatically managing the mutation lifecycle.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * ```ts
+   * import { Graph } from "effect"
+   *
+   * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+   * const newGraph = Graph.mutate(graph, (mutable) => {
+   *   // Safe mutations go here
+   *   // mutable gets automatically converted back to immutable
+   * })
+   * ```
+   *
+   * @since 3.18.0
+   * @category mutations
+   */
+  <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(f: (mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>) => void): (graph: Graph<N, E, T>) => Graph<N, E, T>
+  /**
+   * Performs scoped mutations on a graph, automatically managing the mutation lifecycle.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * ```ts
+   * import { Graph } from "effect"
+   *
+   * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+   * const newGraph = Graph.mutate(graph, (mutable) => {
+   *   // Safe mutations go here
+   *   // mutable gets automatically converted back to immutable
+   * })
+   * ```
+   *
+   * @since 3.18.0
+   * @category mutations
+   */
+  <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(graph: Graph<N, E, T>, f: (mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>) => void): Graph<N, E, T>
+} = dual(2, <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T>,
+  f: (mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>) => void
+): Graph<N, E, T> => {
+  const mutable = beginMutation(graph)
+  f(mutable)
+  return endMutation(mutable)
+})
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Basic Node Operations
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Adds a new node to a mutable graph and returns its index.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   console.log(nodeA) // NodeIndex with value 0
+ *   console.log(nodeB) // NodeIndex with value 1
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const addNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  data: N
+): NodeIndex => {
+  const nodeIndex = mutable.nextNodeIndex
+
+  // Add node data
+  mutable.nodes.set(nodeIndex, data)
+
+  // Initialize empty adjacency lists
+  mutable.adjacency.set(nodeIndex, [])
+  mutable.reverseAdjacency.set(nodeIndex, [])
+
+  // Update graph allocators
+  mutable.nextNodeIndex = mutable.nextNodeIndex + 1
+
+  return nodeIndex
+}
+
+/**
+ * Gets the data associated with a node index, if it exists.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeIndex = 0
+ * const nodeData = Graph.getNode(graph, nodeIndex)
+ *
+ * if (Option.isSome(nodeData)) {
+ *   console.log(nodeData.value) // "Node A"
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const getNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex
+): Option.Option<N> => graph.nodes.has(nodeIndex) ? Option.some(graph.nodes.get(nodeIndex)!) : Option.none()
+
+/**
+ * Checks if a node with the given index exists in the graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeIndex = 0
+ * const exists = Graph.hasNode(graph, nodeIndex)
+ * console.log(exists) // true
+ *
+ * const nonExistentIndex = 999
+ * const notExists = Graph.hasNode(graph, nonExistentIndex)
+ * console.log(notExists) // false
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const hasNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex
+): boolean => graph.nodes.has(nodeIndex)
+
+/**
+ * Returns the number of nodes in the graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const emptyGraph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+ * console.log(Graph.nodeCount(emptyGraph)) // 0
+ *
+ * const graphWithNodes = Graph.mutate(emptyGraph, (mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.nodeCount(graphWithNodes)) // 3
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const nodeCount = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): number => graph.nodes.size
+
+/**
+ * Finds the first node that matches the given predicate.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.findNode(graph, (data) => data.startsWith("Node B"))
+ * console.log(result) // Option.some(1)
+ *
+ * const notFound = Graph.findNode(graph, (data) => data === "Node D")
+ * console.log(notFound) // Option.none()
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const findNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: N) => boolean
+): Option.Option<NodeIndex> => {
+  for (const [index, data] of graph.nodes) {
+    if (predicate(data)) {
+      return Option.some(index)
+    }
+  }
+  return Option.none()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds all nodes that match the given predicate.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Start A")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Start C")
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.findNodes(graph, (data) => data.startsWith("Start"))
+ * console.log(result) // [0, 2]
+ *
+ * const empty = Graph.findNodes(graph, (data) => data === "Not Found")
+ * console.log(empty) // []
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const findNodes = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: N) => boolean
+): Array<NodeIndex> => {
+  const results: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  for (const [index, data] of graph.nodes) {
+    if (predicate(data)) {
+      results.push(index)
+    }
+  }
+  return results
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds the first edge that matches the given predicate.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 10)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeB, nodeC, 20)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.findEdge(graph, (data) => data > 15)
+ * console.log(result) // Option.some(1)
+ *
+ * const notFound = Graph.findEdge(graph, (data) => data > 100)
+ * console.log(notFound) // Option.none()
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const findEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: E, source: NodeIndex, target: NodeIndex) => boolean
+): Option.Option<EdgeIndex> => {
+  for (const [edgeIndex, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    if (predicate(edgeData.data, edgeData.source, edgeData.target)) {
+      return Option.some(edgeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+  return Option.none()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Finds all edges that match the given predicate.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 10)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeB, nodeC, 20)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeC, nodeA, 30)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.findEdges(graph, (data) => data >= 20)
+ * console.log(result) // [1, 2]
+ *
+ * const empty = Graph.findEdges(graph, (data) => data > 100)
+ * console.log(empty) // []
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const findEdges = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: E, source: NodeIndex, target: NodeIndex) => boolean
+): Array<EdgeIndex> => {
+  const results: Array<EdgeIndex> = []
+  for (const [edgeIndex, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    if (predicate(edgeData.data, edgeData.source, edgeData.target)) {
+      results.push(edgeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+  return results
+}
+
+/**
+ * Updates a single node's data by applying a transformation function.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.updateNode(mutable, 0, (data) => data.toUpperCase())
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeData = Graph.getNode(graph, 0)
+ * console.log(nodeData) // Option.some("NODE A")
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const updateNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  index: NodeIndex,
+  f: (data: N) => N
+): void => {
+  if (!mutable.nodes.has(index)) {
+    return
+  }
+
+  const currentData = mutable.nodes.get(index)!
+  const newData = f(currentData)
+  mutable.nodes.set(index, newData)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Updates a single edge's data by applying a transformation function.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const edgeIndex = Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 10)
+ *   Graph.updateEdge(mutable, edgeIndex, (data) => data * 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const edgeData = Graph.getEdge(result, 0)
+ * console.log(edgeData) // Option.some({ source: 0, target: 1, data: 20 })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const updateEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  edgeIndex: EdgeIndex,
+  f: (data: E) => E
+): void => {
+  if (!mutable.edges.has(edgeIndex)) {
+    return
+  }
+
+  const currentEdge = mutable.edges.get(edgeIndex)!
+  const newData = f(currentEdge.data)
+  mutable.edges.set(edgeIndex, {
+    ...currentEdge,
+    data: newData
+  })
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new graph with transformed node data using the provided mapping function.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "node a")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "node b")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "node c")
+ *   Graph.mapNodes(mutable, (data) => data.toUpperCase())
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeData = Graph.getNode(graph, 0)
+ * console.log(nodeData) // Option.some("NODE A")
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const mapNodes = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  f: (data: N) => N
+): void => {
+  // Transform existing node data in place
+  for (const [index, data] of mutable.nodes) {
+    const newData = f(data)
+    mutable.nodes.set(index, newData)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Transforms all edge data in a mutable graph using the provided mapping function.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 10)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 20)
+ *   Graph.mapEdges(mutable, (data) => data * 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const edgeData = Graph.getEdge(graph, 0)
+ * console.log(edgeData) // Option.some({ source: 0, target: 1, data: 20 })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const mapEdges = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  f: (data: E) => E
+): void => {
+  // Transform existing edge data in place
+  for (const [index, edgeData] of mutable.edges) {
+    const newData = f(edgeData.data)
+    mutable.edges.set(index, {
+      ...edgeData,
+      data: newData
+    })
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Reverses all edge directions in a mutable graph by swapping source and target nodes.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)  // A -> B
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 2)  // B -> C
+ *   Graph.reverse(mutable)           // Now B -> A, C -> B
+ * })
+ *
+ * const edge0 = Graph.getEdge(graph, 0)
+ * console.log(edge0) // Option.some({ source: 1, target: 0, data: 1 }) - B -> A
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const reverse = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): void => {
+  // Reverse all edges by swapping source and target
+  for (const [index, edgeData] of mutable.edges) {
+    mutable.edges.set(index, {
+      source: edgeData.target,
+      target: edgeData.source,
+      data: edgeData.data
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Clear and rebuild adjacency lists with reversed directions
+  mutable.adjacency.clear()
+  mutable.reverseAdjacency.clear()
+
+  // Rebuild adjacency lists with reversed directions
+  for (const [edgeIndex, edgeData] of mutable.edges) {
+    // Add to forward adjacency (source -> target)
+    const sourceEdges = mutable.adjacency.get(edgeData.source) || []
+    sourceEdges.push(edgeIndex)
+    mutable.adjacency.set(edgeData.source, sourceEdges)
+
+    // Add to reverse adjacency (target <- source)
+    const targetEdges = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(edgeData.target) || []
+    targetEdges.push(edgeIndex)
+    mutable.reverseAdjacency.set(edgeData.target, targetEdges)
+  }
+
+  // Invalidate cycle flag since edge directions changed
+  mutable.isAcyclic = Option.none()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Filters and optionally transforms nodes in a mutable graph using a predicate function.
