@classytic/stage 0.2.0 → 0.4.0

package/dist/thermo/expansion.mjs

@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+//#region src/thermo/expansion.ts
+/**
+* Thermal expansion: how much bigger things get when they are warmed, and what
+* happens when they are not allowed to.
+*
+* THE MODEL. To first order every dimension grows in proportion to its own
+* length and to the temperature rise:
+*
+*   length   ΔL = L₀·α·Δθ
+*   area     ΔA = A₀·β·Δθ      with β ≈ 2α
+*   volume   ΔV = V₀·γ·Δθ      with γ ≈ 3α
+*
+* WHY β = 2α AND γ = 3α ARE NOT SEPARATE MEASUREMENTS. A square of side L has
+* area L², and (1+αΔθ)² = 1 + 2αΔθ + (αΔθ)², so the area coefficient is twice
+* the linear one plus a term in α² that is about 10⁻⁸ for a metal over a 100 K
+* rise. The functions below use the EXACT powers rather than the doubled and
+* tripled approximations, and `areaCoefficient` / `volumeCoefficient` return
+* the textbook 2α and 3α, so a lab can show the two agreeing and then show
+* where they part company.
+*
+* THE THING STUDENTS GET WRONG. A hole in a plate gets BIGGER, not smaller.
+* Every function here takes a dimension and scales it, with no notion of
+* "solid" or "hole", precisely because the material does not have one: the
+* plate expands as if the hole were filled with more plate.
+*
+* UNITS: SI. Lengths in m, areas in m², volumes in m³, coefficients per kelvin,
+* temperature changes in K (identical to changes in °C).
+*/
+const finite = (value, what) => {
+	if (!Number.isFinite(value)) throw new RangeError(`${what} must be a finite number.`);
+	return value;
+};
+const positive = (value, what) => {
+	if (!Number.isFinite(value) || value <= 0) throw new RangeError(`${what} must be positive.`);
+	return value;
+};
+/**
+* Linear expansivity α, per kelvin, for materials that appear in the standard
+* questions.
+*
+* Invar is in the table because it is the control: an alloy chosen to have
+* almost no expansion, which is what makes the others' numbers mean something.
+* The glass pair matters for the same reason, since the whole point of Pyrex is
+* that a third of the expansion is a third of the thermal shock.
+*/
+const LINEAR_EXPANSIVITY = {
+	aluminium: 23e-6,
+	brass: 19e-6,
+	copper: 17e-6,
+	steel: 12e-6,
+	iron: 12e-6,
+	concrete: 12e-6,
+	glass: 85e-7,
+	pyrex: 32e-7,
+	invar: 12e-7,
+	quartz: 55e-8
+};
+/** Length after a temperature change: L = L₀(1 + αΔθ). */
+function expandedLengthM(length0, alpha, deltaT) {
+	return positive(length0, "A length") * (1 + finite(alpha, "The expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change"));
+}
+/** The change in length itself, m: ΔL = L₀·α·Δθ. */
+function lengthChangeM(length0, alpha, deltaT) {
+	return positive(length0, "A length") * finite(alpha, "The expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change");
+}
+/**
+* Area after a temperature change, using the exact square rather than 2α.
+*
+* A = A₀(1 + αΔθ)², which is where β = 2α comes from and where it stops being
+* quite right.
+*/
+function expandedAreaM2(area0, alpha, deltaT) {
+	return positive(area0, "An area") * (1 + finite(alpha, "The expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change")) ** 2;
+}
+/** Volume after a temperature change, using the exact cube rather than 3α. */
+function expandedVolumeM3(volume0, alpha, deltaT) {
+	return positive(volume0, "A volume") * (1 + finite(alpha, "The expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change")) ** 3;
+}
+/** The area expansivity β = 2α, as the textbook approximation. */
+const areaCoefficient = (alpha) => 2 * finite(alpha, "The expansivity");
+/** The volume expansivity γ = 3α, as the textbook approximation. */
+const volumeCoefficient = (alpha) => 3 * finite(alpha, "The expansivity");
+/**
+* Density after a temperature change, kg/m³: ρ = ρ₀/(1 + γΔθ).
