@aztec/stdlib 0.0.1-commit.c2eed6949 → 0.0.1-commit.c52d6e7

package/src/abi/decoder.ts

@@ -1,8 +1,17 @@
 import { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/curves/bn254';
+import { EthAddress } from '@aztec/foundation/eth-address';
 
 import { AztecAddress } from '../aztec-address/index.js';
-import type { ABIParameter, ABIVariable, AbiType } from './abi.js';
-import { isAztecAddressStruct, isOptionStruct, parseSignedInt } from './utils.js';
+import type { AbiType } from './abi.js';
+import { FunctionSelector } from './function_selector.js';
+import {
+  isAztecAddressStruct,
+  isEthAddressStruct,
+  isFunctionSelectorStruct,
+  isOptionStruct,
+  isWrappedFieldStruct,
+  parseSignedInt,
+} from './utils.js';
 
 /**
  * The type of our decoded ABI.
@@ -12,6 +21,9 @@ export type AbiDecoded =
   | boolean
   | string
   | AztecAddress
+  | EthAddress
+  | FunctionSelector
+  | Fr
   | AbiDecoded[]
   | { [key: string]: AbiDecoded }
   | undefined;
@@ -20,17 +32,14 @@ export type AbiDecoded =
  * Decodes values using a provided ABI.
  */
 class AbiDecoder {
-  constructor(
-    private types: AbiType[],
-    private flattened: Fr[],
-  ) {}
+  constructor(private flattened: Fr[]) {}
 
   /**
-   * Decodes a single return value from field to the given type.
-   * @param abiType - The type of the return value.
-   * @returns The decoded return value.
+   * Decodes a single value from field to the given type.
+   * @param abiType - The type of the value.
+   * @returns The decoded value.
    */
-  private decodeNext(abiType: AbiType): AbiDecoded {
+  public decodeNext(abiType: AbiType): AbiDecoded {
     switch (abiType.kind) {
       case 'field':
         return this.getNextField().toBigInt();
@@ -58,6 +67,15 @@ class AbiDecoder {
         if (isAztecAddressStruct(abiType)) {
           return new AztecAddress(this.getNextField().toBuffer());
         }
+        if (isEthAddressStruct(abiType)) {
+          return EthAddress.fromField(this.getNextField());
+        }
+        if (isFunctionSelectorStruct(abiType)) {
+          return FunctionSelector.fromField(this.getNextField());
+        }
+        if (isWrappedFieldStruct(abiType)) {
+          return this.getNextField();
+        }
         if (isOptionStruct(abiType)) {
           const isSome = this.decodeNext(abiType.fields[0].type);
           const value = this.decodeNext(abiType.fields[1].type);
@@ -100,102 +118,25 @@ class AbiDecoder {
     }
     return field;
   }
-
-  /**
-   * Decodes all the values for the given ABI.
-   * The decided value can be simple types, structs or arrays
-   * @returns The decoded return values.
-   */
-  public decode(): AbiDecoded {
-    if (this.types.length === 1) {
-      return this.decodeNext(this.types[0]);
-    }
-    return this.types.map(type => this.decodeNext(type));
-  }
 }
 
