@ai-ecoverse/wasix-ruby 3.4.11-20 → 3.4.11-21

package/lib/ruby/gems/3.4.0/gems/rbs-3.8.0/docs/syntax.md

@@ -0,0 +1,905 @@
+# Syntax
+
+## Types
+
+```markdown
+_type_ ::= _class-name_ _type-arguments_                 (Class instance type)
+         | _interface-name_ _type-arguments_             (Interface type)
+         | _alias-name_ _type-arguments_                 (Alias type)
+         | `singleton(` _class-name_ `)`                 (Class singleton type)
+         | _literal_                                     (Literal type)
+         | _type_ `|` _type_                             (Union type)
+         | _type_ `&` _type_                             (Intersection type)
+         | _type_ `?`                                    (Optional type)
+         | `{` _record-name_ `:` _type_ `,` etc. `}`     (Record type)
+         | `[]` | `[` _type_ `,` etc. `]`                (Tuples)
+         | _type-variable_                               (Type variables)
+         | `self`
+         | `instance`
+         | `class`
+         | `bool`
+         | `untyped`
+         | `nil`
+         | `top`
+         | `bot`
+         | `void`
+         | _proc_                                        (Proc type)
+
+_class-name_ ::= _namespace_ /[A-Z]\w*/
+_interface-name_ ::= _namespace_ /_[A-Z]\w*/
+_alias-name_ ::= _namespace_ /[a-z]\w*/
+
+_type-variable_ ::= /[A-Z]\w*/
+
+_namespace_ ::=                                         (Empty namespace)
+              | `::`                                    (Root)
+              | _namespace_ /[A-Z]\w*/ `::`             (Namespace)
+
+_type-arguments_ ::=                                    (No type arguments)
+                   | `[` _type_ `,` etc. `]`            (Type arguments)
+
+_literal_ ::= _string-literal_
+            | _symbol-literal_
+            | _integer-literal_
+            | `true`
+            | `false`
+
+_proc_ ::= `^` _parameters?_ _self-type-binding?_ _block?_ `->` _type_
+         | `^` `(` `?` `)` `->` _type_                                   # Proc type with untyped parameter
+```
+
+### Class instance type
+
+Class instance type denotes _an instance of a class_.
+
+```rbs
+Integer                      # Instance of Integer class
+::Integer                    # Instance of ::Integer class
+Hash[Symbol, String]         # Instance of Hash class with type application of Symbol and String
+```
+
+### Interface type
+
+Interface type denotes _type of a value which can be a subtype of the interface_.
+
+```rbs
+_ToS                          # _ToS interface
+::Enumerator::_Each[String]   # Interface name with namespace and type application
+```
+
+### Alias type
+
+Alias type denotes an alias declared with _alias declaration_.
+
+The name of type aliases starts with lowercase `[a-z]`.
+
+```rbs
+name
+::JSON::t                    # Alias name with namespace
+list[Integer]                # Type alias can be generic
+```
+
+### Class singleton type
+
+Class singleton type denotes _the type of a singleton object of a class_.
+
+```rbs
+singleton(String)
+singleton(::Hash)            # Class singleton type cannot be parametrized.
+```
+
+### Literal type
+
+Literal type denotes _a type with only one value of the literal_.
+
+```rbs
+123                         # Integer
+"hello world"               # A string
+:to_s                       # A symbol
+true                        # true or false
+```
+
+### Union type
+
+Union type denotes _a type of one of the given types_.
+
+```rbs
+Integer | String           # Integer or String
+Array[Integer | String]    # Array of Integer or String
+```
+
+### Intersection type
+
+Intersection type denotes _a type of all of the given types_.
+
+```rbs
+_Reader & _Writer           # _Reader and _Writer
+```
+
+Note that `&` has higher precedence than `|` that `A & B | C` is `(A & B) | C`.
+
+### Optional type
+
+Optional type denotes _a type of value or nil_.
+
+```rbs
+Integer?
+Array[Integer?]
+```
+
+### Record type
+
+Records are `Hash` objects, fixed set of keys, and heterogeneous.
+
+```rbs
+{ id: Integer, name: String }     # Hash object like `{ id: 31, name: String }`
+```
+
+### Tuple type
+
+Tuples are `Array` objects, fixed size and heterogeneous.
