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+{{for||Canada (disambiguation)}}
+{{Use Canadian English|date=November 2014}}
+{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2014}}
+{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
+{{pp-move-indef}}
+{{Infobox country
+|native_name = Canada
+|common_name = Canada
+|image_flag = Flag of Canada.svg
+|alt_flag = Vertical triband (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre
+|image_coat =<!-- DO NOT insert a non-free image here. Also, do not insert "Coat of Arms of Canada rendition.svg" here as it's not accurate. -->
+|alt_coat =<!--alt text for coat of arms-->
+|symbol_type = Coat of Arms
+|national_motto = {{native phrase|la|"[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]"|italics=off}}<br>{{small|"From Sea to Sea"}}<br>({{small|As seen on the [[Arms of Canada]]}})
+|national_anthem = "[[O Canada]]"
+|royal_anthem = "[[God Save the Queen]]"<ref name="Jackson2013a">{{cite book|author=D. Michael Jackson (Chief of protocol for the Government of Saskatchewan)|title=The Crown and Canadian Federalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZcIf46DzpfUC&pg=PA199|date= 2013|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-4597-0989-8|page=199}}</ref>
+|image_map = Canada (orthographic projection).svg
+|alt_map = Projection of North America with Canada in green
+|map_width = 220px
+|capital = [[Ottawa]]
+|latd=45 |latm=24 |latNS=N |longd=75 |longm=40 |longEW=W
+|largest_city = [[Toronto]]
+|official_languages = {{hlist |English |French}}
+|regional_languages = {{hlist |[[Dene Suline language|Chipewyan]] |[[Cree language|Cree]] |[[Gwich’in language|Gwich’in]] |[[Inuinnaqtun]] |[[Inuktitut]] |[[Inuvialuktun]] |[[Slavey language|North Slavey]] |[[Slavey language|South Slavey]] |[[Dogrib language|Tłı̨chǫ]]}}
+|ethnic_groups =
+ {{unbulleted list
+  | 76.7% [[European Canadian|White]]
+  | 14.2% [[Asian Canadian|Asian]]
+  | 4.3% [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]]
+  | 2.9% [[Black Canadian|Black]]
+  | 1.2% [[Latin American Canadian|Latin American]]
+  | 0.5% [[multiracial]]
+  | 0.3% [[Canada 2011 Census|other]]
+ }}
+|demonym = Canadian
+|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]]<br>[[constitutional monarchy]]<ref name=hail/>}}
+|leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarch]]
+|leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II]]
+|leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]}}
+|leader_name2 = [[David Johnston]]
+|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
+|leader_name3 = [[Stephen Harper]]
+|leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of Canada|Chief Justice]]
+|leader_name4 = [[Beverley McLachlin]]
+|legislature = [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]
+|upper_house = [[Senate of Canada|Senate]]
+|lower_house = [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]
+|sovereignty_type = [[Canadian Confederation|Establishment]]
+|sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
+|established_event1 = [[Constitution of Canada|Constitution Act]]
+|established_date1 = July 1, 1867
+|established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]
+|established_date2 = December 11, 1931
+|established_event3 = [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]
+|established_date3 = April 17, 1982
+|area_km2 = 9,984,670
+|area_sq_mi = 3,854,085 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
+|area_rank = 2nd
+|area_magnitude = 1 E12
+|percent_water = 8.92 (891,163&nbsp;km{{smallsup|2}}{{\}}344,080&nbsp;mi{{smallsup|2}})
+|population_estimate = 35,675,834<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/a26?lang=eng&retrLang=eng&id=0510005&paSer=&pattern=&stByVal=1&p1=1&p2=31&tabMode=dataTable&csid=|title=CANSIM - 051-0005 - Estimates of population, Canada, provinces and territories|publisher=Statistics Canada|date=December 17, 2014|accessdate=January 25, 2015}}</ref>
+|population_estimate_year = [[Calendar year|Q4]] 2014
+|population_estimate_rank = 37th
+|population_census = 33,476,688<ref name="StatsCan-2011Census">{{cite web
+ | author = Statistics Canada
+ | title = Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses
+ | date = January 30, 2013
+ | url = http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A
+ | accessdate = December 2, 2013 }}</ref>
+|population_census_year = 2011
+|population_density_km2 = 3.41
+|population_density_sq_mi = 8.3 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
+|population_density_rank = 228th
+|GDP_PPP = {{nowrap|$1.591 trillion<ref name=imf2/><!--end nowrap:-->}}
+|GDP_PPP_rank = 15th
+|GDP_PPP_year = 2014
+|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $44,843<ref name=imf2/>
+|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 20th
+|GDP_PPP_per_capita_year = 2014
+|GDP_nominal = {{nowrap|$1.788 trillion<ref name=imf2/>}}
+|GDP_nominal_rank = 11th
+|GDP_nominal_year = 2014
+|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $50,397<ref name=imf2/>
+|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 15th
+|GDP_nominal_per_capita_year = 2014
+|Gini_year = 2010
+|Gini_change =  <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
+|Gini = 33.7 <!--number only-->
+|Gini_ref =<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |title=GINI index |publisher=The World Bank |accessdate=October 23, 2014}}</ref>
+|Gini_rank = 103rd<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2172rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Distribution Of Family Income – Gini Index|work=World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=May 1, 2013}}</ref>
+|HDI_year = 2013<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
+|HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
+|HDI = 0.902 <!--number only-->
+|HDI_ref =<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components|title=Table 1: Human Development Index and its components|publisher=UNDP|accessdate=October 5, 2014}}</ref>
+|HDI_rank = 8th
+|currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($)
+|currency_code = CAD
+|utc_offset = −3.5 to −8
+|utc_offset_DST = −2.5 to −7
+|date_format = {{unbulleted list |dd-mm-yyyy |mm-dd-yyyy |yyyy-mm-dd ([[Common Era|CE]])}}
+|drives_on = right
+|calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Canada|+1]]
+|cctld = [[.ca]]
+}}
+
+'''Canada''' is a country, consisting of [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]], in the northern part of the continent of North America. It extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98&nbsp;million square kilometres (3.85&nbsp;million square miles) in total, making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country by total area]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|fourth-largest country by land area]]. Canada's [[Canada–United States border|common border with the United States]] forms the world's longest land border.
+
+The land now called Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples]]. Beginning in the late 15th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] and [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonies]] were established on the region's Atlantic coast. As a consequence of [[Military history of Canada|various conflicts]], the United Kingdom gained and lost North American territories until left, in the late 18th century, with what mostly comprises Canada today. Pursuant to the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]], on July 1, 1867, three colonies [[Confederation of Canada|joined]] to form the autonomous [[Canadian federalism|federal Dominion]] of Canada. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion]] of provinces and territories to the new self-governing [[Dominion]]. In 1931, Britain granted Canada near total independence with the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] and full sovereignty was attained when the [[Canada Act 1982]] severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]].
+
+Canada is a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]], Queen [[Elizabeth II]] being the current head of state. The country is [[Official bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] at the federal level. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multicultural]] nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries, with a population of approximately 35 million as of 2015. Its advanced economy is [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|one of the largest in the world]], relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada's [[Canada–United States relations|long and complex relationship]] with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.
+
+Canada is a [[developed country]] and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|tenth highest]] nominal per capita income globally, and the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|eighth highest]] ranking in the [[Human Development Index]]. It [[International rankings of Canada|ranks among the highest]] in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. Canada is a [[Commonwealth realm|Commonwealth Realm]] member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and is furthermore part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings, including the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]], the [[G8]], the [[Group of Ten (economic)|Group of Ten]], the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum.
+
+==Etymology==
+<!--linked-->
+{{Main|Name of Canada}}<!--Please see the talk page before editing this to specify which languages produced the word Canada. There are differences of opinion, which may be best discussed at Name of Canada-->
+The name ''Canada'' comes from the [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|St. Lawrence Iroquoian]] word ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref name="OlsonShadle1991">{{cite book|author1=James Stuart Olson|author2=Robert Shadle|title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109|year=1991|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-26257-9|page=109}}</ref> In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day [[Quebec City]] region used the word to direct French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref name="Rayburn2001"/> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village, but the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]] (the chief at Stadacona);<ref name="Rayburn2001">{{cite book|author=Alan Rayburn|title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14|year=2001|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8293-0|pages=14–22}}</ref> by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as ''Canada''.<ref name="Rayburn2001"/>
+
+In the 17th and early 18th centuries, "[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]" referred to the part of [[New France]] that lay along the [[St. Lawrence River]].<ref name="Magocsi1999as">{{cite book|author=Paul R. Magocsi|title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1048|year=1999|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6|page=1048}}</ref> In 1791, the area became two British colonies called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]] collectively named [[The Canadas]]; until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref name="Britain1841a">{{cite book|author=Great Britain|title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20|year=1841|publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble|page=20}}</ref> Upon [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1867, ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and the word ''[[Dominion]]'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{cite book|last=O'Toole|first=Roger|title=Holy nations and global identities: civil religion, nationalism, and globalisation|year=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-17828-1|editor=Hvithamar, Annika; Warburg, Margit; Jacobsen, Brian Arly|page=137|chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context}}</ref> The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]], which refers only to ''Canada''. Later that year, the national holiday was [[Canada Day#History|renamed from Dominion Day to Canada Day]].<ref name=buckner>{{cite book|title=Canada and the British Empire|editor= Buckner, Philip|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125|isbn=978-0-19-927164-1}}</ref>   The term "Dominion'  is also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the  [[Military history of Canada during World War II|Second World War]]  the term  "federal" had replaced "dominion".<ref name="CourtneySmith2010">{{cite book|author1=John Courtney|author2=David Smith|title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114|year=2010|publisher=Oxford Handbooks Online|isbn=978-0-19-533535-4|page=114}}</ref>
+
+==History==
+{{Main|History of Canada}}
+{{Further|List of years in Canada}}
+
+===Aboriginal peoples===
+[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples in present-day Canada]] include the [[First Nations]], [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]],<ref name=GraberKuprecht2012>{{cite book|author1=Christoph Beat Graber|author2=Karolina Kuprecht|author3=Jessica C. Lai|title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-0-85793-831-2|page=366}}</ref> the latter being a [[mixed-blood]] people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.<ref name=GraberKuprecht2012/> [[Archaeology of the Americas|Archaeological]] studies and [[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|genetic analyses]] have indicated a human presence in the northern [[Yukon]] region from 13,000–12,000 BC and in southern [[Ontario]] from 7500 BC.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Linda S. Cordell|author2=Kent Lightfoot|author3=Francis McManamon|author4=George Milner|title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=RA3-PA249|volume=4|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-02189-3|page=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy R. Pauketat|title=The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yf8j0b7gLvUC&pg=PA96|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-538011-8|page=96}}</ref> These first settlers entered Canada through [[Beringia]] by way of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas D. Dillehay|title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA61|year=2008|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4|page=61}}</ref> The [[Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites at [[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Center for Archaeological Sciences Norman Herz Professor of Geology and Director|author2=Society of Archaelogical Sciences both at University of Georgia Ervan G. Garrison Associate Professor of Anthropology and Geology and President|title=Geological Methods for Archaeology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YSPkmV_mRvkC&pg=PA125|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-802511-5|page=125}}</ref> The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayes|first=Derek|title=Canada: an illustrated history|year=2008|publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre|isbn=978-1-55365-259-5|pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170| title=Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada| first= Patrick| last=Macklem|year=2001|publisher=University of Toronto Press|page=170|isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sonneborn|first=Liz|title=Chronology of American Indian History|date=January 2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1|pages=2–12}}</ref>
+