 /**
- * Decodes values in a flattened Field array using a provided ABI.
- * @param abi - The ABI to use as reference.
+ * Decodes the single value a function returns, or undefined if it returns nothing. Multiple return values are expressed
+ * as one `tuple` type, so they decode through here too.
+ * @param type - The type the function returns.
  * @param buffer - The flattened Field array to decode.
- * @returns
- */
-export function decodeFromAbi(typ: AbiType[], buffer: Fr[]) {
-  return new AbiDecoder(typ, buffer.slice()).decode();
-}
-
-/**
- * Decodes the signature of a function from the name and parameters.
- */
-export class FunctionSignatureDecoder {
-  private separator: string;
-  constructor(
-    private name: string,
-    private parameters: ABIParameter[],
-    private includeNames = false,
-  ) {
-    this.separator = includeNames ? ', ' : ',';
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Decodes a single function parameter type for the function signature.
-   * @param param - The parameter type to decode.
-   * @returns A string representing the parameter type.
-   */
-  private getParameterType(param: AbiType): string {
-    switch (param.kind) {
-      case 'field':
-        return 'Field';
-      case 'integer':
-        return param.sign === 'signed' ? `i${param.width}` : `u${param.width}`;
-      case 'boolean':
-        return 'bool';
-      case 'array':
-        return `[${this.getParameterType(param.type)};${param.length}]`;
-      case 'string':
-        return `str<${param.length}>`;
-      case 'struct':
-        return `(${param.fields.map(field => `${this.decodeParameter(field)}`).join(this.separator)})`;
-      default:
-        throw new Error(`Unsupported type: ${param.kind}`);
-    }
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Decodes a single function parameter for the function signature.
-   * @param param - The parameter to decode.
-   * @returns A string representing the parameter type and optionally its name.
-   */
-  private decodeParameter(param: ABIVariable): string {
-    const type = this.getParameterType(param.type);
-    return this.includeNames ? `${param.name}: ${type}` : type;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Decodes all the parameters and build the function signature
-   * @returns The function signature.
-   */
-  public decode(): string {
-    return `${this.name}(${this.parameters.map(param => this.decodeParameter(param)).join(this.separator)})`;
-  }
-}
-
-/**
- * Decodes a function signature from the name and parameters.
- * @param name - The name of the function.
- * @param parameters - The parameters of the function.
- * @returns - The function signature.
  */
-export function decodeFunctionSignature(name: string, parameters: ABIParameter[]) {
-  return new FunctionSignatureDecoder(name, parameters).decode();
+export function decodeFromAbi(type: AbiType | undefined, buffer: Fr[]): AbiDecoded {
+  return type === undefined ? undefined : new AbiDecoder(buffer.slice()).decodeNext(type);
 }
 
 /**
- * Decodes a function signature from the name and parameters including parameter names.
- * @param name - The name of the function.
- * @param parameters - The parameters of the function.
- * @returns - The user-friendly function signature.
+ * Decodes one value per given type, consumed from the buffer in order. Always returns one decoded value per type, so
+ * callers can index the result positionally. A function's arguments are encoded this way.
+ * @param types - The type of each value, in order.
+ * @param buffer - The flattened Field array to decode.
  */
-export function decodeFunctionSignatureWithParameterNames(name: string, parameters: ABIParameter[]) {
-  return new FunctionSignatureDecoder(name, parameters, true).decode();
+export function decodeEachFromAbi(types: AbiType[], buffer: Fr[]): AbiDecoded[] {
+  const decoder = new AbiDecoder(buffer.slice());
+  return types.map(type => decoder.decodeNext(type));
 }