+
+```rbs
+[ ]                               # Empty like `[]`
+[String]                          # Single string like `["hi"]`
+[Integer, Integer]                # Pair of integers like `[1, 2]`
+[Symbol, Integer, Integer]        # Tuple of Symbol, Integer, and Integer like `[:pair, 30, 22]`
+```
+
+*Empty tuple* or *1-tuple* sound strange, but RBS allows these types.
+
+### Type variable
+
+```rbs
+U
+T
+S
+Elem
+```
+
+Type variables cannot be distinguished from _class instance types_.
+They are scoped in _class/module/interface/alias declaration_ or _generic method types_.
+
+```rbs
+class Ref[T]              # Object is scoped in the class declaration.
+  @value: T               # Type variable `T`
+  def map: [X] { (T) -> X } -> Ref[X]   # X is a type variable scoped in the method type.
+end
+```
+
+### Base types
+
+`self` denotes the type of receiver. The type is used to model the open recursion via `self`.
+
+`instance` denotes the type of instance of the class. `class` is the singleton of the class.
+
+`bool` is an alias of `true | false`.
+
+`untyped` is for _a type without type checking_. It is `?` in gradual typing, _dynamic_ in some languages like C#, and _any_ in TypeScript. It is both subtype _and_ supertype of all of the types. (The type was `any` but renamed to `untyped`.)
+
+`nil` is for _nil_.
+
+`top` is a supertype of all of the types. `bot` is a subtype of all of the types.
+
+`void` is a supertype of all of the types.
+
+#### `nil` or `NilClass`?
+
+We recommend using `nil`.
+
+#### `bool` or `boolish`
+
+We have a builtin type alias called `boolish`.
+It is an alias of `top` type, and you can use `boolish` if we want to allow any object of any type.
+
+We can see an example at the definition of `Enumerable#find`:
+
+```rbs
+module Enumerable[Elem, Return]
+  def find: () { (Elem) -> boolish } -> Elem?
+end
+```
+
+We want to write something like:
+
+```ruby
+array.find {|x| x && x.some_test? }               # The block will return (bool | nil)
+```
+
+We recommend using `boolish` for method arguments and block return values, if you only use the values for conditions.
+You can write `bool` if you strictly want `true | false`.
+
+#### `void`, `boolish`, or `top`?
+
+They are all equivalent for the type system; they are all _top type_.
+
+`void` tells developers a hint that _the value should not be used_. `boolish` implies the value is used as a truth value. `top` is anything else.
+
+### Proc type
+
+Proc type denotes type of procedures, `Proc` instances.
+
+```rbs
+^(Integer) -> String                  # A procedure with an `Integer` parameter and returns `String`
+^(?String, size: Integer) -> bool     # A procedure with `String` optional parameter, `size` keyword of `Integer`, and returns `bool`
+```
+
+See the next section for details.
+
+### Types and contexts
+
+We have contextual limitations on some types:
+
+* `void` is only allowed as a return type or a generic parameter
+* `self` is only allowed in *self-context*
+* `class` and `instance` is only allowed in *classish-context*
+
+These contextual limitation is introduced at RBS 3.3.
+The parser accepts those types even if it doesn't satisfy contextual limitation, but warning is reported with `rbs validate` command.
+We plan to change the parser to reject those types if it breaks the contextual limitations in next release -- `3.4`.
+
+#### Limitations on `void` types
+
+The following `void` types are allowed.
+
+```rbs
+type t1 = ^() -> void
+type t2 = Enumerator[Integer, void]
+```
+
+The following `void` types are prohibited.
+
+```rbs
+type t1 = ^(void) -> untyped                   # void as a function parameter is prohibited
+type t2 = ^() -> void?                         # void cannot be used inside an optional type
+type t3 = Enumerator[Integer, void | String]   # void cannot be used inside a union type
+```
+
+#### Examples of *self-context*
+
+The following `self` types are allowed.
+
+```rbs
+class Foo
+  attr_reader parent: self
+
+  def foo: () -> self
+end
+```
+
+The following `self` types are prohibited.
