immutable-ruby 0.0.1

data/lib/immutable/trie.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,338 @@
+module Immutable
+  # @private
+  class Trie
+    def self.[](pairs)
+      result = self.new(0)
+      pairs.each { |key, val| result.put!(key, val) }
+      result
+    end
+
+    # Returns the number of key-value pairs in the trie.
+    attr_reader :size
+
+    def initialize(significant_bits, size = 0, entries = [], children = [])
+      @significant_bits = significant_bits
+      @entries = entries
+      @children = children
+      @size = size
+    end
+
+    # Returns <tt>true</tt> if the trie contains no key-value pairs.
+    def empty?
+      size == 0
+    end
+
+    # Returns <tt>true</tt> if the given key is present in the trie.
+    def key?(key)
+      !!get(key)
+    end
+
+    # Calls <tt>block</tt> once for each entry in the trie, passing the key-value pair as parameters.
+    def each(&block)
+      # TODO: Using block.call here is slower than using yield by 5-10%, but
+      # the latter segfaults on ruby 2.2 and above. Once that is fixed and
+      # broken versions are sufficiently old, we should revert back to yield
+      # with a warning that the broken versions are unsupported.
+      #
+      # For more context:
+      # * https://bugs.ruby-lang.org/issues/11451
+      # * https://github.com/hamstergem/hamster/issues/189
+      @entries.each { |entry| block.call(entry) if entry }
+      @children.each do |child|
+        child.each(&block) if child
+      end
+      nil
+    end
+
+    def reverse_each(&block)
+      @children.reverse_each do |child|
+        child.reverse_each(&block) if child
+      end
+      @entries.reverse_each { |entry| yield(entry) if entry }
+      nil
+    end
+
+    def reduce(memo)
+      each { |entry| memo = yield(memo, entry) }
+      memo
+    end
+
+    def select
+      keys_to_delete = []
+      each { |entry| keys_to_delete << entry[0] unless yield(entry) }
+      bulk_delete(keys_to_delete)
+    end
+
+    # @return [Trie] A copy of `self` with the given value associated with the
+    #   key (or `self` if no modification was needed because an identical
+    #   key-value pair wes already stored
+    def put(key, value)
+      index = index_for(key)
+      entry = @entries[index]
+
+      if !entry
+        entries = @entries.dup
+        key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+        entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+        Trie.new(@significant_bits, @size + 1, entries, @children)
+      elsif entry[0].eql?(key)
+        if entry[1].equal?(value)
+          self
+        else
+          entries = @entries.dup
+          key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+          entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+          Trie.new(@significant_bits, @size, entries, @children)
+        end
+      else
+        child = @children[index]
+        if child
+          new_child = child.put(key, value)
+          if new_child.equal?(child)
+            self
+          else
+            children = @children.dup
+            children[index] = new_child
+            new_self_size = @size + (new_child.size - child.size)
+            Trie.new(@significant_bits, new_self_size, @entries, children)
+          end
+        else
+          children = @children.dup
+          children[index] = Trie.new(@significant_bits + 5).put!(key, value)
+          Trie.new(@significant_bits, @size + 1, @entries, children)
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Put multiple elements into a Trie.  This is more efficient than several
+    # calls to `#put`.
+    #
+    # @param key_value_pairs Enumerable of pairs (`[key, value]`)
+    # @return [Trie] A copy of `self` after associated the given keys and
+    #   values (or `self` if no modifications where needed).
+    def bulk_put(key_value_pairs)
+      new_entries = nil
+      new_children = nil
+      new_size = @size
+
+      key_value_pairs.each do |key, value|
+        index = index_for(key)
+        entry = (new_entries || @entries)[index]
+
+        if !entry
+          new_entries ||= @entries.dup
+          key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+          new_entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+          new_size += 1
+        elsif entry[0].eql?(key)
+          if !entry[1].equal?(value)
+            new_entries ||= @entries.dup
+            key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+            new_entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+          end
+        else
+          child = (new_children || @children)[index]
+          if child
+            new_child = child.put(key, value)
+            if !new_child.equal?(child)
+              new_children ||= @children.dup
+              new_children[index] = new_child
+              new_size += new_child.size - child.size
+            end
+          else
+            new_children ||= @children.dup
+            new_children[index] = Trie.new(@significant_bits + 5).put!(key, value)
+            new_size += 1
+          end
+        end
+      end
+
+      if new_entries || new_children
+        Trie.new(@significant_bits, new_size, new_entries || @entries, new_children || @children)
+      else
+        self
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Returns <tt>self</tt> after overwriting the element associated with the specified key.
+    def put!(key, value)
+      index = index_for(key)
+      entry = @entries[index]
+      if !entry
+        @size += 1
+        key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+        @entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+      elsif entry[0].eql?(key)
+        key = key.dup.freeze if key.is_a?(String) && !key.frozen?
+        @entries[index] = [key, value].freeze
+      else
+        child = @children[index]
+        if child
+          old_child_size = child.size
+          @children[index] = child.put!(key, value)
+          @size += child.size - old_child_size
+        else
+          @children[index] = Trie.new(@significant_bits + 5).put!(key, value)
+          @size += 1
+        end
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Retrieves the entry corresponding to the given key. If not found, returns <tt>nil</tt>.
+    def get(key)
+      index = index_for(key)
+      entry = @entries[index]
+      if entry && entry[0].eql?(key)
+        entry
+      else
+        child = @children[index]
+        child.get(key) if child
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Returns a copy of <tt>self</tt> with the given key (and associated value) deleted. If not found, returns <tt>self</tt>.
+    def delete(key)
+      find_and_delete(key) || Trie.new(@significant_bits)
+    end
+
+    # Delete multiple elements from a Trie.  This is more efficient than
+    # several calls to `#delete`.