+*
+* The mass does not change and the volume does, so the density falls. This is
+* the engine behind convection: warmed fluid is less dense, so it rises, and
+* the buoyancy that drives every convection current is this division.
+*/
+function densityAfterExpansionKgM3(density0, volumeExpansivity, deltaT) {
+	const factor = 1 + finite(volumeExpansivity, "The volume expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change");
+	if (factor <= 0) throw new RangeError("That temperature change would shrink the material to nothing or less.");
+	return positive(density0, "A density") / factor;
+}
+/**
+* The real expansivity of a liquid from the apparent one:
+*
+*   γ_real = γ_apparent + γ_container
+*
+* Measuring a liquid's expansion means watching it rise in a vessel that is
+* also expanding, so what you see is the DIFFERENCE. Forgetting the container's
+* share is the standard error in this experiment, and it is systematic rather
+* than random, so no amount of repetition finds it.
+*/
+function realExpansivity(apparent, containerVolumeExpansivity) {
+	return finite(apparent, "The apparent expansivity") + finite(containerVolumeExpansivity, "The container expansivity");
+}
+/**
+* Thermal stress in a bar held rigidly while its temperature changes, Pa:
+*
+*   σ = E·α·Δθ
+*
+* Note what is NOT in it: the length. A rail a kilometre long and a bolt a
+* centimetre long, both clamped, reach the same stress for the same temperature
+* rise, because the strain that would have been αΔθ is the same fraction
+* either way. That is why expansion gaps are about the same size whatever the
+* span, and why a long bridge needs more of them rather than bigger ones.
+*/
+function thermalStressPa(youngsModulus, alpha, deltaT) {
+	return positive(youngsModulus, "Young's modulus") * finite(alpha, "The expansivity") * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change");
+}
+/**
+* A bimetallic strip's bend, for two bonded strips of EQUAL thickness and
+* equal Young's modulus:
+*
+*   1/ρ = 3·(α₂ − α₁)·Δθ / (2·t)
+*
+* with t the TOTAL thickness of the pair. The strip bends because the two
+* metals want different lengths and are not allowed to have them, so it curves
+* with the faster-expanding metal on the OUTSIDE of the curve.
+*
+* The sign follows through: a negative Δθ bends it the other way, which is what
+* makes the strip a switch rather than merely a warning light.
+*
+* SCOPE: the equal-thickness, equal-modulus case of Timoshenko's result, which
+* is how these strips are actually made and what every textbook quotes. A pair
+* with different moduli bends less than this predicts.
+*/
+function bimetallicBend(totalThicknessM, alphaHigh, alphaLow, deltaT, lengthM) {
+	const t = positive(totalThicknessM, "The strip thickness");
+	const L = positive(lengthM, "The strip length");
+	const curvature = 3 * (finite(alphaHigh, "The higher expansivity") - finite(alphaLow, "The lower expansivity")) * finite(deltaT, "A temperature change") / (2 * t);
+	if (curvature === 0) return {
+		radiusM: Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY,
+		angleRad: 0,
+		deflectionM: 0
+	};
+	const radiusM = 1 / curvature;
+	const angleRad = L * curvature;
+	return {
+		radiusM,
+		angleRad,
+		deflectionM: radiusM * (1 - Math.cos(angleRad))
+	};
+}
+/**
+* The density of liquid water, kg/m³, between 0 °C and 100 °C.
+*
+* Water is the exception this whole file otherwise assumes away: its density
+* PEAKS near 4 °C, so between 0 and 4 it contracts on warming and its expansion
+* coefficient is negative. That anomaly is why ice floats, why a lake freezes
+* from the top down, and why fish survive winter, so it is worth having as real
+* data rather than as a note saying water is unusual.
+*
+* Uses the Thiesen-Scheel-Diesselhorst form, which fits measurement to about
+* one part in 10⁵ across the range. A polynomial, not a physical model: it
+* knows the shape of the curve and nothing about why.