package/src/abi/encoder.ts

@@ -106,13 +106,28 @@ class ArgumentEncoder {
         this.flattened.push(new Fr(arg ? 1n : 0n));
         break;
       case 'array':
+        if (!Array.isArray(arg)) {
+          throw new Error(`Expected array for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' but received ${typeof arg}`);
+        }
+        if (arg.length !== abiType.length) {
+          throw new Error(
+            `Expected array of length ${abiType.length} for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' but received length ${arg.length}`,
+          );
+        }
         for (let i = 0; i < abiType.length; i += 1) {
           this.encodeArgument(abiType.type, arg[i], `${name}[${i}]`);
         }
         break;
       case 'string':
+        if (typeof arg !== 'string') {
+          throw new Error(`Expected string for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' but received ${typeof arg}`);
+        }
+        if (arg.length > abiType.length) {
+          throw new Error(
+            `Expected string of max length ${abiType.length} for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' but received length ${arg.length}`,
+          );
+        }
         for (let i = 0; i < abiType.length; i += 1) {
-          // If the string is shorter than the defined length, pad it with 0s.
           const toInsert = i < arg.length ? BigInt((arg as string).charCodeAt(i)) : 0n;
           this.flattened.push(new Fr(toInsert));
         }
@@ -157,12 +172,28 @@ class ArgumentEncoder {
       }
       case 'integer': {
         const value = BigInt(arg);
-        if (abiType.sign === 'signed' && value < 0n) {
-          // Convert negative values to two's complement representation
-          const twosComplement = value + (1n << BigInt(abiType.width));
-          this.flattened.push(new Fr(twosComplement));
-        } else {
+        if (abiType.sign === 'unsigned') {
+          const maxValue = (1n << BigInt(abiType.width)) - 1n;
+          if (value < 0n || value > maxValue) {
+            throw new Error(
+              `Value ${value} does not fit in u${abiType.width} for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' (valid range: 0 to ${maxValue})`,
+            );
+          }
           this.flattened.push(new Fr(value));
+        } else {
+          const minValue = -(1n << BigInt(abiType.width - 1));
+          const maxValue = (1n << BigInt(abiType.width - 1)) - 1n;
+          if (value < minValue || value > maxValue) {
+            throw new Error(
+              `Value ${value} does not fit in i${abiType.width} for '${name ?? 'unnamed'}' (valid range: ${minValue} to ${maxValue})`,
+            );
+          }
+          if (value < 0n) {
+            const twosComplement = value + (1n << BigInt(abiType.width));
+            this.flattened.push(new Fr(twosComplement));
+          } else {
+            this.flattened.push(new Fr(value));
+          }
         }
         break;
       }
@@ -176,6 +207,11 @@ class ArgumentEncoder {
    * @returns The encoded arguments.
    */
   public encode() {
+    if (this.args.length !== this.abi.parameters.length) {
+      throw new Error(
+        `Function '${this.abi.name}' expects ${this.abi.parameters.length} argument(s) but received ${this.args.length}`,
+      );
+    }
     for (let i = 0; i < this.abi.parameters.length; i += 1) {
       const parameterAbi = this.abi.parameters[i];
       this.encodeArgument(parameterAbi.type, this.args[i], parameterAbi.name);

package/src/abi/event_selector.ts

@@ -7,16 +7,10 @@ import { BufferReader } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
 
 import { Selector } from './selector.js';
 
-/* eslint-disable @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-declaration-merging */
-
-/** Event selector branding */
-export interface EventSelector {
-  /** Brand. */
-  _branding: 'EventSelector';
-}
-
 /** An event selector is the first 4 bytes of the hash of an event signature. */
 export class EventSelector extends Selector {
+  /** Branding for nominal typing. */
+  declare private readonly _branding: 'EventSelector';
   /**
    * Deserializes from a buffer or reader, corresponding to a write in cpp.
    * @param buffer - Buffer  or BufferReader to read from.

package/src/abi/function_call.ts

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import { z } from 'zod';
 
 import { AztecAddress } from '../aztec-address/index.js';
 import { schemas } from '../schemas/index.js';
-import { type AbiType, AbiTypeSchema, FunctionType } from './abi.js';
+import { type AbiType, AbiTypeSchema, FunctionType, getFunctionReturnType } from './abi.js';
 import { FunctionSelector } from './function_selector.js';
 
 /** A request to call a function on a contract. */
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ export class FunctionCall {
     public isStatic: boolean,
     /** The encoded args */
     public args: Fr[],
-    /** The return type for decoding */
-    public returnTypes: AbiType[],
+    /** The type the call returns, for decoding, or undefined if it returns nothing */
+    public returnType?: AbiType,
   ) {}
 
   static getFields(fields: FieldsOf<FunctionCall>) {
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ export class FunctionCall {
       fields.hideMsgSender,
       fields.isStatic,
       fields.args,
-      fields.returnTypes,
+      fields.returnType,
     ] as const;
   }
 
@@ -56,9 +56,22 @@ export class FunctionCall {
         isStatic: z.boolean(),
         hideMsgSender: z.boolean(),
         args: z.array(schemas.Fr),
-        returnTypes: z.array(AbiTypeSchema),
+        returnType: AbiTypeSchema.optional(),
+        // Old consumers send `returnTypes`, not `returnType`. So we accept both for now, until we can safely remove
+        // the old version.
+        returnTypes: z.array(AbiTypeSchema).optional(),
       })
-      .transform(FunctionCall.from);
+      .transform(({ returnType, returnTypes, ...fields }) =>
+        FunctionCall.from({ ...fields, returnType: getFunctionReturnType({ returnType, returnTypes }) }),
+      );
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Serializes the deprecated `returnTypes` alongside `returnType`, so that peers that still require the old field can
+   * parse calls sent by this version.
+   */
+  public toJSON() {
+    return { ...this, returnTypes: this.returnType ? [this.returnType] : [] };
   }
 