+    #
+    # @param keys [Enumerable] The keys to delete
+    # @return [Trie]
+    def bulk_delete(keys)
+      new_entries = nil
+      new_children = nil
+      new_size = @size
+
+      keys.each do |key|
+        index = index_for(key)
+        entry = (new_entries || @entries)[index]
+        if !entry
+          next
+        elsif entry[0].eql?(key)
+          new_entries ||= @entries.dup
+          child = (new_children || @children)[index]
+          if child
+            # Bring up the first entry from the child into entries
+            new_children ||= @children.dup
+            new_children[index] = child.delete_at do |entry|
+              new_entries[index] = entry
+            end
+          else
+            new_entries[index] = nil
+          end
+          new_size -= 1
+        else
+          child = (new_children || @children)[index]
+          if child
+            copy = child.find_and_delete(key)
+            unless copy.equal?(child)
+              new_children ||= @children.dup
+              new_children[index] = copy
+              new_size -= (child.size - copy_size(copy))
+            end
+          end
+        end
+      end
+
+      if new_entries || new_children
+        Trie.new(@significant_bits, new_size, new_entries || @entries, new_children || @children)
+      else
+        self
+      end
+    end
+
+    def include?(key, value)
+      entry = get(key)
+      entry && value.eql?(entry[1])
+    end
+
+    def at(index)
+      @entries.each do |entry|
+        if entry
+          return entry if index == 0
+          index -= 1
+        end
+      end
+      @children.each do |child|
+        if child
+          if child.size >= index+1
+            return child.at(index)
+          else
+            index -= child.size
+          end
+        end
+      end
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Returns <tt>true</tt> if . <tt>eql?</tt> is synonymous with <tt>==</tt>
+    def eql?(other)
+      return true if equal?(other)
+      return false unless instance_of?(other.class) && size == other.size
+      each do |entry|
+        return false unless other.include?(entry[0], entry[1])
+      end
+      true
+    end
+    alias :== :eql?
+
+    protected
+
+    # Returns a replacement instance after removing the specified key.
+    # If not found, returns <tt>self</tt>.
+    # If empty, returns <tt>nil</tt>.
+    def find_and_delete(key)
+      index = index_for(key)
+      entry = @entries[index]
+      if entry && entry[0].eql?(key)
+        return delete_at(index)
+      else
+        child = @children[index]
+        if child
+          copy = child.find_and_delete(key)
+          unless copy.equal?(child)
+            children = @children.dup
+            children[index] = copy
+            new_size = @size - (child.size - copy_size(copy))
+            return Trie.new(@significant_bits, new_size, @entries, children)
+          end
+        end
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Returns a replacement instance after removing the specified entry. If empty, returns <tt>nil</tt>
+    def delete_at(index = @entries.index { |e| e })
+      yield(@entries[index]) if block_given?
+      if size > 1
+        entries = @entries.dup
+        child = @children[index]
+        if child
+          children = @children.dup
+          children[index] = child.delete_at do |entry|
+            entries[index] = entry
+          end
+        else
+          entries[index] = nil
+        end
+        Trie.new(@significant_bits, @size - 1, entries, children || @children)
+      end
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    def index_for(key)
+      (key.hash.abs >> @significant_bits) & 31
+    end
+
+    def copy_size(copy)
+      copy ? copy.size : 0
+    end
+  end
+
+  # @private
+  EmptyTrie = Trie.new(0)
+end

data/lib/immutable/undefined.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+module Immutable
+  # @private
+  module Undefined
+  end
+end

data/lib/immutable/vector.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1539 @@
+require "immutable/enumerable"
+require "immutable/hash"
+
+module Immutable
+
+  # A `Vector` is an ordered, integer-indexed collection of objects. Like
+  # Ruby's `Array`, `Vector` indexing starts at zero and negative indexes count
+  # back from the end.
+  #
+  # `Vector` has a similar interface to `Array`. The main difference is methods
+  # that would destructively update an `Array` (such as {#insert} or
+  # {#delete_at}) instead return new `Vectors` and leave the existing one
+  # unchanged.
+  #
+  # ### Creating New Vectors
+  #
+  #     Immutable::Vector.new([:first, :second, :third])
+  #     Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+  #
+  # ### Retrieving Items from Vectors
+  #
+  #     vector = Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+  #
+  #     vector[0]      # => 1
+  #     vector[-1]     # => 5
+  #     vector[0,3]    # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3]
+  #     vector[1..-1]  # => Immutable::Vector[2, 3, 4, 5]
+  #     vector.first   # => 1
+  #     vector.last    # => 5
+  #
+  # ### Creating Modified Vectors
+  #
+  #     vector.add(6)            # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
+  #     vector.insert(1, :a, :b) # => Immutable::Vector[1, :a, :b, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+  #     vector.delete_at(2)      # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 4, 5]
+  #     vector + [6, 7]          # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
+  #
+  class Vector
+    include Immutable::Enumerable
+
+    # @private
+    BLOCK_SIZE = 32
+    # @private
+    INDEX_MASK = BLOCK_SIZE - 1
+    # @private
+    BITS_PER_LEVEL = 5
+
+    # Return the number of items in this `Vector`
+    # @return [Integer]
+    attr_reader :size
+    alias :length :size
+
+    class << self
+      # Create a new `Vector` populated with the given items.
+      # @return [Vector]
+      def [](*items)
+        new(items.freeze)
+      end
+
+      # Return an empty `Vector`. If used on a subclass, returns an empty instance
+      # of that class.
+      #
+      # @return [Vector]
+      def empty
+        @empty ||= self.new
+      end
+
+      # "Raw" allocation of a new `Vector`. Used internally to create a new
+      # instance quickly after building a modified trie.
+      #
+      # @return [Vector]
+      # @private
+      def alloc(root, size, levels)
+        obj = allocate
+        obj.instance_variable_set(:@root, root)
+        obj.instance_variable_set(:@size, size)
+        obj.instance_variable_set(:@levels, levels)
+        obj.freeze
+      end
+    end
+
+    def initialize(items=[].freeze)
+      items = items.to_a
+      if items.size <= 32
+        items = items.dup.freeze if !items.frozen?
+        @root, @size, @levels = items, items.size, 0
+      else
+        root, size, levels = items, items.size, 0
+        while root.size > 32
+          root = root.each_slice(32).to_a
+          levels += 1
+        end
+        @root, @size, @levels = root.freeze, size, levels
+      end
+      freeze
+    end
+
+    # Return `true` if this `Vector` contains no items.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    def empty?
+      @size == 0
+    end
+
+    # Return the first item in the `Vector`. If the vector is empty, return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].first  # => "A"
+    #
+    # @return [Object]
+    def first
+      get(0)
+    end
+
+    # Return the last item in the `Vector`. If the vector is empty, return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].last  # => "C"
+    #
+    # @return [Object]
+    def last
+      get(-1)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with `item` added after the last occupied position.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 2].add(99)  # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 99]
+    #
+    # @param item [Object] The object to insert at the end of the vector
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def add(item)
+      update_root(@size, item)
+    end
+    alias :<< :add
+    alias :push :add
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with a new value at the given `index`. If `index`
+    # is greater than the length of the vector, the returned vector will be
+    # padded with `nil`s to the correct size.