+The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|aboriginal population]] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name=dying>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Donna M|author2=Northcott, Herbert C|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25|title=Dying and Death in Canada|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-55111-873-4|pages=25–27}}</ref> and two million,<ref name=Steckel>{{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Russell|title=A population history of North America|editors=Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|pages=13, 380|chapter=Population history of Native North Americans|isbn=978-0-521-49666-7}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{cite book|series=Handbook of North American Indians|title=Indians In Contemporary Society|volume=2|editor1-last=Bailey|editor1-first= Garrick Alan|chapter=Native Populations of Canada|last=O'Donnell|first=C. Vivian|year=2008|publisher= Government Printing Office|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285|page=285|isbn=978-0-16-080388-8}}
+</ref> As a consequence of the European colonization, Canada's aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced [[infectious disease]]s, such as [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[smallpox]] (to which they had no natural immunity), resulting in a forty to eighty percent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival.<ref name=dying/><ref>{{cite book| last=True Peters| first=Stephanie| title=Smallpox in the New World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39|year=2005|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1|page=39}}</ref>
+
+Although not without conflict, [[Euro-Canadian|European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{cite book|last=Preston|first=David L.|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|pages=43–44}}</ref> [[The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples|The Crown and Aboriginal peoples]] began [[Timeline of colonization of North America|interactions]] during the European colonialization period, though, the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html|work=Innu Culture|title=3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'|year=1999|author=Tanner, Adrian|publisher=Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland| accessdate=May 23, 2011 }}</ref> From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Aboriginals to assimilate into their own culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Asch|first=Michael|title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28|year=1997|publisher=UBC Pres|isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0|page=28}}</ref> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with [[Canadian Indian residential school system|forced integration]] and [[High Arctic relocation|relocations]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kirmayer|first1=Laurence J.|last2=Guthriefirst2=Gail Valaskakis|title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9|year=2009|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2|page=9}}</ref>
+
+===European colonization===
+The first known attempt at [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] began when [[Norsemen]] settled briefly at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Norse Discovery of America|first=Arthur Middleton|last=Reeves|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HkoPUdPM3V8C&pg=PA7|publisher=BiblioLife|page=82|year=2009|isbn=978-0-559-05400-6}}</ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer [[John Cabot]] explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Cabot's voyage of 1497|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1497.html |publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland|year=2000|accessdate=August 15, 2012}}</ref> Then [[Basque people|Basque]] and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.<ref name=hornsby/> In 1534, French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] explored the St. Lawrence River, where, on July 24, he planted a {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}} cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory in the name of [[Francis I of France|King Francis I]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Cartier, Jacques; Biggar, Henry Percival; Cook, Ramsay|title=The Voyages of Jacques Cartier|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VcKEk7hRTmYC&pg=PA26|year=1993|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6000-6|page=26}}</ref>
+
+In 1583, Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], by the [[royal prerogative]] of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], founded [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], as the first North American [[Colonial empire of the Kingdom of England|English colony]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Rose, George A|title=Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209|date=October 1, 2007|publisher=Breakwater Books|isbn=978-1-55081-225-1|page=209}}</ref> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at [[Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ninette Kelley|author2=Michael J. Trebilcock|title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27|date=September 30, 2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7|page=27}}</ref> Among the [[French colonization of the Americas|colonists]] of [[New France]], ''[[French Canadian|Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the St. Lawrence River valley and [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[Maritimes]], while [[Coureur des bois|fur traders]] and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, [[Hudson Bay]], and the [[Mississippi watershed]] to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard Roberts LaMar|title=The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West|year=1977|publisher=University of Michigan|isbn=978-0-690-00008-5|page=355}}</ref> The [[Beaver Wars]] broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Tucker, Spencer C; Arnold, James; Wiener, Roberta |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394|date=September 30, 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-697-8|page=394}}</ref>
+
+The English established additional colonies in [[Cupids, Newfoundland and Labrador|Cupids]] and [[Ferryland, Newfoundland and Labrador|Ferryland]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], beginning in 1610.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Phillip Alfred Buckner|author2=John G. Reid|title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55|year=1994|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6977-1|pages=55–56}}</ref> The [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south were founded soon after.<ref name=hornsby>{{cite book|last=Hornsby|first=Stephen J|title=British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America|year=2005|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=978-1-58465-427-8|pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> A series of four [[French and Indian Wars|wars]] erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]].<ref>{{cite book|author= Nolan, Cathal J|title=Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-33046-9|page=160}}</ref> Mainland [[Nova Scotia]] came under British rule with the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]] and the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]] ceded Canada and most of New France to [[British Empire|Britain]] after the Seven Years' War.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Allaire|first=Gratien|title=From "Nouvelle-France" to "Francophonie canadienne": a historical survey|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=25–52|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.024|volume=2007}}</ref>
+[[File:Benjamin West 005.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benjamin West]]'s ''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' (1771) dramatizes [[James Wolfe]]'s death during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] at [[Quebec City|Quebec]]]]
+
+The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] created the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] out of New France, and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to Nova Scotia.<ref name=buckner/> St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hicks|first=Bruce M|title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation|journal=British Journal of Canadian Studies|date=March 2010|volume=23|issue=1|pages=87–117|doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in Quebec, the British parliament passed the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Eric Nellis |title=An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331|year=2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press -  University of British Columbia|isbn=978-1-4426-0403-2|page=331}}</ref> It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of the [[American Revolution]].<ref name=buckner/>
+
+The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]] recognized American independence and ceded the newly added territories south (but not north) of the Great Lakes to the new United States.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Todd Leahy|author2=Raymond Wilson|title=Native American Movements|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49|date=September 30, 2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6892-2|page=49}}</ref> [[New Brunswick]] was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] divided the province into French-speaking [[Lower Canada]] (later [[Quebec#Canadian Confederation|Quebec]]) and English-speaking [[Upper Canada]] (later [[Ontario#Canada West|Ontario]]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{cite book|last=McNairn|first=Jeffrey L|title=The capacity to judge|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2000|page=24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24|isbn=978-0-8020-4360-3}}</ref>
+[[File:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg|thumb|[[Robert Harris (painter)|Robert Harris]]'s ''[[Fathers of Confederation definition|Fathers of Confederation]]'' (1884), an amalgamation of the [[Charlottetown Conference|Charlottetown]] and [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec conferences]] of 1864{{refn|This is an 1885 photograph of the now-destroyed 1884 painting.|group=n|name=Photo}}]]
+
+[[The Canadas]] were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.<ref name=Steckel/> Between 1825 and 1846, 626,628 European immigrants reportedly landed at Canadian ports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216101207/http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm|archivedate=December 16, 2007|title=Immigration History of Canada|year=2004|publisher=Marianopolis College|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> These included [[Irish people|Irish]] immigrants escaping the [[Great Irish Famine]] as well as Gaelic-speaking [[Scottish people|Scots]] displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |work=cchahistory.ca |title=The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences}}</ref> Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 per cent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.<ref name=dying/>
+
+The desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the abortive [[Rebellions of 1837]]. The [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name=buckner/> The [[Act of Union 1840]] merged the Canadas into a united [[Province of Canada]] and responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Romney|first=Paul|date=Spring 1989|title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture|journal=Law and History Review|publisher=University of Illinois Press|volume=7|issue=1|page=128|doi=10.2307/743779}}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Evenden|first=Leonard J|author2=Turbeville, Daniel E|title=Geographical snapshots of North America|editor=Janelle, Donald G|publisher=Guilford Press|year=1992|page=52|chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier|isbn=978-0-89862-030-6}}</ref>
+
+===Confederation and expansion===
+[[File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif|thumb|left|200px|alt=refer to caption|An animated map showing [[Territorial evolution of Canada|the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories]] since Confederation in 1867]]
+Following several constitutional conferences, the [[Constitution Act, 1867|1867 Constitution Act]] officially proclaimed [[Canadian Confederation]] on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: [[Ontario]], Quebec, [[Nova Scotia]], and [[New Brunswick]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Gertjan|last1=Dijkink|first2=Hans|last2=Knippenberg|title=The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226|year=2001|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-5629-188-4|page=226}}</ref><ref name=bothwell>{{cite book|title = History of Canada Since 1867|first = Robert | last = Bothwell|publisher = Michigan State University Press|year = 1996|isbn = 978-0-87013-399-2|pages=31, 207–310}}</ref> Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]], where the Métis' grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bumsted|first=JM|title=The Red River Rebellion|publisher=Watson & Dwyer|year=1996|isbn=978-0-920486-23-8}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|had been united]] in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.<ref name=canatlas>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En|title=Building a nation|work=Canadian Atlas|publisher=Canadian Geographic|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+
+The Canadian parliament passed a bill introduced by the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] that established a [[National Policy]] of [[tariff]]s to protect the nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.<ref name=bothwell/> To open the West, parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), opening the prairies to settlement with the [[Dominion Lands Act]], and establishing the [[North-West Mounted Police]] to assert its authority over this territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html|title=Sir John A. Macdonald|year=2008|publisher=Library and Archives Canada|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html|title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior|last=Cook|first=Terry|year=2000|work=The Archivist|publisher=Library and Archives Canada|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> In 1898, during the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] in the Northwest Territories, parliament created the Yukon Territory. The Cabinet of [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[Wilfrid Laurier]] fostered continental European immigrants settling the prairies and [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.<ref name=canatlas />
+
+===Early 20th century===
+[[File:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg|thumb|alt=Group of armed soldiers march past a wrecked tank and a body|Canadian soldiers and a [[Mark I tank#Mark II|Mark II tank]] at the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] in 1917]]
+Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into World War I]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Brian Douglas|last=Tennyson|title=Canada's Great War, 1914-1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|year=2014|publisher=Scarecrow Press (Cape Breton University)|isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9|page=4}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name=morton-milhist>{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Desmond|title=A military history of Canada|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|year=1999|edition=4th|pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258|isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9}}</ref> Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in [[World War I]], some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book|first=J. L.|last=Granatstein|title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144|year=2004|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8696-9|page=144}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name=McGonigal1962>{{cite book|first=Richard Morton|last=McGonigal|title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec - 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism|year=1962|publisher=Harvard University|page=Intro}}</ref> The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though, it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.<ref name=McGonigal1962/> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name=morton-milhist/> and the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|1931 Statute of Westminster]] affirmed Canada's independence.<ref name=hail>{{cite journal |last=Hail |first=M |author2=Lange, S |title=Federalism and Representation in the Theory of the Founding Fathers: A Comparative Study of US and Canadian Constitutional Thought |journal=Publius: the Journal of Federalism |date=February 25, 2010 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=366–388 |doi=10.1093/publius/pjq001}}</ref>
+[[File:Crew of a Sherman-tank south of Vaucelles.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Canadian crew of a Sherman-tank, south of [[Vaucelles]], France, during the [[Operation Overlord|battle of Normandy]] in June 1944]]
+
+The [[Great Depression in Canada]] during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.<ref>{{cite book|first=Robert B.|last=Bryce|title=Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y2XU2UzE-vUC&pg=PA41|date=June 1, 1986|publisher=McGill-Queens|isbn=978-0-7735-0555-1|page=41}}</ref> In response to the downturn, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a [[welfare state]] (as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]]) in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mulvale|first=James P|title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility|journal=Basic Income Studies|date=July 11, 2008|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> On the advice of Liberal Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], King [[George VI]] [[Declaration of war by Canada#Nazi Germany|declared war on Germany]] during [[World War II]], seven days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.<ref name=morton-milhist/>
+
+In all, over a million Canadians served in the  [[Military history of Canada during World War II|armed forces during World War II]] and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Humphreys|title=Great Candian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151|year=2013|publisher=Arcturus Publishing|isbn=978-1-78404-098-7|page=151}}</ref> Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 [[Dieppe Raid]], the [[Allied invasion of Italy]], the [[Normandy landings]], the [[Operation Overlord|Battle of Normandy]], and the [[Battle of the Scheldt]] in 1944.<ref name=morton-milhist/> Canada provided asylum for the [[Dutch monarchy]] while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name=netherlands>{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Lance|title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands|publisher=Dundurn Press|year=2005|pages=225–232|isbn=978-1-55002-547-7}}</ref> The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military [[materiel]]<!--This is not a misspelling: follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel--> for Canada, Britain, China, and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=morton-milhist/> Despite another [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|Conscription Crisis]] in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bothwell|first=Robert|title=Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984|year=2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1368-6|pages=11, 31}}</ref>
+
+===Modern times===
+[[File:Alexander-NFLD.jpg|thumb|At [[Rideau Hall]], [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|the Viscount Alexander of Tunis]] (centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and Canada on March 31, 1949]]
+The financial crisis of the great depression had led the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a [[Crown colony|crown colony ruled]] by a British governor. After two bitter [[Newfoundland referendums, 1948|referendums]], Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{cite book|first=J. Patrick|last=Boyer|title=Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119|year=1996|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-4597-1884-5|page=119}}</ref>
+
+Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new [[Canadian identity]], marked by the adoption of the current [[Flag of Canada|Maple Leaf Flag]] in 1965,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mackey|first=Eva|title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8020-8481-1|page=57}}</ref> the implementation of [[official bilingualism]] (English and French) in 1969,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Landry|first=Rodrigue|author2=Forgues, Éric|title=Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=1–9|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.022|volume=2007}}</ref> and the institution of [[Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada|official multiculturalism]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Esses|first=Victoria M|author2=Gardner, RC|date=July 1996|title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status|journal=Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science|volume=28|issue=3|pages=145–152|doi=10.1037/h0084934}}</ref> [[Social democracy|Socially democratic]] programs were also instituted, such as [[Medicare (Canada)|Medicare]], the [[Canada Pension Plan]], and [[Student loans in Canada|Canada Student Loans]], though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5nDiozOLF|archivedate=February 1, 2010|title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development|last=Sarrouh|first=Elissar|date=January 22, 2002|work=Social Policy Series, No. 1|publisher=United Nations|pages=14–16, 22–37|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 [[patriation]] of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref name=bickerton>{{cite book| editor=Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain| title=Canadian Politics| publisher=Broadview Press| edition=4th| isbn=978-1-55111-595-5| year=2004|pages=250–254, 344–347}}</ref> In 1999, [[Nunavut]] became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Légaré|first=André|year=2008|title=Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|volume=15|issue=2–3|pages=335–367|doi=10.1163/157181108X332659}}</ref>
+
+At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern [[Quebec nationalism|nationalist]] movement. The radical [[Front de libération du Québec]] (FLQ) ignited the [[October Crisis]] with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970<ref>{{cite journal|last=Munroe|first=HD|title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice|journal=Terrorism and Political Violence|year=2009|volume=21|issue=2|pages=288–305|doi=10.1080/09546550902765623}}</ref> and the [[Quebec sovereignty movement|{{Not a typo|sovereignist}}]] [[Parti Québécois]] was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful [[referendum]] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] failed in 1990.<ref name=sorens>{{cite journal|last=Sorens|first=J|title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy|journal=Electoral Studies|date=December 2004|volume=23|issue=4|pages=727–752|doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the [[Bloc Québécois]] in Quebec and the invigoration of the [[Reform Party of Canada]] in [[Western Canada|the West]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/|title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |newspaper=The Globe and Mail|first=Daniel |last=Leblanc|date=August 13, 2010 |accessdate=November 25, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in established democracies|first1=Hans-Georg |last1=Betz|first2= Stefan|last2= Immerfall|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173|page=173|publisher=St. Martinʼs Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-312-21134-9}}</ref> A [[Quebec referendum, 1995|second referendum]] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.<ref>{{cite book|first=Carol L.|last=Schmid|title=The Politics of Language : Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803150-5|page=112}}</ref> In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] ruled that [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province would be unconstitutional and the [[Clarity Act]] was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name=sorens/>
+
+In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of [[Air India Flight 182]] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/|archivedate=June 22, 2008|title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182|publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the [[École Polytechnique massacre]] in 1989, a [[school shooting|university shooting]] targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web|last= Sourour|first=Teresa K|url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf|year=1991 |format=PDF|title=Report of Coroner's Investigation|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> and the [[Oka Crisis]] of 1990,<ref>{{cite news|title=The Oka Crisis|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/|format=Digital Archives |publisher=CBC|year=2000|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roach|first=Kent|title=September 11: consequences for Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|pages=15, 59–61, 194|isbn=978-0-7735-2584-9}}</ref> Canada also joined the [[Gulf War]] in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the [[UNPROFOR]] mission in the [[Yugoslav wars|former Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and Stability|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/news/article.page?doc=canada-and-multilateral-operations-in-support-of-peace-and-stability/hnlhlxfi|publisher=National Defence and the Canadian Forces|year=2010|accessdate=February 2, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dragoons.ca/unprofor.html|title=UNPROFOR|publisher=Royal Canadian Dragoons|accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref>
+Canada sent [[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|troops to Afghanistan in 2001]], but declined to join the US-led [[Invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jockel|first1=Joseph T|author2=Sokolsky, Joel B|year=2008|title=Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward|journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=100–115|doi=10.1080/14794010801917212}}</ref> In 2009, Canada's economy suffered in the worldwide [[Great Recession]], but it has since largely rebounded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2012/07/22/canada-recession-recovery_n_1692607.html|title=Canada Recession: Global Recovery Still Fragile 3 Years On|work=[[Huffington Post]]|date=July 22, 2012|accessdate=September 1, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://t.thestar.com/#/article/news/canada/2014/12/03/canadian_economy_showing_signs_of_recovery_stephen_poloz_says.html|title=Canadian economy showing signs of wider recovery, Stephen Poloz says|work=Toronto Star|date=December 3, 2014|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the [[2011 Libyan civil war|Libyan civil war]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/10/20/f-libya-nato-mission.html|title=Canada's military contribution in Libya|publisher=CBC|date=October 20, 2011|accessdate=November 27, 2011}}</ref> and also became involved in battling the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.<ref name=CanadavIS>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-30888344|title=Canada exchanges fire with Islamic State in Iraq|publisher=BBC|date=January 19, 2015|accessdate=February 9, 2015}}</ref>
+
+==Geography==
+{{Main|Geography of Canada}}
+
+Canada occupies most of the continent of North America, sharing [[land border]]s with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south (the longest border between two countries in the world) and the US state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.<ref name="cia">
+{{cite web |publisher= CIA |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|title=Canada |work=World Factbook |date=May 16, 2006 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> [[Greenland]] is to the northeast, while [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] is south of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|second-largest country]] in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canada [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ranks fourth]]. The reason why Canada is in 4th place in terms of countries ranked by land area only is because Canada contains 60% of all the lakes in the world.<ref name="cia" /> The country lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[84th parallel north|84°N]], and longitudes [[52nd meridian west|52°]] and [[141st meridian west|141°W]].
+
+[[File:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite composite image containing all of Canada and part of the United States. [[Taiga|Boreal forests]] prevail on the rocky [[Canadian Shield]], while ice and [[tundra]] are prominent in the [[Arctic]]. Glaciers are visible in the [[Canadian Rockies]] and [[Coast Mountains]]. The flat and fertile [[prairie]]s facilitate agriculture. The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] in the southeast, where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]
+
+Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between [[60th meridian west|60°]] and 141°W [[longitude]],<ref name="West2004">{{cite book|author=Niels West|title=Marine Affairs Dictionary: Terms, Concepts, Laws, Court Cases, and International Conventions and Agreements|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wd2pbRxuW0QC&pg=PA31|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30421-7|page=31}}</ref> but this claim is not universally recognized. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – latitude 82.5°N – which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{cite book|title=Canadian Geographic|year=2008|publisher=Royal Canadian Geographical Society|page=20}}</ref> Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and [[permafrost]]. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of {{convert|202080|km|mi}};<ref name="cia"/> additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching {{convert|8891|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= International Boundary Commission |url=http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html |title=The Boundary |year=1985|accessdate=May 17, 2012}}</ref>
+
+Since the end of the last [[glacial period]], Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive [[taiga|boreal]] forest on the Canadian Shield.<ref>{{cite book
+|title = National Atlas of Canada
+|publisher = Natural Resources Canada
+|year = 2005
+|isbn = 978-0-7705-1198-2 |page = 1}}
+</ref> Canada has around 31,700 large lakes,<ref>I.e., lakes over {{convert|3|km2|ha}} in area. {{cite book|author=Thomas V. Cech|title=Principles of Water Resources: History, Development, Management, and Policy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A2nJCPPixGQC&pg=PA83|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-13631-7|page=83}}</ref> more than any other country, containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bailey|first=William G|author2=Oke, TR |author3=Rouse, Wayne R |title=The surface climates of Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1997|page=124|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244|isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4}}</ref>
+There are also fresh-water glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]] and the [[Coast Mountains]].
+Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably [[Mount Meager]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Etkin | first = David | author2=Haque, CE|author3=Brooks, Gregory R| title = An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada | publisher = Springer | date = April 30, 2003 | pages =569, 582, 583 |isbn = 978-1-4020-1179-5}}</ref> The volcanic eruption of the [[Tseax Cone]] in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing 2,000 [[Nisga'a people]] and destroying their village in the [[Nass River]] valley of northern British Columbia. The eruption produced a {{convert|22.5|km|adj=on}} [[lava]] flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River.<ref name="Asd">{{cite book|author=Jessop, A|title=Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5906|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z7IL9hO-_6cC&pg=PA18|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|pages=18–|id=GGKEY:6DLTQFWQ9HG}}</ref>
+Canada's population density, at {{convert|3.3|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City&nbsp;– Windsor Corridor]], situated in Southern Quebec and [[Southern Ontario]] along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{cite book|author1=Peter H. McMurry|author2=Marjorie F. Shepherd|author3=James S. Vickery|title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84287-7|page=391}}</ref>
+
+Average winter and summer high [[Temperature in Canada|temperatures across Canada]] vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a [[continental climate]], where daily average temperatures are near −15&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (5&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]), but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe [[wind chill]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author=[[The Weather Network]]|url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=January 18, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archivedate=January 5, 2009}}</ref> In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Environment Canada |url=http://climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |title=Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000|date=March 25, 2004|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>{{Clear right}}
+
+==Government and politics==
+{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada}}
+[[File:Canadian parliament MAM.JPG|thumb|alt=A building with a central clocktower rising from a block|[[Parliament Hill]] in Canada's capital city, [[Ottawa]]]]
+Canada has a [[parliamentary system]] within the context of a [[constitutional monarchy]], the [[monarchy of Canada]] being the foundation of the executive, [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[Judiciary|judicial]] branches.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=[[Queen Victoria]]|date=March 29, 1867| title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble| publisher=Queen's Printer| url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| last=Smith| first=David E| title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy?| periodical=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options| page=6| publisher=Queen's University| date=June 10, 2010| url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf| archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C| archivedate=June 17, 2010|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name=MacLeod16>{{Cite book| last=MacLeod| first=Kevin S| authorlink=Kevin S. MacLeod| title=A Crown of Maples| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| page=16| edition=2nd| url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4| isbn=978-0-662-46012-1| accessdate=May 23, 2011| year=2012| ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canadian Heritage| title=Canadian Heritage Portfolio| publisher=Queen's Printer| date=February 2009| edition=2nd| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pc-ch/publctn/gp-pg/ppc-chp/ppc-chp-eng.pdf| pages=3–4| isbn=978-1-100-11529-0|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> The sovereign is Queen [[Elizabeth II]], who also serves as head of state of [[Commonwealth realm|15 other Commonwealth countries]] and each of Canada's ten provinces. As such, the Queen's representative, the [[Governor General of Canada]] (at present [[David Johnston|David Lloyd Johnston]]), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities|url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3|publisher=Queen's Printer|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004| publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat| year=2004| pages=54–55|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54| isbn=978-0-11-703249-1}}</ref>
+
+The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited.<ref name=MacLeod16 /><ref name=Forseyp1>{{cite book| last=Forsey| first=Eugene| authorlink=Eugene Forsey| title=How Canadians Govern Themselves| pages=1, 16, 26| edition=6th| publisher=Queen's Printer| year=2005| isbn=978-0-662-39689-5| url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf| archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5vkPPetrW| archivedate=January 15, 2011| accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name=Montpetit>{{cite web| url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5| last=Marleau| first=Robert| last2=Montpetit| first2=Camille| title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions| publisher=Queen's Printer| accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by [[Canadian Cabinet|the Cabinet]], a committee of [[Minister of the Crown|ministers of the Crown]] responsible to the elected [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] and chosen and headed by the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (at present [[Stephen Harper]]),<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/pm.asp?featureId=7| title=Prime Minister of Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer| year=2009| accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the [[head of government]]. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial [[Advice (constitutional)|advice]].<ref name=Forseyp1/> To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the House of Commons.<ref>{{cite book| last=Johnson| first=David| title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada| publisher=University of Toronto Press| year=2006| edition=2nd| pages=134–135, 149| isbn=978-1-55111-779-9}}</ref> The [[Office of the Prime Minister (Canada)|Prime Minister's Office]] (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, [[Lieutenant governor (Canada)|lieutenant governors]], senators, federal court judges, and heads of [[Crown corporations of Canada|Crown corporations]] and government agencies.<ref name=Forseyp1/> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition]] (presently [[Thomas Mulcair]]) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Opposition in a Parliamentary System|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm|publisher=Library of Parliament|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+[[File:Cansenate.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Canadian Senate|Senate chamber]] within the [[Centre Block]] on [[Parliament Hill]]]]
+
+Each of the 308 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Canadian electoral district|electoral district]] or riding. [[Elections in Canada|General elections]] must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or if the government loses a [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>{{cite web|author=O'Neal, Brian; Bédard, Michel; Spano, Sebastian|date=April 11, 2011|title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm|publisher=Library of Parliament|accessdate=June 2, 2011}}</ref> The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref name="GriffithsNerenberg2003">{{cite book|author1=Ann L. Griffiths|author2=Karl Nerenberg|title=Handbook of Federal Countries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116|year=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4|page=116}}</ref> Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2011 elections: the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] (governing party), the [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]] (the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]]), the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the [[Bloc Québécois]], and the [[Green Party of Canada]]. The list of [[List of federal political parties in Canada#Historical parties that have won seats in Parliament|historical parties]] with elected representation is substantial.
+
+[[Canadian federalism|Canada's federal structure]] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. [[Legislative Assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|Provincial legislatures]] are [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name=Montpetit /> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&sub=difference&doc=difference-eng.htm|title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories| year=2009| publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada| accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments| title=Differences from Provincial Governments| year=2008| publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories| accessdate=January 30, 2014}}</ref>
+
+The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country.<ref name="Hasan2013">{{cite book|author=Dinçer, Hasan|title=Global Strategies in Banking and Finance|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ElwrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|year=2013|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=978-1-4666-4636-0|page=69}}</ref> In addition, the [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|Minister of Finance]] and [[Minister of Industry (Canada)|Minister of Industry]] utilize the [[Statistics Canada]] agency for financial planning and economic policy development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm|title=About|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2014|accessdate=February 14, 2015}}</ref>
+
+===Law===
+{{Main|Law of Canada}}
+The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the [[British North America Acts|British North America Act]] prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] granted full autonomy and the [[Constitution Act, 1982]], ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a [[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bakan|first=Joel|author2=Elliot, Robin M|title=Canadian Constitutional Law|publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications|year=2003|pages=3–8, 683–687, 699|isbn=978-1-55239-085-6}}</ref>
+[[File:Medal-Viki.jpg|thumb|alt=Two sides of a silver medal: the profile of Queen Victoria and the inscription "Victoria Regina" on one side, a man in European garb shaking hands with an Aboriginal with the inscription ''Indian Treaty No. 187'' on the other|The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the [[Numbered Treaties]] of 1871–1921]]
+
+The [[Indian Act]], various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.<ref name=FN>{{Cite journal|title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006|last=Patterson|first=Lisa Lynne| url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf| series=1| year=2004| page=3| publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, [[Library of Parliament]]|ref=harv|accessdate=October 23, 2014}}</ref> Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the [[Numbered Treaties]] were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.<ref>{{cite web|title = Treaty areas| publisher=Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat| date=October 7, 2002| url=http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm| accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> These treaties are agreements with the Canadian [[Queen-in-Council|Crown-in-Council]], administered by [[Canadian Aboriginal law]], and overseen by the [[Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)|Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development]]. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by [[Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982]].<ref name=FN/> These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.<ref name="Madison2000">{{cite book|author=Gary Brent Madison|title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128|year=2000|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2|page=128}}</ref> The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.<ref name=FN/>
+[[File:Ottawa - ON - Oberster Gerichtshof von Kanada.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]]
+
+[[Court system of Canada|Canada's judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice [[Beverley McLachlin]] (the first female Chief Justice).<ref>{{cite book|last=McCormick|first=Peter|title=Supreme at last: the evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada|publisher=James Lorimer & Company Ltd|year=2000|pages=2, 86, 154|isbn=978-1-55028-692-2}}</ref> Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref name="YatesBain2000">{{cite book|author1=Richard Yates|author2=Penny Bain|author3=Ruth Yates|title=Introduction to law in Canada|year=2000|publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada|isbn=978-0-13-792862-0|page=93}}</ref>
+
+[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sworden|first=Philip James|title=An introduction to Canadian law|publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications|year=2006|pages=22, 150|isbn=978-1-55239-145-7}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opp.ca/ecms/index.php?id=19|title=Ontario Provincial Police|publisher=OPP official website|year=2009 |accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref> However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706190335/http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf|archivedate=July 6, 2011|last=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|title=Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure|publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+{{clear}}
+
+===Foreign relations and military===
+{{Main|Foreign relations of Canada|Military history of Canada}}
+[[File:David Cameron Herman Van Rompuy Stephen Harper Dmitry Medvedev and Naoto Kan cropped 36th G8 summit member 20100625.jpg|thumb|[[David Cameron]] and [[Stephen Harper]] (foreground) with [[Herman Van Rompuy]], [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and [[Naoto Kan]] (background) at the 36th G8 summit in Muskoka District Municipality, Ontario on June 25, 2010.]] 
+Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of 68,250 active personnel and approximately 51,000 reserve personnel.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Global Firepower |url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Canada |title=Military Strength of Canada |date=March 27, 2014|accessdate=January 25, 2015}}</ref> The unified [[Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Army]], [[Royal Canadian Navy]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]. In 2013, Canada's [[List of countries by military expenditure|military expenditure]] totalled approximately C$19 billion, or around 1% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-military-spending-by-the-numbers|title=Canadian military spending by the numbers|work=Ottawa Citizen|date=September 3, 2014|accessdate=January 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4|title=Military expenditure of Canada|publisher=[[SIPRI]]|year=2011|accessdate=May 3, 2012}}</ref>
+
+Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haglung|first=David G|date=Autumn 2003|title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=[[Orbis (journal)|Orbis]]|publisher=[[Foreign Policy Research Institute]]|volume=47|issue=4|pages=675–691|doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}}</ref><ref name=USStateDept>{{cite web|url=http://m.state.gov/md2089.htm|title=Canada|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|year=2014|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba from 1961–2014 and declining to officially participate in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|Francophonie]].<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Patrick|title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy|editor= Michaud, Nelson; O'Reilly, Marc J|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2006|pages=213–214, 349–362|isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive [[Canada–Netherlands relations|relationship with the Netherlands]], owing, in part, to its contribution to the [[Netherlands in World War II#Liberation|Dutch liberation during World War II]].<ref name="netherlands"/>
+
+Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the [[Second Boer War]], World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Teigrob|first=Robert|title='Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations|journal=Canadian Review of American Studies|date=September 2010|volume=37|issue=3|pages=403–430|doi=10.3138/cras.37.3.403}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and influence in the world|publisher = Government of Canada |year=2005 |isbn = 978-0-662-68608-8}}</ref> Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of [[NATO]] in 1949. During the [[Canada in the Cold War|Cold War]], Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the [[Korean War]] and founded the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD) in co-operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Alvin|title=Our lives: Canada after 1945|publisher=Lorimer|year=1997|pages=105–107, 111–116|isbn=978-1-55028-551-2}}</ref>
+
+[[File:US Navy 090425-M-9917S-314 Canadian Army soldiers assigned to Alpha Company, 3d Battalion, 22d Regiment of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force-24 depart a U.S. Navy landing craft air cushion (LCAC) and deploy onto Mayp.jpg|left|thumb|[[Canadian Army]] soldiers from the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22nd Regiment]] deploying in [[Florida]] during [[UNITAS]] exercises in April 2009]]
+
+During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, future Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] eased tensions by proposing the inception of the [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]], for which he was awarded the 1957 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Holloway|first=Steven Kendall|title=Canadian foreign policy: defining the national interest|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2006|pages=102–103|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102|isbn=978-1-55111-816-1}}</ref> As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,<ref name="morton-milhist"/> and has since maintained forces in international missions in [[Rwanda]], the former [[Yugoslavia]], and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 [[Somalia Affair]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html|title=Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada|last=Farnsworth|first=Clyde H|date=November 27, 1994|newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+