+*/
+function waterDensityKgM3(celsius) {
+	const t = finite(celsius, "A temperature");
+	if (t < 0 || t > 100) throw new RangeError(`This fit covers liquid water from 0 to 100 °C, and ${t} °C is outside it.`);
+	return 999.97495 * (1 - (t + 288.9414) * (t - 3.9863) ** 2 / (508929.2 * (t + 68.12963)));
+}
+/** The temperature at which water is densest, °C: the anomaly's turning point. */
+const WATER_DENSITY_PEAK_C = 3.9863;
+
+//#endregion
+export { LINEAR_EXPANSIVITY, WATER_DENSITY_PEAK_C, areaCoefficient, bimetallicBend, densityAfterExpansionKgM3, expandedAreaM2, expandedLengthM, expandedVolumeM3, lengthChangeM, realExpansivity, thermalStressPa, volumeCoefficient, waterDensityKgM3 };

package/dist/thermo/gas.d.mts

@@ -0,0 +1,197 @@
+//#region src/thermo/gas.d.ts
+/**
+ * The ideal gas and the kinetic theory behind it.
+ *
+ * THE MODEL, in one line each:
+ *
+ *   equation of state     pV = nRT = Nk_BT
+ *   kinetic theory        pV = ⅓·N·m·⟨c²⟩
+ *
+ * Setting those equal is the derivation the syllabus asks for, and it gives the
+ * whole of this file: ½m⟨c²⟩ = (3/2)k_BT says temperature IS mean translational
+ * kinetic energy, and everything about molecular speeds follows from it.
+ *
+ * WHY BOTH FORMS ARE HERE. `pV = nRT` is per MOLE and `pV = Nk_BT` is per
+ * MOLECULE, and mixing them up by a factor of N_A is the single most common
+ * arithmetic failure in this topic. Each function below states which it uses in
+ * its parameter names: `moles`/`molarMassKgPerMol` for the first,
+ * `molecules`/`particleMassKg` for the second.
+ *
+ * UNITS: strict SI. Pressure in pascals, volume in m³, temperature in KELVIN
+ * (never Celsius: these are ratios and proportionalities, so an offset scale
+ * gives nonsense rather than an error), molar mass in kg/mol (so oxygen is
+ * 0.032, not 32), speeds in m/s, energy in joules.
+ *
+ * SCOPE. The ideal gas, plus van der Waals as the first correction. No
+ * quantised internal modes, so the molar heat capacities here are the classical
+ * equipartition values and do not fall off at low temperature.
+ */
+/** Molar gas constant, J/(mol·K). The one value, re-exported under its physics name. */
+declare const R: number;
+/** Boltzmann constant, J/K: the gas constant per molecule rather than per mole. */
+declare const k_B = 1.380649e-23;
+/** Avogadro constant, per mole. */
+declare const N_A = 6.02214076e+23;
+interface GasStateSpec {
+  /** Pressure, Pa. */
+  pressurePa?: number;
+  /** Volume, m³. */
+  volumeM3?: number;
+  /** Amount, mol. */
+  moles?: number;
+  /** Temperature, K. */
+  temperatureK?: number;
+}
+interface SolvedGasState {
+  pressurePa: number;
+  volumeM3: number;
+  moles: number;
+  temperatureK: number;
+}
+/**
+ * Solve pV = nRT for whichever single variable is missing.
+ *
+ * One function rather than four, because the equation is one equation: a lab
+ * that lets a student pick which quantity to find should not need a switch
+ * statement, and a question that changes which variable is unknown should not
+ * need a different call.
+ *
+ * Throws unless exactly one of the four is absent, since zero missing is a
+ * consistency check rather than a solve, and two missing has no unique answer.
+ */
+declare function solveIdealGas(spec: GasStateSpec): SolvedGasState;
+/**
+ * The combined gas law across a change of conditions: p₁V₁/T₁ = p₂V₂/T₂.
+ *
+ * Give the full initial state and the two known coordinates of the final one;
+ * the third comes back. This is the same physics as `solveIdealGas` with the
+ * amount held fixed, and it exists separately because the amount is what
+ * cancels: a question about a sealed container never mentions n, and forcing a
+ * caller to invent one would be asking them to supply a number the answer does
+ * not depend on.