+    #
+    # @overload set(index, item)
+    #   Return a new `Vector` with the item at `index` replaced by `item`.
+    #
+    #   @param item [Object] The object to insert into that position
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4].set(2, 99)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 99, 4]
+    #     Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4].set(-1, 99)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 99]
+    #     Immutable::Vector[].set(2, 99)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector[nil, nil, 99]
+    #
+    # @overload set(index)
+    #   Return a new `Vector` with the item at `index` replaced by the return
+    #   value of the block.
+    #
+    #   @yield (existing) Once with the existing value at the given `index`.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4].set(2) { |v| v * 10 }
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 30, 4]
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index to update. May be negative.
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def set(index, item = yield(get(index)))
+      raise IndexError, "index #{index} outside of vector bounds" if index < -@size
+      index += @size if index < 0
+      if index > @size
+        suffix = Array.new(index - @size, nil)
+        suffix << item
+        replace_suffix(@size, suffix)
+      else
+        update_root(index, item)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with a deeply nested value modified to the result
+    # of the given code block.  When traversing the nested `Vector`s and
+    # `Hash`es, non-existing keys are created with empty `Hash` values.
+    #
+    # The code block receives the existing value of the deeply nested key (or
+    # `nil` if it doesn't exist). This is useful for "transforming" the value
+    # associated with a certain key.
+    #
+    # Note that the original `Vector` and sub-`Vector`s and sub-`Hash`es are
+    # left unmodified; new data structure copies are created along the path
+    # wherever needed.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[123, 456, 789, Immutable::Hash["a" => Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7]]]
+    #   v.update_in(3, "a", 1) { |value| value + 9 }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[123, 456, 789, Immutable::Hash["a" => Immutable::Vector[5, 15, 7]]]
+    #
+    # @param key_path [Object(s)] List of keys which form the path to the key to be modified
+    # @yield [value] The previously stored value
+    # @yieldreturn [Object] The new value to store
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def update_in(*key_path, &block)
+      if key_path.empty?
+        raise ArgumentError, "must have at least one key in path"
+      end
+      key = key_path[0]
+      if key_path.size == 1
+        new_value = block.call(get(key))
+      else
+        value = fetch(key, Immutable::EmptyHash)
+        new_value = value.update_in(*key_path[1..-1], &block)
+      end
+      set(key, new_value)
+    end
+
+    # Retrieve the item at `index`. If there is none (either the provided index
+    # is too high or too low), return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #   v.get(2)   # => "C"
+    #   v.get(-1)  # => "D"
+    #   v.get(4)   # => nil
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index to retrieve
+    # @return [Object]
+    def get(index)
+      return nil if @size == 0
+      index += @size if index < 0
+      return nil if index >= @size || index < 0
+      leaf_node_for(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, index)[index & INDEX_MASK]
+    end
+    alias :at :get
+
+    # Retrieve the value at `index` with optional default.
+    #
+    # @overload fetch(index)
+    #   Retrieve the value at the given index, or raise an `IndexError` if not
+    #   found.
+    #
+    #   @param index [Integer] The index to look up
+    #   @raise [IndexError] if index does not exist
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #     v.fetch(2)       # => "C"
+    #     v.fetch(-1)      # => "D"
+    #     v.fetch(4)       # => IndexError: index 4 outside of vector bounds
+    #
+    # @overload fetch(index) { |index| ... }
+    #   Retrieve the value at the given index, or return the result of yielding
+    #   the block if not found.
+    #
+    #   @yield Once if the index is not found.
+    #   @yieldparam [Integer] index The index which does not exist
+    #   @yieldreturn [Object] Default value to return
+    #   @param index [Integer] The index to look up
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #     v.fetch(2) { |i| i * i }   # => "C"
+    #     v.fetch(4) { |i| i * i }   # => 16
+    #
+    # @overload fetch(index, default)
+    #   Retrieve the value at the given index, or return the provided `default`
+    #   value if not found.
+    #
+    #   @param index [Integer] The index to look up
+    #   @param default [Object] Object to return if the key is not found
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #     v.fetch(2, "Z")  # => "C"
+    #     v.fetch(4, "Z")  # => "Z"
+    #
+    # @return [Object]
+    def fetch(index, default = (missing_default = true))
+      if index >= -@size && index < @size
+        get(index)
+      elsif block_given?
+        yield(index)
+      elsif !missing_default
+        default
+      else
+        raise IndexError, "index #{index} outside of vector bounds"
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return specific objects from the `Vector`. All overloads return `nil` if
+    # the starting index is out of range.
+    #
+    # @overload vector.slice(index)
+    #   Returns a single object at the given `index`. If `index` is negative,
+    #   count backwards from the end.
+    #
+    #   @param index [Integer] The index to retrieve. May be negative.
+    #   @return [Object]
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     v[2]  # => "C"
+    #     v[-1] # => "F"
+    #     v[6]  # => nil
+    #
+    # @overload vector.slice(index, length)
+    #   Return a subvector starting at `index` and continuing for `length`
+    #   elements or until the end of the `Vector`, whichever occurs first.
+    #
+    #   @param start [Integer] The index to start retrieving items from. May be
+    #                          negative.
+    #   @param length [Integer] The number of items to retrieve.
+    #   @return [Vector]
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     v[2, 3]  # => Immutable::Vector["C", "D", "E"]
+    #     v[-2, 3] # => Immutable::Vector["E", "F"]
+    #     v[20, 1] # => nil
+    #
+    # @overload vector.slice(index..end)
+    #   Return a subvector starting at `index` and continuing to index
+    #   `end` or the end of the `Vector`, whichever occurs first.
+    #
+    #   @param range [Range] The range of indices to retrieve.
+    #   @return [Vector]
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     v[2..3]    # => Immutable::Vector["C", "D"]
+    #     v[-2..100] # => Immutable::Vector["E", "F"]
+    #     v[20..21]  # => nil
+    def slice(arg, length = (missing_length = true))
+      if missing_length
+        if arg.is_a?(Range)
+          from, to = arg.begin, arg.end
+          from += @size if from < 0
+          to   += @size if to < 0
+          to   += 1     if !arg.exclude_end?
