@agwab/pi-workflow 0.1.0

package/node_modules/node-forge/lib/rsa.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1968 @@
+/**
+ * Javascript implementation of basic RSA algorithms.
+ *
+ * @author Dave Longley
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) 2010-2014 Digital Bazaar, Inc.
+ *
+ * The only algorithm currently supported for PKI is RSA.
+ *
+ * An RSA key is often stored in ASN.1 DER format. The SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+ * ASN.1 structure is composed of an algorithm of type AlgorithmIdentifier
+ * and a subjectPublicKey of type bit string.
+ *
+ * The AlgorithmIdentifier contains an Object Identifier (OID) and parameters
+ * for the algorithm, if any. In the case of RSA, there aren't any.
+ *
+ * SubjectPublicKeyInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   algorithm AlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   subjectPublicKey BIT STRING
+ * }
+ *
+ * AlgorithmIdentifer ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   algorithm OBJECT IDENTIFIER,
+ *   parameters ANY DEFINED BY algorithm OPTIONAL
+ * }
+ *
+ * For an RSA public key, the subjectPublicKey is:
+ *
+ * RSAPublicKey ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   modulus            INTEGER,    -- n
+ *   publicExponent     INTEGER     -- e
+ * }
+ *
+ * PrivateKeyInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   version                   Version,
+ *   privateKeyAlgorithm       PrivateKeyAlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   privateKey                PrivateKey,
+ *   attributes           [0]  IMPLICIT Attributes OPTIONAL
+ * }
+ *
+ * Version ::= INTEGER
+ * PrivateKeyAlgorithmIdentifier ::= AlgorithmIdentifier
+ * PrivateKey ::= OCTET STRING
+ * Attributes ::= SET OF Attribute
+ *
+ * An RSA private key as the following structure:
+ *
+ * RSAPrivateKey ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   version Version,
+ *   modulus INTEGER, -- n
+ *   publicExponent INTEGER, -- e
+ *   privateExponent INTEGER, -- d
+ *   prime1 INTEGER, -- p
+ *   prime2 INTEGER, -- q
+ *   exponent1 INTEGER, -- d mod (p-1)
+ *   exponent2 INTEGER, -- d mod (q-1)
+ *   coefficient INTEGER -- (inverse of q) mod p
+ * }
+ *
+ * Version ::= INTEGER
+ *
+ * The OID for the RSA key algorithm is: 1.2.840.113549.1.1.1
+ */
+var forge = require('./forge');
+require('./asn1');
+require('./jsbn');
+require('./oids');
+require('./pkcs1');
+require('./prime');
+require('./random');
+require('./util');
+
+if(typeof BigInteger === 'undefined') {
+  var BigInteger = forge.jsbn.BigInteger;
+}
+
+var _crypto = forge.util.isNodejs ? require('crypto') : null;
+
+// shortcut for asn.1 API
+var asn1 = forge.asn1;
+
+// shortcut for util API
+var util = forge.util;
+
+/*
+ * RSA encryption and decryption, see RFC 2313.
+ */
+forge.pki = forge.pki || {};
+module.exports = forge.pki.rsa = forge.rsa = forge.rsa || {};
+var pki = forge.pki;
+
+// for finding primes, which are 30k+i for i = 1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29
+var GCD_30_DELTA = [6, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 6, 2];
+
+// validator for a PrivateKeyInfo structure
+var privateKeyValidator = {
+  // PrivateKeyInfo
+  name: 'PrivateKeyInfo',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    // Version (INTEGER)
+    name: 'PrivateKeyInfo.version',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyVersion'
+  }, {
+    // privateKeyAlgorithm
+    name: 'PrivateKeyInfo.privateKeyAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'AlgorithmIdentifier.algorithm',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.OID,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'privateKeyOid'
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // PrivateKey
+    name: 'PrivateKeyInfo',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKey'
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for an RSA private key
+var rsaPrivateKeyValidator = {
+  // RSAPrivateKey
+  name: 'RSAPrivateKey',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    // Version (INTEGER)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.version',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyVersion'
+  }, {
+    // modulus (n)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.modulus',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyModulus'
+  }, {
+    // publicExponent (e)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.publicExponent',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyPublicExponent'
+  }, {
+    // privateExponent (d)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.privateExponent',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyPrivateExponent'
+  }, {
+    // prime1 (p)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.prime1',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyPrime1'
+  }, {
+    // prime2 (q)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.prime2',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyPrime2'
+  }, {
+    // exponent1 (d mod (p-1))
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.exponent1',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyExponent1'
+  }, {
+    // exponent2 (d mod (q-1))
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.exponent2',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyExponent2'
+  }, {
+    // coefficient ((inverse of q) mod p)
+    name: 'RSAPrivateKey.coefficient',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'privateKeyCoefficient'
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for an RSA public key
+var rsaPublicKeyValidator = {
+  // RSAPublicKey
+  name: 'RSAPublicKey',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    // modulus (n)
+    name: 'RSAPublicKey.modulus',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'publicKeyModulus'
+  }, {
+    // publicExponent (e)
+    name: 'RSAPublicKey.exponent',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.INTEGER,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'publicKeyExponent'
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for an SubjectPublicKeyInfo structure
+// Note: Currently only works with an RSA public key
+var publicKeyValidator = forge.pki.rsa.publicKeyValidator = {
+  name: 'SubjectPublicKeyInfo',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  captureAsn1: 'subjectPublicKeyInfo',
+  value: [{
+    name: 'SubjectPublicKeyInfo.AlgorithmIdentifier',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'AlgorithmIdentifier.algorithm',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.OID,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'publicKeyOid'
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // subjectPublicKey
+    name: 'SubjectPublicKeyInfo.subjectPublicKey',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.BITSTRING,
+    constructed: false,
+    value: [{
+      // RSAPublicKey
+      name: 'SubjectPublicKeyInfo.subjectPublicKey.RSAPublicKey',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+      constructed: true,
+      optional: true,
+      captureAsn1: 'rsaPublicKey'
+    }]
+  }]
+};
+
+// validator for a DigestInfo structure
+var digestInfoValidator = {
+  name: 'DigestInfo',
+  tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+  type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+  constructed: true,
+  value: [{
+    name: 'DigestInfo.DigestAlgorithm',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.SEQUENCE,
+    constructed: true,
+    value: [{
+      name: 'DigestInfo.DigestAlgorithm.algorithmIdentifier',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.OID,
+      constructed: false,
+      capture: 'algorithmIdentifier'
+    }, {
+      // NULL parameters
+      name: 'DigestInfo.DigestAlgorithm.parameters',
+      tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+      type: asn1.Type.NULL,
+      // captured only to check existence for md2 and md5
+      capture: 'parameters',
+      optional: true,
+      constructed: false
+    }]
+  }, {
+    // digest
+    name: 'DigestInfo.digest',
+    tagClass: asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL,
+    type: asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING,
+    constructed: false,
+    capture: 'digest'
+  }]
+};
+
+/**
+ * Wrap digest in DigestInfo object.
+ *
+ * This function implements EMSA-PKCS1-v1_5-ENCODE as per RFC 3447.
+ *
+ * DigestInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+ *   digestAlgorithm DigestAlgorithmIdentifier,
+ *   digest Digest
+ * }
+ *
+ * DigestAlgorithmIdentifier ::= AlgorithmIdentifier
+ * Digest ::= OCTET STRING
+ *
+ * @param md the message digest object with the hash to sign.