+ */
+declare function combinedGasLaw(from: {
+  pressurePa: number;
+  volumeM3: number;
+  temperatureK: number;
+}, to: {
+  pressurePa?: number;
+  volumeM3?: number;
+  temperatureK?: number;
+}): {
+  pressurePa: number;
+  volumeM3: number;
+  temperatureK: number;
+};
+/**
+ * Pressure from the kinetic theory: p = N·m·⟨c²⟩ / 3V.
+ *
+ * The factor of three is the only interesting thing in it: molecules move in
+ * three dimensions and only the component along one axis pushes on that axis's
+ * wall, so ⟨c_x²⟩ = ⟨c²⟩/3.
+ */
+declare function kineticPressurePa(molecules: number, particleMassKg: number, meanSquareSpeed: number, volumeM3: number): number;
+/** Mean square speed ⟨c²⟩ = 3RT/M, m²/s². */
+declare function meanSquareSpeed(temperatureK: number, molarMassKgPerMol: number): number;
+/**
+ * Root mean square speed, √(3RT/M), m/s.
+ *
+ * The speed that appears in the pressure, and the largest of the three
+ * averages below. It is larger than the plain mean because squaring weights the
+ * fast molecules more heavily, and that difference is not a rounding detail:
+ * evaporation and escape from the atmosphere both depend on the tail.
+ */
+declare function rmsSpeedMs(temperatureK: number, molarMassKgPerMol: number): number;
+/** Mean (arithmetic average) speed, √(8RT/πM), m/s. */
+declare function meanSpeedMs(temperatureK: number, molarMassKgPerMol: number): number;
+/** Most probable speed, √(2RT/M), m/s: the peak of the distribution. */
+declare function mostProbableSpeedMs(temperatureK: number, molarMassKgPerMol: number): number;
+/**
+ * The root mean square of a list of individual speeds.
+ *
+ * For the question that hands you five molecules and asks for the rms rather
+ * than a temperature. Kept beside the theoretical version so the two can be
+ * compared, which is the point of asking.
+ */
+declare function rmsOf(speeds: readonly number[]): number;
+/** Mean translational kinetic energy per molecule, (3/2)k_BT, J. */
+declare function meanTranslationalEnergyJ(temperatureK: number): number;
+/**
+ * The Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution, as a probability density in s/m:
+ *
+ *   f(v) = 4π (M/2πRT)^{3/2} · v² · exp(−Mv²/2RT)
+ *
+ * Note it is a DENSITY, so f(v) alone is not a probability and only ∫f dv
+ * between two speeds is. The v² in front is why the curve starts at zero rather
+ * than at its maximum: there are very few ways to be slow in three dimensions,
+ * however favourable the exponential.
+ */
+declare function maxwellBoltzmannPdf(speedMs: number, temperatureK: number, molarMassKgPerMol: number): number;
+/**
+ * Mean free path, m: λ = 1 / (√2 · π · d² · n).
+ *
+ * `numberDensity` is molecules per m³, `diameterM` the molecular diameter. The
+ * √2 is the correction for the other molecules moving too, which is the part
+ * that is usually dropped in a first derivation and then quietly restored.
+ */
+declare function meanFreePathM(diameterM: number, numberDensity: number): number;
+interface MolarHeatCapacities {
+  /** At constant volume, J/(mol·K). */
+  cv: number;
+  /** At constant pressure, J/(mol·K). */
+  cp: number;
+  /** The ratio Cp/Cv. */
+  gamma: number;
+  /** Degrees of freedom implied by that ratio. */
+  degreesOfFreedom: number;
+}
+/**
+ * The molar heat capacities implied by a ratio γ, through Mayer's relation.
+ *
+ *   Cp − Cv = R        and        γ = Cp/Cv      ⟹   Cv = R/(γ−1),  Cp = γR/(γ−1)
+ *
+ * Mayer's relation is not an extra assumption: heating at constant pressure has
+ * to pay for the expansion work as well as the internal energy, and for an
+ * ideal gas that work is exactly R per mole per kelvin. So the two capacities
+ * differ by R and by nothing else, and the ratio alone fixes both.
+ */
+declare function molarHeatCapacities(gamma: number): MolarHeatCapacities;
+/**
+ * γ from the number of active degrees of freedom: γ = 1 + 2/f.