+
+```rbs
+class Foo
+  include Enumerable[self]                    # Mixin argument is not self-context
+
+  VERSION: self                               # Constant type is not self-context
+
+  @@foos: Array[self]                         # Class variable type is not self-context
+
+  type list = nil | [self, list]              # Type alias is not self-context
+end
+```
+
+#### Examples of *classish-context*
+
+The following `class`/`instance` types are allowed.
+
+```rbs
+class Foo
+  attr_reader parent: class
+
+  def foo: () -> instance
+
+  @@foos: Array[instance]
+
+  include Enumerable[class]
+end
+```
+
+The following `class`/`instance` types are prohibited.
+
+```rbs
+class Foo
+  VERSION: class                              # Constant type is not classish-context
+
+  type list = nil | [instance, list]          # Type alias is not classish-context
+end
+```
+
+## Method Types and Proc Types
+
+```markdown
+_method-type_ ::= _parameters?_ _block?_ `->` _type_                # Method type
+                | `(` `?` `)` `->` _type_                           # Method type with untyped parameters
+
+_parameters?_ ::=                   (Empty)
+                | _parameters_      (Parameters)
+
+_parameters_ ::= `(` _required-positionals_ _optional-positionals_ _rest-positional_ _trailing-positionals_ _keywords_ `)`
+
+_parameter_ ::= _type_ _var-name_                                  # Parameter with var name
+              | _type_                                             # Parameter without var name
+_required-positionals_ ::= _parameter_ `,` etc.
+_optional-positionals_ ::= `?` _parameter_ `,` etc.
+_rest-positional_ ::=                                              # Empty
+                    | `*` _parameter_
+_trailing-positionals_ ::= _parameter_ `,` etc.
+_keywords_ ::=                                                     # Empty
+             | `**` _parameter_                                    # Rest keyword
+             | _keyword_ `:` _parameter_ `,` _keywords_            # Required keyword
+             | `?` _keyword_ `:` _parameter_ `,` _keywords_        # Optional keyword
+
+_var-name_ ::= /[a-z]\w*/
+
+_self-type-binding?_ =                              (Empty)
+                     | `[` `self` `:` _type_ `]`    (Self type binding)
+
+_block?_ =                                                            (No block)
+         | `{` _parameters_ _self-type-binding?_ `->` _type_ `}`      (Block)
+         | `{` `(` `?` `)` `->` _type_ `}`                            (Block with untyped parameters)
+         | `?` `{` _parameters_ _self-type-binding?_ `->` _type_ `}`  (Optional block)
+         | `?` `{` `(` `?` `)` `->` _type_ `}`                        (Optional block with untyped parameters)
+```
+
+### Parameters
+
+A parameter can be a type or a pair of type and variable name.
+Variable name can be used for documentation.
+
+#### Examples
+
+```rbs
+# Two required positional `Integer` parameters, and returns `String`
+(Integer, Integer) -> String
+
+# Two optional parameters `size` and `name`.
+# `name` is a optional parameter with optional type so that developer can omit, pass a string, or pass `nil`.
+(?Integer size, ?String? name) -> String
+
+# Method type with a rest parameter
+(*Integer, Integer) -> void
+
+# `size` is a required keyword, with variable name of `sz`.
+# `name` is a optional keyword.
+# `created_at` is a optional keyword, and the value can be `nil`.
+(size: Integer sz, ?name: String, ?created_at: Time?) -> void
+```
+
+### Self type binding
+
+Self type binding represents the type of methods that uses `#instance_eval`, which replaces the value of `self` inside blocks.
+
+```ruby
+123.instance_eval do
+  self + 1        # self is `123` here
+end
+```
+
+Proc types and blocks can have self type bindings.
+
+```rbs
+^(Integer) [self: String] -> void                                     # Proc type with self type binding
+^(Integer) [self: String] { (Symbol) [self: bool] -> void } -> void   # Proc type with self type binding of `String` and a block with self type binding of `bool`
+```
+
+Method type can have blocks with self type bindings.