+Canada joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in [[Windsor, Ontario]], in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001.<ref name="McKenna2012b">{{cite book|author=Peter McKenna|title=Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91|year=2012|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-1108-5|page=91}}</ref> Canada seeks to expand its ties to [[Pacific Rim]] economies through membership in the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum (APEC).<ref name="Usaibp">{{cite book|author=Ibp Usa|title=Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7jNg1U2tf6wC&pg=PA27|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-0-7397-1615-1|page=27}}</ref>
+[[File:HMCS Regina (FFH 334).jpg|thumb|The [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class]] [[frigate]] [[HMCS Regina (FFH 334)|HMCS ''Regina'']], a warship of the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], near [[Hawaii]] during the 2004 [[RIMPAC]] exercises]]
+
+In 2001, Canada deployed troops to [[Afghanistan]] as part of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|US stabilization force]] and the UN-authorized, NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force]]. In all, Canada lost 158 soldiers, one diplomat, two aid workers, and one journalist during the ten-year mission,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ipolitics.ca/2013/09/27/canada-lost-afghan-war-says-author/|author=Murray Brewster |title=Canada lost Afghan war, says author|date=September 27, 2013 |publisher=Canada free press (iPOLOTICS)|accessdate=January 23, 2012}}</ref> which cost approximately C$11.3&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng|title=Cost of the Afghanistan mission 2001–2011|accessdate=July 11, 2011|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>
+
+In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, [[Norway]], and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/02/06/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400|title=Rich nations to sign $1.5 bln vaccine pact in Italy|last=Vagnoni|first=Giselda|date=February 5, 2007|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> In August 2007, Canada's [[territorial claims in the Arctic]] were challenged after a [[Arktika 2007|Russian underwater expedition]] to the [[North Pole]]; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.<ref>{{cite news | last = Blomfield | first = Adrian| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html | newspaper = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | title = Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt | date = August 3, 2007 | accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Between March and October 2011, Canadian forces participated in [[2011 military intervention in Libya|a UN-mandated NATO intervention]] into the [[2011 Libyan civil war]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/10/20/pol-libya-mission-end-two-weeks.html |title=Canada's Libya mission to end in 2 weeks|publisher=CBC|date=October 20, 2011|accessdate=December 30, 2011}}</ref> In late 2014, Canadian ground and air units joined the international effort to defeat the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] insurgency in Iraq.<ref name=CanadavIS/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/us-led-coalition-beating-back-islamic-state-canadian-military-says/article22146714/|title=Nine strikes in 50 days: Canadian military defends Iraq bombing record|work=The Globe and Mail|date=December 18, 2014|accessdate=February 14, 2015}}</ref>
+
+===International organizations===
+Canada is recognized as a [[middle power]] for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.<ref name="Chapnick2011">{{cite book|author=Adam Chapnick|title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2|year=2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1|pages=2–5}}</ref> As well as its membership of the United Nations, the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[G20]] and the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), Canada is a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng|title=International Organizations and Forums|publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada|year=2013|accessdate=March 3, 2014}}</ref> Canada acceded to the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] in 1976.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=treaty&mtdsg_no=iv-4&chapter=4&lang=en|title= International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights|year=2014|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=March 3, 2014}}</ref>
+
+===Provinces and territories===
+{{Main|Provinces and territories of Canada}}
+{{See also|Canadian federalism}}
+
+Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three [[territory (administrative division)|territories]]. In turn, these may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: Western Canada, Central Canada, [[Atlantic Canada]], and Northern Canada ("Eastern Canada" refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|welfare]].<ref name="DoernMaslove2013">{{cite book|author1=G. Bruce Doern|author2=Allan M. Maslove|author3=Michael J. Prince|title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976|year=2013|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0|page=1}}</ref> Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the [[Canada Health Act]]; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref name="ClemensVeldhuis2007">{{cite book|author1=Jason Clemens|author2=Niels Veldhuis|title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8|year=2012|publisher=The Fraser Institute|isbn=978-0-88975-215-3|page=8}}</ref>
+{{Canada image map}}
+{{Clear left}}
+
+==Economy==
+{{Main|Economy of Canada|Economic history of Canada}}
+[[File:Canada FTAs.png|thumb|400px|Nations that have Free Trade Agreements with Canada as of 2009 are in dark blue, while nations in negotiations are in cyan. Canada is green.]]
+Canada is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|eleventh-largest economy]] as of 2015, with a [[nominal GDP]] of approximately US$1.79 trillion.<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=30&pr.y=9&sy=2014&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for selected Country - Canada |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=2015 | accessdate=May 22, 2015}}</ref> It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8), and is one of the world's top ten [[trading nation]]s, with a highly [[Globalization|globalized]] economy.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= World Trade Organization|url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm|title=Latest release |date=April 17, 2008 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/|publisher=KOF|title=Index of Globalization 2010|accessdate=May 22, 2012}}</ref> Canada is a [[mixed economy]], ranking above the US and most western European nations on the [[Heritage Foundation]]'s index of economic freedom,<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 | publisher = Heritage Foundation/''Wall Street Journal''| title = Index of Economic Freedom | url = http://www.heritage.org/Index/ | accessdate=June 27, 2013}}</ref> and experiencing a relatively low level of [[Economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/12/13/jonathan-kay-the-key-to-canadas-economic-advantage-over-the-united-states-less-income-inequality/|title=Jonathan Kay: The key to Canada's economic advantage over the United States? Less income inequality|work=National Post|date=December 13, 2012|accessdate=December 14, 2012}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is over US$23,900, higher than the OECD average.<ref name=OECDBLI/> Furthermore, the [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] is the seventh largest [[stock exchange]] in the world by [[market capitalization]], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion as of 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tmx.com/resource/en/117|title=TMX Group Equity Financing Statistics – September 2014|publisher=TMX|date=September 2014|accessdate=February 7, 2015}}</ref>
+
+In 2014, Canada's exports totalled over C$528 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $523&nbsp;billion, of which approximately $349&nbsp;billion originated from the United States, $49&nbsp;billion from the European Union, and $35&nbsp;billion from China.<ref name="import-export">{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/gblec02a-eng.htm|title=Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments basis, by country or country grouping |date=2014|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=February 7, 2015}}</ref> The country's 2014 [[trade surplus]] totalled C$5.1&nbsp;billion, compared with a C$46.9&nbsp;billion surplus in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-has-first-yearly-trade-deficit-since-1975/article1462607/ |title=Canada has first yearly trade deficit since 1975|newspaper= The Globe and Mail|date=February 10, 2010|accessdate=May 23, 2011|first=Tavia|last=Grant}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/canadas-trade-deficit-widens-on-lower-crude-oil-prices-1423147694|title=Canada's Trade Deficit Widens|work=Wall Street Journal|date=February 7, 2015}}</ref>
+
+Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other [[developed nations]], the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service industry]], which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|title=Employment by Industry|date=January 8, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its [[primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], in which the logging and [[petroleum industry|petroleum industries]] are two of the most prominent components.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Easterbrook|first=WT|date=March 1995|title=Recent Contributions to Economic History: Canada|journal=Journal of Economic History|volume=19|page=98}}</ref>
+
+Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="energy">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Charles E|title=World energy resources|publisher=Springer|year=2002|pages=323, 378–389|isbn=978-3-540-42634-9}}</ref> Atlantic Canada possesses vast [[Offshore drilling|offshore]] deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the [[Athabasca oil sands]] and other assets results in Canada having a 13% share of global [[oil reserves]], comprising the world's third-largest share after [[Oil Reserves in Venezuela|Venezuela]] and [[Oil Reserves in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/current/FileZ/XL/T31.HTM|title=World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1960–2011|publisher=Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|year=2012|quote= Oil & Gas Journal's oil reserve estimate for Canada includes {{convert|5.392|Goilbbl|m3}} of conventional crude oil and condensate reserves and {{convert|173.2|Goilbbl|m3}} of oil sands reserves. Information collated by the [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilreserves.html EIA]}}</ref> Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, [[canola]], and other grains.<ref name="britton">{{cite book|last=Britton|first=John NH|title=Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1996|pages=26–27, 155–163|isbn=978-0-7735-1356-3}}</ref> Canada's [[Minister of Natural Resources (Canada)|Ministry of Natural Resources]] provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of [[zinc]], [[uranium]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[aluminum]], [[steel]], [[iron ore]], [[Coking coal#Coking coal and use of coke|coking coal]] and [[lead]].<ref name="energy"/><ref name=2009MineProduction>{{cite web|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?product=zinc&graph=production|title=Zinc Production by Country (Metric tons, zinc content of concentrate and direct shipping ore, unless otherwise specified)|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] data via Index Mundi|year=2009|accessdate=May 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/mining-materials/statistics/8848|title=Statistics|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and [[aeronautics]] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/sectionv/4057758-eng.htm#V332_350|title=Vl-12|editor=Leacy, FH|year=1983|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+
+[[File:NAFTA logo.svg|left|thumb|North American Free Trade Agreement [[NAFTA]] Logo]]
+Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since [[World War II]].<ref name="MoslerCatley2013">{{cite book|author1=Dr David Mosler|author2=Professor Bob Catley|title=The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38|year=2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-9852-0|page=38}}</ref> The [[Automotive Products Trade Agreement]] of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]]'s Liberal government to enact the [[National Energy Program]] (NEP) and the [[Investment Canada|Foreign Investment Review Agency]] (FIRA).<ref>{{cite book|last=Morck|first=Randall|author2=Tian, Gloria |author3=Yeung, Bernard |title=Governance, multinationals, and growth|editors=Eden, Lorraine; Dobson, Wendy|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2005|page=50|chapter=Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50|isbn=978-1-84376-909-5}}</ref> In the 1980s, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]'s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "[[Investment Canada]]", to encourage foreign investment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hale|first=Geoffrey|title=The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies|journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science|date=October 2008|volume=41|issue=3|pages=719–747|doi=10.1017/S0008423908080785}}</ref> The [[Canada&nbsp;– United States Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include [[Mexico]] in 1994.<ref name="britton"/> In the mid-1990s, [[Jean Chrétien]]'s Liberal government began to post annual budgetary surpluses, and steadily paid down the national debt.<ref name="Johnson2006">{{cite book|author=David Johnson|title=Thinking Government: Public Sector Management in Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TcL80sSautgC&pg=PA374|year=2006|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-55111-779-9|page=374}}</ref>
+
+The [[global financial crisis of 2008]] caused a [[late-2000s recession|major recession]], which led to a significant rise in [[List of Canadian provinces by unemployment rate|unemployment]] in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/related/topics/story.html?id=1383376|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5nDiwjKnX|archivedate=February 1, 2010|title=Jobless rate to peak at 10%: TD|last=Sturgeon|first=Jamie|date=March 13, 2009|work=National Post |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> By October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate had reached 8.6 percent, with provincial unemployment rates varying from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/labour-travail/lfs-epa/lfs-epa-eng.htm|title=Latest release from Labour Force Survey |date=November 6, 2009|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Between October 2008 and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/economy-lab/the-economists/the-real-state-of-canadas-jobs-market/article1757129/|title=The real state of Canada's jobs market |date=October 15, 2010|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|accessdate=December 12, 2010|first=Armine|last=Yalnizyan}}</ref> [[Canadian public debt|Canada's federal debt]] was estimated to total $566.7&nbsp;billion for the [[fiscal year]] 2010–11, up from $463.7&nbsp;billion in 2008–09.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://toronto.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20100304/budget_2010_100304/20100304?hub=TorontoNewHome|title=Budget fights deficit with freeze on future spending|publisher=[[CTV News]]|date=March 4, 2010|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> In addition, Canada's net [[foreign debt]] rose by $41 billion to $194 billion in the first quarter of 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/100617/dq100617b-eng.htm|title=Canada's international investment position|publisher=Statistics Canada|work=The Daily|date=June 17, 2010|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> However, Canada's regulated banking sector (comparatively conservative among G8 nations), the federal government's pre-crisis budgetary surpluses, and its long-term policies of lowering the national debt, resulted in a less severe recession compared to other G8 nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mercatus.org/publication/canada-s-budget-triumph|title=Canada's Budget Triumph|publisher=Mercatus Center (George Mason University)|format=PDF|date=September 30, 2010|accessdate=July 15, 2013}}</ref> As of 2015, the Canadian economy has largely stabilized and has seen a modest return to growth, although the country remains troubled by volatile oil prices, sensitivity to the [[European sovereign-debt crisis|Eurozone crisis]] and higher-than-normal unemployment rates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/efp-pef/2013/efp-pef-02-eng.asp|title=Update of Economic and Fiscal Projections|publisher=Department of Finance Canada|year=2013|accessdate=February 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/business/imf-drops-forecast-for-canadian-economic-growth-1.2197318|title=IMF drops forecast for Canadian economic growth|publisher=CTV News|date=January 20, 2015|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> The federal government and many Canadian industries have also started to expand trade with emerging Asian markets, in an attempt to diversify exports; Asia is now Canada's second-largest export market after the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiapacific.ca/statistics/trade/regional-trade/canadas-trade-world-region|title=Canada's Trade with the World, by Region|publisher=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada|date=March 24, 2014|accessdate=February 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://opencanada.org/branch-news/montreal-news/minister-fast-congratulates-the-organizers-of-the-canada-and-free-trade-with-asia-conference/|title=Minister Fast Congratulates the Organizers of the Canada and Free Trade with Asia Conference|publisher=Canadian International Council |year=2013|accessdate=February 11, 2014}}</ref> [[Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines|Widely debated oil pipeline proposals]], in particular, are hoped to increase exports of Canadian oil reserves to China.<ref>{{cite news |work= The Globe and Mail |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/investment-ideas/streetwise/northern-gateway-pipeline-would-strengthen-trade-ties-to-china/article4107144/|title=Northern Gateway pipeline would strengthen trade ties to China |date=May 7, 2012|accessdate=August 19, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.macleans.ca/2012/09/25/plugging-for-pipelines/|title=Pipeline economics: China needs oil, and Canada's got it|publisher=Macleans.ca|date=September 25, 2012|accessdate=December 4, 2012}}</ref>
+
+===Science and technology===
+{{Main|Science and technology in Canada|Telecommunications in Canada}}
+[[File:STS-116 Payload (NASA S116-E-05364).jpg|thumb|alt=A shuttle in space, with Earth in the background. A mechanical arm labelled "Canada" rises from the shuttle|The [[Canadarm]] robotic manipulator in action on [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] during the [[STS-116]] mission in 2006.]]