+ *
+ * Equipartition gives each degree of freedom ½k_BT, so f fixes Cv and therefore
+ * γ. Monatomic f = 3 (translation only) → 5/3; diatomic f = 5 (plus two
+ * rotations) → 7/5; a non-linear triatomic f = 6 → 4/3.
+ */
+declare function gammaFromDegreesOfFreedom(f: number): number;
+/** γ = 5/3, a monatomic gas: three translational degrees of freedom and no more. */
+declare const gammaMonatomic: number;
+/** γ = 7/5, a diatomic gas: translation plus two rotations. */
+declare const gammaDiatomic: number;
+/** γ = 4/3, a non-linear polyatomic gas: translation plus three rotations. */
+declare const gammaPolyatomic: number;
+/**
+ * Internal energy of an ideal gas, J: U = n·Cv·T.
+ *
+ * Depends on temperature ALONE, with no volume term, and that is the defining
+ * property of an ideal gas rather than an approximation to one. There are no
+ * intermolecular forces, so pulling the molecules further apart costs nothing
+ * and the internal energy does not notice the volume changed.
+ */
+declare function internalEnergyJ(moles: number, temperatureK: number, gamma?: number): number;
+/**
+ * Van der Waals pressure, Pa:
+ *
+ *   p = nRT/(V − nb)  −  a·n²/V²
+ *
+ * The two corrections say the two things an ideal gas denies. `b` is the volume
+ * the molecules themselves occupy, so the space available to move in is less
+ * than V; `a` is the attraction between them, so a molecule about to strike the
+ * wall is pulled back by the ones behind it and the pressure is less than it
+ * would otherwise be.
+ *
+ * Units: `a` in Pa·m⁶/mol², `b` in m³/mol.
+ */
+declare function vanDerWaalsPressurePa(moles: number, volumeM3: number, temperatureK: number, a: number, b: number): number;
+//#endregion
+export { GasStateSpec, MolarHeatCapacities, N_A, R, SolvedGasState, combinedGasLaw, gammaDiatomic, gammaFromDegreesOfFreedom, gammaMonatomic, gammaPolyatomic, internalEnergyJ, k_B, kineticPressurePa, maxwellBoltzmannPdf, meanFreePathM, meanSpeedMs, meanSquareSpeed, meanTranslationalEnergyJ, molarHeatCapacities, mostProbableSpeedMs, rmsOf, rmsSpeedMs, solveIdealGas, vanDerWaalsPressurePa };

package/dist/thermo/gas.mjs

@@ -0,0 +1,279 @@
+import { AVOGADRO, BOLTZMANN, GAS_CONSTANT } from "../core/constants.mjs";
+
+//#region src/thermo/gas.ts
+/**
+* The ideal gas and the kinetic theory behind it.
+*
+* THE MODEL, in one line each:
+*
+*   equation of state     pV = nRT = Nk_BT
+*   kinetic theory        pV = ⅓·N·m·⟨c²⟩
+*
+* Setting those equal is the derivation the syllabus asks for, and it gives the
+* whole of this file: ½m⟨c²⟩ = (3/2)k_BT says temperature IS mean translational
+* kinetic energy, and everything about molecular speeds follows from it.
+*
+* WHY BOTH FORMS ARE HERE. `pV = nRT` is per MOLE and `pV = Nk_BT` is per
+* MOLECULE, and mixing them up by a factor of N_A is the single most common
+* arithmetic failure in this topic. Each function below states which it uses in
+* its parameter names: `moles`/`molarMassKgPerMol` for the first,
+* `molecules`/`particleMassKg` for the second.
+*
+* UNITS: strict SI. Pressure in pascals, volume in m³, temperature in KELVIN
+* (never Celsius: these are ratios and proportionalities, so an offset scale
+* gives nonsense rather than an error), molar mass in kg/mol (so oxygen is
+* 0.032, not 32), speeds in m/s, energy in joules.
+*
+* SCOPE. The ideal gas, plus van der Waals as the first correction. No
+* quantised internal modes, so the molar heat capacities here are the classical
+* equipartition values and do not fall off at low temperature.