+
+```rbs
+() { (Integer) [self: String] -> void } -> void     # A method type with block with self type binding
+```
+
+## Members
+
+```markdown
+_member_ ::= _ivar-member_                # Ivar definition
+           | _method-member_              # Method definition
+           | _attribute-member_           # Attribute definition
+           | _include-member_             # Mixin (include)
+           | _extend-member_              # Mixin (extend)
+           | _prepend-member_             # Mixin (prepend)
+           | _alias-member_               # Alias
+           | _visibility-member_          # Visibility member
+
+_ivar-member_ ::= _ivar-name_ `:` _type_
+                | `self` `.` _ivar-name_ `:` _type_
+                | _cvar-name_ `:` _type_
+
+_method-member_ ::= _visibility_ `def` _method-name_ `:` _method-types_            # Instance method
+                  | _visibility_ `def self.` _method-name_ `:` _method-types_      # Singleton method
+                  | `def self?.` _method-name_ `:` _method-types_     # Singleton and instance method
+
+_method-types_ ::= _method-type-parameters_ _method-type_                       # Single method type
+                 | _method-type-parameters_ _method-type_ `|` _method-types_    # Overloading types
+                 | `...`                                                        # Overloading for duplicate definitions
+
+_method-type-parameters_ ::=                                                    # Empty
+                           | `[` _type-variable_ `,` ... `]`
+
+_attribute-member_ ::= _visibility_ _attribute-type_ _method-name_ `:` _type_                             # Attribute
+                     | _visibility_ _attribute-type_ _method-name_ `(` _ivar-name_ `) :` _type_           # Attribute with variable name specification
+                     | _visibility_ _attribute-type_ _method-name_ `() :` _type_                          # Attribute without variable
+                     | _visibility_ _attribute-type_ `self.` _method-name_ `:` _type_                     # Singleton attribute
+                     | _visibility_ _attribute-type_ `self.` _method-name_ `(` _ivar-name_ `) :` _type_   # Singleton attribute with variable name specification
+                     | _visibility_ _attribute-type_ `self.` _method-name_ `() :` _type_                  # Singleton attribute without variable
+_visibility_ ::= `public` | `private`
+
+_attribute-type_ ::= `attr_reader` | `attr_writer` | `attr_accessor`
+
+_include-member_ ::= _include-class-member_
+                   | _include-interface-member_
+_include-class-member_ ::= `include` _class-name_ _type-arguments_
+_include-interface-member_ :== `include` _interface-name_ _type-arguments_
+_extend-member_ ::= `extend` _class-name_ _type-arguments_
+                  | `extend` _interface-name_ _type-arguments_
+_prepend-member_ ::= `prepend` _class-name_ _type-arguments_
+
+_alias-member_ ::= `alias` _method-name_ _method-name_
+                 | `alias self.` _method-name_ `self.` _method-name_
+
+_visibility-member_ ::= _visibility_
+
+_ivar-name_ ::= /@\w+/
+_cvar-name_ ::= /@@\w+/
+_method-name_ ::= _most of the possible ruby method names_
+                | /`[^`]+`/                   # Quoted method names
+```
+
+### Ivar definition
+
+An instance variable definition consists of the name of an instance variable and its type.
+
+```rbs
+@name: String
+self.@value: Hash[Symbol, Key]
+@@instances: Array[instance]
+```
+
+* Instance variables definition is *self-context* and *classish-context*
+* Class instance variables definition is *self-context* and *classish-context*
+* Class variables definition is *classish-context*, but NOT *self-context*
+
+### Method definition
+
+Method definition has several syntax variations.
+
+You can write `self.` or `self?.` before the name of the method to specify the kind of method: instance, singleton, or module function.
+
+```rbs
+def to_s: () -> String                        # Defines a instance method
+def self.new: () -> AnObject                  # Defines singleton method
+def self?.sqrt: (Numeric) -> Numeric          # self? is for `module_function`s
+```
+
+`self?` method definition adds two methods: a public singleton method and a private instance method, which is equivalent to `module_function` in Ruby.
+
+The method type can be connected with `|`s to define an overloaded method.
+
+```rbs
+def +: (Float) -> Float
+     | (Integer) -> Integer
+     | (Numeric) -> Numeric
+```
+
+Overloaded method can have `...` to overload an existing method. It is useful for monkey-patching.
+
+```rbs
+def +: (Float) -> Float
+def +: (BigDecimal) -> BigDecimal
+     | ...