+
+In 2012, Canada spent approximately C$31.3 billion on domestic [[research and development]], of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/scte01a-eng.htm|title=Domestic spending on research and development|publisher=Statistics Canada|date=October 17, 2014|accessdate=February 7, 2015}}</ref> As of 2015, the country has produced thirteen [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel laureates]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]] and [[Nobel Prize in Medicine|medicine]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates|url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/nobellaureates.php|publisher=Science.ca|accessdate=February 7, 2015}} Note that this source was published before 2011 and as such does not include [[Ralph M. Steinman]].</ref><ref name=rockefeller>{{cite web|url=http://newswire.rockefeller.edu/?page=engine&id=1192|title=Rockefeller University scientist Ralph Steinman, honored today with Nobel Prize for discovery of dendritic cells, dies at 68|date=October 3, 2011|publisher=[[Rockefeller University]]}}</ref> and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-ranked-fourth-in-the-world-for-scientific-research/article4571162/|title=Canada ranked fourth in the world for scientific research|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|date=September 26, 2012|accessdate=October 17, 2012}}</ref> It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.branham300.com/index.php?year=2014&listing=1|title=Top 250 Canadian Technology Companies|year=2014|publisher=Branham Group Inc|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Canada [[List of countries by number of Internet users|has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world]], with over 33&nbsp;million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north|title=Internet Usage and Population in North America|publisher=Internet World Stats|date=June 2014|accessdate=February 7, 2015}}</ref>
+
+The [[Canadian Space Agency]] operates a highly active [[space program]], conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country to launch a satellite into space after the [[USSR]] and the United States, with the 1962 [[Alouette 1]] launch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/alouette.asp|title=Alouette I and II|publisher=CSA|accessdate=November 30, 2012}}</ref> In 1984, [[Marc Garneau]] became Canada's first astronaut. As of 2015, [[Canadian astronauts|nine Canadians have flown into space]], over the course of seventeen manned missions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2010/09/01/f-canadian-space-astronauts.html|title=Canada's astronauts|publisher= [[CBC News]]|date=October 26, 2010|accessdate=December 8, 2011}}</ref>
+
+Canada is a participant in the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), and is a pioneer in space [[robotics]], having constructed the [[Canadarm]], [[Canadarm2]] and [[Dextre]] robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's [[Space Shuttle]]. Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including [[Radarsat-1]] and [[Radarsat-2|2]], [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] and [[Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope|MOST]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html|title=The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada|publisher=Newswire |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used [[sounding rocket]]s, the [[Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant]]; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magellan.aero/our-products/rockets-and-space|title=Black Brant Sounding Rockets|publisher=Magellan Aerospace|year=2013|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref>
+
+==Demographics==
+{{Main|Canadians|Demographics of Canada}}
+The [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 Canadian census]] counted a [[Population of Canada by year|total population]] of 33,476,688, an increase of around 5.9 percent over the 2006 figure.<ref name=2011CensusData>{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/120208/dq120208a-eng.htm?WT.mc_id=twtB2000 |title=2011 Census: Population and dwelling counts |date=February 8, 2012 |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=February 8, 2012}}</ref> By December 2012, [[Statistics Canada]] reported a population of over 35 million, signifying the fastest growth rate of any [[G8 nations|G8 nation]].<ref>{{cite news |author= Green, Jeff |newspaper=The Toronto Star |url=http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2012/12/06/canadas_population_hits_35_million.html |title=Canada's population hits 35 million|date=December 6, 2012|accessdate=September 16, 2013}}</ref> Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main drivers of population growth are [[Immigration to Canada|immigration]] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.<ref name="EdmonstonFong2011">{{cite book|author1=Barry Edmonston|author2=Eric Fong|title=The Changing Canadian Population|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181|year=2011|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4|page=181}}</ref>
+{{Largest Metropolitan Areas of Canada}}
+{{Pie chart
+|thumb = right
+|caption = Self-reported ethnic origins of Canadians (as per 2011 census data)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1|title=National Household Survey Profile|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2011|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref>
+|label1 = [[European Canadian|European]]
+|value1 = 76.7
+|color1 = Blue
+|label2 = [[Asian Canadian|Asian]]
+|value2 = 14.2
+|color2 = Gray
+|label3 = [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]]
+|value3 = 4.3
+|color3 = Gold
+|label4 = [[Black Canadians|Black]]
+|value4 = 2.9
+|color4 = Green
+|label5 = [[Latin American Canadian|Latin American]]
+|value5 = 1.2
+|color5 = Red
+|label6 = [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|Multiracial]]
+|value6 = 0.5
+|color6 = Black
+|label7 = [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|Other]]
+|value7 = 0.3
+|color7 = White
+}}
+{{Pie chart
+|thumb = right
+|caption = Religion in Canada (2011 National Household Survey)<ref name="religion2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm?HPA |title=Religions in Canada—Census 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada/Statistique Canada}}</ref>
+|label1 = [[Roman Catholicism in Canada|Catholic]]
+|value1 = 38.7
+|color1 = DarkOrchid
+|label2 = Other Christian
+|value2 = 28.6
+|color2 = DodgerBlue
+|label3 = [[Irreligion in Canada|Non-religious]]
+|value3 = 23.9
+|color3 = Gray
+|label4 = [[Islam in Canada|Islam]]
+|value4 = 3.2
+|color4 = MediumSeaGreen
+|label5 = [[Hinduism in Canada|Hinduism]]
+|value5 = 1.5
+|color5 = Crimson
+|label6 = [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikhism]]
+|value6 = 1.4
+|color6 = Orange
+|label7 = [[Buddhism in Canada|Buddhism]]
+|value7 = 1.1
+|color7 = Gold
+|label8 = [[Judaism in Canada|Judaism]]
+|value8 = 1.0
+|color8 = Turquoise
+|label9 = Other religions
+|value9 = 0.6
+|color9 = HotPink
+}}
+About four-fifths of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the United States border.<ref>{{cite book|last=Custred|first=Glynn|title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States|editor=Moens, Alexander|publisher=Fraser Institute|year=2008|page=96|chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96|isbn=978-0-88975-235-1}}</ref> Approximately 80 percent of Canadians live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, the British Columbia [[Lower Mainland]], and the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm | title = Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions | year = 2001 | publisher = Statistics Canada | accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found below the 55th parallel north. In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a [[demographic transition|demographic shift]] towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;<ref>{{cite web | last = Martel | first = Laurent |author2=Malenfant, Éric Caron | title = 2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex | publisher = Statistics Canada | date = September 22, 2009 | url = http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 | accessdate=October 18, 2009 }}</ref> by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2011/09/28/canada-population-stats.html|title=Canadian population creeps up in average age|publisher=CBC |date=September 28, 2011|accessdate=April 11, 2012}}</ref> As of 2013, the average [[life expectancy]] for Canadians is 81 years.<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR2013_EN_Statistics.pdf |format=PDF|title=2013 Human Development Index and its components – Statistics|publisher=UNDP |year=2013 |accessdate=March 15, 2013}}</ref>
+
+According to a 2012 [[NBC]] report, Canada is the most educated country in the world;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/business/most-educated-countries-world-1B6065913|title=The most educated countries in the world|publisher=NBC|year=2012|accessdate=April 25, 2013}}</ref> the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having [[tertiary education]], with 51% of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree, according to a 2012 [[OECD]] survey.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossman|first1=Samantha|title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is...|journal=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=September 27, 2012|url=http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/|accessdate=September 28, 2014}}</ref> Canadian provinces and territories are [[Education in Canada|responsible for education provision]]. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Council of Ministers of Education, Canada | title = Overview of Education in Canada | url= http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5mYLss1b9 | archivedate=January 5, 2010 | accessdate=October 20, 2010 }}</ref> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.<ref name="cia" /> As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.<ref name=OECDBLI>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/|title=Canada|work=[[OECD Better Life Index]]|publisher=OECD|year=2014|accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Department of Finance Canada | title = Creating Opportunities for All Canadians | url= http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp| date = November 14, 2005 | accessdate=May 22, 2006}}</ref> The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] indicates that Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf|title=Comparing countries' and economies' performances|publisher=OECD|year=2009|accessdate=May 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadian-education-among-best-in-the-world-oecd-1.583143|title=Canadian education among best in the world: OECD|publisher=CTV News|date=December 7, 2010|accessdate=February 15, 2013}}</ref>
+
+Canada has one of the [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration rate|highest per-capita immigration rates in the world]],<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51|page=51|title=Canada|first=Karla |last=Zimmerman|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|year=2008|edition=10th|isbn=978-1-74104-571-0}}</ref> driven by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration categories|family reunification]]. In 2010, a record 280,636 people immigrated to Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2011/2011-02-13.asp|title=Canada welcomes highest number of legal immigrants in 50 years while taking action to maintain the integrity of Canada's immigration system|publisher=Citizenship and Immigration Canada|date=February 13, 2011|accessdate=February 11, 2012}}</ref> The Canadian government anticipated between 260,000 and 285,000 new permanent residents in 2015,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/notices/2014-11-06.asp|title=Supplementary Information to the 2015 Immigration Levels Plan|publisher=Citizenship and Immigration Canada|accessdate=February 1, 2015}}</ref> a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.<ref name=CIC1>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/menu-fact.asp |title=Immigration overview – Permanent and temporary residents|publisher= [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]]|accessdate=February 11, 2014|year=2012}}</ref>  New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto, Montreal and  Vancouver.<ref name="Grubel2009">{{cite book|author=Herbert G. Grubel|title=The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5|year=2009|publisher=The Fraser Institute|isbn=978-0-88975-246-7|page=5}}</ref> Canada also accepts large numbers of [[refugee]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp|title=Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan|publisher=Canada News Centre|accessdate=December 12, 2010}}</ref> accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements.<ref name="Simmons2010">{{cite book|author=Alan Simmons|title=Immigration and Canada: Global and Transnational Perspectives|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K0YwAJ7MpswC&pg=PA92|year=2010|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-362-8|page=92}}</ref>
+
+According to the [[Canada 2006 Census|2006 census]], the country's largest [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|self-reported ethnic origin]] is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population), followed by [[English Canadian|English]] (21%), [[French Canadian|French]] (15.8%), [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] (15.1%), [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (13.9%), [[Canadians of German ethnicity|German]] (10.2%), [[Italian Canadians|Italian]] (4.6%), [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (4.3%), [[First Nations]] (4.0%), [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.9%), and [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Dutch]] (3.3%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000|title=Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table|date=July 28, 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>
+There are 600 recognized [[List of First Nations peoples|First Nations governments or bands]], encompassing a total of 1,172,790 people.<ref>{{cite web