+ *
+ * @return the encoded message (ready for RSA encryption)
+ */
+var emsaPkcs1v15encode = function(md) {
+  // get the oid for the algorithm
+  var oid;
+  if(md.algorithm in pki.oids) {
+    oid = pki.oids[md.algorithm];
+  } else {
+    var error = new Error('Unknown message digest algorithm.');
+    error.algorithm = md.algorithm;
+    throw error;
+  }
+  var oidBytes = asn1.oidToDer(oid).getBytes();
+
+  // create the digest info
+  var digestInfo = asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+  var digestAlgorithm = asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, []);
+  digestAlgorithm.value.push(asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false, oidBytes));
+  digestAlgorithm.value.push(asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, ''));
+  var digest = asn1.create(
+    asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING,
+    false, md.digest().getBytes());
+  digestInfo.value.push(digestAlgorithm);
+  digestInfo.value.push(digest);
+
+  // encode digest info
+  return asn1.toDer(digestInfo).getBytes();
+};
+
+/**
+ * Performs x^c mod n (RSA encryption or decryption operation).
+ *
+ * @param x the number to raise and mod.
+ * @param key the key to use.
+ * @param pub true if the key is public, false if private.
+ *
+ * @return the result of x^c mod n.
+ */
+var _modPow = function(x, key, pub) {
+  if(pub) {
+    return x.modPow(key.e, key.n);
+  }
+
+  if(!key.p || !key.q) {
+    // allow calculation without CRT params (slow)
+    return x.modPow(key.d, key.n);
+  }
+
+  // pre-compute dP, dQ, and qInv if necessary
+  if(!key.dP) {
+    key.dP = key.d.mod(key.p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE));
+  }
+  if(!key.dQ) {
+    key.dQ = key.d.mod(key.q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE));
+  }
+  if(!key.qInv) {
+    key.qInv = key.q.modInverse(key.p);
+  }
+
+  /* Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) states:
+
+    Suppose n1, n2, ..., nk are positive integers which are pairwise
+    coprime (n1 and n2 have no common factors other than 1). For any
+    integers x1, x2, ..., xk there exists an integer x solving the
+    system of simultaneous congruences (where ~= means modularly
+    congruent so a ~= b mod n means a mod n = b mod n):
+
+    x ~= x1 mod n1
+    x ~= x2 mod n2
+    ...
+    x ~= xk mod nk
+
+    This system of congruences has a single simultaneous solution x
+    between 0 and n - 1. Furthermore, each xk solution and x itself
+    is congruent modulo the product n = n1*n2*...*nk.
+    So x1 mod n = x2 mod n = xk mod n = x mod n.
+
+    The single simultaneous solution x can be solved with the following
+    equation:
+
+    x = sum(xi*ri*si) mod n where ri = n/ni and si = ri^-1 mod ni.
+
+    Where x is less than n, xi = x mod ni.
+
+    For RSA we are only concerned with k = 2. The modulus n = pq, where
+    p and q are coprime. The RSA decryption algorithm is:
+
+    y = x^d mod n
+
+    Given the above:
+
+    x1 = x^d mod p
+    r1 = n/p = q
+    s1 = q^-1 mod p
+    x2 = x^d mod q
+    r2 = n/q = p
+    s2 = p^-1 mod q
+
+    So y = (x1r1s1 + x2r2s2) mod n
+         = ((x^d mod p)q(q^-1 mod p) + (x^d mod q)p(p^-1 mod q)) mod n
+
+    According to Fermat's Little Theorem, if the modulus P is prime,
+    for any integer A not evenly divisible by P, A^(P-1) ~= 1 mod P.
+    Since A is not divisible by P it follows that if:
+    N ~= M mod (P - 1), then A^N mod P = A^M mod P. Therefore:
+
+    A^N mod P = A^(M mod (P - 1)) mod P. (The latter takes less effort
+    to calculate). In order to calculate x^d mod p more quickly the
+    exponent d mod (p - 1) is stored in the RSA private key (the same
+    is done for x^d mod q). These values are referred to as dP and dQ
+    respectively. Therefore we now have:
+
+    y = ((x^dP mod p)q(q^-1 mod p) + (x^dQ mod q)p(p^-1 mod q)) mod n
+
+    Since we'll be reducing x^dP by modulo p (same for q) we can also
+    reduce x by p (and q respectively) before hand. Therefore, let
+
+    xp = ((x mod p)^dP mod p), and
+    xq = ((x mod q)^dQ mod q), yielding:
+
+    y = (xp*q*(q^-1 mod p) + xq*p*(p^-1 mod q)) mod n
+
+    This can be further reduced to a simple algorithm that only
+    requires 1 inverse (the q inverse is used) to be used and stored.
+    The algorithm is called Garner's algorithm. If qInv is the
+    inverse of q, we simply calculate:
+
+    y = (qInv*(xp - xq) mod p) * q + xq
+
+    However, there are two further complications. First, we need to
+    ensure that xp > xq to prevent signed BigIntegers from being used
+    so we add p until this is true (since we will be mod'ing with
+    p anyway). Then, there is a known timing attack on algorithms
+    using the CRT. To mitigate this risk, "cryptographic blinding"
+    should be used. This requires simply generating a random number r
+    between 0 and n-1 and its inverse and multiplying x by r^e before
+    calculating y and then multiplying y by r^-1 afterwards. Note that
+    r must be coprime with n (gcd(r, n) === 1) in order to have an
+    inverse.
+  */
+
+  // cryptographic blinding
+  var r;
+  do {
+    r = new BigInteger(
+      forge.util.bytesToHex(forge.random.getBytes(key.n.bitLength() / 8)),
+      16);
+  } while(r.compareTo(key.n) >= 0 || !r.gcd(key.n).equals(BigInteger.ONE));
+  x = x.multiply(r.modPow(key.e, key.n)).mod(key.n);
+
+  // calculate xp and xq
+  var xp = x.mod(key.p).modPow(key.dP, key.p);
+  var xq = x.mod(key.q).modPow(key.dQ, key.q);
+
+  // xp must be larger than xq to avoid signed bit usage
+  while(xp.compareTo(xq) < 0) {
+    xp = xp.add(key.p);
+  }
+
+  // do last step
+  var y = xp.subtract(xq)
+    .multiply(key.qInv).mod(key.p)
+    .multiply(key.q).add(xq);
+
+  // remove effect of random for cryptographic blinding
+  y = y.multiply(r.modInverse(key.n)).mod(key.n);
+
+  return y;
+};
+
+/**
+ * NOTE: THIS METHOD IS DEPRECATED, use 'sign' on a private key object or
+ * 'encrypt' on a public key object instead.
+ *
+ * Performs RSA encryption.
+ *
+ * The parameter bt controls whether to put padding bytes before the
+ * message passed in. Set bt to either true or false to disable padding
+ * completely (in order to handle e.g. EMSA-PSS encoding separately before),
+ * signaling whether the encryption operation is a public key operation
+ * (i.e. encrypting data) or not, i.e. private key operation (data signing).
+ *
+ * For PKCS#1 v1.5 padding pass in the block type to use, i.e. either 0x01
+ * (for signing) or 0x02 (for encryption). The key operation mode (private
+ * or public) is derived from this flag in that case).
+ *
+ * @param m the message to encrypt as a byte string.
+ * @param key the RSA key to use.
+ * @param bt for PKCS#1 v1.5 padding, the block type to use
+ *   (0x01 for private key, 0x02 for public),
+ *   to disable padding: true = public key, false = private key.
+ *
+ * @return the encrypted bytes as a string.