+*/
+/** Molar gas constant, J/(mol·K). The one value, re-exported under its physics name. */
+const R = GAS_CONSTANT;
+/** Boltzmann constant, J/K: the gas constant per molecule rather than per mole. */
+const k_B = BOLTZMANN;
+/** Avogadro constant, per mole. */
+const N_A = AVOGADRO;
+const finite = (value, what) => {
+	if (!Number.isFinite(value)) throw new RangeError(`${what} must be a finite number.`);
+	return value;
+};
+const positive = (value, what) => {
+	if (!Number.isFinite(value) || value <= 0) throw new RangeError(`${what} must be positive.`);
+	return value;
+};
+/**
+* Guard for a thermodynamic temperature.
+*
+* Separate from `positive` so the message can say the useful thing. A caller
+* who passes 25 meaning room temperature gets a plausible wrong answer, but a
+* caller who passes −10 meaning a cold day gets told what the problem is.
+*/
+const kelvin = (value) => {
+	if (!Number.isFinite(value) || value <= 0) throw new RangeError(`Temperature must be a positive number of kelvin (got ${value}). Celsius readings need converting first.`);
+	return value;
+};
+/**
+* Solve pV = nRT for whichever single variable is missing.
+*
+* One function rather than four, because the equation is one equation: a lab
+* that lets a student pick which quantity to find should not need a switch
+* statement, and a question that changes which variable is unknown should not
+* need a different call.
+*
+* Throws unless exactly one of the four is absent, since zero missing is a
+* consistency check rather than a solve, and two missing has no unique answer.
+*/
+function solveIdealGas(spec) {
+	const { pressurePa: p, volumeM3: V, moles: n, temperatureK: T } = spec;
+	const given = [
+		p,
+		V,
+		n,
+		T
+	].filter((x) => x !== void 0);
+	if (given.length !== 3) throw new RangeError(`pV = nRT determines one unknown from three knowns, but ${given.length} of the four were given.`);
+	if (p === void 0) return {
+		pressurePa: positive(n, "Amount") * R * kelvin(T) / positive(V, "Volume"),
+		volumeM3: V,
+		moles: n,
+		temperatureK: T
+	};
+	if (V === void 0) return {
+		pressurePa: p,
+		volumeM3: positive(n, "Amount") * R * kelvin(T) / positive(p, "Pressure"),
+		moles: n,
+		temperatureK: T
+	};
+	if (n === void 0) return {
+		pressurePa: p,
+		volumeM3: V,
+		moles: positive(p, "Pressure") * positive(V, "Volume") / (R * kelvin(T)),
+		temperatureK: T
+	};
+	return {
+		pressurePa: p,
+		volumeM3: V,
+		moles: n,
+		temperatureK: positive(p, "Pressure") * positive(V, "Volume") / (positive(n, "Amount") * R)
+	};
+}
+/**
+* The combined gas law across a change of conditions: p₁V₁/T₁ = p₂V₂/T₂.
+*
+* Give the full initial state and the two known coordinates of the final one;
+* the third comes back. This is the same physics as `solveIdealGas` with the
+* amount held fixed, and it exists separately because the amount is what
+* cancels: a question about a sealed container never mentions n, and forcing a
+* caller to invent one would be asking them to supply a number the answer does
+* not depend on.
+*/
+function combinedGasLaw(from, to) {
+	const ratio = positive(from.pressurePa, "Initial pressure") * positive(from.volumeM3, "Initial volume") / kelvin(from.temperatureK);
+	const given = [
+		to.pressurePa,
+		to.volumeM3,
+		to.temperatureK
+	].filter((x) => x !== void 0);
+	if (given.length !== 2) throw new RangeError(`The final state needs exactly two of its three coordinates, but ${given.length} were given.`);
+	if (to.pressurePa === void 0) return {
+		pressurePa: ratio * kelvin(to.temperatureK) / positive(to.volumeM3, "Final volume"),
+		volumeM3: to.volumeM3,
+		temperatureK: to.temperatureK
+	};
+	if (to.volumeM3 === void 0) return {
+		pressurePa: to.pressurePa,
+		volumeM3: ratio * kelvin(to.temperatureK) / positive(to.pressurePa, "Final pressure"),
+		temperatureK: to.temperatureK
+	};
+	return {
+		pressurePa: to.pressurePa,
+		volumeM3: to.volumeM3,
+		temperatureK: positive(to.pressurePa, "Final pressure") * positive(to.volumeM3, "Final volume") / ratio
+	};
+}
+/**
+* Pressure from the kinetic theory: p = N·m·⟨c²⟩ / 3V.