+          length = to - from
+          length = 0 if length < 0
+          subsequence(from, length)
+        else
+          get(arg)
+        end
+      else
+        arg += @size if arg < 0
+        subsequence(arg, length)
+      end
+    end
+    alias :[] :slice
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the given values inserted before the element
+    # at `index`. If `index` is greater than the current length, `nil` values
+    # are added to pad the `Vector` to the required size.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"].insert(2, "X", "Y", "Z")
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "X", "Y", "Z", "C", "D"]
+    #   Immutable::Vector[].insert(2, "X", "Y", "Z")
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[nil, nil, "X", "Y", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index where the new items should go
+    # @param items [Array] The items to add
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @raise [IndexError] if index exceeds negative range.
+    def insert(index, *items)
+      raise IndexError if index < -@size
+      index += @size if index < 0
+
+      if index < @size
+        suffix = flatten_suffix(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, index, [])
+        suffix.unshift(*items)
+      elsif index == @size
+        suffix = items
+      else
+        suffix = Array.new(index - @size, nil).concat(items)
+        index = @size
+      end
+
+      replace_suffix(index, suffix)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the element at `index` removed. If the given `index`
+    # does not exist, return `self`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"].delete_at(2)
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "D"]
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index to remove
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def delete_at(index)
+      return self if index >= @size || index < -@size
+      index += @size if index < 0
+
+      suffix = flatten_suffix(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, index, [])
+      replace_suffix(index, suffix.tap { |a| a.shift })
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the last element removed. Return `self` if
+    # empty.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].pop  # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def pop
+      return self if @size == 0
+      replace_suffix(@size-1, [])
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with `object` inserted before the first element,
+    # moving the other elements upwards.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B"].unshift("Z")
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["Z", "A", "B"]
+    #
+    # @param object [Object] The value to prepend
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def unshift(object)
+      insert(0, object)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the first element removed. If empty, return
+    # `self`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].shift  # => Immutable::Vector["B", "C"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def shift
+      delete_at(0)
+    end
+
+    # Call the given block once for each item in the vector, passing each
+    # item from first to last successively to the block. If no block is given,
+    # an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].each { |e| puts "Element: #{e}" }
+    #
+    #   Element: A
+    #   Element: B
+    #   Element: C
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    def each(&block)
+      return to_enum unless block_given?
+      traverse_depth_first(@root, @levels, &block)
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Call the given block once for each item in the vector, from last to
+    # first.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].reverse_each { |e| puts "Element: #{e}" }
+    #
+    #   Element: C
+    #   Element: B
+    #   Element: A
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    def reverse_each(&block)
+      return enum_for(:reverse_each) unless block_given?
+      reverse_traverse_depth_first(@root, @levels, &block)
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` containing all elements for which the given block returns
+    # true.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["Bird", "Cow", "Elephant"].select { |e| e.size >= 4 }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["Bird", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @yield [element] Once for each element.
+    def select
+      return enum_for(:select) unless block_given?
+      reduce(self.class.empty) { |vector, item| yield(item) ? vector.add(item) : vector }
+    end
+    alias :find_all :select
+    alias :keep_if  :select
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with all items which are equal to `obj` removed.
+    # `#==` is used for checking equality.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["C", "B", "A", "B"].delete("B")  # => Immutable::Vector["C", "A"]
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The object to remove (every occurrence)
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def delete(obj)
+      select { |item| item != obj }
+    end
+
+    # Invoke the given block once for each item in the vector, and return a new
+    # `Vector` containing the values returned by the block. If no block is
+    # provided, return an enumerator.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[3, 2, 1].map { |e| e * e }  # => Immutable::Vector[9, 4, 1]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector, Enumerator]
+    def map
+      return enum_for(:map) if not block_given?
+      return self if empty?
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+    alias :collect :map
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the concatenated results of running the block once
+    # for every element in this `Vector`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3].flat_map { |x| [x, -x] }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def flat_map
+      return enum_for(:flat_map) if not block_given?
+      return self if empty?
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the same elements as this one, but randomly permuted.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4].shuffle  # => Immutable::Vector[4, 1, 3, 2]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def shuffle
+      self.class.new(((array = to_a).frozen? ? array.shuffle : array.shuffle!).freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with no duplicate elements, as determined by `#hash` and
+    # `#eql?`. For each group of equivalent elements, only the first will be retained.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "B"].uniq      # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"]
+    #   Immutable::Vector["a", "A", "b"].uniq(&:upcase) # => Immutable::Vector["a", "b"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def uniq(&block)
+      array = self.to_a
+      if block_given?
+        if array.frozen?
+          self.class.new(array.uniq(&block).freeze)
+        elsif array.uniq!(&block) # returns nil if no changes were made
+          self.class.new(array.freeze)
+        else
+          self
+        end
+      elsif array.frozen?
+        self.class.new(array.uniq.freeze)
+      elsif array.uniq! # returns nil if no changes were made
+        self.class.new(array.freeze)
+      else
+        self
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the same elements as this one, but in reverse order.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"].reverse  # => Immutable::Vector["C", "B", "A"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def reverse
+      self.class.new(((array = to_a).frozen? ? array.reverse : array.reverse!).freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the same elements, but rotated so that the one at
+    # index `count` is the first element of the new vector. If `count` is positive,
+    # the elements will be shifted left, and those shifted past the lowest position
+    # will be moved to the end. If `count` is negative, the elements will be shifted
+    # right, and those shifted past the last position will be moved to the beginning.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #   v.rotate(2)   # => Immutable::Vector["C", "D", "E", "F", "A", "B"]
+    #   v.rotate(-1)  # => Immutable::Vector["F", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E"]
+    #
+    # @param count [Integer] The number of positions to shift items by
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def rotate(count = 1)
+      return self if (count % @size) == 0
+      self.class.new(((array = to_a).frozen? ? array.rotate(count) : array.rotate!(count)).freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with all nested vectors and arrays recursively "flattened
+    # out". That is, their elements inserted into the new `Vector` in the place where
+    # the nested array/vector originally was. If an optional `level` argument is
+    # provided, the flattening will only be done recursively that number of times.
+    # A `level` of 0 means not to flatten at all, 1 means to only flatten nested
+    # arrays/vectors which are directly contained within this `Vector`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector["A", Immutable::Vector["B", "C", Immutable::Vector["D"]]]
+    #   v.flatten(1)
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", Immutable::Vector["D"]]
+    #   v.flatten
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #
+    # @param level [Integer] The depth to which flattening should be applied
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def flatten(level = -1)
+      return self if level == 0
+      array = self.to_a
+      if array.frozen?