+```
+
+You need extra parentheses on return type to avoid ambiguity.
+
+```rbs
+def +: (Float | Integer) -> (Float | Integer)
+     | (Numeric) -> Numeric
+```
+
+Adding `public` and `private` modifier changes the visibility of the method.
+
+```rbs
+private def puts: (*untyped) -> void       # Defines private instance method
+
+public def self.puts: (*untyped) -> void   # Defines public singleton method
+
+public def self?.puts: (*untyped) -> void  # 🚨🚨🚨 Error: `?.` has own visibility semantics (== `module_function`) 🚨🚨🚨
+```
+
+* Method types are *self-context* and *classish-context*
+
+### Attribute definition
+
+Attribute definitions help to define methods and instance variables based on the convention of `attr_reader`, `attr_writer` and `attr_accessor` methods in Ruby.
+
+You can specify the name of instance variable using `(@some_name)` syntax and also omit the instance variable definition by specifying `()`.
+
+```rbs
+# Defines `id` method and `@id` instance variable.
+attr_reader id: Integer
+# @id: Integer
+# def id: () -> Integer
+
+# Defines `name=` method and `@raw_name` instance variable.
+attr_writer name (@raw_name) : String
+# @raw_name: String
+# def name=: (String) -> String
+
+# Defines `people` and `people=` methods, but no instance variable.
+attr_accessor people (): Array[Person]
+# def people: () -> Array[Person]
+# def people=: (Array[Person]) -> Array[Person]
+```
+
+Attribute definitions can have the `public` and `private` modifiers like method definitions:
+
+```rbs
+private attr_accessor id: Integer
+
+private attr_reader self.name: String
+```
+
+* Attribute types are *self-context* and *classish-context*
+
+### Mixin (include), Mixin (extend), Mixin (prepend)
+
+You can define mixins between class and modules.
+
+```rbs
+include Kernel
+include Enumerable[String, void]
+extend ActiveSupport::Concern
+```
+
+You can also `include` or `extend` an interface.
+
+```rbs
+include _Hashing
+extend _LikeString
+```
+
+This allows importing `def`s from the interface to help developer implementing a set of methods.
+
+* Mixin arguments are *classish-context*, but not *self-context*
+
+### Alias
+
+You can define an alias between methods.
+
+```rbs
+def map: [X] () { (String) -> X } -> Array[X]
+alias collect map                                   # `#collect` has the same type with `map`
+```
+
+### Visibility member
+
+Visibility member allows specifying the default visibility of instance methods and instance attributes.
+
+```rbs
+public
+
+def foo: () -> void          # public instance method
+
+attr_reader name: String     # public instance attribute
+
+private
+
+def bar: () -> void          # private instance method
+
+attr_reader email: String    # private instance attribute
+```
+
+The visibility _modifiers_ overwrite the default visibility per member bases.
+
+The visibility member requires a new line `\n` after the token.
+
+```rbs
+private alias foo bar       # Syntax error
+```
+
+## Declarations
+
+```markdown
+_decl_ ::= _class-decl_                         # Class declaration
+         | _module-decl_                        # Module declaration
+         | _class-alias-decl_                   # Class alias declaration
+         | _module-alias-decl_                  # Module alias declaration
+         | _interface-decl_                     # Interface declaration
+         | _type-alias-decl_                    # Type alias declaration
+         | _const-decl_                         # Constant declaration
+         | _global-decl_                        # Global declaration
+
+_class-decl_ ::= `class` _class-name_ _module-type-parameters_ _members_ `end`
+               | `class` _class-name_ _module-type-parameters_ `<` _class-name_ _type-arguments_ _members_ `end`
+
+_module-decl_ ::= `module` _module-name_ _module-type-parameters_ _members_ `end`
+                | `module` _module-name_ _module-type-parameters_ `:` _module-self-types_ _members_ `end`
+
+_class-alias-decl_ ::= `class` _class-name_ `=` _class-name_
+
+_module-alias-decl_ ::= `module` _module-name_ `=` _module-name_
+
+_module-self-types_ ::= _class-name_ _type-arguments_ `,` _module-self-types_            (Class instance)
+                      | _interface-name_ _type-arguments_ `,` _module-self-types_        (Interface)
+
+_interface-decl_ ::= `interface` _interface-name_ _module-type-parameters_ _interface-members_ `end`
+
+_interface-members_ ::= _method-member_              # Method
+                      | _include-interface-member_   # Mixin (include)
+                      | _alias-member_               # Alias
+
+_type-alias-decl_ ::= `type` _alias-name_ _module-type-parameters_ `=` _type_
+
+_const-decl_ ::= _const-name_ `:` _type_
+
+_global-decl_ ::= _global-name_ `:` _type_
+
+_const-name_ ::= _namespace_ /[A-Z]\w*/
+_global-name_ ::= /$[a-zA-Z]\w+/ | ...