+ */
+pki.rsa.encrypt = function(m, key, bt) {
+  var pub = bt;
+  var eb;
+
+  // get the length of the modulus in bytes
+  var k = Math.ceil(key.n.bitLength() / 8);
+
+  if(bt !== false && bt !== true) {
+    // legacy, default to PKCS#1 v1.5 padding
+    pub = (bt === 0x02);
+    eb = _encodePkcs1_v1_5(m, key, bt);
+  } else {
+    eb = forge.util.createBuffer();
+    eb.putBytes(m);
+  }
+
+  // load encryption block as big integer 'x'
+  // FIXME: hex conversion inefficient, get BigInteger w/byte strings
+  var x = new BigInteger(eb.toHex(), 16);
+
+  // do RSA encryption
+  var y = _modPow(x, key, pub);
+
+  // convert y into the encrypted data byte string, if y is shorter in
+  // bytes than k, then prepend zero bytes to fill up ed
+  // FIXME: hex conversion inefficient, get BigInteger w/byte strings
+  var yhex = y.toString(16);
+  var ed = forge.util.createBuffer();
+  var zeros = k - Math.ceil(yhex.length / 2);
+  while(zeros > 0) {
+    ed.putByte(0x00);
+    --zeros;
+  }
+  ed.putBytes(forge.util.hexToBytes(yhex));
+  return ed.getBytes();
+};
+
+/**
+ * NOTE: THIS METHOD IS DEPRECATED, use 'decrypt' on a private key object or
+ * 'verify' on a public key object instead.
+ *
+ * Performs RSA decryption.
+ *
+ * The parameter ml controls whether to apply PKCS#1 v1.5 padding
+ * or not.  Set ml = false to disable padding removal completely
+ * (in order to handle e.g. EMSA-PSS later on) and simply pass back
+ * the RSA encryption block.
+ *
+ * @param ed the encrypted data to decrypt in as a byte string.
+ * @param key the RSA key to use.
+ * @param pub true for a public key operation, false for private.
+ * @param ml the message length, if known, false to disable padding.
+ *
+ * @return the decrypted message as a byte string.
+ */
+pki.rsa.decrypt = function(ed, key, pub, ml) {
+  // get the length of the modulus in bytes
+  var k = Math.ceil(key.n.bitLength() / 8);
+
+  // error if the length of the encrypted data ED is not k
+  if(ed.length !== k) {
+    var error = new Error('Encrypted message length is invalid.');
+    error.length = ed.length;
+    error.expected = k;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  // convert encrypted data into a big integer
+  // FIXME: hex conversion inefficient, get BigInteger w/byte strings
+  var y = new BigInteger(forge.util.createBuffer(ed).toHex(), 16);
+
+  // y must be less than the modulus or it wasn't the result of
+  // a previous mod operation (encryption) using that modulus
+  if(y.compareTo(key.n) >= 0) {
+    throw new Error('Encrypted message is invalid.');
+  }
+
+  // do RSA decryption
+  var x = _modPow(y, key, pub);
+
+  // create the encryption block, if x is shorter in bytes than k, then
+  // prepend zero bytes to fill up eb
+  // FIXME: hex conversion inefficient, get BigInteger w/byte strings
+  var xhex = x.toString(16);
+  var eb = forge.util.createBuffer();
+  var zeros = k - Math.ceil(xhex.length / 2);
+  while(zeros > 0) {
+    eb.putByte(0x00);
+    --zeros;
+  }
+  eb.putBytes(forge.util.hexToBytes(xhex));
+
+  if(ml !== false) {
+    // legacy, default to PKCS#1 v1.5 padding
+    return _decodePkcs1_v1_5(eb.getBytes(), key, pub);
+  }
+
+  // return message
+  return eb.getBytes();
+};
+
+/**
+ * Creates an RSA key-pair generation state object. It is used to allow
+ * key-generation to be performed in steps. It also allows for a UI to
+ * display progress updates.
+ *
+ * @param bits the size for the private key in bits, defaults to 2048.
+ * @param e the public exponent to use, defaults to 65537 (0x10001).
+ * @param [options] the options to use.
+ *          prng a custom crypto-secure pseudo-random number generator to use,
+ *            that must define "getBytesSync".
+ *          algorithm the algorithm to use (default: 'PRIMEINC').
+ *
+ * @return the state object to use to generate the key-pair.
+ */
+pki.rsa.createKeyPairGenerationState = function(bits, e, options) {
+  // TODO: migrate step-based prime generation code to forge.prime
+
+  // set default bits
+  if(typeof(bits) === 'string') {
+    bits = parseInt(bits, 10);
+  }
+  bits = bits || 2048;
+
+  // create prng with api that matches BigInteger secure random
+  options = options || {};
+  var prng = options.prng || forge.random;
+  var rng = {
+    // x is an array to fill with bytes
+    nextBytes: function(x) {
+      var b = prng.getBytesSync(x.length);
+      for(var i = 0; i < x.length; ++i) {
+        x[i] = b.charCodeAt(i);
+      }
+    }
+  };
+
+  var algorithm = options.algorithm || 'PRIMEINC';
+
+  // create PRIMEINC algorithm state
+  var rval;
+  if(algorithm === 'PRIMEINC') {
+    rval = {
+      algorithm: algorithm,
+      state: 0,
+      bits: bits,
+      rng: rng,
+      eInt: e || 65537,
+      e: new BigInteger(null),
+      p: null,
+      q: null,
+      qBits: bits >> 1,
+      pBits: bits - (bits >> 1),
+      pqState: 0,
+      num: null,
+      keys: null
+    };
+    rval.e.fromInt(rval.eInt);
+  } else {
+    throw new Error('Invalid key generation algorithm: ' + algorithm);
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Attempts to runs the key-generation algorithm for at most n seconds
+ * (approximately) using the given state. When key-generation has completed,
+ * the keys will be stored in state.keys.
+ *
+ * To use this function to update a UI while generating a key or to prevent
+ * causing browser lockups/warnings, set "n" to a value other than 0. A
+ * simple pattern for generating a key and showing a progress indicator is:
+ *
+ * var state = pki.rsa.createKeyPairGenerationState(2048);
+ * var step = function() {
+ *   // step key-generation, run algorithm for 100 ms, repeat
+ *   if(!forge.pki.rsa.stepKeyPairGenerationState(state, 100)) {
+ *     setTimeout(step, 1);
+ *   } else {
+ *     // key-generation complete
+ *     // TODO: turn off progress indicator here
+ *     // TODO: use the generated key-pair in "state.keys"
+ *   }
+ * };
+ * // TODO: turn on progress indicator here
+ * setTimeout(step, 0);
+ *
+ * @param state the state to use.
+ * @param n the maximum number of milliseconds to run the algorithm for, 0
+ *          to run the algorithm to completion.
+ *
+ * @return true if the key-generation completed, false if not.