+        self.class.new(array.flatten(level).freeze)
+      elsif array.flatten!(level) # returns nil if no changes were made
+        self.class.new(array.freeze)
+      else
+        self
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` built by concatenating this one with `other`. `other`
+    # can be any object which is convertible to an `Array` using `#to_a`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"] + ["D", "E"]
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E"]
+    #
+    # @param other [Enumerable] The collection to concatenate onto this vector
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def +(other)
+      other = other.to_a
+      other = other.dup if other.frozen?
+      replace_suffix(@size, other)
+    end
+    alias :concat :+
+
+    # Combine two vectors by "zipping" them together. `others` should be arrays
+    # and/or vectors. The corresponding elements from this `Vector` and each of
+    # `others` (that is, the elements with the same indices) will be gathered
+    # into arrays.
+    #
+    # If `others` contains fewer elements than this vector, `nil` will be used
+    # for padding.
+    #
+    # @overload zip(*others)
+    #   Return a new vector containing the new arrays.
+    #
+    #   @return [Vector]
+    #
+    # @overload zip(*others)
+    #   @yield [pair] once for each array
+    #   @return [nil]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v1 = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"]
+    #   v2 = Immutable::Vector[1, 2]
+    #   v1.zip(v2)
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[["A", 1], ["B", 2], ["C", nil]]
+    #
+    # @param others [Array] The arrays/vectors to zip together with this one
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def zip(*others)
+      if block_given?
+        super
+      else
+        self.class.new(super)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the same items, but sorted.
+    #
+    # @overload sort
+    #   Compare elements with their natural sort key (`#<=>`).
+    #
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["Dog", "Elephant", "Lion"]
+    #
+    # @overload sort
+    #   Uses the block as a comparator to determine sorted order.
+    #
+    #   @yield [a, b] Any number of times with different pairs of elements.
+    #   @yieldreturn [Integer] Negative if the first element should be sorted
+    #                          lower, positive if the latter element, or 0 if
+    #                          equal.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort { |a,b| a.size <=> b.size }
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["Dog", "Lion", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def sort
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with the same items, but sorted. The sort order is
+    # determined by mapping the items through the given block to obtain sort
+    # keys, and then sorting the keys according to their natural sort order
+    # (`#<=>`).
+    #
+    # @yield [element] Once for each element.
+    # @yieldreturn a sort key object for the yielded element.
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort_by { |e| e.size }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["Dog", "Lion", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def sort_by
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Drop the first `n` elements and return the rest in a new `Vector`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].drop(2)
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #
+    # @param n [Integer] The number of elements to remove
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @raise ArgumentError if `n` is negative.
+    def drop(n)
+      return self if n == 0
+      return self.class.empty if n >= @size
+      raise ArgumentError, "attempt to drop negative size" if n < 0
+      self.class.new(flatten_suffix(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, n, []))
+    end
+
+    # Return only the first `n` elements in a new `Vector`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].take(4)
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D"]
+    #
+    # @param n [Integer] The number of elements to retain
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def take(n)
+      return self if n >= @size
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Drop elements up to, but not including, the first element for which the
+    # block returns `nil` or `false`. Gather the remaining elements into a new
+    # `Vector`. If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].drop_while { |e| e < 5 }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[5, 7, 6, 4, 2]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector, Enumerator]
+    def drop_while
+      return enum_for(:drop_while) if not block_given?
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Gather elements up to, but not including, the first element for which the
+    # block returns `nil` or `false`, and return them in a new `Vector`. If no block
+    # is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].take_while { |e| e < 5 }
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[1, 3]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector, Enumerator]
+    def take_while
+      return enum_for(:take_while) if not block_given?
+      self.class.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Repetition. Return a new `Vector` built by concatenating `times` copies
+    # of this one together.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector["A", "B"] * 3
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "A", "B", "A", "B"]
+    #
+    # @param times [Integer] The number of times to repeat the elements in this vector
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def *(times)
+      return self.class.empty if times == 0
+      return self if times == 1
+      result = (to_a * times)
+      result.is_a?(Array) ? self.class.new(result) : result
+    end
+
+    # Replace a range of indexes with the given object.
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object)
+    #   Return a new `Vector` of the same size, with every index set to
+    #   `object`.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z")
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object, index)
+    #   Return a new `Vector` with all indexes from `index` to the end of the
+    #   vector set to `object`.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @param [Integer] index Starting index. May be negative.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z", 3)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object, index, length)
+    #   Return a new `Vector` with `length` indexes, beginning from `index`,
+    #   set to `object`. Expands the `Vector` if `length` would extend beyond
+    #   the current length.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @param [Integer] index Starting index. May be negative.
+    #   @param [Integer] length
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z", 3, 2)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "Z", "Z", "F"]
+    #     Immutable::Vector["A", "B"].fill("Z", 1, 5)
+    #     # => Immutable::Vector["A", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @raise [IndexError] if index is out of negative range.
+    def fill(object, index = 0, length = nil)
+      raise IndexError if index < -@size
+      index += @size if index < 0
+      length ||= @size - index # to the end of the array, if no length given
+
+      if index < @size
+        suffix = flatten_suffix(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, index, [])
+        suffix.fill(object, 0, length)
+      elsif index == @size
+        suffix = Array.new(length, object)
+      else
+        suffix = Array.new(index - @size, nil).concat(Array.new(length, object))
+        index = @size
+      end
+
+      replace_suffix(index, suffix)
+    end
+
+    # When invoked with a block, yields all combinations of length `n` of items
+    # from the `Vector`, and then returns `self`. There is no guarantee about
+    # which order the combinations will be yielded.
+    #
+    # If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7, 8]
+    #   v.combination(3) { |c| puts "Combination: #{c}" }
+    #
+    #   Combination: [5, 6, 7]
+    #   Combination: [5, 6, 8]
+    #   Combination: [5, 7, 8]
+    #   Combination: [6, 7, 8]
+    #   #=> Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7, 8]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    def combination(n)
+      return enum_for(:combination, n) if not block_given?
+      return self if n < 0 || @size < n
+      if n == 0
+        yield []
+      elsif n == 1
+        each { |item| yield [item] }
+      elsif n == @size
+        yield self.to_a
+      else
+        combos = lambda do |result,index,remaining|
+          while @size - index > remaining
+            if remaining == 1
+              yield result.dup << get(index)
+            else
+              combos[result.dup << get(index), index+1, remaining-1]
+            end
+            index += 1
+          end
+          index.upto(@size-1) { |i| result << get(i) }
+          yield result
+        end
+        combos[[], 0, n]
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # When invoked with a block, yields all repeated combinations of length `n` of
+    # items from the `Vector`, and then returns `self`. A "repeated combination" is
+    # one in which any item from the `Vector` can appear consecutively any number of
+    # times.