+ * Nodes that return Option.none are removed along with all their connected edges.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "active")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "inactive")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "active")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 2)
+ *
+ *   // Keep only "active" nodes and transform to uppercase
+ *   Graph.filterMapNodes(mutable, (data) =>
+ *     data === "active" ? Option.some(data.toUpperCase()) : Option.none()
+ *   )
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.nodeCount(graph)) // 2 (only "active" nodes remain)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const filterMapNodes = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  f: (data: N) => Option.Option<N>
+): void => {
+  const nodesToRemove: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+
+  // First pass: identify nodes to remove and transform data for nodes to keep
+  for (const [index, data] of mutable.nodes) {
+    const result = f(data)
+    if (Option.isSome(result)) {
+      // Transform node data
+      mutable.nodes.set(index, result.value)
+    } else {
+      // Mark for removal
+      nodesToRemove.push(index)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Second pass: remove filtered out nodes and their edges
+  for (const nodeIndex of nodesToRemove) {
+    removeNode(mutable, nodeIndex)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Filters and optionally transforms edges in a mutable graph using a predicate function.
+ * Edges that return Option.none are removed from the graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 5)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 15)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, a, 25)
+ *
+ *   // Keep only edges with weight >= 10 and double their weight
+ *   Graph.filterMapEdges(mutable, (data) =>
+ *     data >= 10 ? Option.some(data * 2) : Option.none()
+ *   )
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.edgeCount(graph)) // 2 (edges with weight 5 removed)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const filterMapEdges = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  f: (data: E) => Option.Option<E>
+): void => {
+  const edgesToRemove: Array<EdgeIndex> = []
+
+  // First pass: identify edges to remove and transform data for edges to keep
+  for (const [index, edgeData] of mutable.edges) {
+    const result = f(edgeData.data)
+    if (Option.isSome(result)) {
+      // Transform edge data
+      mutable.edges.set(index, {
+        ...edgeData,
+        data: result.value
+      })
+    } else {
+      // Mark for removal
+      edgesToRemove.push(index)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Second pass: remove filtered out edges
+  for (const edgeIndex of edgesToRemove) {
+    removeEdge(mutable, edgeIndex)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Filters nodes by removing those that don't match the predicate.
+ * This function modifies the mutable graph in place.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "active")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "inactive")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "pending")
+ *   Graph.addNode(mutable, "active")
+ *
+ *   // Keep only "active" nodes
+ *   Graph.filterNodes(mutable, (data) => data === "active")
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.nodeCount(graph)) // 2 (only "active" nodes remain)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const filterNodes = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: N) => boolean
+): void => {
+  const nodesToRemove: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+
+  // Identify nodes to remove
+  for (const [index, data] of mutable.nodes) {
+    if (!predicate(data)) {
+      nodesToRemove.push(index)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Remove filtered out nodes (this also removes connected edges)
+  for (const nodeIndex of nodesToRemove) {
+    removeNode(mutable, nodeIndex)
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Filters edges by removing those that don't match the predicate.
+ * This function modifies the mutable graph in place.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 5)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 15)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, a, 25)
+ *
+ *   // Keep only edges with weight >= 10
+ *   Graph.filterEdges(mutable, (data) => data >= 10)
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.edgeCount(graph)) // 2 (edge with weight 5 removed)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category transformations
+ */
+export const filterEdges = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  predicate: (data: E) => boolean
+): void => {
+  const edgesToRemove: Array<EdgeIndex> = []
+
+  // Identify edges to remove
+  for (const [index, edgeData] of mutable.edges) {
+    if (!predicate(edgeData.data)) {
+      edgesToRemove.push(index)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Remove filtered out edges
+  for (const edgeIndex of edgesToRemove) {
+    removeEdge(mutable, edgeIndex)
+  }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Cycle Flag Management (Internal)
+// =============================================================================
+
+/** @internal */
+const invalidateCycleFlagOnRemoval = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): void => {
+  // Only invalidate if the graph had cycles (removing edges/nodes cannot introduce cycles in acyclic graphs)
+  // If already unknown (null) or acyclic (true), no need to change
+  if (Option.isSome(mutable.isAcyclic) && mutable.isAcyclic.value === false) {
+    mutable.isAcyclic = Option.none()
+  }
+}
+
+/** @internal */
+const invalidateCycleFlagOnAddition = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): void => {
+  // Only invalidate if the graph was acyclic (adding edges cannot remove cycles from cyclic graphs)
+  // If already unknown (null) or cyclic (false), no need to change
+  if (Option.isSome(mutable.isAcyclic) && mutable.isAcyclic.value === true) {
+    mutable.isAcyclic = Option.none()
+  }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Edge Operations
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Adds a new edge to a mutable graph and returns its index.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const edge = Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 42)
+ *   console.log(edge) // EdgeIndex with value 0
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const addEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  source: NodeIndex,
+  target: NodeIndex,
+  data: E
+): EdgeIndex => {
+  // Validate that both nodes exist
+  if (!mutable.nodes.has(source)) {
+    throw missingNode(source)
+  }
+  if (!mutable.nodes.has(target)) {
+    throw missingNode(target)
+  }
+
+  const edgeIndex = mutable.nextEdgeIndex
+
+  // Create edge data
+  const edgeData = new Edge({ source, target, data })
+  mutable.edges.set(edgeIndex, edgeData)
+
+  // Update adjacency lists
+  const sourceAdjacency = mutable.adjacency.get(source)
+  if (sourceAdjacency !== undefined) {
+    sourceAdjacency.push(edgeIndex)
+  }
+
+  const targetReverseAdjacency = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(target)
+  if (targetReverseAdjacency !== undefined) {
+    targetReverseAdjacency.push(edgeIndex)
+  }
+
+  // For undirected graphs, add reverse connections
+  if (mutable.type === "undirected") {
+    const targetAdjacency = mutable.adjacency.get(target)
+    if (targetAdjacency !== undefined) {
+      targetAdjacency.push(edgeIndex)
+    }
+
+    const sourceReverseAdjacency = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(source)
+    if (sourceReverseAdjacency !== undefined) {
+      sourceReverseAdjacency.push(edgeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Update allocators
+  mutable.nextEdgeIndex = mutable.nextEdgeIndex + 1
+
+  // Only invalidate cycle flag if the graph was acyclic
+  // Adding edges cannot remove cycles from cyclic graphs
+  invalidateCycleFlagOnAddition(mutable)
+
+  return edgeIndex
+}
+
+/**
+ * Removes a node and all its incident edges from a mutable graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 42)
+ *
+ *   // Remove nodeA and all edges connected to it
+ *   Graph.removeNode(mutable, nodeA)
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const removeNode = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex
+): void => {
+  // Check if node exists
+  if (!mutable.nodes.has(nodeIndex)) {
+    return // Node doesn't exist, nothing to remove
+  }
+
+  // Collect all incident edges for removal
+  const edgesToRemove: Array<EdgeIndex> = []
+
+  // Get outgoing edges
+  const outgoingEdges = mutable.adjacency.get(nodeIndex)
+  if (outgoingEdges !== undefined) {
+    for (const edge of outgoingEdges) {
+      edgesToRemove.push(edge)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Get incoming edges
+  const incomingEdges = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(nodeIndex)
+  if (incomingEdges !== undefined) {
+    for (const edge of incomingEdges) {
+      edgesToRemove.push(edge)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Remove all incident edges
+  for (const edgeIndex of edgesToRemove) {
+    removeEdgeInternal(mutable, edgeIndex)
+  }
+
+  // Remove the node itself
+  mutable.nodes.delete(nodeIndex)
+  mutable.adjacency.delete(nodeIndex)
+  mutable.reverseAdjacency.delete(nodeIndex)
+
+  // Only invalidate cycle flag if the graph wasn't already known to be acyclic
+  // Removing nodes cannot introduce cycles in an acyclic graph
+  invalidateCycleFlagOnRemoval(mutable)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Removes an edge from a mutable graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const edge = Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 42)
+ *
+ *   // Remove the edge
+ *   Graph.removeEdge(mutable, edge)
+ * })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category mutations
+ */
+export const removeEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  edgeIndex: EdgeIndex
+): void => {
+  const wasRemoved = removeEdgeInternal(mutable, edgeIndex)
+
+  // Only invalidate cycle flag if an edge was actually removed
+  // and only if the graph wasn't already known to be acyclic
+  if (wasRemoved) {
+    invalidateCycleFlagOnRemoval(mutable)
+  }
+}
+
+/** @internal */
+const removeEdgeInternal = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  mutable: MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  edgeIndex: EdgeIndex
+): boolean => {
+  // Get edge data
+  const edge = mutable.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+  if (edge === undefined) {
+    return false // Edge doesn't exist, no mutation occurred
+  }
+
+  const { source, target } = edge
+
+  // Remove from adjacency lists
+  const sourceAdjacency = mutable.adjacency.get(source)
+  if (sourceAdjacency !== undefined) {
+    const index = sourceAdjacency.indexOf(edgeIndex)
+    if (index !== -1) {
+      sourceAdjacency.splice(index, 1)
+    }
+  }
+
+  const targetReverseAdjacency = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(target)
+  if (targetReverseAdjacency !== undefined) {
+    const index = targetReverseAdjacency.indexOf(edgeIndex)
+    if (index !== -1) {
+      targetReverseAdjacency.splice(index, 1)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // For undirected graphs, remove reverse connections
+  if (mutable.type === "undirected") {
+    const targetAdjacency = mutable.adjacency.get(target)
+    if (targetAdjacency !== undefined) {