+ | title = Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census&nbsp;– 20% Sample Data
+ | work = 2006 Census: Topic-based tabulations
+ | publisher = Statistics Canada
+ | date=June 12, 2008
+ | url = http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=
+ | accessdate =September 18, 2009}}
+</ref>
+
+Canada's aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-aboriginal [[visible minority]].<ref name="Kalunta-Crumpton2012">{{cite book|author=Anita Kalunta-Crumpton|author2=Texas Southern University|title=Race, Ethnicity, Crime and Criminal Justice in the Americas|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xQleAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-35586-6|page=12}}</ref> In 2006, the largest visible minority groups were [[South Asian Canadian|South Asian]] (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/080402/dq080402a-eng.htm|title=2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and mode of transportation|date=April 2, 2008|work=The Daily|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=January 19, 2010}}</ref> In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml|title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market|last=Pendakur|first=Krishna|publisher=Simon Fraser University|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml|archivedate=May 16, 2011|accessdate=June 30, 2014}}</ref> By 2007, almost one in five (19.8%) were foreign-born, with nearly 60 percent of new immigrants coming from Asia (including the Middle East).<ref>{{cite web
+ | work = The Daily|title=2006&nbsp;Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and migration
+ | publisher = Statistics Canada
+ | date =December 4, 2007
+ | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/071204/dq071204a-eng.htm
+ | accessdate=October 19, 2009}}
+</ref> The leading sources of immigrants to Canada were China, the Philippines and India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2010/11/09/16054896.html|first= Brian |last=Lilley |work=Parliamentary Bureau |title=Canadians want immigration shakeup|publisher=Canadian Online Explorer|year=2010|accessdate=November 14, 2010}}</ref> According to Statistics Canada, visible minority groups could account for a third of the Canadian population by 2031.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/the-changing-face-of-canada-booming-minority-populations-by-2031/article1494651/ |title=The changing face of Canada: booming minority populations by 2031|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=March 9, 2010|accessdate=May 14, 2012|first=Joe|last=Friesen}}</ref>
+
+[[Religion in Canada|Canada is religiously diverse]], encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. According to the 2011 census, 67.3% of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, [[Roman Catholicism|Catholics]] make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7% of the population. The largest [[Protestant]] denomination is the [[United Church of Canada]] (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by [[Anglican Church of Canada|Anglicans]] (5.0%), and [[Baptists]] (1.9%). In 2011, about 23.9% declared [[Irreligion|no religious affiliation]], compared to 16.5% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/15/no-religion-is-increasingly-popular-for-canadians-report_n_3283268.html|title='No Religion' Is Increasingly Popular For Canadians: Report|work=Huffington Post|date=May 15, 2013|accessdate=May 19, 2013}}</ref> The remaining 8.8% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which are [[Islam in Canada|Islam]] (3.2%) and [[Hinduism]] (1.5%).<ref name="religion2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm?HPA |title=Religions in Canada—Census 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada/Statistique Canada|year=2011|accessdate=May 19, 2013}}</ref> Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, they still believe in God.<ref name="Haskell2009">{{cite book|author=Dr. David M. Haskell (Wilfrid Laurier University)|title=Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50|year=2009|publisher=Clements Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-894667-92-0|page=50}}</ref> The "practice of religion" is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.<ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book|author1=Kevin Boyle|author2=Juliet Sheen|title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219|year=2013|publisher=University of Essex - Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72229-7|page=219}}</ref> Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to [[Freedom of religion in Canada|religious pluralism]].<ref name="Moon2008b">{{cite book|author=Richard Moon|title=Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1|year= 2008|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1497-3|pages=1–4}}</ref>
+
+[[Languages of Canada|Canada's two official languages]] are [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], pursuant to [[Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and the Federal [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]]. Canada's federal government practices [[Official bilingualism in Canada|official bilingualism]], which is applied by the [[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|Commissioner of Official Languages]]. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-[[language minorities]] are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web|title=Official Languages and You|publisher=[[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages]]|date=June 16, 2009|url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php|accessdate=September 10, 2009}}</ref>
+
+[[File:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg|200px|thumb|Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak English and/or French.<ref name="Highlights"/>'''<small>{{Legend|#FFE400|English – 56.9%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French (Bilingual) – 16.1% }}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 21.3%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area ( '''&lt;''' 0.4 persons per km<sup>2</sup>)}}</small>''']]
+
+English and French are the [[first language]]s of 59.7 and 23.2 percent of the population respectively. Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak English or French: 57.8 percent speak English only, 22.1 percent speak French only, and 17.4 percent speak both.<ref name="Highlights">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm|title=2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]], {{Text|Dated 2006}}|accessdate=October 12, 2010}}</ref> The English and French official-language communities, defined by the first official language spoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of the population respectively.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo15-eng.htm|title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory|year=2006|accessdate=May 26, 2012}}</ref>
+
+The 1977 [[Charter of the French Language]] established French as the official language of Quebec.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bourhis|first=Richard Y|author2=Montaruli, Elisa |author3=Amiot, Catherine E |title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997|journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]]|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=187–224|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031|volume=2007}}</ref> Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial [[Francophone]] populations in [[Franco-Ontarian|Ontario]], [[Franco-Albertan|Alberta]], and southern [[Franco-Manitoban|Manitoba]]; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/diversity-franco-diversite-eng.htm|title=The Diversity of the Canadian Francophonie|last=Lachapelle|first=R|date=March 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=September 24, 2009}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayday|first=Matthew|title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism|publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]]|year=2005|page=49|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49|isbn=978-0-7735-2960-1}}</ref>
+
+Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heller|first=Monica|title=Crosswords: language, education and ethnicity in French Ontario|year=2003|publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]]|isbn=978-3-11-017687-2|pages=72, 74}}</ref> There are 11 [[Languages of Canada#Aboriginal languages|Aboriginal language groups]], composed of more than 65 distinct dialects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm|title=Aboriginal languages|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=October 5, 2009}}</ref> Of these, only the [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Inuit language|Inuktitut]] and [[Ojibwe language|Ojibway]] languages have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to [[Language extinction|survive in the long term]].<ref name="Dickason1992">{{cite book|author=Olive Patricia Dickason|title=Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M5KhH8l1ldMC&pg=PA419|year=1992|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-2439-1|page=419}}</ref> Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fettes|first=Mark|author2=Norton, Ruth|title=Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise|editor=Castellano, Marlene Brant; Davis, Lynne; Lahache, Louise|publisher=[[UBC Press]]|year=2001|page=39|chapter=Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada|isbn=978-0-7748-0783-8}}</ref> Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Peter H|title=Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination|editor=Hocking, Barbara|publisher=[[Aboriginal Studies Press]]|year=2005|page=180|chapter=Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180|isbn=978-0-85575-466-2}}</ref>
+
+[[Canada 2011 Census|In 2011]], nearly 6.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://canadaonline.about.com/od/statistics/a/languages-canada-2011-census.htm|title=What Languages Do Canadians Speak? Language Statistics From the 2011 Census of Canada|publisher=About.com: Canada Online|date=October 31, 2012|accessdate=November 26, 2012}}</ref> Some of the most common non-official first languages include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (mainly [[Yue Chinese|Cantonese]]; 1,072,555 first-language speakers), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (430,705), [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (410,670), [[German language|German]] (409,200), and [[Italian language|Italian]] (407,490).<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm|title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory|date=January 2013|accessdate=July 4, 2013}}</ref>
+
+==Culture==
+{{Main|Culture of Canada}}
+[[File:Raven-and-the-first-men.jpg|thumb|[[Bill Reid]]'s 1980 sculpture ''Raven and The First Men''. The Raven is a figure common to many of Canada's Aboriginal mythologies.]]
+Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multiculturalism]] are constitutionally protected.<ref name="Dyck2011">{{cite book|author=Rand Dyck|title=Canadian Politics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-650343-7|page=88}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a [[culture of Quebec]] that is distinct from English Canadian culture.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61|page=61|title=Political culture and constitutionalism: a comparative approach|first1=Daniel P|last1=Franklin|first2=Michael J|last2=Baun|publisher=Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=978-1-56324-416-2}}</ref> However, as a whole, Canada is in theory a [[cultural mosaic]] – a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Garcea|first=Joseph|author2=Kirova, Anna |author3=Wong, Lloyd |title=Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada|journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies|date=January 2009|volume=40|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1353/ces.0.0069}}</ref> Government policies such as [[Health care in Canada|publicly funded health care]], [[Income taxes in Canada|higher taxation]] to [[Canadian federal budget|redistribute wealth]], the outlawing of [[Capital punishment in Canada|capital punishment]], strong efforts to eliminate [[poverty in Canada|poverty]], strict [[Gun politics in Canada|gun control]], and the legalization of [[Same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage]] are further social indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.<ref>{{cite book
+|first1 =Darrell | last1 =Bricker |first2= John |last2 =Wright
+|title =What Canadians think about almost everything
+|publisher =Doubleday Canada
+|year =2005
+|isbn =978-0-385-65985-7
+|pages=8–28}}</ref>
+
+Historically, Canada has been influenced by [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[French culture|French]], and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their language, [[Native American art|art]] and [[First Nations music|music]], aboriginal peoples continue to influence the [[Canadian identity]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3|pages=3–6|title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction|first=Paul R|last= Magocsi|publisher= University of Toronto Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8}}</ref> Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.<ref name="bickerton" /> American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |first=John D |last=Blackwell |url=http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture |title=Culture High and Low |year=2005 |accessdate=March 15, 2006 |publisher=International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service}}</ref> The preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC), the [[National Film Board of Canada]] (NFB), and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC).<ref>{{cite web |publisher=National Film Board of Canada |url=http://www.onf.ca/medias/download/documents/pdf/NFB_STRATEGIC_PLAN.pdf |title=Mandate of the National Film Board |year=2005|accessdate=October 20, 2009}}</ref>
+[[File:The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset.|''[[The Jack Pine]]'' by [[Tom Thomson]]. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the [[National Gallery of Canada]].]]