   public isPublicStatic(): boolean {
@@ -78,7 +91,6 @@ export class FunctionCall {
       hideMsgSender: false,
       isStatic: false,
       args: [],
-      returnTypes: [],
     });
   }
 }

package/src/abi/function_selector.ts

@@ -3,22 +3,16 @@ import { poseidon2HashBytes } from '@aztec/foundation/crypto/poseidon';
 import { randomBytes } from '@aztec/foundation/crypto/random';
 import type { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/curves/bn254';
 import { type ZodFor, hexSchemaFor } from '@aztec/foundation/schemas';
-import { BufferReader, FieldReader, TypeRegistry } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
+import { BufferReader, FieldReader } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
 
 import type { ABIParameter } from './abi.js';
-import { decodeFunctionSignature } from './decoder.js';
+import { decodeFunctionSignature } from './function_signature_decoder.js';
 import { Selector } from './selector.js';
 
-/* eslint-disable @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-declaration-merging */
-
-/** Function selector branding */
-export interface FunctionSelector {
-  /** Brand. */
-  _branding: 'FunctionSelector';
-}
-
 /** A function selector is the first 4 bytes of the hash of a function signature. */
 export class FunctionSelector extends Selector {
+  /** Branding for nominal typing. */
+  declare private readonly _branding: 'FunctionSelector';
   /**
    * Deserializes from a buffer or reader, corresponding to a write in cpp.
    * @param buffer - Buffer  or BufferReader to read from.
@@ -127,6 +121,3 @@ export class FunctionSelector extends Selector {
     return hexSchemaFor(FunctionSelector);
   }
 }
-
-// For deserializing JSON.
-TypeRegistry.register('FunctionSelector', FunctionSelector);

package/src/abi/function_signature_decoder.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+import type { ABIParameter, ABIVariable, AbiType } from './abi.js';
+
+/**
+ * Decodes the signature of a function from the name and parameters.
+ */
+export class FunctionSignatureDecoder {
+  private separator: string;
+  constructor(
+    private name: string,
+    private parameters: ABIParameter[],
+    private includeNames = false,
+  ) {
+    this.separator = includeNames ? ', ' : ',';
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes a single function parameter type for the function signature.
+   * @param param - The parameter type to decode.
+   * @returns A string representing the parameter type.
+   */
+  private getParameterType(param: AbiType): string {
+    switch (param.kind) {
+      case 'field':
+        return 'Field';
+      case 'integer':
+        return param.sign === 'signed' ? `i${param.width}` : `u${param.width}`;
+      case 'boolean':
+        return 'bool';
+      case 'array':
+        return `[${this.getParameterType(param.type)};${param.length}]`;
+      case 'string':
+        return `str<${param.length}>`;
+      case 'struct':
+        return `(${param.fields.map(field => `${this.decodeParameter(field)}`).join(this.separator)})`;
+      default:
+        throw new Error(`Unsupported type: ${param.kind}`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes a single function parameter for the function signature.
+   * @param param - The parameter to decode.
+   * @returns A string representing the parameter type and optionally its name.
+   */
+  private decodeParameter(param: ABIVariable): string {
+    const type = this.getParameterType(param.type);
+    return this.includeNames ? `${param.name}: ${type}` : type;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes all the parameters and build the function signature
+   * @returns The function signature.
+   */
+  public decode(): string {
+    return `${this.name}(${this.parameters.map(param => this.decodeParameter(param)).join(this.separator)})`;
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decodes a function signature from the name and parameters.
+ * @param name - The name of the function.
+ * @param parameters - The parameters of the function.
+ * @returns - The function signature.
+ */
+export function decodeFunctionSignature(name: string, parameters: ABIParameter[]) {
+  return new FunctionSignatureDecoder(name, parameters).decode();
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decodes a function signature from the name and parameters including parameter names.
+ * @param name - The name of the function.
+ * @param parameters - The parameters of the function.
+ * @returns - The user-friendly function signature.
+ */
+export function decodeFunctionSignatureWithParameterNames(name: string, parameters: ABIParameter[]) {
+  return new FunctionSignatureDecoder(name, parameters, true).decode();
+}