+      const index = targetAdjacency.indexOf(edgeIndex)
+      if (index !== -1) {
+        targetAdjacency.splice(index, 1)
+      }
+    }
+
+    const sourceReverseAdjacency = mutable.reverseAdjacency.get(source)
+    if (sourceReverseAdjacency !== undefined) {
+      const index = sourceReverseAdjacency.indexOf(edgeIndex)
+      if (index !== -1) {
+        sourceReverseAdjacency.splice(index, 1)
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Remove edge data
+  mutable.edges.delete(edgeIndex)
+
+  return true // Edge was successfully removed
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Edge Query Operations
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Gets the edge data associated with an edge index, if it exists.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 42)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const edgeIndex = 0
+ * const edgeData = Graph.getEdge(graph, edgeIndex)
+ *
+ * if (Option.isSome(edgeData)) {
+ *   console.log(edgeData.value.data) // 42
+ *   console.log(edgeData.value.source) // NodeIndex(0)
+ *   console.log(edgeData.value.target) // NodeIndex(1)
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const getEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  edgeIndex: EdgeIndex
+): Option.Option<Edge<E>> => graph.edges.has(edgeIndex) ? Option.some(graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)!) : Option.none()
+
+/**
+ * Checks if an edge exists between two nodes in the graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 42)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeA = 0
+ * const nodeB = 1
+ * const nodeC = 2
+ *
+ * const hasAB = Graph.hasEdge(graph, nodeA, nodeB)
+ * console.log(hasAB) // true
+ *
+ * const hasAC = Graph.hasEdge(graph, nodeA, nodeC)
+ * console.log(hasAC) // false
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const hasEdge = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  source: NodeIndex,
+  target: NodeIndex
+): boolean => {
+  const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(source)
+  if (adjacencyList === undefined) {
+    return false
+  }
+
+  // Check if any edge in the adjacency list connects to the target
+  for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+    const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+    if (edge !== undefined && edge.target === target) {
+      return true
+    }
+  }
+
+  return false
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns the number of edges in the graph.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const emptyGraph = Graph.directed<string, number>()
+ * console.log(Graph.edgeCount(emptyGraph)) // 0
+ *
+ * const graphWithEdges = Graph.mutate(emptyGraph, (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeB, nodeC, 2)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeC, nodeA, 3)
+ * })
+ *
+ * console.log(Graph.edgeCount(graphWithEdges)) // 3
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const edgeCount = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): number => graph.edges.size
+
+/**
+ * Returns the neighboring nodes (targets of outgoing edges) for a given node.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeC, 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeA = 0
+ * const nodeB = 1
+ * const nodeC = 2
+ *
+ * const neighborsA = Graph.neighbors(graph, nodeA)
+ * console.log(neighborsA) // [NodeIndex(1), NodeIndex(2)]
+ *
+ * const neighborsB = Graph.neighbors(graph, nodeB)
+ * console.log(neighborsB) // []
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category getters
+ */
+export const neighbors = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex
+): Array<NodeIndex> => {
+  // For undirected graphs, use the specialized helper that returns the other endpoint
+  if (graph.type === "undirected") {
+    return getUndirectedNeighbors(graph as any, nodeIndex)
+  }
+
+  const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(nodeIndex)
+  if (adjacencyList === undefined) {
+    return []
+  }
+
+  const result: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+    const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+    if (edge !== undefined) {
+      result.push(edge.target)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return result
+}
+
+/**
+ * Get neighbors of a node in a specific direction for bidirectional traversal.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ * })
+ *
+ * const nodeA = 0
+ * const nodeB = 1
+ *
+ * // Get outgoing neighbors (nodes that nodeA points to)
+ * const outgoing = Graph.neighborsDirected(graph, nodeA, "outgoing")
+ *
+ * // Get incoming neighbors (nodes that point to nodeB)
+ * const incoming = Graph.neighborsDirected(graph, nodeB, "incoming")
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category queries
+ */
+export const neighborsDirected = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex,
+  direction: Direction
+): Array<NodeIndex> => {
+  const adjacencyMap = direction === "incoming"
+    ? graph.reverseAdjacency
+    : graph.adjacency
+
+  const adjacencyList = adjacencyMap.get(nodeIndex)
+  if (adjacencyList === undefined) {
+    return []
+  }
+
+  const result: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+    const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+    if (edge !== undefined) {
+      // For incoming direction, we want the source node instead of target
+      const neighborNode = direction === "incoming"
+        ? edge.source
+        : edge.target
+      result.push(neighborNode)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return result
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// GraphViz Export
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Configuration options for GraphViz DOT format generation from graphs.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface GraphVizOptions<N, E> {
+  readonly nodeLabel?: (data: N) => string
+  readonly edgeLabel?: (data: E) => string
+  readonly graphName?: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * Exports a graph to GraphViz DOT format for visualization.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const nodeA = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node A")
+ *   const nodeB = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node B")
+ *   const nodeC = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Node C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeA, nodeB, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeB, nodeC, 2)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, nodeC, nodeA, 3)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const dot = Graph.toGraphViz(graph)
+ * console.log(dot)
+ * // digraph G {
+ * //   "0" [label="Node A"];
+ * //   "1" [label="Node B"];
+ * //   "2" [label="Node C"];
+ * //   "0" -> "1" [label="1"];
+ * //   "1" -> "2" [label="2"];
+ * //   "2" -> "0" [label="3"];
+ * // }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category utils
+ */
+export const toGraphViz = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  options?: GraphVizOptions<N, E>
+): string => {
+  const {
+    edgeLabel = (data: E) => String(data),
+    graphName = "G",
+    nodeLabel = (data: N) => String(data)
+  } = options ?? {}
+
+  const isDirected = graph.type === "directed"
+  const graphType = isDirected ? "digraph" : "graph"
+  const edgeOperator = isDirected ? "->" : "--"
+
+  const lines: Array<string> = []
+  lines.push(`${graphType} ${graphName} {`)
+
+  // Add nodes
+  for (const [nodeIndex, nodeData] of graph.nodes) {
+    const label = nodeLabel(nodeData).replace(/"/g, "\\\"")
+    lines.push(`  "${nodeIndex}" [label="${label}"];`)
+  }
+
+  // Add edges
+  for (const [, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    const label = edgeLabel(edgeData.data).replace(/"/g, "\\\"")
+    lines.push(`  "${edgeData.source}" ${edgeOperator} "${edgeData.target}" [label="${label}"];`)
+  }
+
+  lines.push("}")
+  return lines.join("\n")
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Mermaid Export
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Mermaid node shape types.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type MermaidNodeShape =
+  | "rectangle"
+  | "rounded"
+  | "circle"
+  | "diamond"
+  | "hexagon"
+  | "stadium"
+  | "subroutine"
+  | "cylindrical"
+
+/**
+ * Mermaid diagram direction types.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type MermaidDirection = "TB" | "TD" | "BT" | "LR" | "RL"
+
+/**
+ * Mermaid diagram type.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type MermaidDiagramType = "flowchart" | "graph"
+
+/**
+ * Configuration options for Mermaid diagram generation.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface MermaidOptions<N, E> {
+  readonly nodeLabel?: (data: N) => string
+  readonly edgeLabel?: (data: E) => string
+  readonly diagramType?: MermaidDiagramType
+  readonly direction?: MermaidDirection
+  readonly nodeShape?: (data: N) => MermaidNodeShape
+}
+
+/** @internal */
+const escapeMermaidLabel = (label: string): string => {
+  // Escape special characters for Mermaid using HTML entity codes
+  // According to: https://mermaid.js.org/syntax/flowchart.html#special-characters-that-break-syntax
+  return label
+    .replace(/#/g, "#35;")
+    .replace(/"/g, "#quot;")
+    .replace(/</g, "#lt;")
+    .replace(/>/g, "#gt;")
+    .replace(/&/g, "#amp;")
+    .replace(/\[/g, "#91;")
+    .replace(/\]/g, "#93;")
+    .replace(/\{/g, "#123;")
+    .replace(/\}/g, "#125;")
+    .replace(/\(/g, "#40;")
+    .replace(/\)/g, "#41;")
+    .replace(/\|/g, "#124;")
+    .replace(/\\/g, "#92;")
+    .replace(/\n/g, "<br/>");
+}
+
+/** @internal */
+const formatMermaidNode = (nodeId: string, label: string, shape: MermaidNodeShape): string => {
+  switch (shape) {
+    case "rectangle":
+      return `${nodeId}["${label}"]`
+    case "rounded":
+      return `${nodeId}("${label}")`
+    case "circle":
+      return `${nodeId}(("${label}"))`
+    case "diamond":
+      return `${nodeId}{"${label}"}`
+    case "hexagon":
+      return `${nodeId}{{"${label}"}}`
+    case "stadium":
+      return `${nodeId}(["${label}"])`
+    case "subroutine":
+      return `${nodeId}[["${label}"]]`
+    case "cylindrical":
+      return `${nodeId}[("${label}")]`
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Exports a graph to Mermaid diagram format for visualization.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.mutate(Graph.directed<string, number>(), (mutable) => {
+ *   const app = Graph.addNode(mutable, "App")
+ *   const db = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Database")
+ *   const cache = Graph.addNode(mutable, "Cache")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, app, db, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, app, cache, 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const mermaid = Graph.toMermaid(graph)
+ * console.log(mermaid)
+ * // flowchart TD
+ * //   0["App"]
+ * //   1["Database"]
+ * //   2["Cache"]
+ * //   0 -->|"1"| 1
+ * //   0 -->|"2"| 2
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category utils
+ */
+export const toMermaid = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  options?: MermaidOptions<N, E>
+): string => {
+  // Extract and validate options with defaults
+  const {
+    diagramType,
+    direction = "TD",
+    edgeLabel = (data: E) => String(data),
+    nodeLabel = (data: N) => String(data),
+    nodeShape = () => "rectangle" as const
+  } = options ?? {}
+
+  // Auto-detect diagram type if not specified
+  const finalDiagramType = diagramType ??