+*
+* The factor of three is the only interesting thing in it: molecules move in
+* three dimensions and only the component along one axis pushes on that axis's
+* wall, so ⟨c_x²⟩ = ⟨c²⟩/3.
+*/
+function kineticPressurePa(molecules, particleMassKg, meanSquareSpeed, volumeM3) {
+	return positive(molecules, "The number of molecules") * positive(particleMassKg, "Particle mass") * positive(meanSquareSpeed, "Mean square speed") / (3 * positive(volumeM3, "Volume"));
+}
+/** Mean square speed ⟨c²⟩ = 3RT/M, m²/s². */
+function meanSquareSpeed(temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol) {
+	return 3 * R * kelvin(temperatureK) / positive(molarMassKgPerMol, "Molar mass");
+}
+/**
+* Root mean square speed, √(3RT/M), m/s.
+*
+* The speed that appears in the pressure, and the largest of the three
+* averages below. It is larger than the plain mean because squaring weights the
+* fast molecules more heavily, and that difference is not a rounding detail:
+* evaporation and escape from the atmosphere both depend on the tail.
+*/
+function rmsSpeedMs(temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol) {
+	return Math.sqrt(meanSquareSpeed(temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol));
+}
+/** Mean (arithmetic average) speed, √(8RT/πM), m/s. */
+function meanSpeedMs(temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol) {
+	return Math.sqrt(8 * R * kelvin(temperatureK) / (Math.PI * positive(molarMassKgPerMol, "Molar mass")));
+}
+/** Most probable speed, √(2RT/M), m/s: the peak of the distribution. */
+function mostProbableSpeedMs(temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol) {
+	return Math.sqrt(2 * R * kelvin(temperatureK) / positive(molarMassKgPerMol, "Molar mass"));
+}
+/**
+* The root mean square of a list of individual speeds.
+*
+* For the question that hands you five molecules and asks for the rms rather
+* than a temperature. Kept beside the theoretical version so the two can be
+* compared, which is the point of asking.
+*/
+function rmsOf(speeds) {
+	if (speeds.length === 0) throw new RangeError("No speeds to average.");
+	return Math.sqrt(speeds.reduce((sum, v) => sum + finite(v, "A speed") ** 2, 0) / speeds.length);
+}
+/** Mean translational kinetic energy per molecule, (3/2)k_BT, J. */
+function meanTranslationalEnergyJ(temperatureK) {
+	return 1.5 * k_B * kelvin(temperatureK);
+}
+/**
+* The Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution, as a probability density in s/m:
+*
+*   f(v) = 4π (M/2πRT)^{3/2} · v² · exp(−Mv²/2RT)
+*
+* Note it is a DENSITY, so f(v) alone is not a probability and only ∫f dv
+* between two speeds is. The v² in front is why the curve starts at zero rather
+* than at its maximum: there are very few ways to be slow in three dimensions,
+* however favourable the exponential.
+*/
+function maxwellBoltzmannPdf(speedMs, temperatureK, molarMassKgPerMol) {
+	const v = finite(speedMs, "Speed");
+	if (v < 0) throw new RangeError("A speed cannot be negative.");
+	const M = positive(molarMassKgPerMol, "Molar mass");
+	const T = kelvin(temperatureK);
+	const a = M / (2 * Math.PI * R * T);
+	return 4 * Math.PI * a ** 1.5 * v * v * Math.exp(-M * v * v / (2 * R * T));
+}
+/**
+* Mean free path, m: λ = 1 / (√2 · π · d² · n).
+*
+* `numberDensity` is molecules per m³, `diameterM` the molecular diameter. The
+* √2 is the correction for the other molecules moving too, which is the part
+* that is usually dropped in a first derivation and then quietly restored.