package/src/abi/index.ts

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 export * from './abi.js';
 export * from './buffer.js';
 export * from './decoder.js';
+export * from './function_signature_decoder.js';
 export * from './encoder.js';
 export * from './authorization_selector.js';
 export * from './event_metadata_definition.js';

package/src/abi/note_selector.ts

@@ -2,23 +2,17 @@ import { toBigIntBE } from '@aztec/foundation/bigint-buffer';
 import { randomInt } from '@aztec/foundation/crypto/random';
 import { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/curves/bn254';
 import { hexSchemaFor } from '@aztec/foundation/schemas';
-import { BufferReader, TypeRegistry } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
+import { BufferReader } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
 
 import { Selector } from './selector.js';
 
-/* eslint-disable @typescript-eslint/no-unsafe-declaration-merging */
-
-/** Note selector branding */
-export interface NoteSelector {
-  /** Brand. */
-  _branding: 'NoteSelector';
-}
-
 /**
  * A note selector is a 7 bit long value that identifies a note type within a contract.
  * TODO(#10952): Encoding of note type id can be reduced to 7 bits.
  */
 export class NoteSelector extends Selector {
+  /** Branding for nominal typing. */
+  declare private readonly _branding: 'NoteSelector';
   /**
    * Deserializes from a buffer or reader, corresponding to a write in cpp.
    * @param buffer - Buffer  or BufferReader to read from.
@@ -73,6 +67,3 @@ export class NoteSelector extends Selector {
     return hexSchemaFor(NoteSelector);
   }
 }
-
-// For deserializing JSON.
-TypeRegistry.register('NoteSelector', NoteSelector);

package/src/abi/selector.ts

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import { bufferToHex } from '@aztec/foundation/string';
 
 import { inspect } from 'util';
 
-/** A selector is the first 4 bytes of the hash of a signature. */
+/** A selector is the low 4 bytes of the poseidon2 hash of a signature. */
 export abstract class Selector {
   /** The size of the selector in bytes. */
   public static SIZE = 4;

package/src/abi/utils.ts

@@ -58,11 +58,13 @@ export function isPublicKeysStruct(abiType: AbiType) {
   return (
     abiType.kind === 'struct' &&
     abiType.path === 'aztec::protocol_types::public_keys::PublicKeys' &&
-    abiType.fields.length === 4 &&
-    abiType.fields[0].name === 'npk_m' &&
+    abiType.fields.length === 6 &&
+    abiType.fields[0].name === 'npk_m_hash' &&
     abiType.fields[1].name === 'ivpk_m' &&
-    abiType.fields[2].name === 'ovpk_m' &&
-    abiType.fields[3].name === 'tpk_m'
+    abiType.fields[2].name === 'ovpk_m_hash' &&
+    abiType.fields[3].name === 'tpk_m_hash' &&
+    abiType.fields[4].name === 'mspk_m_hash' &&
+    abiType.fields[5].name === 'fbpk_m_hash'
   );
 }
 

package/src/avm/avm.ts

@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import { DEFAULT_MAX_DEBUG_LOG_MEMORY_READS } from '@aztec/constants';
 import { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/curves/bn254';
 import { jsonParseWithSchema, jsonStringify } from '@aztec/foundation/json-rpc';
 
@@ -130,6 +129,7 @@ export class AvmContractInstanceHint {
     public readonly currentContractClassId: Fr,
     public readonly originalContractClassId: Fr,
     public readonly initializationHash: Fr,
+    public readonly immutablesHash: Fr,
     public readonly publicKeys: PublicKeys,
   ) {}
 