+    (graph.type === "directed" ? "flowchart" : "graph")
+
+  // Generate diagram header
+  const lines: Array<string> = []
+  lines.push(`${finalDiagramType} ${direction}`)
+
+  // Add nodes
+  for (const [nodeIndex, nodeData] of graph.nodes) {
+    const nodeId = String(nodeIndex)
+    const label = escapeMermaidLabel(nodeLabel(nodeData))
+    const shape = nodeShape(nodeData)
+    const formattedNode = formatMermaidNode(nodeId, label, shape)
+    lines.push(`  ${formattedNode}`)
+  }
+
+  // Add edges
+  const edgeOperator = finalDiagramType === "flowchart" ? "-->" : "---"
+  for (const [, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    const sourceId = String(edgeData.source)
+    const targetId = String(edgeData.target)
+    const label = escapeMermaidLabel(edgeLabel(edgeData.data))
+
+    if (label) {
+      lines.push(`  ${sourceId} ${edgeOperator}|"${label}"| ${targetId}`)
+    } else {
+      lines.push(`  ${sourceId} ${edgeOperator} ${targetId}`)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return lines.join("\n")
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Direction Types for Bidirectional Traversal
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Direction for graph traversal, indicating which edges to follow.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Follow outgoing edges (normal direction)
+ * const outgoingNodes = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0], direction: "outgoing" })))
+ *
+ * // Follow incoming edges (reverse direction)
+ * const incomingNodes = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [1], direction: "incoming" })))
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type Direction = "outgoing" | "incoming"
+
+// =============================================================================
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Graph Structure Analysis Algorithms (Phase 5A)
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Checks if the graph is acyclic (contains no cycles).
+ *
+ * Uses depth-first search to detect back edges, which indicate cycles.
+ * For directed graphs, any back edge creates a cycle. For undirected graphs,
+ * a back edge that doesn't go to the immediate parent creates a cycle.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * // Acyclic directed graph (DAG)
+ * const dag = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "B->C")
+ * })
+ * console.log(Graph.isAcyclic(dag)) // true
+ *
+ * // Cyclic directed graph
+ * const cyclic = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, a, "B->A") // Creates cycle
+ * })
+ * console.log(Graph.isAcyclic(cyclic)) // false
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const isAcyclic = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): boolean => {
+  // Use existing cycle flag if available
+  if (Option.isSome(graph.isAcyclic)) {
+    return graph.isAcyclic.value
+  }
+
+  // Stack-safe DFS cycle detection using iterative approach
+  const visited = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+  const recursionStack = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+  // Stack entry: [node, neighbors, neighborIndex, isFirstVisit]
+  type DfsStackEntry = [NodeIndex, Array<NodeIndex>, number, boolean]
+
+  // Get all nodes to handle disconnected components
+  for (const startNode of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    if (visited.has(startNode)) {
+      continue // Already processed this component
+    }
+
+    // Iterative DFS with explicit stack
+    const stack: Array<DfsStackEntry> = [[startNode, [], 0, true]]
+
+    while (stack.length > 0) {
+      const [node, neighbors, neighborIndex, isFirstVisit] = stack[stack.length - 1]
+
+      // First visit to this node
+      if (isFirstVisit) {
+        if (recursionStack.has(node)) {
+          // Back edge found - cycle detected
+          graph.isAcyclic = Option.some(false)
+          return false
+        }
+
+        if (visited.has(node)) {
+          stack.pop()
+          continue
+        }
+
+        visited.add(node)
+        recursionStack.add(node)
+
+        // Get neighbors for this node
+        const nodeNeighbors = Array.from(neighborsDirected(graph, node, "outgoing"))
+        stack[stack.length - 1] = [node, nodeNeighbors, 0, false]
+        continue
+      }
+
+      // Process next neighbor
+      if (neighborIndex < neighbors.length) {
+        const neighbor = neighbors[neighborIndex]
+        stack[stack.length - 1] = [node, neighbors, neighborIndex + 1, false]
+
+        if (recursionStack.has(neighbor)) {
+          // Back edge found - cycle detected
+          graph.isAcyclic = Option.some(false)
+          return false
+        }
+
+        if (!visited.has(neighbor)) {
+          stack.push([neighbor, [], 0, true])
+        }
+      } else {
+        // Done with this node - backtrack
+        recursionStack.delete(node)
+        stack.pop()
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Cache the result
+  graph.isAcyclic = Option.some(true)
+  return true
+}
+
+/**
+ * Checks if an undirected graph is bipartite.
+ *
+ * A bipartite graph is one whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets
+ * such that no two vertices within the same set are adjacent. Uses BFS coloring
+ * to determine bipartiteness.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * // Bipartite graph (alternating coloring possible)
+ * const bipartite = Graph.undirected<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   const d = Graph.addNode(mutable, "D")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "edge") // Set 1: {A, C}, Set 2: {B, D}
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "edge")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, d, "edge")
+ * })
+ * console.log(Graph.isBipartite(bipartite)) // true
+ *
+ * // Non-bipartite graph (odd cycle)
+ * const triangle = Graph.undirected<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "edge")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "edge")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, a, "edge") // Triangle (3-cycle)
+ * })
+ * console.log(Graph.isBipartite(triangle)) // false
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const isBipartite = <N, E>(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, "undirected"> | MutableGraph<N, E, "undirected">
+): boolean => {
+  const coloring = new Map<NodeIndex, 0 | 1>()
+  const discovered = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+  let isBipartiteGraph = true
+
+  // Get all nodes to handle disconnected components
+  for (const startNode of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    if (!discovered.has(startNode)) {
+      // Start BFS coloring from this component
+      const queue: Array<NodeIndex> = [startNode]
+      coloring.set(startNode, 0) // Color start node with 0
+      discovered.add(startNode)
+
+      while (queue.length > 0 && isBipartiteGraph) {
+        const current = queue.shift()!
+        const currentColor = coloring.get(current)!
+        const neighborColor: 0 | 1 = currentColor === 0 ? 1 : 0
+
+        // Get all neighbors for undirected graph
+        const nodeNeighbors = getUndirectedNeighbors(graph, current)
+        for (const neighbor of nodeNeighbors) {
+          if (!discovered.has(neighbor)) {
+            // Color unvisited neighbor with opposite color
+            coloring.set(neighbor, neighborColor)
+            discovered.add(neighbor)
+            queue.push(neighbor)
+          } else {
+            // Check if neighbor has the same color (conflict)
+            if (coloring.get(neighbor) === currentColor) {
+              isBipartiteGraph = false
+              break
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // Early exit if not bipartite
+      if (!isBipartiteGraph) {
+        break
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return isBipartiteGraph
+}
+
+/**
+ * Get neighbors for undirected graphs by checking both adjacency and reverse adjacency.
+ * For undirected graphs, we need to find the other endpoint of each edge incident to the node.
+ */
+const getUndirectedNeighbors = <N, E>(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, "undirected"> | MutableGraph<N, E, "undirected">,
+  nodeIndex: NodeIndex
+): Array<NodeIndex> => {
+  const neighbors = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+  // Check edges where this node is the source
+  const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(nodeIndex)
+  if (adjacencyList !== undefined) {
+    for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+      const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+      if (edge !== undefined) {
+        // For undirected graphs, the neighbor is the other endpoint
+        const otherNode = edge.source === nodeIndex ? edge.target : edge.source
+        neighbors.add(otherNode)
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return Array.from(neighbors)
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find connected components in an undirected graph.
+ * Each component is represented as an array of node indices.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.undirected<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   const d = Graph.addNode(mutable, "D")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "edge") // Component 1: A-B
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, d, "edge") // Component 2: C-D
+ * })
+ *
+ * const components = Graph.connectedComponents(graph)
+ * console.log(components) // [[0, 1], [2, 3]]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const connectedComponents = <N, E>(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, "undirected"> | MutableGraph<N, E, "undirected">
+): Array<Array<NodeIndex>> => {
+  const visited = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+  const components: Array<Array<NodeIndex>> = []
+  for (const startNode of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    if (!visited.has(startNode)) {
+      // DFS to find all nodes in this component
+      const component: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+      const stack: Array<NodeIndex> = [startNode]
+
+      while (stack.length > 0) {
+        const current = stack.pop()!
+        if (!visited.has(current)) {
+          visited.add(current)
+          component.push(current)
+
+          // Add all unvisited neighbors to stack
+          const nodeNeighbors = getUndirectedNeighbors(graph, current)
+          for (const neighbor of nodeNeighbors) {
+            if (!visited.has(neighbor)) {
+              stack.push(neighbor)
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      components.push(component)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return components
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find strongly connected components in a directed graph using Kosaraju's algorithm.