+
+[[Canadian art|Canadian visual art]] has been dominated by figures such as [[Tom Thomson]] – the country's most famous painter – and by the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]]. Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brock|first=Richard|title=Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature at the Site of the Canadian Landscape|journal=Canadian Journal of Environmental Education|year=2008|volume=13|issue=2|pages=50–61}}</ref> The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists – [[Lawren Harris]], [[A. Y. Jackson]], [[Arthur Lismer]], [[J. E. H. MacDonald]], and [[Frederick Varley]] – were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by [[Frank Johnston (artist)|Frank Johnston]], and by commercial artist [[Franklin Carmichael]]. [[A. J. Casson]] became part of the Group in 1926.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hill|first=Charles C|title=The Group of Seven&nbsp;– Art for a Nation|publisher=National Gallery of Canada|year=1995|pages=15–21, 195|isbn=978-0-7710-6716-7}}</ref> Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Newlands|first=Anne|title=Emily Carr|publisher=Firefly Books|year=1996|pages=8–9|isbn=978-1-55209-046-6}}</ref> Since the 1950s, works of [[Inuit art]] have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.<ref name="Stern2010">{{cite book|author=Pamela R. Stern|title=Daily life of the Inuit|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0y95_2m0pGUC&pg=PA151|date=June 30, 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36311-5|page=151}}</ref>
+
+The [[Music of Canada|Canadian music industry]] has produced internationally renowned [[List of Canadian composers|composers]], [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] and [[List of bands from Canada|ensembles]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vtDhVXAkpxcC&pg=PA95|title=The cultural industries in Canada: problems, policies and prospects|first= Michael |last=Dorland|page=95|publisher=J. Lorimer|year=1996|isbn=978-1-55028-494-2}}</ref> Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The [[Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] presents Canada's music industry awards, the [[Juno Award]]s, which were first awarded in 1970.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IxVuSFLo8fAC&pg=PA127|page=127|title=Canadian content, culture and the quest for nationhood|first=Ryan |last=Edwardson|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8020-9759-0}}</ref> [[Anthems and nationalistic songs of Canada|Patriotic music in Canada]] dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the [[Constitution Act, 1867|first legal steps to independence]] by over 50 years. The earliest, ''[[The Bold Canadian]]'', was written in 1812.<ref name="Jortner2011">{{cite book|author=Adam Jortner|title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217|year= 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-976529-4|page=217}}</ref> The national anthem of Canada, "[[O Canada]]", was originally commissioned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Quebec]], the Honourable [[Théodore Robitaille]], for the 1880 [[Fête nationale du Québec|St. Jean-Baptiste Day]] ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/o-canada/|title='O Canada' |publisher=Historica-Dominion |accessdate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> [[Calixa Lavallée]] wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir [[Adolphe-Basile Routhier]]. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.<ref>{{cite web
+ |title=Hymne national du Canada
+ |publisher=Canadian Heritage
+ |date=June 23, 2008
+ |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm
+ |accessdate=June 26, 2008}}
+</ref>
+
+[[File:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Hockey players and fans celebrating|Canada's [[ice hockey]] victory at the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver]]
+
+The [[History of Canadian sports|roots of organized sports in Canada]] date back to the 1770s.<ref>Henry Roxborough, "The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada," ''Canada'' (1975) 2#3 pp 30–43</ref> Canada's official national sports are [[ice hockey]] and [[lacrosse]].<ref>{{cite web
+ |title=National Sports of Canada Act
+ |publisher=Canadian Heritage
+ |date=November 17, 2008
+ |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/sc/legsltn/n-16-eng.cfm
+ |accessdate=October 1, 2012}}
+</ref> Seven of Canada's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg – have franchises in the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL). Other popular spectator [[sports in Canada]] include [[curling]] and [[Canadian football]]; the latter is played professionally in the [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL). [[Golf]], [[tennis]], [[baseball]], [[skiing]], [[cricket]], [[volleyball]], [[rugby union]], [[Association football|soccer]] and [[basketball]] are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.<ref name = "sports">{{cite web | author = [[Conference Board of Canada]] |date=December 2004 | url = http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm | title = Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population | publisher = Sport Canada | work = Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada – Report August 2005 | accessdate=July 1, 2006}}</ref> Canada does have one professional baseball team, the [[Toronto Blue Jays]], one professional basketball team, the [[Toronto Raptors]] and three [[Major League Soccer]] teams, [[Toronto FC]], [[Vancouver Whitecaps FC]] and the [[Montreal Impact]]. Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since [[Canada at the 1900 Summer Olympics|its Olympic debut in 1900]], and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the [[1976 Summer Olympics]] in Montreal, the [[1988 Winter Olympics]] in Calgary, the [[1994 Basketball World Championship]], the [[2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup]], and the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver and [[Whistler, British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web | publisher =The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games | url = http://www.vancouver2010.com/ | title = Vancouver 2010 | year = 2009 | accessdate=October 20, 2009}}</ref>
+
+[[National symbols of Canada|Canada's national symbols]] are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the [[maple leaf]] as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's [[Flag of Canada|current]] and [[Canadian Red Ensign|previous flags]], on the [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], and on the [[Arms of Canada]].<ref name="symbol1">{{cite book | author=Canadian Heritage | title=Symbols of Canada | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-660-18615-3 | publisher=Canadian Government Publishing}}</ref> Other prominent symbols include the [[beaver]], [[Canada Goose]], [[Great Northern Loon|Common Loon]], the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,<ref name="symbol1"/> and more recently, the [[totem pole]] and [[Inuksuk]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ruhl|first=Jeffrey|date=January 2008|title=Inukshuk Rising|journal=Canadian Journal of Globalization|volume=1|issue=1|pages=25–30}}</ref>
+{{clear}}
+
+==See also==
+{{Portal|Canada|North America}}
+* [[Index of Canada-related articles]]
+* [[Outline of Canada]]
+* [[List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories|Topics by provinces and territories]]
+* {{Wikipedia books link|Canada}}
+
+==Notes==
+{{notelist}}
+{{Reflist|group=n|30em}}
+
+==References==
+{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
+
+==Further reading==
+{{main|Bibliography of Canada}}
+{{refbegin}}
+{{div col||20em}}
+'''History'''
+* {{Cite book
+|title = Journeys: A History of Canada
+|first1 =RD | last1 = Francis |first2 = Richard |last2 =Jones |first3 = Donald B |last3 =Smith
+|publisher = Nelson Education
+|year = 2009
+|isbn = 978-0-17-644244-6
+|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1
+ }}
+* {{cite book |last = Taylor |first = Martin Brook|author2=Owram, Doug|year = 1994|title =Canadian History|volume=[http://books.google.com/books?id=FamJrJEvymIC&pg=PP1 1] & [http://books.google.com/books?id=HKmAjZJCJFoC&pg=PP1 2]|publisher= University of Toronto Press}} ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
+'''Geography and climate'''
+* {{Cite book
+|title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas
+|editor = Stanford, Quentin H
+|edition = 6th
+|publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada)
+|isbn = 978-0-19-542928-2
+|year = 2008
+ }}
+'''Government and law'''
+* {{cite book |last = Malcolmson |first = Patrick|edition=4th|author2=Myers, Richard|year =2009 |title =The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn= 978-1-4426-0047-8}}
+* {{cite book |last = Morton|first =Frederick Lee |year =2002 |title =Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada
+ |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |publisher= Frederick Lee|isbn= 978-1-55238-046-8}}
+'''Military'''
+* {{cite book |last = Granatstein |first =JL|title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z7E-j1UWuOMC&pg=PP1|year= 2011|edition=2nd|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-1178-8}}
+'''Economy'''
+* {{cite book |publisher=OECD Economic Surveys|year =2013 |title =2012 Economic Survey |url =http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2012_eco_surveys-can-2012-en#page1|format=PDF}} ([http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/listofeconomicsurveysofcanada.htm List of Economic Surveys])
+* {{cite book|author=Council of Canadian Academies|title=The State of Science and Technology in Canada, 2012|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p_LBUhAQHTEC&pg=PP1|year=2012|publisher=Council of Canadian Academies|isbn=978-1-926558-47-9}}
+'''Demography and statistics'''
+* {{Cite book
+|last = Statistics Canada
+|title = Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967
+|publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada)
+|year= 2008
+|url=http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=11-402-X&chropg=1&lang=eng
+ }}
+* {{Cite book
+|last = Statistics Canada
+|title = Canada Year Book
+|publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada)
+|date= December 2012
+|id =Catalogue no 11-402-XWE
+|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2012000-eng.htm
+|issn = 0068-8142
+}}
+'''Culture'''
+* {{cite book|author=[[Andrew Cohen (journalist)|Andrew Cohen]]|title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mlqG66wAEfoC&pg=PP1|year= 2007|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2181-7}}
+* {{cite book
+|first = Paul R| last = Magocsi
+|title =Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples
+|publisher =Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press
+|year =1999
+|isbn =978-0-8020-2938-6
+|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC
+ }}
+{{div col end}}
+{{refend}}
+
+==External links==
+{{Sister project links|voy=Canada|Canada}}
+{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Canada.ogg|2008-01-04}}
+'''Overviews'''
+* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada] from [[University of Colorado Boulder|UCB]] Libraries GovPubs
+* {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Canada}}
+* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16841111 Canada] from [[BBC News]]
+* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] from [[CIA]] ''World Factbook''
+* [http://www.oecd.org/canada/ Canada profile] from the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]
+* [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada]
+* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CA Key Development Forecasts for Canada] from [[International Futures]]
+
+'''Government'''
+* [http://www.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]<!--Archives of early pages are at wayback.archive.org/*/http://www.canada.gc.ca/-->
+* [http://www.gg.ca/ Official website of the Governor General of Canada]
+
+'''Travel'''
+* [http://us.canada.travel/ Canada's Official Tourism Website]
+
+'''Studies'''
+* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html A Guide to the Sources] from International Council for Canadian Studies
+
+{{Anchor|Related information}}<!-- target for Navbox link at See also section -->
+{{Navboxes
+| title = <span style="vertical-align: 1px;">[[File:Maple Leaf (from roundel).svg|20x20px]]</span> <span style="color:#00006e;">[[Outline of Canada|Topics related to Canada]]</span>
+| titlestyle = color:black; background-color:white;
+|list1={{Canada topics}}
+{{Countries of North America}}
+{{Commonwealth of Nations}}
+}}
+<!--Please do not remove the space. Please do not move this article from its position at the top of its own category, which is the standard location for a lead article.-->
+{{Featured article}}
+
+{{Authority control}}
+
+[[Category:Canada| ]]
+[[Category:1867 establishments in Canada| ]]
+[[Category:Constitutional monarchies]]
+[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
+[[Category:Federal countries]]
+[[Category:Former British colonies]]
+[[Category:Former French colonies]]
+[[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]]
+[[Category:G8 nations]]
+[[Category:G20 nations]]
+[[Category:Liberal democracies]]
+[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
+[[Category:Member states of La Francophonie]]
+[[Category:Member states of NATO]]
+[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
+[[Category:States and territories established in 1867]]
+[[Category:G7 nations]]