+ */
+pki.rsa.stepKeyPairGenerationState = function(state, n) {
+  // set default algorithm if not set
+  if(!('algorithm' in state)) {
+    state.algorithm = 'PRIMEINC';
+  }
+
+  // TODO: migrate step-based prime generation code to forge.prime
+  // TODO: abstract as PRIMEINC algorithm
+
+  // do key generation (based on Tom Wu's rsa.js, see jsbn.js license)
+  // with some minor optimizations and designed to run in steps
+
+  // local state vars
+  var THIRTY = new BigInteger(null);
+  THIRTY.fromInt(30);
+  var deltaIdx = 0;
+  var op_or = function(x, y) {return x | y;};
+
+  // keep stepping until time limit is reached or done
+  var t1 = +new Date();
+  var t2;
+  var total = 0;
+  while(state.keys === null && (n <= 0 || total < n)) {
+    // generate p or q
+    if(state.state === 0) {
+      /* Note: All primes are of the form:
+
+        30k+i, for i < 30 and gcd(30, i)=1, where there are 8 values for i
+
+        When we generate a random number, we always align it at 30k + 1. Each
+        time the number is determined not to be prime we add to get to the
+        next 'i', eg: if the number was at 30k + 1 we add 6. */
+      var bits = (state.p === null) ? state.pBits : state.qBits;
+      var bits1 = bits - 1;
+
+      // get a random number
+      if(state.pqState === 0) {
+        state.num = new BigInteger(bits, state.rng);
+        // force MSB set
+        if(!state.num.testBit(bits1)) {
+          state.num.bitwiseTo(
+            BigInteger.ONE.shiftLeft(bits1), op_or, state.num);
+        }
+        // align number on 30k+1 boundary
+        state.num.dAddOffset(31 - state.num.mod(THIRTY).byteValue(), 0);
+        deltaIdx = 0;
+
+        ++state.pqState;
+      } else if(state.pqState === 1) {
+        // try to make the number a prime
+        if(state.num.bitLength() > bits) {
+          // overflow, try again
+          state.pqState = 0;
+          // do primality test
+        } else if(state.num.isProbablePrime(
+          _getMillerRabinTests(state.num.bitLength()))) {
+          ++state.pqState;
+        } else {
+          // get next potential prime
+          state.num.dAddOffset(GCD_30_DELTA[deltaIdx++ % 8], 0);
+        }
+      } else if(state.pqState === 2) {
+        // ensure number is coprime with e
+        state.pqState =
+          (state.num.subtract(BigInteger.ONE).gcd(state.e)
+            .compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) === 0) ? 3 : 0;
+      } else if(state.pqState === 3) {
+        // store p or q
+        state.pqState = 0;
+        if(state.p === null) {
+          state.p = state.num;
+        } else {
+          state.q = state.num;
+        }
+
+        // advance state if both p and q are ready
+        if(state.p !== null && state.q !== null) {
+          ++state.state;
+        }
+        state.num = null;
+      }
+    } else if(state.state === 1) {
+      // ensure p is larger than q (swap them if not)
+      if(state.p.compareTo(state.q) < 0) {
+        state.num = state.p;
+        state.p = state.q;
+        state.q = state.num;
+      }
+      ++state.state;
+    } else if(state.state === 2) {
+      // compute phi: (p - 1)(q - 1) (Euler's totient function)
+      state.p1 = state.p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE);
+      state.q1 = state.q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE);
+      state.phi = state.p1.multiply(state.q1);
+      ++state.state;
+    } else if(state.state === 3) {
+      // ensure e and phi are coprime
+      if(state.phi.gcd(state.e).compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) === 0) {
+        // phi and e are coprime, advance
+        ++state.state;
+      } else {
+        // phi and e aren't coprime, so generate a new p and q
+        state.p = null;
+        state.q = null;
+        state.state = 0;
+      }
+    } else if(state.state === 4) {
+      // create n, ensure n is has the right number of bits
+      state.n = state.p.multiply(state.q);
+
+      // ensure n is right number of bits
+      if(state.n.bitLength() === state.bits) {
+        // success, advance
+        ++state.state;
+      } else {
+        // failed, get new q
+        state.q = null;
+        state.state = 0;
+      }
+    } else if(state.state === 5) {
+      // set keys
+      var d = state.e.modInverse(state.phi);
+      state.keys = {
+        privateKey: pki.rsa.setPrivateKey(
+          state.n, state.e, d, state.p, state.q,
+          d.mod(state.p1), d.mod(state.q1),
+          state.q.modInverse(state.p)),
+        publicKey: pki.rsa.setPublicKey(state.n, state.e)
+      };
+    }
+
+    // update timing
+    t2 = +new Date();
+    total += t2 - t1;
+    t1 = t2;
+  }
+
+  return state.keys !== null;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Generates an RSA public-private key pair in a single call.
+ *
+ * To generate a key-pair in steps (to allow for progress updates and to
+ * prevent blocking or warnings in slow browsers) then use the key-pair
+ * generation state functions.
+ *
+ * To generate a key-pair asynchronously (either through web-workers, if
+ * available, or by breaking up the work on the main thread), pass a
+ * callback function.
+ *
+ * @param [bits] the size for the private key in bits, defaults to 2048.
+ * @param [e] the public exponent to use, defaults to 65537.
+ * @param [options] options for key-pair generation, if given then 'bits'
+ *            and 'e' must *not* be given:
+ *          bits the size for the private key in bits, (default: 2048).
+ *          e the public exponent to use, (default: 65537 (0x10001)).
+ *          workerScript the worker script URL.
+ *          workers the number of web workers (if supported) to use,
+ *            (default: 2).
+ *          workLoad the size of the work load, ie: number of possible prime
+ *            numbers for each web worker to check per work assignment,
+ *            (default: 100).
+ *          prng a custom crypto-secure pseudo-random number generator to use,
+ *            that must define "getBytesSync". Disables use of native APIs.
+ *          algorithm the algorithm to use (default: 'PRIMEINC').
+ * @param [callback(err, keypair)] called once the operation completes.
+ *
+ * @return an object with privateKey and publicKey properties.
+ */
+pki.rsa.generateKeyPair = function(bits, e, options, callback) {
+  // (bits), (options), (callback)
+  if(arguments.length === 1) {
+    if(typeof bits === 'object') {
+      options = bits;
+      bits = undefined;
+    } else if(typeof bits === 'function') {
+      callback = bits;
+      bits = undefined;
+    }
+  } else if(arguments.length === 2) {
+    // (bits, e), (bits, options), (bits, callback), (options, callback)
+    if(typeof bits === 'number') {
+      if(typeof e === 'function') {
+        callback = e;
+        e = undefined;
+      } else if(typeof e !== 'number') {
+        options = e;
+        e = undefined;
+      }
+    } else {
+      options = bits;
+      callback = e;
+      bits = undefined;
+      e = undefined;
+    }
+  } else if(arguments.length === 3) {
+    // (bits, e, options), (bits, e, callback), (bits, options, callback)
+    if(typeof e === 'number') {
+      if(typeof options === 'function') {
+        callback = options;
+        options = undefined;
+      }
+    } else {
+      callback = options;
+      options = e;
+      e = undefined;
+    }
+  }
+  options = options || {};
+  if(bits === undefined) {
+    bits = options.bits || 2048;
+  }
+  if(e === undefined) {
+    e = options.e || 0x10001;
+  }
+
+  // use native code if permitted, available, and parameters are acceptable
+  if(!forge.options.usePureJavaScript && !options.prng &&
+    bits >= 256 && bits <= 16384 && (e === 0x10001 || e === 3)) {
+    if(callback) {
+      // try native async
+      if(_detectNodeCrypto('generateKeyPair')) {
+        return _crypto.generateKeyPair('rsa', {
+          modulusLength: bits,
+          publicExponent: e,
+          publicKeyEncoding: {
+            type: 'spki',
+            format: 'pem'
+          },
+          privateKeyEncoding: {
+            type: 'pkcs8',
+            format: 'pem'
+          }
+        }, function(err, pub, priv) {
+          if(err) {
+            return callback(err);
+          }
+          callback(null, {
+            privateKey: pki.privateKeyFromPem(priv),
+            publicKey: pki.publicKeyFromPem(pub)
+          });
+        });
+      }
+      if(_detectSubtleCrypto('generateKey') &&
+        _detectSubtleCrypto('exportKey')) {
+        // use standard native generateKey
+        return util.globalScope.crypto.subtle.generateKey({
+          name: 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+          modulusLength: bits,
+          publicExponent: _intToUint8Array(e),
+          hash: {name: 'SHA-256'}
+        }, true /* key can be exported*/, ['sign', 'verify'])
+        .then(function(pair) {
+          return util.globalScope.crypto.subtle.exportKey(
+            'pkcs8', pair.privateKey);
+        // avoiding catch(function(err) {...}) to support IE <= 8
+        }).then(undefined, function(err) {
+          callback(err);
+        }).then(function(pkcs8) {
+          if(pkcs8) {
+            var privateKey = pki.privateKeyFromAsn1(
+              asn1.fromDer(forge.util.createBuffer(pkcs8)));
+            callback(null, {
+              privateKey: privateKey,
+              publicKey: pki.setRsaPublicKey(privateKey.n, privateKey.e)
+            });
+          }
+        });
+      }
+      if(_detectSubtleMsCrypto('generateKey') &&
+        _detectSubtleMsCrypto('exportKey')) {
+        var genOp = util.globalScope.msCrypto.subtle.generateKey({
+          name: 'RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5',
+          modulusLength: bits,
+          publicExponent: _intToUint8Array(e),
+          hash: {name: 'SHA-256'}
+        }, true /* key can be exported*/, ['sign', 'verify']);
+        genOp.oncomplete = function(e) {
+          var pair = e.target.result;
+          var exportOp = util.globalScope.msCrypto.subtle.exportKey(
+            'pkcs8', pair.privateKey);
+          exportOp.oncomplete = function(e) {
+            var pkcs8 = e.target.result;
+            var privateKey = pki.privateKeyFromAsn1(
+              asn1.fromDer(forge.util.createBuffer(pkcs8)));
+            callback(null, {
+              privateKey: privateKey,
+              publicKey: pki.setRsaPublicKey(privateKey.n, privateKey.e)
+            });
+          };
+          exportOp.onerror = function(err) {
+            callback(err);
+          };
+        };
+        genOp.onerror = function(err) {
+          callback(err);
+        };
+        return;
+      }
+    } else {
+      // try native sync
+      if(_detectNodeCrypto('generateKeyPairSync')) {
+        var keypair = _crypto.generateKeyPairSync('rsa', {
+          modulusLength: bits,
+          publicExponent: e,
+          publicKeyEncoding: {
+            type: 'spki',
+            format: 'pem'
+          },
+          privateKeyEncoding: {
+            type: 'pkcs8',
+            format: 'pem'
+          }
+        });
+        return {
+          privateKey: pki.privateKeyFromPem(keypair.privateKey),
+          publicKey: pki.publicKeyFromPem(keypair.publicKey)
+        };
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // use JavaScript implementation
+  var state = pki.rsa.createKeyPairGenerationState(bits, e, options);
+  if(!callback) {
+    pki.rsa.stepKeyPairGenerationState(state, 0);
+    return state.keys;
+  }
+  _generateKeyPair(state, options, callback);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Sets an RSA public key from BigIntegers modulus and exponent.