+ * Each SCC is represented as an array of node indices.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, string>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, "A->B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, "B->C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, c, a, "C->A") // Creates SCC: A-B-C
+ * })
+ *
+ * const sccs = Graph.stronglyConnectedComponents(graph)
+ * console.log(sccs) // [[0, 1, 2]]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const stronglyConnectedComponents = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): Array<Array<NodeIndex>> => {
+  const visited = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+  const finishOrder: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  // Iterate directly over node keys
+
+  // Step 1: Stack-safe DFS on original graph to get finish times
+  // Stack entry: [node, neighbors, neighborIndex, isFirstVisit]
+  type DfsStackEntry = [NodeIndex, Array<NodeIndex>, number, boolean]
+
+  for (const startNode of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    if (visited.has(startNode)) {
+      continue
+    }
+
+    const stack: Array<DfsStackEntry> = [[startNode, [], 0, true]]
+
+    while (stack.length > 0) {
+      const [node, nodeNeighbors, neighborIndex, isFirstVisit] = stack[stack.length - 1]
+
+      if (isFirstVisit) {
+        if (visited.has(node)) {
+          stack.pop()
+          continue
+        }
+
+        visited.add(node)
+        const nodeNeighborsList = neighbors(graph, node)
+        stack[stack.length - 1] = [node, nodeNeighborsList, 0, false]
+        continue
+      }
+
+      // Process next neighbor
+      if (neighborIndex < nodeNeighbors.length) {
+        const neighbor = nodeNeighbors[neighborIndex]
+        stack[stack.length - 1] = [node, nodeNeighbors, neighborIndex + 1, false]
+
+        if (!visited.has(neighbor)) {
+          stack.push([neighbor, [], 0, true])
+        }
+      } else {
+        // Done with this node - add to finish order (post-order)
+        finishOrder.push(node)
+        stack.pop()
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Step 2: Stack-safe DFS on transpose graph in reverse finish order
+  visited.clear()
+  const sccs: Array<Array<NodeIndex>> = []
+
+  for (let i = finishOrder.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+    const startNode = finishOrder[i]
+    if (visited.has(startNode)) {
+      continue
+    }
+
+    const scc: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+    const stack: Array<NodeIndex> = [startNode]
+
+    while (stack.length > 0) {
+      const node = stack.pop()!
+
+      if (visited.has(node)) {
+        continue
+      }
+
+      visited.add(node)
+      scc.push(node)
+
+      // Use reverse adjacency (transpose graph)
+      const reverseAdjacency = graph.reverseAdjacency.get(node)
+      if (reverseAdjacency !== undefined) {
+        for (const edgeIndex of reverseAdjacency) {
+          const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+          if (edge !== undefined) {
+            const predecessor = edge.source
+            if (!visited.has(predecessor)) {
+              stack.push(predecessor)
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    sccs.push(scc)
+  }
+
+  return sccs
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Path Finding Algorithms (Phase 5B)
+// =============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Result of a shortest path computation containing the path and total distance.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface PathResult<E> {
+  readonly path: Array<NodeIndex>
+  readonly distance: number
+  readonly costs: Array<E>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Configuration for Dijkstra's algorithm.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface DijkstraConfig<E> {
+  source: NodeIndex
+  target: NodeIndex
+  cost: (edgeData: E) => number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Configuration for A* algorithm.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface AstarConfig<E, N> {
+  source: NodeIndex
+  target: NodeIndex
+  cost: (edgeData: E) => number
+  heuristic: (sourceNodeData: N, targetNodeData: N) => number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Configuration for Bellman-Ford algorithm.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface BellmanFordConfig<E> {
+  source: NodeIndex
+  target: NodeIndex
+  cost: (edgeData: E) => number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find the shortest path between two nodes using Dijkstra's algorithm.
+ *
+ * Dijkstra's algorithm works with non-negative edge weights and finds the shortest
+ * path from a source node to a target node in O((V + E) log V) time complexity.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 5)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, c, 10)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.dijkstra(graph, { source: 0, target: 2, cost: (edgeData) => edgeData })
+ * if (Option.isSome(result)) {
+ *   console.log(result.value.path) // [0, 1, 2] - shortest path A->B->C
+ *   console.log(result.value.distance) // 7 - total distance
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const dijkstra = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: DijkstraConfig<E>
+): Option.Option<PathResult<E>> => {
+  const { cost, source, target } = config
+  // Validate that source and target nodes exist
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(source)) {
+    throw missingNode(source)
+  }
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(target)) {
+    throw missingNode(target)
+  }
+
+  // Early return if source equals target
+  if (source === target) {
+    return Option.some({
+      path: [source],
+      distance: 0,
+      costs: []
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Distance tracking and priority queue simulation
+  const distances = new Map<NodeIndex, number>()
+  const previous = new Map<NodeIndex, { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null>()
+  const visited = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+  // Initialize distances
+  // Iterate directly over node keys
+  for (const node of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    distances.set(node, node === source ? 0 : Infinity)
+    previous.set(node, null)
+  }
+
+  // Simple priority queue using array (can be optimized with proper heap)
+  const priorityQueue: Array<{ node: NodeIndex; distance: number }> = [
+    { node: source, distance: 0 }
+  ]
+
+  while (priorityQueue.length > 0) {
+    // Find minimum distance node (priority queue extract-min)
+    let minIndex = 0
+    for (let i = 1; i < priorityQueue.length; i++) {
+      if (priorityQueue[i].distance < priorityQueue[minIndex].distance) {
+        minIndex = i
+      }
+    }
+
+    const current = priorityQueue.splice(minIndex, 1)[0]
+    const currentNode = current.node
+
+    // Skip if already visited (can happen with duplicate entries)
+    if (visited.has(currentNode)) {
+      continue
+    }
+
+    visited.add(currentNode)
+
+    // Early termination if we reached the target
+    if (currentNode === target) {
+      break
+    }
+
+    // Get current distance
+    const currentDistance = distances.get(currentNode)!
+
+    // Examine all outgoing edges
+    const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(currentNode)
+    if (adjacencyList !== undefined) {
+      for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+        const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+        if (edge !== undefined) {
+          const neighbor = edge.target
+          const weight = cost(edge.data)
+
+          // Validate non-negative weights
+          if (weight < 0) {
+            throw new Error(`Dijkstra's algorithm requires non-negative edge weights, found ${weight}`)
+          }
+
+          const newDistance = currentDistance + weight
+          const neighborDistance = distances.get(neighbor)!
+
+          // Relaxation step
+          if (newDistance < neighborDistance) {
+            distances.set(neighbor, newDistance)
+            previous.set(neighbor, { node: currentNode, edgeData: edge.data })
+
+            // Add to priority queue if not visited
+            if (!visited.has(neighbor)) {
+              priorityQueue.push({ node: neighbor, distance: newDistance })
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check if target is reachable
+  const targetDistance = distances.get(target)!
+  if (targetDistance === Infinity) {
+    return Option.none() // No path exists
+  }
+
+  // Reconstruct path
+  const path: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  const costs: Array<E> = []
+  let currentNode: NodeIndex | null = target
+
+  while (currentNode !== null) {
+    path.unshift(currentNode)
+    const prev: { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null = previous.get(currentNode)!
+    if (prev !== null) {
+      costs.unshift(prev.edgeData)
+      currentNode = prev.node
+    } else {
+      currentNode = null
+    }
+  }
+
+  return Option.some({
+    path,
+    distance: targetDistance,
+    costs
+  })
+}
+
+/**
+ * Result of all-pairs shortest path computation.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface AllPairsResult<E> {
+  readonly distances: Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, number>>
+  readonly paths: Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, Array<NodeIndex> | null>>
+  readonly costs: Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, Array<E>>>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find shortest paths between all pairs of nodes using Floyd-Warshall algorithm.
+ *
+ * Floyd-Warshall algorithm computes shortest paths between all pairs of nodes in O(V³) time.
+ * It can handle negative edge weights and detect negative cycles.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 3)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 2)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, c, 7)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.floydWarshall(graph, (edgeData) => edgeData)
+ * const distanceAToC = result.distances.get(0)?.get(2) // 5 (A->B->C)
+ * const pathAToC = result.paths.get(0)?.get(2) // [0, 1, 2]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const floydWarshall = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  cost: (edgeData: E) => number
+): AllPairsResult<E> => {
+  // Get all nodes for Floyd-Warshall algorithm (needs array for nested iteration)
+  const allNodes = Array.from(graph.nodes.keys())
+
+  // Initialize distance matrix
+  const dist = new Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, number>>()
+  const next = new Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, NodeIndex | null>>()
+  const edgeMatrix = new Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, E | null>>()
+
+  // Initialize with infinity for all pairs
+  for (const i of allNodes) {
+    dist.set(i, new Map())
+    next.set(i, new Map())
+    edgeMatrix.set(i, new Map())
+
+    for (const j of allNodes) {
+      dist.get(i)!.set(j, i === j ? 0 : Infinity)
+      next.get(i)!.set(j, null)
+      edgeMatrix.get(i)!.set(j, null)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Set edge weights
+  for (const [, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    const weight = cost(edgeData.data)
+    const i = edgeData.source
+    const j = edgeData.target
+
+    // Use minimum weight if multiple edges exist
+    const currentWeight = dist.get(i)!.get(j)!
+    if (weight < currentWeight) {
+      dist.get(i)!.set(j, weight)
+      next.get(i)!.set(j, j)
+      edgeMatrix.get(i)!.set(j, edgeData.data)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Floyd-Warshall main loop
+  for (const k of allNodes) {
+    for (const i of allNodes) {
+      for (const j of allNodes) {
+        const distIK = dist.get(i)!.get(k)!
+        const distKJ = dist.get(k)!.get(j)!
+        const distIJ = dist.get(i)!.get(j)!
+
+        if (distIK !== Infinity && distKJ !== Infinity && distIK + distKJ < distIJ) {
+          dist.get(i)!.set(j, distIK + distKJ)
+          next.get(i)!.set(j, next.get(i)!.get(k)!)