+
+_module-type-parameters_ ::=                                                  # Empty
+                           | `[` _module-type-parameter_ `,` ... `]`
+```
+
+### Class declaration
+
+Class declaration can have type parameters and superclass. When you omit superclass, `::Object` is assumed.
+
+* Super class arguments and generic class upperbounds are not *classish-context* nor *self-context*
+
+### Module declaration
+
+Module declaration takes optional _self type_ parameter, which defines a constraint about a class when the module is mixed.
+
+```rbs
+interface _Each[A, B]
+  def each: { (A) -> void } -> B
+end
+
+module Enumerable[A, B] : _Each[A, B]
+  def count: () -> Integer
+end
+```
+
+The `Enumerable` module above requires `each` method for enumerating objects.
+
+* Self type arguments and generic class upperbounds are not *classish-context* nor *self-context*
+
+### Class/module alias declaration
+
+An alias of a class or module can be defined in RBS.
+
+```rbs
+module Foo = Kernel
+
+class Bar = Array
+```
+
+The syntax defines a class and the definition is equivalent to the right-hand-side.
+
+```rbs
+class Baz < Bar[String]    # Class alias can be inherited
+  include Foo              # Module alias can be included
+end
+```
+
+ This is a definition corresponding to the following Ruby code.
+
+ ```ruby
+ Foo = Kernel
+
+ Bar = Array
+ ```
+
+### Interface declaration
+
+Interface declaration can have parameters but allows only a few of the members.
+
+```rbs
+interface _Hashing
+  def hash: () -> Integer
+  def eql?: (untyped) -> bool
+end
+```
+
+There are several limitations which are not described in the grammar.
+
+1. Interface cannot `include` modules
+2. Interface cannot have singleton method definitions
+
+```rbs
+interface _Foo
+  include Bar                  # Error: cannot include modules
+  def self.new: () -> Foo      # Error: cannot include singleton method definitions
+end
+```
+
+### Type alias declaration
+
+You can declare an alias of types.
+
+```rbs
+type subject = Attendee | Speaker
+type JSON::t = Integer | TrueClass | FalseClass | String | Hash[Symbol, t] | Array[t]
+```
+
+Type alias can be generic like class, module, and interface.
+
+```rbs
+type list[out T] = [T, list[T]] | nil
+```
+
+* Alias types are not *classish-context* nor *self-context*
+
+### Constant type declaration
+
+You can declare a constant.
+
+```rbs
+Person::DefaultEmailAddress: String
+```
+
+* Constant types are not *classish-context* nor *self-context*
+
+### Global type declaration
+
+You can declare a global variable.
+
+```rbs
+$LOAD_PATH: Array[String]
+```
+
+* Constant types are not *classish-context* nor *self-context*
+
+### Generics
+
+```markdown
+_module-type-parameter_ ::= _generics-unchecked_ _generics-variance_ _type-variable_ _generics-bound_ _default-type_
+
+_method-type-param_ ::= _type-variable_ _generics-bound_
+
+_generics-bound_ ::=                 (No type bound)
+                   | `<` _type_      (The generics parameter is bounded)
+
+_default-type_ ::=                    (No default type)
+                 | `=` _type_         (The generics parameter has default type)
+
+_generics-variance_ ::=               (Invariant)
+                      | `out`         (Covariant)
+                      | `in`          (Contravariant)
+
+_generics-unchecked_ ::=              (Empty)
+                       | `unchecked`  (Skips variance annotation validation)
+```
+
+RBS allows class/module/interface/type alias definitions and methods to be generic.