+ *
+ * @param n the modulus.
+ * @param e the exponent.
+ *
+ * @return the public key.
+ */
+pki.setRsaPublicKey = pki.rsa.setPublicKey = function(n, e) {
+  var key = {
+    n: n,
+    e: e
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Encrypts the given data with this public key. Newer applications
+   * should use the 'RSA-OAEP' decryption scheme, 'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5' is for
+   * legacy applications.
+   *
+   * @param data the byte string to encrypt.
+   * @param scheme the encryption scheme to use:
+   *          'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5' (default),
+   *          'RSA-OAEP',
+   *          'RAW', 'NONE', or null to perform raw RSA encryption,
+   *          an object with an 'encode' property set to a function
+   *          with the signature 'function(data, key)' that returns
+   *          a binary-encoded string representing the encoded data.
+   * @param schemeOptions any scheme-specific options.
+   *
+   * @return the encrypted byte string.
+   */
+  key.encrypt = function(data, scheme, schemeOptions) {
+    if(typeof scheme === 'string') {
+      scheme = scheme.toUpperCase();
+    } else if(scheme === undefined) {
+      scheme = 'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5';
+    }
+
+    if(scheme === 'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5') {
+      scheme = {
+        encode: function(m, key, pub) {
+          return _encodePkcs1_v1_5(m, key, 0x02).getBytes();
+        }
+      };
+    } else if(scheme === 'RSA-OAEP' || scheme === 'RSAES-OAEP') {
+      scheme = {
+        encode: function(m, key) {
+          return forge.pkcs1.encode_rsa_oaep(key, m, schemeOptions);
+        }
+      };
+    } else if(['RAW', 'NONE', 'NULL', null].indexOf(scheme) !== -1) {
+      scheme = {encode: function(e) {return e;}};
+    } else if(typeof scheme === 'string') {
+      throw new Error('Unsupported encryption scheme: "' + scheme + '".');
+    }
+
+    // do scheme-based encoding then rsa encryption
+    var e = scheme.encode(data, key, true);
+    return pki.rsa.encrypt(e, key, true);
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Verifies the given signature against the given digest.
+   *
+   * PKCS#1 supports multiple (currently two) signature schemes:
+   * RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5 and RSASSA-PSS.
+   *
+   * By default this implementation uses the "old scheme", i.e.
+   * RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5, in which case once RSA-decrypted, the
+   * signature is an OCTET STRING that holds a DigestInfo.
+   *
+   * DigestInfo ::= SEQUENCE {
+   *   digestAlgorithm DigestAlgorithmIdentifier,
+   *   digest Digest
+   * }
+   * DigestAlgorithmIdentifier ::= AlgorithmIdentifier
+   * Digest ::= OCTET STRING
+   *
+   * To perform PSS signature verification, provide an instance
+   * of Forge PSS object as the scheme parameter.
+   *
+   * @param digest the message digest hash to compare against the signature,
+   *          as a binary-encoded string.
+   * @param signature the signature to verify, as a binary-encoded string.
+   * @param scheme signature verification scheme to use:
+   *          'RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5' or undefined for RSASSA PKCS#1 v1.5,
+   *          a Forge PSS object for RSASSA-PSS,
+   *          'NONE' or null for none, DigestInfo will not be expected, but
+   *            PKCS#1 v1.5 padding will still be used.
+   * @param options optional verify options
+   *          _parseAllDigestBytes testing flag to control parsing of all
+   *            digest bytes. Unsupported and not for general usage.
+   *            (default: true)
+   *          _skipPaddingChecks testing flag to skip some padding checks to
+   *            test other checks. Unsupported and not for general usage.
+   *            (default: false)
+   *
+   * @return true if the signature was verified, false if not.
+   */
+  key.verify = function(digest, signature, scheme, options) {
+    if(typeof scheme === 'string') {
+      scheme = scheme.toUpperCase();
+    } else if(scheme === undefined) {
+      scheme = 'RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5';
+    }
+    if(options === undefined) {
+      options = {
+        _parseAllDigestBytes: true,
+        _skipPaddingChecks: false
+      };
+    }
+    if(!('_parseAllDigestBytes' in options)) {
+      options._parseAllDigestBytes = true;
+    }
+    if(!('_skipPaddingChecks' in options)) {
+      options._skipPaddingChecks = false;
+    }
+
+    if(scheme === 'RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5') {
+      scheme = {
+        verify: function(digest, d) {
+          // remove padding
+          d = _decodePkcs1_v1_5(d, key, true, undefined, options);
+          // d is ASN.1 BER-encoded DigestInfo
+          var obj = asn1.fromDer(d, {
+            parseAllBytes: options._parseAllDigestBytes
+          });
+
+          // validate DigestInfo structure and element count
+          var capture = {};
+          var errors = [];
+          if(!asn1.validate(obj, digestInfoValidator, capture, errors) ||
+            obj.value.length !== 2) {
+            var error = new Error(
+              'ASN.1 object does not contain a valid RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 ' +
+              'DigestInfo value.');
+            error.errors = errors;
+            throw error;
+          }
+          // check hash algorithm identifier
+          // see PKCS1-v1-5DigestAlgorithms in RFC 8017
+          // FIXME: add support to validator for strict value choices
+          var oid = asn1.derToOid(capture.algorithmIdentifier);
+          if(!(oid === forge.oids.md2 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.md5 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.sha1 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.sha224 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.sha256 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.sha384 ||
+            oid === forge.oids.sha512 ||
+            oid === forge.oids['sha512-224'] ||
+            oid === forge.oids['sha512-256'])) {
+            var error = new Error(
+              'Unknown RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 DigestAlgorithm identifier.');
+            error.oid = oid;
+            throw error;
+          }
+
+          // special check for md2 and md5 that NULL parameters exist
+          if(oid === forge.oids.md2 || oid === forge.oids.md5) {
+            if(!('parameters' in capture)) {
+              throw new Error(
+                'ASN.1 object does not contain a valid RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 ' +
+                'DigestInfo value. ' +
+                'Missing algorithm identifier NULL parameters.');
+            }
+          }
+
+          // compare the given digest to the decrypted one
+          return digest === capture.digest;
+        }
+      };
+    } else if(scheme === 'NONE' || scheme === 'NULL' || scheme === null) {
+      scheme = {
+        verify: function(digest, d) {
+          // remove padding
+          d = _decodePkcs1_v1_5(d, key, true, undefined, options);
+          return digest === d;
+        }
+      };
+    }
+
+    // do rsa decryption w/o any decoding, then verify -- which does decoding
+    var d = pki.rsa.decrypt(signature, key, true, false);
+    return scheme.verify(digest, d, key.n.bitLength());
+  };
+
+  return key;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Sets an RSA private key from BigIntegers modulus, exponent, primes,
+ * prime exponents, and modular multiplicative inverse.