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check for negative cycles
+  for (const i of allNodes) {
+    if (dist.get(i)!.get(i)! < 0) {
+      throw new Error(`Negative cycle detected involving node ${i}`)
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Build result paths and edge weights
+  const paths = new Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, Array<NodeIndex> | null>>()
+  const resultCosts = new Map<NodeIndex, Map<NodeIndex, Array<E>>>()
+
+  for (const i of allNodes) {
+    paths.set(i, new Map())
+    resultCosts.set(i, new Map())
+
+    for (const j of allNodes) {
+      if (i === j) {
+        paths.get(i)!.set(j, [i])
+        resultCosts.get(i)!.set(j, [])
+      } else if (dist.get(i)!.get(j)! === Infinity) {
+        paths.get(i)!.set(j, null)
+        resultCosts.get(i)!.set(j, [])
+      } else {
+        // Reconstruct path iteratively
+        const path: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+        const weights: Array<E> = []
+        let current = i
+
+        path.push(current)
+        while (current !== j) {
+          const nextNode = next.get(current)!.get(j)!
+          if (nextNode === null) break
+
+          const edgeData = edgeMatrix.get(current)!.get(nextNode)!
+          if (edgeData !== null) {
+            weights.push(edgeData)
+          }
+
+          current = nextNode
+          path.push(current)
+        }
+
+        paths.get(i)!.set(j, path)
+        resultCosts.get(i)!.set(j, weights)
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {
+    distances: dist,
+    paths,
+    costs: resultCosts
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find the shortest path between two nodes using A* pathfinding algorithm.
+ *
+ * A* is an extension of Dijkstra's algorithm that uses a heuristic function to guide
+ * the search towards the target, potentially finding paths faster than Dijkstra's.
+ * The heuristic must be admissible (never overestimate the actual cost).
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<{x: number, y: number}, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, {x: 0, y: 0})
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, {x: 1, y: 0})
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, {x: 2, y: 0})
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Manhattan distance heuristic
+ * const heuristic = (nodeData: {x: number, y: number}, targetData: {x: number, y: number}) =>
+ *   Math.abs(nodeData.x - targetData.x) + Math.abs(nodeData.y - targetData.y)
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.astar(graph, { source: 0, target: 2, cost: (edgeData) => edgeData, heuristic })
+ * if (Option.isSome(result)) {
+ *   console.log(result.value.path) // [0, 1, 2] - shortest path
+ *   console.log(result.value.distance) // 2 - total distance
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const astar = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: AstarConfig<E, N>
+): Option.Option<PathResult<E>> => {
+  const { cost, heuristic, source, target } = config
+  // Validate that source and target nodes exist
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(source)) {
+    throw missingNode(source)
+  }
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(target)) {
+    throw missingNode(target)
+  }
+
+  // Early return if source equals target
+  if (source === target) {
+    return Option.some({
+      path: [source],
+      distance: 0,
+      costs: []
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Get target node data for heuristic calculations
+  const targetNodeData = graph.nodes.get(target)
+  if (targetNodeData === undefined) {
+    throw new Error(`Target node ${target} data not found`)
+  }
+
+  // Distance tracking (g-score) and f-score (g + h)
+  const gScore = new Map<NodeIndex, number>()
+  const fScore = new Map<NodeIndex, number>()
+  const previous = new Map<NodeIndex, { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null>()
+  const visited = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+  // Initialize scores
+  // Iterate directly over node keys
+  for (const node of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    gScore.set(node, node === source ? 0 : Infinity)
+    fScore.set(node, Infinity)
+    previous.set(node, null)
+  }
+
+  // Calculate initial f-score for source
+  const sourceNodeData = graph.nodes.get(source)
+  if (sourceNodeData !== undefined) {
+    const h = heuristic(sourceNodeData, targetNodeData)
+    fScore.set(source, h)
+  }
+
+  // Priority queue using f-score (total estimated cost)
+  const openSet: Array<{ node: NodeIndex; fScore: number }> = [
+    { node: source, fScore: fScore.get(source)! }
+  ]
+
+  while (openSet.length > 0) {
+    // Find node with lowest f-score
+    let minIndex = 0
+    for (let i = 1; i < openSet.length; i++) {
+      if (openSet[i].fScore < openSet[minIndex].fScore) {
+        minIndex = i
+      }
+    }
+
+    const current = openSet.splice(minIndex, 1)[0]
+    const currentNode = current.node
+
+    // Skip if already visited
+    if (visited.has(currentNode)) {
+      continue
+    }
+
+    visited.add(currentNode)
+
+    // Early termination if we reached the target
+    if (currentNode === target) {
+      break
+    }
+
+    // Get current g-score
+    const currentGScore = gScore.get(currentNode)!
+
+    // Examine all outgoing edges
+    const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(currentNode)
+    if (adjacencyList !== undefined) {
+      for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+        const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+        if (edge !== undefined) {
+          const neighbor = edge.target
+          const weight = cost(edge.data)
+
+          // Validate non-negative weights
+          if (weight < 0) {
+            throw new Error(`A* algorithm requires non-negative edge weights, found ${weight}`)
+          }
+
+          const tentativeGScore = currentGScore + weight
+          const neighborGScore = gScore.get(neighbor)!
+
+          // If this path to neighbor is better than any previous one
+          if (tentativeGScore < neighborGScore) {
+            // Update g-score and previous
+            gScore.set(neighbor, tentativeGScore)
+            previous.set(neighbor, { node: currentNode, edgeData: edge.data })
+
+            // Calculate f-score using heuristic
+            const neighborNodeData = graph.nodes.get(neighbor)
+            if (neighborNodeData !== undefined) {
+              const h = heuristic(neighborNodeData, targetNodeData)
+              const f = tentativeGScore + h
+              fScore.set(neighbor, f)
+
+              // Add to open set if not visited
+              if (!visited.has(neighbor)) {
+                openSet.push({ node: neighbor, fScore: f })
+              }
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check if target is reachable
+  const targetGScore = gScore.get(target)!
+  if (targetGScore === Infinity) {
+    return Option.none() // No path exists
+  }
+
+  // Reconstruct path
+  const path: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  const costs: Array<E> = []
+  let currentNode: NodeIndex | null = target
+
+  while (currentNode !== null) {
+    path.unshift(currentNode)
+    const prev: { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null = previous.get(currentNode)!
+    if (prev !== null) {
+      costs.unshift(prev.edgeData)
+      currentNode = prev.node
+    } else {
+      currentNode = null
+    }
+  }
+
+  return Option.some({
+    path,
+    distance: targetGScore,
+    costs
+  })
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find the shortest path between two nodes using Bellman-Ford algorithm.
+ *
+ * Bellman-Ford algorithm can handle negative edge weights and detects negative cycles.
+ * It has O(VE) time complexity, slower than Dijkstra's but more versatile.
+ * Returns Option.none() if a negative cycle is detected that affects the path.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph, Option } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, -1)  // Negative weight allowed
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 3)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, c, 5)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const result = Graph.bellmanFord(graph, { source: 0, target: 2, cost: (edgeData) => edgeData })
+ * if (Option.isSome(result)) {
+ *   console.log(result.value.path) // [0, 1, 2] - shortest path A->B->C
+ *   console.log(result.value.distance) // 2 - total distance
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category algorithms
+ */
+export const bellmanFord = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: BellmanFordConfig<E>
+): Option.Option<PathResult<E>> => {
+  const { cost, source, target } = config
+  // Validate that source and target nodes exist
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(source)) {
+    throw missingNode(source)
+  }
+  if (!graph.nodes.has(target)) {
+    throw missingNode(target)
+  }
+
+  // Early return if source equals target
+  if (source === target) {
+    return Option.some({
+      path: [source],
+      distance: 0,
+      costs: []
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Initialize distances and predecessors
+  const distances = new Map<NodeIndex, number>()
+  const previous = new Map<NodeIndex, { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null>()
+  // Iterate directly over node keys
+
+  for (const node of graph.nodes.keys()) {
+    distances.set(node, node === source ? 0 : Infinity)
+    previous.set(node, null)
+  }
+
+  // Collect all edges for relaxation
+  const edges: Array<{ source: NodeIndex; target: NodeIndex; weight: number; edgeData: E }> = []
+  for (const [, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+    const weight = cost(edgeData.data)
+    edges.push({
+      source: edgeData.source,
+      target: edgeData.target,
+      weight,
+      edgeData: edgeData.data
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Relax edges up to V-1 times
+  const nodeCount = graph.nodes.size
+  for (let i = 0; i < nodeCount - 1; i++) {
+    let hasUpdate = false
+
+    for (const edge of edges) {
+      const sourceDistance = distances.get(edge.source)!
+      const targetDistance = distances.get(edge.target)!
+
+      // Relaxation step
+      if (sourceDistance !== Infinity && sourceDistance + edge.weight < targetDistance) {
+        distances.set(edge.target, sourceDistance + edge.weight)
+        previous.set(edge.target, { node: edge.source, edgeData: edge.edgeData })
+        hasUpdate = true
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Early termination if no updates
+    if (!hasUpdate) {
+      break
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check for negative cycles
+  for (const edge of edges) {
+    const sourceDistance = distances.get(edge.source)!
+    const targetDistance = distances.get(edge.target)!
+
+    if (sourceDistance !== Infinity && sourceDistance + edge.weight < targetDistance) {
+      // Negative cycle detected - check if it affects the path to target
+      const affectedNodes = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+      const queue = [edge.target]
+
+      while (queue.length > 0) {
+        const node = queue.shift()!