@@ -143,6 +143,7 @@ export class AvmContractInstanceHint {
         currentContractClassId: schemas.Fr,
         originalContractClassId: schemas.Fr,
         initializationHash: schemas.Fr,
+        immutablesHash: schemas.Fr,
         publicKeys: PublicKeys.schema,
       })
       .transform(
@@ -154,6 +155,7 @@ export class AvmContractInstanceHint {
           currentContractClassId,
           originalContractClassId,
           initializationHash,
+          immutablesHash,
           publicKeys,
         }) =>
           new AvmContractInstanceHint(
@@ -164,6 +166,7 @@ export class AvmContractInstanceHint {
             currentContractClassId,
             originalContractClassId,
             initializationHash,
+            immutablesHash,
             publicKeys,
           ),
       );
@@ -188,6 +191,7 @@ export class AvmContractInstanceHint {
       Fr.fromPlainObject(obj.currentContractClassId),
       Fr.fromPlainObject(obj.originalContractClassId),
       Fr.fromPlainObject(obj.initializationHash),
+      Fr.fromPlainObject(obj.immutablesHash),
       PublicKeys.fromPlainObject(obj.publicKeys),
     );
   }
@@ -1147,7 +1151,7 @@ export class CallStackMetadata {
 
     const { stack, leaf } = failingCall;
     const aztecCallStack = stack.map(call => ({
-      contractAddress: AztecAddress.fromField(call.contractAddress),
+      contractAddress: AztecAddress.fromFieldUnsafe(call.contractAddress),
       functionSelector: call.calldata.length > 0 ? FunctionSelector.fromFieldOrUndefined(call.calldata[0]) : undefined,
     }));
 
@@ -1379,6 +1383,10 @@ export class PublicTxResult {
   }
 }
 
+// Excessive memory reads due to debug logging can open a DOS vector to nodes that perform public tx simulation for users.
+// This default limit (4MB) can be configured further by node runners via the `RPC_SIMULATE_PUBLIC_MAX_DEBUG_LOG_MEMORY_READS` environment variable.
+export const DEFAULT_MAX_DEBUG_LOG_MEMORY_READS = 125000;
+
 export class CollectionLimitsConfig {
   constructor(
     public readonly maxDebugLogMemoryReads: number,

package/src/avm/index.ts

@@ -3,10 +3,5 @@ export * from './avm_accumulated_data.js';
 export * from './avm_circuit_public_inputs.js';
 export * from './revert_code.js';
 export * from './public_data_write.js';
-export * from './public_data_update_request.js';
-export * from './contract_storage_update_request.js';
-export * from './contract_storage_read.js';
-export * from './public_inner_call_request.js';
-export * from './public_call_stack_item_compressed.js';
 export * from './avm_proving_request.js';
 export * from './message_pack.js';

package/src/avm/message_pack.ts

@@ -64,13 +64,22 @@ function setUpMessagePackExtensions() {
   addExtension({
     Class: Point,
     write: (p: Point) => {
-      assert(!p.inf, 'Cannot serialize infinity');
-      // TODO: should these be Frs?
+      // TODO: Now that we use a 2 elt point representation, we should be able to handle infs here.
+      // However this opens possible bad paths with public keys and requires sanitised conversion between
+      // BB's inf representation (see below), and ours/Noir's (0, 0), and empty points from BB, when inf
+      // does not actually pass through.
+      assert(!p.isInfinite, 'Cannot serialize infinity');
       return { x: new Fq(p.x.toBigInt()), y: new Fq(p.y.toBigInt()) };
     },
     read: (data: { x: Fq; y: Fq }) => {
+      // Note: BB encodes infinity as x == y == Buffer of all ones.
+      // Infinity should never pass through here, but for correctness:
+      const ALL_ONES = (1n << 256n) - 1n;
+      if (data.x.toBigInt() === ALL_ONES && data.y.toBigInt() === ALL_ONES) {
+        return Point.INFINITY;
+      }
       // Convert Fq back to Fr for Point constructor
-      return new Point(new Fr(data.x.toBigInt()), new Fr(data.y.toBigInt()), false);
+      return new Point(new Fr(data.x.toBigInt()), new Fr(data.y.toBigInt()));
     },
   });
   // EthAddress is a class that has a buffer in TS, but is itself just a field in C++.