+ *
+ * @param n the modulus.
+ * @param e the public exponent.
+ * @param d the private exponent ((inverse of e) mod n).
+ * @param p the first prime.
+ * @param q the second prime.
+ * @param dP exponent1 (d mod (p-1)).
+ * @param dQ exponent2 (d mod (q-1)).
+ * @param qInv ((inverse of q) mod p)
+ *
+ * @return the private key.
+ */
+pki.setRsaPrivateKey = pki.rsa.setPrivateKey = function(
+  n, e, d, p, q, dP, dQ, qInv) {
+  var key = {
+    n: n,
+    e: e,
+    d: d,
+    p: p,
+    q: q,
+    dP: dP,
+    dQ: dQ,
+    qInv: qInv
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Decrypts the given data with this private key. The decryption scheme
+   * must match the one used to encrypt the data.
+   *
+   * @param data the byte string to decrypt.
+   * @param scheme the decryption scheme to use:
+   *          'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5' (default),
+   *          'RSA-OAEP',
+   *          'RAW', 'NONE', or null to perform raw RSA decryption.
+   * @param schemeOptions any scheme-specific options.
+   *
+   * @return the decrypted byte string.
+   */
+  key.decrypt = function(data, scheme, schemeOptions) {
+    if(typeof scheme === 'string') {
+      scheme = scheme.toUpperCase();
+    } else if(scheme === undefined) {
+      scheme = 'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5';
+    }
+
+    // do rsa decryption w/o any decoding
+    var d = pki.rsa.decrypt(data, key, false, false);
+
+    if(scheme === 'RSAES-PKCS1-V1_5') {
+      scheme = {decode: _decodePkcs1_v1_5};
+    } else if(scheme === 'RSA-OAEP' || scheme === 'RSAES-OAEP') {
+      scheme = {
+        decode: function(d, key) {
+          return forge.pkcs1.decode_rsa_oaep(key, d, schemeOptions);
+        }
+      };
+    } else if(['RAW', 'NONE', 'NULL', null].indexOf(scheme) !== -1) {
+      scheme = {decode: function(d) {return d;}};
+    } else {
+      throw new Error('Unsupported encryption scheme: "' + scheme + '".');
+    }
+
+    // decode according to scheme
+    return scheme.decode(d, key, false);
+  };
+
+  /**
+   * Signs the given digest, producing a signature.
+   *
+   * PKCS#1 supports multiple (currently two) signature schemes:
+   * RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5 and RSASSA-PSS.
+   *
+   * By default this implementation uses the "old scheme", i.e.
+   * RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5. In order to generate a PSS signature, provide
+   * an instance of Forge PSS object as the scheme parameter.
+   *
+   * @param md the message digest object with the hash to sign.
+   * @param scheme the signature scheme to use:
+   *          'RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5' or undefined for RSASSA PKCS#1 v1.5,
+   *          a Forge PSS object for RSASSA-PSS,
+   *          'NONE' or null for none, DigestInfo will not be used but
+   *            PKCS#1 v1.5 padding will still be used.
+   *
+   * @return the signature as a byte string.
+   */
+  key.sign = function(md, scheme) {
+    /* Note: The internal implementation of RSA operations is being
+      transitioned away from a PKCS#1 v1.5 hard-coded scheme. Some legacy
+      code like the use of an encoding block identifier 'bt' will eventually
+      be removed. */
+
+    // private key operation
+    var bt = false;
+
+    if(typeof scheme === 'string') {
+      scheme = scheme.toUpperCase();
+    }
+
+    if(scheme === undefined || scheme === 'RSASSA-PKCS1-V1_5') {
+      scheme = {encode: emsaPkcs1v15encode};
+      bt = 0x01;
+    } else if(scheme === 'NONE' || scheme === 'NULL' || scheme === null) {
+      scheme = {encode: function() {return md;}};
+      bt = 0x01;
+    }
+
+    // encode and then encrypt
+    var d = scheme.encode(md, key.n.bitLength());
+    return pki.rsa.encrypt(d, key, bt);
+  };
+
+  return key;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Wraps an RSAPrivateKey ASN.1 object in an ASN.1 PrivateKeyInfo object.
+ *
+ * @param rsaKey the ASN.1 RSAPrivateKey.
+ *
+ * @return the ASN.1 PrivateKeyInfo.
+ */
+pki.wrapRsaPrivateKey = function(rsaKey) {
+  // PrivateKeyInfo
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // version (0)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      asn1.integerToDer(0).getBytes()),
+    // privateKeyAlgorithm
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      asn1.create(
+        asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(pki.oids.rsaEncryption).getBytes()),
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, '')
+    ]),
+    // PrivateKey
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING, false,
+      asn1.toDer(rsaKey).getBytes())
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a private key from an ASN.1 object.
+ *
+ * @param obj the ASN.1 representation of a PrivateKeyInfo containing an
+ *          RSAPrivateKey or an RSAPrivateKey.
+ *
+ * @return the private key.
+ */
+pki.privateKeyFromAsn1 = function(obj) {
+  // get PrivateKeyInfo
+  var capture = {};
+  var errors = [];
+  if(asn1.validate(obj, privateKeyValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    obj = asn1.fromDer(forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKey));
+  }
+
+  // get RSAPrivateKey
+  capture = {};
+  errors = [];
+  if(!asn1.validate(obj, rsaPrivateKeyValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    var error = new Error('Cannot read private key. ' +
+      'ASN.1 object does not contain an RSAPrivateKey.');
+    error.errors = errors;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  // Note: Version is currently ignored.
+  // capture.privateKeyVersion
+  // FIXME: inefficient, get a BigInteger that uses byte strings
+  var n, e, d, p, q, dP, dQ, qInv;
+  n = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyModulus).toHex();
+  e = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyPublicExponent).toHex();
+  d = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyPrivateExponent).toHex();
+  p = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyPrime1).toHex();
+  q = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyPrime2).toHex();
+  dP = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyExponent1).toHex();
+  dQ = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyExponent2).toHex();
+  qInv = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.privateKeyCoefficient).toHex();
+
+  // set private key
+  return pki.setRsaPrivateKey(
+    new BigInteger(n, 16),
+    new BigInteger(e, 16),
+    new BigInteger(d, 16),
+    new BigInteger(p, 16),
+    new BigInteger(q, 16),
+    new BigInteger(dP, 16),
+    new BigInteger(dQ, 16),
+    new BigInteger(qInv, 16));
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a private key to an ASN.1 RSAPrivateKey.
+ *
+ * @param key the private key.
+ *
+ * @return the ASN.1 representation of an RSAPrivateKey.