+    #
+    # There is no guarantee about which order the combinations will be yielded in.
+    #
+    # If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7, 8]
+    #   v.repeated_combination(2) { |c| puts "Combination: #{c}" }
+    #
+    #   Combination: [5, 5]
+    #   Combination: [5, 6]
+    #   Combination: [5, 7]
+    #   Combination: [5, 8]
+    #   Combination: [6, 6]
+    #   Combination: [6, 7]
+    #   Combination: [6, 8]
+    #   Combination: [7, 7]
+    #   Combination: [7, 8]
+    #   Combination: [8, 8]
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7, 8]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    def repeated_combination(n)
+      return enum_for(:repeated_combination, n) if not block_given?
+      if n < 0
+        # yield nothing
+      elsif n == 0
+        yield []
+      elsif n == 1
+        each { |item| yield [item] }
+      elsif @size == 0
+        # yield nothing
+      else
+        combos = lambda do |result,index,remaining|
+          while index < @size-1
+            if remaining == 1
+              yield result.dup << get(index)
+            else
+              combos[result.dup << get(index), index, remaining-1]
+            end
+            index += 1
+          end
+          item = get(index)
+          remaining.times { result << item }
+          yield result
+        end
+        combos[[], 0, n]
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Yields all permutations of length `n` of items from the `Vector`, and then
+    # returns `self`. If no length `n` is specified, permutations of all elements
+    # will be yielded.
+    #
+    # There is no guarantee about which order the permutations will be yielded in.
+    #
+    # If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7]
+    #   v.permutation(2) { |p| puts "Permutation: #{p}" }
+    #
+    #   Permutation: [5, 6]
+    #   Permutation: [5, 7]
+    #   Permutation: [6, 5]
+    #   Permutation: [6, 7]
+    #   Permutation: [7, 5]
+    #   Permutation: [7, 6]
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    def permutation(n = @size)
+      return enum_for(:permutation, n) if not block_given?
+      if n < 0 || @size < n
+        # yield nothing
+      elsif n == 0
+        yield []
+      elsif n == 1
+        each { |item| yield [item] }
+      else
+        used, result = [], []
+        perms = lambda do |index|
+          0.upto(@size-1) do |i|
+            if !used[i]
+              result[index] = get(i)
+              if index < n-1
+                used[i] = true
+                perms[index+1]
+                used[i] = false
+              else
+                yield result.dup
+              end
+            end
+          end
+        end
+        perms[0]
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # When invoked with a block, yields all repeated permutations of length `n` of
+    # items from the `Vector`, and then returns `self`. A "repeated permutation" is
+    # one where any item from the `Vector` can appear any number of times, and in
+    # any position (not just consecutively)
+    #
+    # If no length `n` is specified, permutations of all elements will be yielded.
+    # There is no guarantee about which order the permutations will be yielded in.
+    #
+    # If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7]
+    #   v.repeated_permutation(2) { |p| puts "Permutation: #{p}" }
+    #
+    #   Permutation: [5, 5]
+    #   Permutation: [5, 6]
+    #   Permutation: [5, 7]
+    #   Permutation: [6, 5]
+    #   Permutation: [6, 6]
+    #   Permutation: [6, 7]
+    #   Permutation: [7, 5]
+    #   Permutation: [7, 6]
+    #   Permutation: [7, 7]
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[5, 6, 7]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    def repeated_permutation(n = @size)
+      return enum_for(:repeated_permutation, n) if not block_given?
+      if n < 0
+        # yield nothing
+      elsif n == 0
+        yield []
+      elsif n == 1
+        each { |item| yield [item] }
+      else
+        result = []
+        perms = lambda do |index|
+          0.upto(@size-1) do |i|
+            result[index] = get(i)
+            if index < n-1
+              perms[index+1]
+            else
+              yield result.dup
+            end
+          end
+        end
+        perms[0]
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Cartesian product or multiplication.
+    #
+    # @overload product(*vectors)
+    #   Return a `Vector` of all combinations of elements from this `Vector` and each
+    #   of the given vectors or arrays. The length of the returned `Vector` is the product
+    #   of `self.size` and the size of each argument vector or array.
+    #   @example
+    #     v1 = Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3]
+    #     v2 = Immutable::Vector["A", "B"]
+    #     v1.product(v2)
+    #     # => [[1, "A"], [1, "B"], [2, "A"], [2, "B"], [3, "A"], [3, "B"]]
+    # @overload product
+    #   Return the result of multiplying all the items in this `Vector` together.
+    #
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5].product  # => 120
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def product(*vectors)
+      # if no vectors passed, return "product" as in result of multiplying all items
+      return super if vectors.empty?
+
+      vectors.unshift(self)
+
+      if vectors.any?(&:empty?)
+        return block_given? ? self : []
+      end
+
+      counters = Array.new(vectors.size, 0)
+
+      bump_counters = lambda do
+        i = vectors.size-1
+        counters[i] += 1
+        while counters[i] == vectors[i].size
+          counters[i] = 0
+          i -= 1
+          return true if i == -1 # we are done
+          counters[i] += 1
+        end
+        false # not done yet
+      end
+      build_array = lambda do
+        array = []
+        counters.each_with_index { |index,i| array << vectors[i][index] }
+        array
+      end
+
+      if block_given?
+        while true
+          yield build_array[]
+          return self if bump_counters[]
+        end
+      else
+        result = []
+        while true
+          result << build_array[]
+          return result if bump_counters[]
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Assume all elements are vectors or arrays and transpose the rows and columns.
+    # In other words, take the first element of each nested vector/array and gather
+    # them together into a new `Vector`. Do likewise for the second, third, and so on
+    # down to the end of each nested vector/array. Gather all the resulting `Vectors`
+    # into a new `Vector` and return it.
+    #
+    # This operation is closely related to {#zip}. The result is almost the same as
+    # calling {#zip} on the first nested vector/array with the others supplied as
+    # arguments.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[["A", 10], ["B", 20], ["C", 30]].transpose
+    #   # => Immutable::Vector[Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C"], Immutable::Vector[10, 20, 30]]
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @raise [IndexError] if elements are not of the same size.