+
+```rbs
+# Simple generic class definition
+class Stack[T]
+  def push: (T) -> void
+
+  def pop: () -> T
+end
+```
+
+For classes with type parameters, you may specify if they are "invariant" (default), "covariant" (`out`) or "contravariant" (`in`). See [this definition of covariance and contravariance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance_and_contravariance_(computer_science)).
+
+For example, an `Array` of `String` can almost be considered to be an `Array` of `Object`, but not the reverse, so we can think of:
+
+```rbs
+# The `T` type parameter is covariant.
+class Array[out T]
+  # etc.
+end
+```
+
+There's a limitation with this for mutable objects (like arrays): a mutation could invalidate this.
+If an `Array` of `String` is passed to a method as an `Array` of `Object`, and that method adds an `Integer` to the `Array`, the promise is broken.
+
+In those cases, one must use the `unchecked` keyword:
+
+```rbs
+# Skips the validation of variance of the type parameter `T`.
+# The type safety prohibits `out` type parameters to appear at _negative_ position (== method parameter), but we want `Array` to have it.
+class Array[unchecked out T]
+  def include?: (T) -> bool
+end
+```
+
+This is how `Array` is actually defined in RBS.
+
+Note that RBS doesn't allow specifying variance related annotations to generic method types.
+
+```rbs
+class Foo
+  def bar: [out T] () -> T    # Syntax error
+end
+```
+
+You can also specify the _upper bound_ of the type parameter.
+
+```rbs
+class PrettyPrint[T < _Output]
+  interface _Output
+    def <<: (String) -> void
+  end
+
+  attr_reader output: T
+end
+```
+
+If a type parameter has an upper bound, the type parameter must be instantiated with types that is a subtype of the upper bound.
+
+```rbs
+type str_printer = PrettyPrint[String]    # OK
+type int_printer = PrettyPrint[Integer]   # Type error
+```
+
+The generics type parameter of modules, classes, interfaces, or type aliases can have a default type.
+
+```rbs
+interface _Foo[T = untyped]
+end
+
+interface _Bar[T, S = untyped]
+end
+
+type foo = _Foo          # equivalent to _Foo[untyped]
+type bar = _Bar[String]  # equivalent to _Bar[String, untyped]
+```
+
+Type parameters with default types cannot appear before type parameters without default types. The generic method type parameters cannot have the default types.
+
+### Directives
+
+Directives are placed at the top of a file and provides per-file-basis features.
+
+```markdown
+_use-directive_ ::= `use` _use-clauses_
+
+_use-clauses_ ::= _use-clause_ `,` ... `,` _use-clause_
+
+_use-clause_ ::= _type-name_                           # Single use clause
+               | _type-name_ `as` _simple-type-name_   # Single use clause with alias
+               | _namespace_                           # Wildcard use clause
+```
+
+The *use directive* defines relative type names that is an alias of other type names.
+We can use the simple type names if it is declared with *use*.
+
+```rbs
+use RBS::Namespace        # => Defines `Namespace`
+use RBS::TypeName as TN   # => Defines `TN`
+use RBS::AST::*           # => Defines modules under `::RBS::AST::` namespace
+```
+
+### Comments
+
+You can write single line comments. Comments must be on their own line. Comments can lead with whitespace.
+
+```rbs
+# This if interface Foo
+# Usage of Foo is bar
+interface _Foo
+  # New foo is a method
+  # it will return foo.
+  def new: () -> Foo
+end
+```
+
+### Annotations
+
+Annotations are placed before declarations, members, and method types to mark up a metadata for the declaration, the member, or method types.
+The meaning of annotations are defined by the toolchain (ex. steep).
+
+```markdown
+_annotations_ ::= _annotation_ ...
+_annotation_ ::= `%a{` _annotation-text_ `}`  # Annotation using {}
+               | `%a(` _annotation-text_ `)`  # Annotation using ()
+               | `%a[` _annotation-text_ `]`  # Annotation using []
+               | `%a|` _annotation-text_ `|`  # Annotation using ||
+               | `%a<` _annotation-text_ `>`  # Annotation using <>
+
+_annotation-text_ ::= /[^\x00]*/              # Any characters except NUL (and parenthesis)
+```