+        if (affectedNodes.has(node)) continue
+        affectedNodes.add(node)
+
+        // Add all nodes reachable from this node
+        const adjacencyList = graph.adjacency.get(node)
+        if (adjacencyList !== undefined) {
+          for (const edgeIndex of adjacencyList) {
+            const edge = graph.edges.get(edgeIndex)
+            if (edge !== undefined) {
+              queue.push(edge.target)
+            }
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      // If target is affected by negative cycle, return null
+      if (affectedNodes.has(target)) {
+        return Option.none()
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Check if target is reachable
+  const targetDistance = distances.get(target)!
+  if (targetDistance === Infinity) {
+    return Option.none() // No path exists
+  }
+
+  // Reconstruct path
+  const path: Array<NodeIndex> = []
+  const costs: Array<E> = []
+  let currentNode: NodeIndex | null = target
+
+  while (currentNode !== null) {
+    path.unshift(currentNode)
+    const prev: { node: NodeIndex; edgeData: E } | null = previous.get(currentNode)!
+    if (prev !== null) {
+      costs.unshift(prev.edgeData)
+      currentNode = prev.node
+    } else {
+      currentNode = null
+    }
+  }
+
+  return Option.some({
+    path,
+    distance: targetDistance,
+    costs
+  })
+}
+
+/**
+ * Concrete class for iterables that produce [NodeIndex, NodeData] tuples.
+ *
+ * This class provides a common abstraction for all iterables that return node data,
+ * including traversal iterators (DFS, BFS, etc.) and element iterators (nodes, externals).
+ * It uses a mapEntry function pattern for flexible iteration and transformation.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Both traversal and element iterators return NodeWalker
+ * const dfsNodes: Graph.NodeWalker<string> = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * const allNodes: Graph.NodeWalker<string> = Graph.nodes(graph)
+ *
+ * // Common interface for working with node iterables
+ * function processNodes<N>(nodeIterable: Graph.NodeWalker<N>): Array<number> {
+ *   return Array.from(Graph.indices(nodeIterable))
+ * }
+ *
+ * // Access node data using values() or entries()
+ * const nodeData = Array.from(Graph.values(dfsNodes)) // ["A", "B"]
+ * const nodeEntries = Array.from(Graph.entries(allNodes)) // [[0, "A"], [1, "B"]]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export class Walker<T, N> implements Iterable<[T, N]> {
+  /**
+   * @since 3.18.0
+   */
+  // @ts-ignore
+  readonly [Symbol.iterator]: () => Iterator<[T, N]>
+
+  /**
+   * Visits each element and maps it to a value using the provided function.
+   *
+   * Takes a function that receives the index and data,
+   * and returns an iterable of the mapped values. Skips elements that
+   * no longer exist in the graph.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * ```ts
+   * import { Graph } from "effect"
+   *
+   * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+   *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+   *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+   *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+   * })
+   *
+   * const dfs = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+   *
+   * // Map to just the node data
+   * const values = Array.from(dfs.visit((index, data) => data))
+   * console.log(values) // ["A", "B"]
+   *
+   * // Map to custom objects
+   * const custom = Array.from(dfs.visit((index, data) => ({ id: index, name: data })))
+   * console.log(custom) // [{ id: 0, name: "A" }, { id: 1, name: "B" }]
+   * ```
+   *
+   * @since 3.18.0
+   * @category iterators
+   */
+  readonly visit: <U>(f: (index: T, data: N) => U) => Iterable<U>
+
+  constructor(
+    /**
+     * Visits each element and maps it to a value using the provided function.
+     *
+     * Takes a function that receives the index and data,
+     * and returns an iterable of the mapped values. Skips elements that
+     * no longer exist in the graph.
+     *
+     * @example
+     * ```ts
+     * import { Graph } from "effect"
+     *
+     * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+     *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+     *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+     *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+     * })
+     *
+     * const dfs = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+     *
+     * // Map to just the node data
+     * const values = Array.from(dfs.visit((index, data) => data))
+     * console.log(values) // ["A", "B"]
+     *
+     * // Map to custom objects
+     * const custom = Array.from(dfs.visit((index, data) => ({ id: index, name: data })))
+     * console.log(custom) // [{ id: 0, name: "A" }, { id: 1, name: "B" }]
+     * ```
+     *
+     * @since 3.18.0
+     * @category iterators
+     */
+    visit: <U>(f: (index: T, data: N) => U) => Iterable<U>
+  ) {
+    this.visit = visit
+    this[Symbol.iterator] = visit((index, data) => [index, data] as [T, N])[Symbol.iterator]
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Type alias for node iteration using Walker.
+ * NodeWalker is represented as Walker<NodeIndex, N>.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type NodeWalker<N> = Walker<NodeIndex, N>
+
+/**
+ * Type alias for edge iteration using Walker.
+ * EdgeWalker is represented as Walker<EdgeIndex, Edge<E>>.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export type EdgeWalker<E> = Walker<EdgeIndex, Edge<E>>
+
+/**
+ * Returns an iterator over the indices in the walker.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const dfs = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * const indices = Array.from(Graph.indices(dfs))
+ * console.log(indices) // [0, 1]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category utilities
+ */
+export const indices = <T, N>(walker: Walker<T, N>): Iterable<T> => walker.visit((index, _) => index)
+
+/**
+ * Returns an iterator over the values (data) in the walker.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const dfs = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * const values = Array.from(Graph.values(dfs))
+ * console.log(values) // ["A", "B"]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category utilities
+ */
+export const values = <T, N>(walker: Walker<T, N>): Iterable<N> => walker.visit((_, data) => data)
+
+/**
+ * Returns an iterator over [index, data] entries in the walker.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const dfs = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * const entries = Array.from(Graph.entries(dfs))
+ * console.log(entries) // [[0, "A"], [1, "B"]]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category utilities
+ */
+export const entries = <T, N>(walker: Walker<T, N>): Iterable<[T, N]> =>
+  walker.visit((index, data) => [index, data] as [T, N])
+
+/**
+ * Configuration for graph search iterators.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface SearchConfig {
+  readonly start?: Array<NodeIndex>
+  readonly direction?: Direction
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new DFS iterator with optional configuration.
+ *
+ * The iterator maintains a stack of nodes to visit and tracks discovered nodes.
+ * It provides lazy evaluation of the depth-first search.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Start from a specific node
+ * const dfs1 = Graph.dfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * for (const nodeIndex of Graph.indices(dfs1)) {
+ *   console.log(nodeIndex) // Traverses in DFS order: 0, 1, 2
+ * }
+ *
+ * // Empty iterator (no starting nodes)
+ * const dfs2 = Graph.dfs(graph)
+ * // Can be used programmatically
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const dfs = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: SearchConfig = {}
+): NodeWalker<N> => {
+  const start = config.start ?? []
+  const direction = config.direction ?? "outgoing"
+
+  // Validate that all start nodes exist
+  for (const nodeIndex of start) {
+    if (!hasNode(graph, nodeIndex)) {
+      throw missingNode(nodeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]: () => {
+      const stack = [...start]
+      const discovered = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+      const nextMapped = () => {
+        while (stack.length > 0) {
+          const current = stack.pop()!
+
+          if (discovered.has(current)) {
+            continue
+          }
+
+          discovered.add(current)
+
+          const nodeDataOption = graph.nodes.get(current)
+          if (nodeDataOption === undefined) {
+            continue
+          }
+
+          const neighbors = neighborsDirected(graph, current, direction)
+          for (let i = neighbors.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+            const neighbor = neighbors[i]
+            if (!discovered.has(neighbor)) {
+              stack.push(neighbor)
+            }
+          }
+
+          return { done: false, value: f(current, nodeDataOption) }
+        }
+
+        return { done: true, value: undefined } as const
+      }
+
+      return { next: nextMapped }
+    }
+  }))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new BFS iterator with optional configuration.
+ *
+ * The iterator maintains a queue of nodes to visit and tracks discovered nodes.
+ * It provides lazy evaluation of the breadth-first search.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Start from a specific node
+ * const bfs1 = Graph.bfs(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * for (const nodeIndex of Graph.indices(bfs1)) {
+ *   console.log(nodeIndex) // Traverses in BFS order: 0, 1, 2
+ * }
+ *
+ * // Empty iterator (no starting nodes)
+ * const bfs2 = Graph.bfs(graph)
+ * // Can be used programmatically
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const bfs = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: SearchConfig = {}
+): NodeWalker<N> => {
+  const start = config.start ?? []
+  const direction = config.direction ?? "outgoing"
+
+  // Validate that all start nodes exist
+  for (const nodeIndex of start) {
+    if (!hasNode(graph, nodeIndex)) {
+      throw missingNode(nodeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]: () => {
+      const queue = [...start]
+      const discovered = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+      const nextMapped = () => {
+        while (queue.length > 0) {
+          const current = queue.shift()!
+
+          if (!discovered.has(current)) {
+            discovered.add(current)
+
+            const neighbors = neighborsDirected(graph, current, direction)
+            for (const neighbor of neighbors) {
+              if (!discovered.has(neighbor)) {
+                queue.push(neighbor)
+              }
+            }
+
+            const nodeData = getNode(graph, current)
+            if (Option.isSome(nodeData)) {
+              return { done: false, value: f(current, nodeData.value) }
+            }
+            return nextMapped()
+          }
+        }
+
+        return { done: true, value: undefined } as const
+      }
+
+      return { next: nextMapped }
+    }
+  }))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Configuration options for topological sort iterator.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface TopoConfig {
+  readonly initials?: Array<NodeIndex>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new topological sort iterator with optional configuration.
+ *
+ * The iterator uses Kahn's algorithm to lazily produce nodes in topological order.