+*/
+function meanFreePathM(diameterM, numberDensity) {
+	return 1 / (Math.SQRT2 * Math.PI * positive(diameterM, "Molecular diameter") ** 2 * positive(numberDensity, "Number density"));
+}
+/**
+* The molar heat capacities implied by a ratio γ, through Mayer's relation.
+*
+*   Cp − Cv = R        and        γ = Cp/Cv      ⟹   Cv = R/(γ−1),  Cp = γR/(γ−1)
+*
+* Mayer's relation is not an extra assumption: heating at constant pressure has
+* to pay for the expansion work as well as the internal energy, and for an
+* ideal gas that work is exactly R per mole per kelvin. So the two capacities
+* differ by R and by nothing else, and the ratio alone fixes both.
+*/
+function molarHeatCapacities(gamma) {
+	if (!(gamma > 1)) throw new RangeError(`γ must exceed 1 (got ${gamma}). Cp always exceeds Cv, because heating at constant pressure also pays for the expansion.`);
+	return {
+		cv: R / (gamma - 1),
+		cp: gamma * R / (gamma - 1),
+		gamma,
+		degreesOfFreedom: 2 / (gamma - 1)
+	};
+}
+/**
+* γ from the number of active degrees of freedom: γ = 1 + 2/f.
+*
+* Equipartition gives each degree of freedom ½k_BT, so f fixes Cv and therefore
+* γ. Monatomic f = 3 (translation only) → 5/3; diatomic f = 5 (plus two
+* rotations) → 7/5; a non-linear triatomic f = 6 → 4/3.
+*/
+function gammaFromDegreesOfFreedom(f) {
+	return 1 + 2 / positive(f, "The number of degrees of freedom");
+}
+/** γ = 5/3, a monatomic gas: three translational degrees of freedom and no more. */
+const gammaMonatomic = 5 / 3;
+/** γ = 7/5, a diatomic gas: translation plus two rotations. */
+const gammaDiatomic = 7 / 5;
+/** γ = 4/3, a non-linear polyatomic gas: translation plus three rotations. */
+const gammaPolyatomic = 4 / 3;
+/**
+* Internal energy of an ideal gas, J: U = n·Cv·T.
+*
+* Depends on temperature ALONE, with no volume term, and that is the defining
+* property of an ideal gas rather than an approximation to one. There are no
+* intermolecular forces, so pulling the molecules further apart costs nothing
+* and the internal energy does not notice the volume changed.
+*/
+function internalEnergyJ(moles, temperatureK, gamma = gammaMonatomic) {
+	return positive(moles, "Amount") * molarHeatCapacities(gamma).cv * kelvin(temperatureK);
+}
+/**
+* Van der Waals pressure, Pa:
+*
+*   p = nRT/(V − nb)  −  a·n²/V²
+*
+* The two corrections say the two things an ideal gas denies. `b` is the volume
+* the molecules themselves occupy, so the space available to move in is less
+* than V; `a` is the attraction between them, so a molecule about to strike the
+* wall is pulled back by the ones behind it and the pressure is less than it
+* would otherwise be.
+*
+* Units: `a` in Pa·m⁶/mol², `b` in m³/mol.
+*/
+function vanDerWaalsPressurePa(moles, volumeM3, temperatureK, a, b) {
+	const n = positive(moles, "Amount");
+	const V = positive(volumeM3, "Volume");
+	const free = V - n * finite(b, "The excluded volume b");
+	if (free <= 0) throw new RangeError("The gas is compressed past the volume of its own molecules, where van der Waals no longer applies.");
+	return n * R * kelvin(temperatureK) / free - finite(a, "The attraction term a") * n * n / (V * V);
+}
+
+//#endregion
+export { N_A, R, combinedGasLaw, gammaDiatomic, gammaFromDegreesOfFreedom, gammaMonatomic, gammaPolyatomic, internalEnergyJ, k_B, kineticPressurePa, maxwellBoltzmannPdf, meanFreePathM, meanSpeedMs, meanSquareSpeed, meanTranslationalEnergyJ, molarHeatCapacities, mostProbableSpeedMs, rmsOf, rmsSpeedMs, solveIdealGas, vanDerWaalsPressurePa };