+ */
+pki.privateKeyToAsn1 = pki.privateKeyToRSAPrivateKey = function(key) {
+  // RSAPrivateKey
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // version (0 = only 2 primes, 1 multiple primes)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      asn1.integerToDer(0).getBytes()),
+    // modulus (n)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.n)),
+    // publicExponent (e)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.e)),
+    // privateExponent (d)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.d)),
+    // privateKeyPrime1 (p)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.p)),
+    // privateKeyPrime2 (q)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.q)),
+    // privateKeyExponent1 (dP)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.dP)),
+    // privateKeyExponent2 (dQ)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.dQ)),
+    // coefficient (qInv)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.qInv))
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a public key from an ASN.1 SubjectPublicKeyInfo or RSAPublicKey.
+ *
+ * @param obj the asn1 representation of a SubjectPublicKeyInfo or RSAPublicKey.
+ *
+ * @return the public key.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyFromAsn1 = function(obj) {
+  // get SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+  var capture = {};
+  var errors = [];
+  if(asn1.validate(obj, publicKeyValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    // get oid
+    var oid = asn1.derToOid(capture.publicKeyOid);
+    if(oid !== pki.oids.rsaEncryption) {
+      var error = new Error('Cannot read public key. Unknown OID.');
+      error.oid = oid;
+      throw error;
+    }
+    obj = capture.rsaPublicKey;
+  }
+
+  // get RSA params
+  errors = [];
+  if(!asn1.validate(obj, rsaPublicKeyValidator, capture, errors)) {
+    var error = new Error('Cannot read public key. ' +
+      'ASN.1 object does not contain an RSAPublicKey.');
+    error.errors = errors;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  // FIXME: inefficient, get a BigInteger that uses byte strings
+  var n = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.publicKeyModulus).toHex();
+  var e = forge.util.createBuffer(capture.publicKeyExponent).toHex();
+
+  // set public key
+  return pki.setRsaPublicKey(
+    new BigInteger(n, 16),
+    new BigInteger(e, 16));
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a public key to an ASN.1 SubjectPublicKeyInfo.
+ *
+ * @param key the public key.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 representation of a SubjectPublicKeyInfo.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyToAsn1 = pki.publicKeyToSubjectPublicKeyInfo = function(key) {
+  // SubjectPublicKeyInfo
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // AlgorithmIdentifier
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+      // algorithm
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.OID, false,
+        asn1.oidToDer(pki.oids.rsaEncryption).getBytes()),
+      // parameters (null)
+      asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.NULL, false, '')
+    ]),
+    // subjectPublicKey
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.BITSTRING, false, [
+      pki.publicKeyToRSAPublicKey(key)
+    ])
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a public key to an ASN.1 RSAPublicKey.
+ *
+ * @param key the public key.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 representation of a RSAPublicKey.
+ */
+pki.publicKeyToRSAPublicKey = function(key) {
+  // RSAPublicKey
+  return asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.SEQUENCE, true, [
+    // modulus (n)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.n)),
+    // publicExponent (e)
+    asn1.create(asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL, asn1.Type.INTEGER, false,
+      _bnToBytes(key.e))
+  ]);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a message using PKCS#1 v1.5 padding.
+ *
+ * @param m the message to encode.
+ * @param key the RSA key to use.
+ * @param bt the block type to use, i.e. either 0x01 (for signing) or 0x02
+ *          (for encryption).
+ *
+ * @return the padded byte buffer.
+ */
+function _encodePkcs1_v1_5(m, key, bt) {
+  var eb = forge.util.createBuffer();
+
+  // get the length of the modulus in bytes
+  var k = Math.ceil(key.n.bitLength() / 8);
+
+  /* use PKCS#1 v1.5 padding */
+  if(m.length > (k - 11)) {
+    var error = new Error('Message is too long for PKCS#1 v1.5 padding.');
+    error.length = m.length;
+    error.max = k - 11;
+    throw error;
+  }
+
+  /* A block type BT, a padding string PS, and the data D shall be
+    formatted into an octet string EB, the encryption block:
+
+    EB = 00 || BT || PS || 00 || D
+
+    The block type BT shall be a single octet indicating the structure of
+    the encryption block. For this version of the document it shall have
+    value 00, 01, or 02. For a private-key operation, the block type
+    shall be 00 or 01. For a public-key operation, it shall be 02.
+
+    The padding string PS shall consist of k-3-||D|| octets. For block
+    type 00, the octets shall have value 00; for block type 01, they
+    shall have value FF; and for block type 02, they shall be
+    pseudorandomly generated and nonzero. This makes the length of the
+    encryption block EB equal to k. */
+
+  // build the encryption block
+  eb.putByte(0x00);
+  eb.putByte(bt);
+
+  // create the padding
+  var padNum = k - 3 - m.length;
+  var padByte;
+  // private key op
+  if(bt === 0x00 || bt === 0x01) {
+    padByte = (bt === 0x00) ? 0x00 : 0xFF;
+    for(var i = 0; i < padNum; ++i) {
+      eb.putByte(padByte);
+    }
+  } else {
+    // public key op
+    // pad with random non-zero values
+    while(padNum > 0) {
+      var numZeros = 0;
+      var padBytes = forge.random.getBytes(padNum);
+      for(var i = 0; i < padNum; ++i) {
+        padByte = padBytes.charCodeAt(i);
+        if(padByte === 0) {
+          ++numZeros;
+        } else {
+          eb.putByte(padByte);
+        }
+      }
+      padNum = numZeros;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // zero followed by message
+  eb.putByte(0x00);
+  eb.putBytes(m);
+
+  return eb;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decodes a message using PKCS#1 v1.5 padding.
+ *
+ * @param em the message to decode.
+ * @param key the RSA key to use.
+ * @param pub true if the key is a public key, false if it is private.
+ * @param ml the message length, if specified.
+ * @param options testing options.
+ *
+ * @return the decoded bytes.
+ */
+function _decodePkcs1_v1_5(em, key, pub, ml, options) {
+  // get the length of the modulus in bytes
+  var k = Math.ceil(key.n.bitLength() / 8);
+
+  /* It is an error if any of the following conditions occurs:
+
+    1. The encryption block EB cannot be parsed unambiguously.
+    2. The padding string PS consists of fewer than eight octets
+      or is inconsistent with the block type BT.
+    3. The decryption process is a public-key operation and the block
+      type BT is not 00 or 01, or the decryption process is a
+      private-key operation and the block type is not 02.
+   */
+
+  // parse the encryption block
+  var eb = forge.util.createBuffer(em);
+  var first = eb.getByte();
+  var bt = eb.getByte();
+  if(first !== 0x00 ||
+    (pub && bt !== 0x00 && bt !== 0x01) ||
+    (!pub && bt !== 0x02) ||
+    (pub && bt === 0x00 && typeof(ml) === 'undefined')) {
+    throw new Error('Encryption block is invalid.');
+  }
+
+  var padNum = 0;
+  if(bt === 0x00) {
+    // check all padding bytes for 0x00
+    padNum = k - 3 - ml;
+    for(var i = 0; i < padNum; ++i) {
+      if(eb.getByte() !== 0x00) {
+        throw new Error('Encryption block is invalid.');
+      }
+    }
+  } else if(bt === 0x01) {
+    // find the first byte that isn't 0xFF, should be after all padding
+    padNum = 0;
+    while(eb.length() > 1) {
+      if(eb.getByte() !== 0xFF) {
+        --eb.read;
+        break;
+      }
+      ++padNum;
+    }
+
+    // RFC 2313 8.1 note 6
+    if(padNum < 8 && !(options ? options._skipPaddingChecks : false)) {
+      throw new Error('Encryption block is invalid.');
+    }
+  } else if(bt === 0x02) {
+    // look for 0x00 byte
+    padNum = 0;
+    while(eb.length() > 1) {
+      if(eb.getByte() === 0x00) {
+        --eb.read;
+        break;
+      }
+      ++padNum;
+    }
+
+    // RFC 2313 8.1 note 6
+    if(padNum < 8 && !(options ? options._skipPaddingChecks : false)) {
+      throw new Error('Encryption block is invalid.');
+    }
+  }
+
+  // zero must be 0x00 and padNum must be (k - 3 - message length)
+  var zero = eb.getByte();
+  if(zero !== 0x00 || padNum !== (k - 3 - eb.length())) {
+    throw new Error('Encryption block is invalid.');
+  }
+
+  return eb.getBytes();
+}
+
+/**
+ * Runs the key-generation algorithm asynchronously, either in the background
+ * via Web Workers, or using the main thread and setImmediate.