+    # @raise [TypeError] if an element can not be implicitly converted to an array (using `#to_ary`)
+    def transpose
+      return self.class.empty if empty?
+      result = Array.new(first.size) { [] }
+
+      0.upto(@size-1) do |i|
+        source = get(i)
+        if source.size != result.size
+          raise IndexError, "element size differs (#{source.size} should be #{result.size})"
+        end
+
+        0.upto(result.size-1) do |j|
+          result[j].push(source[j])
+        end
+      end
+
+      result.map! { |a| self.class.new(a) }
+      self.class.new(result)
+    end
+
+    # Finds a value from this `Vector` which meets the condition defined by the
+    # provided block, using a binary search. The vector must already be sorted
+    # with respect to the block.  See Ruby's `Array#bsearch` for details,
+    # behaviour is equivalent.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13]
+    #   # Block returns true/false for exact element match:
+    #   v.bsearch { |e| e > 4 }      # => 5
+    #   # Block returns number to match an element in 4 <= e <= 7:
+    #   v.bsearch { |e| 1 - e / 4 }  # => 7
+    #
+    # @yield Once for at most `log n` elements, where `n` is the size of the
+    #        vector. The exact elements and ordering are undefined.
+    # @yieldreturn [Boolean] `true` if this element matches the criteria, `false` otherwise.
+    # @yieldreturn [Integer] See `Array#bsearch` for details.
+    # @yieldparam [Object] element element to be evaluated
+    # @return [Object] The matched element, or `nil` if none found.
+    # @raise TypeError if the block returns a non-numeric, non-boolean, non-nil
+    #                  value.
+    def bsearch
+      return enum_for(:bsearch) if not block_given?
+      low, high, result = 0, @size, nil
+      while low < high
+        mid = (low + ((high - low) >> 1))
+        val = get(mid)
+        v   = yield val
+        if v.is_a? Numeric
+          if v == 0
+            return val
+          elsif v > 0
+            high = mid
+          else
+            low = mid + 1
+          end
+        elsif v == true
+          result = val
+          high = mid
+        elsif !v
+          low = mid + 1
+        else
+          raise TypeError, "wrong argument type #{v.class} (must be numeric, true, false, or nil)"
+        end
+      end
+      result
+    end
+
+    # Return an empty `Vector` instance, of the same class as this one. Useful if you
+    # have multiple subclasses of `Vector` and want to treat them polymorphically.
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def clear
+      self.class.empty
+    end
+
+    # Return a randomly chosen item from this `Vector`. If the vector is empty, return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::Vector[1, 2, 3, 4, 5].sample  # => 2
+    #
+    # @return [Object]
+    def sample
+      get(rand(@size))
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Vector` with only the elements at the given `indices`, in the
+    # order specified by `indices`. If any of the `indices` do not exist, `nil`s will
+    # appear in their places.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #   v.values_at(2, 4, 5)   # => Immutable::Vector["C", "E", "F"]
+    #
+    # @param indices [Array] The indices to retrieve and gather into a new `Vector`
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def values_at(*indices)
+      self.class.new(indices.map { |i| get(i) }.freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Find the index of an element, starting from the end of the vector.
+    # Returns `nil` if no element is found.
+    #
+    # @overload rindex(obj)
+    #   Return the index of the last element which is `#==` to `obj`.
+    #
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector[7, 8, 9, 7, 8, 9]
+    #     v.rindex(8) # => 4
+    #
+    # @overload rindex
+    #   Return the index of the last element for which the block returns true.
+    #
+    #   @yield [element] Once for each element, last to first, until the block
+    #                    returns true.
+    #   @example
+    #     v = Immutable::Vector[7, 8, 9, 7, 8, 9]
+    #     v.rindex { |e| e.even? }  # => 4
+    #
+    # @return [Integer]
+    def rindex(obj = (missing_arg = true))
+      i = @size - 1
+      if missing_arg
+        if block_given?
+          reverse_each { |item| return i if yield item; i -= 1 }
+          nil
+        else
+          enum_for(:rindex)
+        end
+      else
+        reverse_each { |item| return i if item == obj; i -= 1 }
+        nil
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Assumes all elements are nested, indexable collections, and searches through them,
+    # comparing `obj` with the first element of each nested collection. Return the
+    # first nested collection which matches, or `nil` if none is found.
+    # Behaviour is undefined when elements do not meet assumptions (i.e. are
+    # not indexable collections).
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[["A", 10], ["B", 20], ["C", 30]]
+    #   v.assoc("B")  # => ["B", 20]
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The object to search for
+    # @return [Object]
+    def assoc(obj)
+      each do |array|
+        next if !array.respond_to?(:[])
+        return array if obj == array[0]
+      end
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Assumes all elements are nested, indexable collections, and searches through them,
+    # comparing `obj` with the second element of each nested collection. Return
+    # the first nested collection which matches, or `nil` if none is found.
+    # Behaviour is undefined when elements do not meet assumptions (i.e. are
+    # not indexable collections).
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   v = Immutable::Vector[["A", 10], ["B", 20], ["C", 30]]
+    #   v.rassoc(20)  # => ["B", 20]
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The object to search for
+    # @return [Object]
+    def rassoc(obj)
+      each do |array|
+        next if !array.respond_to?(:[])
+        return array if obj == array[1]
+      end
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Return an `Array` with the same elements, in the same order. The returned
+    # `Array` may or may not be frozen.
+    #
+    # @return [Array]
+    def to_a
+      if @levels == 0
+        # When initializing a Vector with 32 or less items, we always make
+        # sure @root is frozen, so we can return it directly here
+        @root
+      else
+        flatten_node(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, [])
+      end
+    end
+    alias :to_ary :to_a
+
+    # Return true if `other` has the same type and contents as this `Vector`.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object] The collection to compare with
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    def eql?(other)
+      return true if other.equal?(self)
+      return false unless instance_of?(other.class) && @size == other.size
+      @root.eql?(other.instance_variable_get(:@root))
+    end
+
+    # See `Object#hash`.
+    # @return [Integer]
+    def hash
+      reduce(0) { |hash, item| (hash << 5) - hash + item.hash }
+    end
+
+    # Return `self`. Since this is an immutable object duplicates are
+    # equivalent.