+ * Throws an error if the graph contains cycles.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Standard topological sort
+ * const topo1 = Graph.topo(graph)
+ * for (const nodeIndex of Graph.indices(topo1)) {
+ *   console.log(nodeIndex) // 0, 1, 2 (topological order)
+ * }
+ *
+ * // With initial nodes
+ * const topo2 = Graph.topo(graph, { initials: [0] })
+ *
+ * // Throws error for cyclic graph
+ * const cyclicGraph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, a, 2) // Creates cycle
+ * })
+ *
+ * try {
+ *   Graph.topo(cyclicGraph) // Throws: "Cannot perform topological sort on cyclic graph"
+ * } catch (error) {
+ *   console.log((error as Error).message)
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const topo = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: TopoConfig = {}
+): NodeWalker<N> => {
+  // Check if graph is acyclic first
+  if (!isAcyclic(graph)) {
+    throw new Error("Cannot perform topological sort on cyclic graph")
+  }
+
+  const initials = config.initials ?? []
+
+  // Validate that all initial nodes exist
+  for (const nodeIndex of initials) {
+    if (!hasNode(graph, nodeIndex)) {
+      throw missingNode(nodeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]: () => {
+      const inDegree = new Map<NodeIndex, number>()
+      const remaining = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+      const queue = [...initials]
+
+      // Initialize in-degree counts
+      for (const [nodeIndex] of graph.nodes) {
+        inDegree.set(nodeIndex, 0)
+        remaining.add(nodeIndex)
+      }
+
+      // Calculate in-degrees
+      for (const [, edgeData] of graph.edges) {
+        const currentInDegree = inDegree.get(edgeData.target) || 0
+        inDegree.set(edgeData.target, currentInDegree + 1)
+      }
+
+      // Add nodes with zero in-degree to queue if no initials provided
+      if (initials.length === 0) {
+        for (const [nodeIndex, degree] of inDegree) {
+          if (degree === 0) {
+            queue.push(nodeIndex)
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      const nextMapped = () => {
+        while (queue.length > 0) {
+          const current = queue.shift()!
+
+          if (remaining.has(current)) {
+            remaining.delete(current)
+
+            // Process outgoing edges, reducing in-degree of targets
+            const neighbors = neighborsDirected(graph, current, "outgoing")
+            for (const neighbor of neighbors) {
+              if (remaining.has(neighbor)) {
+                const currentInDegree = inDegree.get(neighbor) || 0
+                const newInDegree = currentInDegree - 1
+                inDegree.set(neighbor, newInDegree)
+
+                // If in-degree becomes 0, add to queue
+                if (newInDegree === 0) {
+                  queue.push(neighbor)
+                }
+              }
+            }
+
+            const nodeData = getNode(graph, current)
+            if (Option.isSome(nodeData)) {
+              return { done: false, value: f(current, nodeData.value) }
+            }
+            return nextMapped()
+          }
+        }
+
+        return { done: true, value: undefined } as const
+      }
+
+      return { next: nextMapped }
+    }
+  }))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new DFS postorder iterator with optional configuration.
+ *
+ * The iterator maintains a stack with visit state tracking and emits nodes
+ * in postorder (after all descendants have been processed). Essential for
+ * dependency resolution and tree destruction algorithms.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const root = Graph.addNode(mutable, "root")
+ *   const child1 = Graph.addNode(mutable, "child1")
+ *   const child2 = Graph.addNode(mutable, "child2")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, root, child1, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, root, child2, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Postorder: children before parents
+ * const postOrder = Graph.dfsPostOrder(graph, { start: [0] })
+ * for (const node of postOrder) {
+ *   console.log(node) // 1, 2, 0
+ * }
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const dfsPostOrder = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: SearchConfig = {}
+): NodeWalker<N> => {
+  const start = config.start ?? []
+  const direction = config.direction ?? "outgoing"
+
+  // Validate that all start nodes exist
+  for (const nodeIndex of start) {
+    if (!hasNode(graph, nodeIndex)) {
+      throw missingNode(nodeIndex)
+    }
+  }
+
+  return new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]: () => {
+      const stack: Array<{ node: NodeIndex; visitedChildren: boolean }> = []
+      const discovered = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+      const finished = new Set<NodeIndex>()
+
+      // Initialize stack with start nodes
+      for (let i = start.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        stack.push({ node: start[i], visitedChildren: false })
+      }
+
+      const nextMapped = () => {
+        while (stack.length > 0) {
+          const current = stack[stack.length - 1]
+
+          if (!discovered.has(current.node)) {
+            discovered.add(current.node)
+            current.visitedChildren = false
+          }
+
+          if (!current.visitedChildren) {
+            current.visitedChildren = true
+            const neighbors = neighborsDirected(graph, current.node, direction)
+
+            for (let i = neighbors.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+              const neighbor = neighbors[i]
+              if (!discovered.has(neighbor) && !finished.has(neighbor)) {
+                stack.push({ node: neighbor, visitedChildren: false })
+              }
+            }
+          } else {
+            const nodeToEmit = stack.pop()!.node
+
+            if (!finished.has(nodeToEmit)) {
+              finished.add(nodeToEmit)
+
+              const nodeData = getNode(graph, nodeToEmit)
+              if (Option.isSome(nodeData)) {
+                return { done: false, value: f(nodeToEmit, nodeData.value) }
+              }
+              return nextMapped()
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        return { done: true, value: undefined } as const
+      }
+
+      return { next: nextMapped }
+    }
+  }))
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates an iterator over all node indices in the graph.
+ *
+ * The iterator produces node indices in the order they were added to the graph.
+ * This provides access to all nodes regardless of connectivity.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const indices = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.nodes(graph)))
+ * console.log(indices) // [0, 1, 2]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const nodes = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): NodeWalker<N> =>
+  new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]() {
+      const nodeMap = graph.nodes
+      const iterator = nodeMap.entries()
+
+      return {
+        next() {
+          const result = iterator.next()
+          if (result.done) {
+            return { done: true, value: undefined }
+          }
+          const [nodeIndex, nodeData] = result.value
+          return { done: false, value: f(nodeIndex, nodeData) }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }))
+
+/**
+ * Creates an iterator over all edge indices in the graph.
+ *
+ * The iterator produces edge indices in the order they were added to the graph.
+ * This provides access to all edges regardless of connectivity.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const a = Graph.addNode(mutable, "A")
+ *   const b = Graph.addNode(mutable, "B")
+ *   const c = Graph.addNode(mutable, "C")
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, a, b, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, b, c, 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * const indices = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.edges(graph)))
+ * console.log(indices) // [0, 1]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const edges = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>
+): EdgeWalker<E> =>
+  new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]() {
+      const edgeMap = graph.edges
+      const iterator = edgeMap.entries()
+
+      return {
+        next() {
+          const result = iterator.next()
+          if (result.done) {
+            return { done: true, value: undefined }
+          }
+          const [edgeIndex, edgeData] = result.value
+          return { done: false, value: f(edgeIndex, edgeData) }
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }))
+
+/**
+ * Configuration for externals iterator.
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category models
+ */
+export interface ExternalsConfig {
+  readonly direction?: Direction
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates an iterator over external nodes (nodes without edges in specified direction).
+ *
+ * External nodes are nodes that have no outgoing edges (direction="outgoing") or
+ * no incoming edges (direction="incoming"). These are useful for finding
+ * sources, sinks, or isolated nodes.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * import { Graph } from "effect"
+ *
+ * const graph = Graph.directed<string, number>((mutable) => {
+ *   const source = Graph.addNode(mutable, "source")     // 0 - no incoming
+ *   const middle = Graph.addNode(mutable, "middle")     // 1 - has both
+ *   const sink = Graph.addNode(mutable, "sink")         // 2 - no outgoing
+ *   const isolated = Graph.addNode(mutable, "isolated") // 3 - no edges
+ *
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, source, middle, 1)
+ *   Graph.addEdge(mutable, middle, sink, 2)
+ * })
+ *
+ * // Nodes with no outgoing edges (sinks + isolated)
+ * const sinks = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.externals(graph, { direction: "outgoing" })))
+ * console.log(sinks) // [2, 3]
+ *
+ * // Nodes with no incoming edges (sources + isolated)
+ * const sources = Array.from(Graph.indices(Graph.externals(graph, { direction: "incoming" })))
+ * console.log(sources) // [0, 3]
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @since 3.18.0
+ * @category iterators
+ */
+export const externals = <N, E, T extends Kind = "directed">(
+  graph: Graph<N, E, T> | MutableGraph<N, E, T>,
+  config: ExternalsConfig = {}
+): NodeWalker<N> => {
+  const direction = config.direction ?? "outgoing"
+
+  return new Walker((f) => ({
+    [Symbol.iterator]: () => {
+      const nodeMap = graph.nodes
+      const adjacencyMap = direction === "incoming"
+        ? graph.reverseAdjacency
+        : graph.adjacency
+
+      const nodeIterator = nodeMap.entries()
+
+      const nextMapped = () => {
+        let current = nodeIterator.next()
+        while (!current.done) {
+          const [nodeIndex, nodeData] = current.value
+          const adjacencyList = adjacencyMap.get(nodeIndex)
+
+          // Node is external if it has no edges in the specified direction
+          if (adjacencyList === undefined || adjacencyList.length === 0) {
+            return { done: false, value: f(nodeIndex, nodeData) }
+          }
+          current = nodeIterator.next()
+        }
+
+        return { done: true, value: undefined } as const
+      }
+
+      return { next: nextMapped }
+    }
+  }))
+}