+ *
+ * @param state the key-pair generation state.
+ * @param [options] options for key-pair generation:
+ *          workerScript the worker script URL.
+ *          workers the number of web workers (if supported) to use,
+ *            (default: 2, -1 to use estimated cores minus one).
+ *          workLoad the size of the work load, ie: number of possible prime
+ *            numbers for each web worker to check per work assignment,
+ *            (default: 100).
+ * @param callback(err, keypair) called once the operation completes.
+ */
+function _generateKeyPair(state, options, callback) {
+  if(typeof options === 'function') {
+    callback = options;
+    options = {};
+  }
+  options = options || {};
+
+  var opts = {
+    algorithm: {
+      name: options.algorithm || 'PRIMEINC',
+      options: {
+        workers: options.workers || 2,
+        workLoad: options.workLoad || 100,
+        workerScript: options.workerScript
+      }
+    }
+  };
+  if('prng' in options) {
+    opts.prng = options.prng;
+  }
+
+  generate();
+
+  function generate() {
+    // find p and then q (done in series to simplify)
+    getPrime(state.pBits, function(err, num) {
+      if(err) {
+        return callback(err);
+      }
+      state.p = num;
+      if(state.q !== null) {
+        return finish(err, state.q);
+      }
+      getPrime(state.qBits, finish);
+    });
+  }
+
+  function getPrime(bits, callback) {
+    forge.prime.generateProbablePrime(bits, opts, callback);
+  }
+
+  function finish(err, num) {
+    if(err) {
+      return callback(err);
+    }
+
+    // set q
+    state.q = num;
+
+    // ensure p is larger than q (swap them if not)
+    if(state.p.compareTo(state.q) < 0) {
+      var tmp = state.p;
+      state.p = state.q;
+      state.q = tmp;
+    }
+
+    // ensure p is coprime with e
+    if(state.p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE).gcd(state.e)
+      .compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) !== 0) {
+      state.p = null;
+      generate();
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // ensure q is coprime with e
+    if(state.q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE).gcd(state.e)
+      .compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) !== 0) {
+      state.q = null;
+      getPrime(state.qBits, finish);
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // compute phi: (p - 1)(q - 1) (Euler's totient function)
+    state.p1 = state.p.subtract(BigInteger.ONE);
+    state.q1 = state.q.subtract(BigInteger.ONE);
+    state.phi = state.p1.multiply(state.q1);
+
+    // ensure e and phi are coprime
+    if(state.phi.gcd(state.e).compareTo(BigInteger.ONE) !== 0) {
+      // phi and e aren't coprime, so generate a new p and q
+      state.p = state.q = null;
+      generate();
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // create n, ensure n is has the right number of bits
+    state.n = state.p.multiply(state.q);
+    if(state.n.bitLength() !== state.bits) {
+      // failed, get new q
+      state.q = null;
+      getPrime(state.qBits, finish);
+      return;
+    }
+
+    // set keys
+    var d = state.e.modInverse(state.phi);
+    state.keys = {
+      privateKey: pki.rsa.setPrivateKey(
+        state.n, state.e, d, state.p, state.q,
+        d.mod(state.p1), d.mod(state.q1),
+        state.q.modInverse(state.p)),
+      publicKey: pki.rsa.setPublicKey(state.n, state.e)
+    };
+
+    callback(null, state.keys);
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts a positive BigInteger into 2's-complement big-endian bytes.
+ *
+ * @param b the big integer to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the bytes.
+ */
+function _bnToBytes(b) {
+  // prepend 0x00 if first byte >= 0x80
+  var hex = b.toString(16);
+  if(hex[0] >= '8') {
+    hex = '00' + hex;
+  }
+  var bytes = forge.util.hexToBytes(hex);
+
+  // ensure integer is minimally-encoded
+  if(bytes.length > 1 &&
+    // leading 0x00 for positive integer
+    ((bytes.charCodeAt(0) === 0 &&
+    (bytes.charCodeAt(1) & 0x80) === 0) ||
+    // leading 0xFF for negative integer
+    (bytes.charCodeAt(0) === 0xFF &&
+    (bytes.charCodeAt(1) & 0x80) === 0x80))) {
+    return bytes.substr(1);
+  }
+  return bytes;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns the required number of Miller-Rabin tests to generate a
+ * prime with an error probability of (1/2)^80.
+ *
+ * See Handbook of Applied Cryptography Chapter 4, Table 4.4.
+ *
+ * @param bits the bit size.
+ *
+ * @return the required number of iterations.
+ */
+function _getMillerRabinTests(bits) {
+  if(bits <= 100) return 27;
+  if(bits <= 150) return 18;
+  if(bits <= 200) return 15;
+  if(bits <= 250) return 12;
+  if(bits <= 300) return 9;
+  if(bits <= 350) return 8;
+  if(bits <= 400) return 7;
+  if(bits <= 500) return 6;
+  if(bits <= 600) return 5;
+  if(bits <= 800) return 4;
+  if(bits <= 1250) return 3;
+  return 2;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Performs feature detection on the Node crypto interface.
+ *
+ * @param fn the feature (function) to detect.
+ *
+ * @return true if detected, false if not.
+ */
+function _detectNodeCrypto(fn) {
+  return forge.util.isNodejs && typeof _crypto[fn] === 'function';
+}
+
+/**
+ * Performs feature detection on the SubtleCrypto interface.
+ *
+ * @param fn the feature (function) to detect.
+ *
+ * @return true if detected, false if not.
+ */
+function _detectSubtleCrypto(fn) {
+  return (typeof util.globalScope !== 'undefined' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.crypto === 'object' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.crypto.subtle === 'object' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.crypto.subtle[fn] === 'function');
+}
+
+/**
+ * Performs feature detection on the deprecated Microsoft Internet Explorer
+ * outdated SubtleCrypto interface. This function should only be used after
+ * checking for the modern, standard SubtleCrypto interface.
+ *
+ * @param fn the feature (function) to detect.
+ *
+ * @return true if detected, false if not.
+ */
+function _detectSubtleMsCrypto(fn) {
+  return (typeof util.globalScope !== 'undefined' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.msCrypto === 'object' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.msCrypto.subtle === 'object' &&
+    typeof util.globalScope.msCrypto.subtle[fn] === 'function');
+}
+
+function _intToUint8Array(x) {
+  var bytes = forge.util.hexToBytes(x.toString(16));
+  var buffer = new Uint8Array(bytes.length);
+  for(var i = 0; i < bytes.length; ++i) {
+    buffer[i] = bytes.charCodeAt(i);
+  }
+  return buffer;
+}
+
+function _privateKeyFromJwk(jwk) {
+  if(jwk.kty !== 'RSA') {
+    throw new Error(
+      'Unsupported key algorithm "' + jwk.kty + '"; algorithm must be "RSA".');
+  }
+  return pki.setRsaPrivateKey(
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.n),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.e),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.d),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.p),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.q),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.dp),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.dq),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.qi));
+}
+
+function _publicKeyFromJwk(jwk) {
+  if(jwk.kty !== 'RSA') {
+    throw new Error('Key algorithm must be "RSA".');
+  }
+  return pki.setRsaPublicKey(
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.n),
+    _base64ToBigInt(jwk.e));
+}
+
+function _base64ToBigInt(b64) {
+  return new BigInteger(forge.util.bytesToHex(forge.util.decode64(b64)), 16);
+}