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def dup
+      self
+    end
+    alias :clone :dup
+
+    # @return [::Array]
+    # @private
+    def marshal_dump
+      to_a
+    end
+
+    # @private
+    def marshal_load(array)
+      initialize(array.freeze)
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    def traverse_depth_first(node, level, &block)
+      return node.each(&block) if level == 0
+      node.each { |child| traverse_depth_first(child, level - 1, &block) }
+    end
+
+    def reverse_traverse_depth_first(node, level, &block)
+      return node.reverse_each(&block) if level == 0
+      node.reverse_each { |child| reverse_traverse_depth_first(child, level - 1, &block) }
+    end
+
+    def leaf_node_for(node, bitshift, index)
+      while bitshift > 0
+        node = node[(index >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK]
+        bitshift -= BITS_PER_LEVEL
+      end
+      node
+    end
+
+    def update_root(index, item)
+      root, levels = @root, @levels
+      while index >= (1 << (BITS_PER_LEVEL * (levels + 1)))
+        root = [root].freeze
+        levels += 1
+      end
+      new_root = update_leaf_node(root, levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, index, item)
+      if new_root.equal?(root)
+        self
+      else
+        self.class.alloc(new_root, @size > index ? @size : index + 1, levels)
+      end
+    end
+
+    def update_leaf_node(node, bitshift, index, item)
+      slot_index = (index >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK
+      if bitshift > 0
+        old_child = node[slot_index] || []
+        item = update_leaf_node(old_child, bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, index, item)
+      end
+      existing_item = node[slot_index]
+      if existing_item.equal?(item)
+        node
+      else
+        node.dup.tap { |n| n[slot_index] = item }.freeze
+      end
+    end
+
+    def flatten_range(node, bitshift, from, to)
+      from_slot = (from >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK
+      to_slot   = (to   >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK
+
+      if bitshift == 0 # are we at the bottom?
+        node.slice(from_slot, to_slot-from_slot+1)
+      elsif from_slot == to_slot
+        flatten_range(node[from_slot], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, to)
+      else
+        # the following bitmask can be used to pick out the part of the from/to indices
+        #   which will be used to direct path BELOW this node
+        mask   = ((1 << bitshift) - 1)
+        result = []
+
+        if from & mask == 0
+          flatten_node(node[from_slot], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, result)
+        else
+          result.concat(flatten_range(node[from_slot], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, from | mask))
+        end
+
+        (from_slot+1).upto(to_slot-1) do |slot_index|
+          flatten_node(node[slot_index], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, result)
+        end
+
+        if to & mask == mask
+          flatten_node(node[to_slot], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, result)
+        else
+          result.concat(flatten_range(node[to_slot], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, to & ~mask, to))
+        end
+
+        result
+      end
+    end
+
+    def flatten_node(node, bitshift, result)
+      if bitshift == 0
+        result.concat(node)
+      elsif bitshift == BITS_PER_LEVEL
+        node.each { |a| result.concat(a) }
+      else
+        bitshift -= BITS_PER_LEVEL
+        node.each { |a| flatten_node(a, bitshift, result) }
+      end
+      result
+    end
+
+    def subsequence(from, length)
+      return nil if from > @size || from < 0 || length < 0
+      length = @size - from if @size < from + length
+      return self.class.empty if length == 0
+      self.class.new(flatten_range(@root, @levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, from + length - 1))
+    end
+
+    def flatten_suffix(node, bitshift, from, result)
+      from_slot = (from >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK
+
+      if bitshift == 0
+        if from_slot == 0
+          result.concat(node)
+        else
+          result.concat(node.slice(from_slot, 32)) # entire suffix of node. excess length is ignored by #slice
+        end
+      else
+        mask = ((1 << bitshift) - 1)
+        if from & mask == 0
+          from_slot.upto(node.size-1) do |i|
+            flatten_node(node[i], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, result)
+          end
+        elsif child = node[from_slot]
+          flatten_suffix(child, bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, result)
+          (from_slot+1).upto(node.size-1) do |i|
+            flatten_node(node[i], bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, result)
+          end
+        end
+        result
+      end
+    end
+
+    def replace_suffix(from, suffix)
+      # new suffix can go directly after existing elements
+      raise IndexError if from > @size
+      root, levels = @root, @levels
+
+      if (from >> (BITS_PER_LEVEL * (@levels + 1))) != 0
+        # index where new suffix goes doesn't fall within current tree
+        # we will need to deepen tree
+        root = [root].freeze
+        levels += 1
+      end
+
+      new_size = from + suffix.size
+      root = replace_node_suffix(root, levels * BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, suffix)
+
+      if !suffix.empty?
+        levels.times { suffix = suffix.each_slice(32).to_a }
+        root.concat(suffix)
+        while root.size > 32
+          root = root.each_slice(32).to_a
+          levels += 1
+        end
+      else
+        while root.size == 1 && levels > 0
+          root = root[0]
+          levels -= 1
+        end
+      end
+
+      self.class.alloc(root.freeze, new_size, levels)
+    end
+
+    def replace_node_suffix(node, bitshift, from, suffix)
+      from_slot = (from >> bitshift) & INDEX_MASK
+
+      if bitshift == 0
+        if from_slot == 0
+          suffix.shift(32)
+        else
+          node.take(from_slot).concat(suffix.shift(32 - from_slot))
+        end
+      else
+        mask = ((1 << bitshift) - 1)
+        if from & mask == 0
+          if from_slot == 0
+            new_node = suffix.shift(32 * (1 << bitshift))
+            while bitshift != 0
+              new_node = new_node.each_slice(32).to_a
+              bitshift -= BITS_PER_LEVEL
+            end
+            new_node
+          else
+            result = node.take(from_slot)
+            remainder = suffix.shift((32 - from_slot) * (1 << bitshift))
+            while bitshift != 0
+              remainder = remainder.each_slice(32).to_a
+              bitshift -= BITS_PER_LEVEL
+            end
+            result.concat(remainder)
+          end
+        elsif child = node[from_slot]
+          result = node.take(from_slot)
+          result.push(replace_node_suffix(child, bitshift - BITS_PER_LEVEL, from, suffix))
+          remainder = suffix.shift((31 - from_slot) * (1 << bitshift))
+          while bitshift != 0
+            remainder = remainder.each_slice(32).to_a
+            bitshift -= BITS_PER_LEVEL
+          end
+          result.concat(remainder)
+        else
+          raise "Shouldn't happen"
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # The canonical empty `Vector`. Returned by `Vector[]` when
+  # invoked with no arguments; also returned by `Vector.empty`. Prefer using this
+  # one rather than creating many empty vectors using `Vector.new`.
+  #
+  # @private
+  EmptyVector = Immutable::Vector.empty
+end