immutable-ruby 0.0.1

data/lib/immutable/list.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1595 @@
+require "thread"
+require "set"
+require "concurrent/atomics"
+
+require "immutable/undefined"
+require "immutable/enumerable"
+require "immutable/hash"
+require "immutable/set"
+
+module Immutable
+  class << self
+
+    # Create a lazy, infinite list.
+    #
+    # The given block is called as necessary to return successive elements of the list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable.stream { :hello }.take(3)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[:hello, :hello, :hello]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def stream(&block)
+      return EmptyList unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(yield, stream(&block)) }
+    end
+
+    # Construct a list of consecutive integers.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable.interval(5,9)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
+    #
+    # @param from [Integer] Start value, inclusive
+    # @param to [Integer] End value, inclusive
+    # @return [List]
+    def interval(from, to)
+      return EmptyList if from > to
+      interval_exclusive(from, to.next)
+    end
+
+    # Create an infinite list repeating the same item indefinitely
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable.repeat(:chunky).take(4)
+    #   => Immutable::List[:chunky, :chunky, :chunky, :chunky]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def repeat(item)
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(item, repeat(item)) }
+    end
+
+    # Create a list that contains a given item a fixed number of times
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable.replicate(3, :hamster)
+    #   #=> Immutable::List[:hamster, :hamster, :hamster]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def replicate(number, item)
+      repeat(item).take(number)
+    end
+
+    # Create an infinite list where each item is derived from the previous one,
+    # using the provided block
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable.iterate(0) { |i| i.next }.take(5)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
+    #
+    # @param [Object] item Starting value
+    # @yieldparam [Object] previous The previous value
+    # @yieldreturn [Object] The next value
+    # @return [List]
+    def iterate(item, &block)
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(item, iterate(yield(item), &block)) }
+    end
+
+    # Turn an `Enumerator` into a `Immutable::List`. The result is a lazy
+    # collection where the values are memoized as they are generated.
+    #
+    # If your code uses multiple threads, you need to make sure that the returned
+    # lazy collection is realized on a single thread only. Otherwise, a `FiberError`
+    # will be raised. After the collection is realized, it can be used from other
+    # threads as well.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   def rg; loop { yield rand(100) }; end
+    #   Immutable.enumerate(to_enum(:rg)).take(10)
+    #
+    # @param enum [Enumerator] The object to iterate over
+    # @return [List]
+    def enumerate(enum)
+      LazyList.new do
+        begin
+          Cons.new(enum.next, enumerate(enum))
+        rescue StopIteration
+          EmptyList
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    def interval_exclusive(from, to)
+      return EmptyList if from == to
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(from, interval_exclusive(from.next, to)) }
+    end
+  end
+
+  # A `List` can be constructed with {List.[] List[]}, or {Enumerable#to_list}.
+  # It consists of a *head* (the first element) and a *tail* (which itself is also
+  # a `List`, containing all the remaining elements).
+  #
+  # This is a singly linked list. Prepending to the list with {List#add} runs
+  # in constant time. Traversing the list from front to back is efficient,
+  # however, indexed access runs in linear time because the list needs to be
+  # traversed to find the element.
+  #
+  module List
+    include Immutable::Enumerable
+
+    # @private
+    CADR = /^c([ad]+)r$/
+
+    # Create a new `List` populated with the given items.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   list = Immutable::List[:a, :b, :c]
+    #   # => Immutable::List[:a, :b, :c]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def self.[](*items)
+      from_enum(items)
+    end
+
+    # Return an empty `List`.
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def self.empty
+      EmptyList
+    end
+
+    # This method exists distinct from `.[]` since it is ~30% faster
+    # than splatting the argument.
+    #
+    # Marking as private only because it was introduced for an internal
+    # refactoring. It could potentially be made public with a good name.
+    #
+    # @private
+    def self.from_enum(items)
+      # use destructive operations to build up a new list, like Common Lisp's NCONC
+      # this is a very fast way to build up a linked list
+      list = tail = Cons.allocate
+      items.each do |item|
+        new_node = Cons.allocate
+        new_node.instance_variable_set(:@head, item)
+        tail.instance_variable_set(:@tail, new_node)
+        tail = new_node
+      end
+      tail.instance_variable_set(:@tail, EmptyList)
+      list.tail
+    end
+
+    # Return the number of items in this `List`.
+    # @return [Integer]
+    def size
+      result, list = 0, self
+      until list.empty?
+        if list.cached_size?
+          return result + list.size
+        else
+          result += 1
+        end
+        list = list.tail
+      end
+      result
+    end
+    alias :length :size
+
+    # Create a new `List` with `item` added at the front. This is a constant
+    # time operation.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[:b, :c].add(:a)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[:a, :b, :c]
+    #
+    # @param item [Object] The item to add
+    # @return [List]
+    def add(item)
+      Cons.new(item, self)
+    end
+    alias :cons :add
+
+    # Create a new `List` with `item` added at the end. This is much less efficient
+    # than adding items at the front.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[:a, :b] << :c
+    #   # => Immutable::List[:a, :b, :c]
+    #
+    # @param item [Object] The item to add
+    # @return [List]
+    def <<(item)
+      append(List[item])
+    end
+
+    # Call the given block once for each item in the list, passing each
+    # item from first to last successively to the block. If no block is given,
+    # returns an `Enumerator`.
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def each
+      return to_enum unless block_given?
+      list = self
+      until list.empty?
+        yield(list.head)
+        list = list.tail
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` in which each element is derived from the corresponding
+    # element in this `List`, transformed through the given block. If no block
+    # is given, returns an `Enumerator`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[3, 2, 1].map { |e| e * e } # => Immutable::List[9, 4, 1]
+    #
+    # @return [List, Enumerator]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def map(&block)
+      return enum_for(:map) unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        Cons.new(yield(head), tail.map(&block))
+      end
+    end
+    alias :collect :map
+
+    # Return a `List` which is realized by transforming each item into a `List`,
+    # and flattening the resulting lists.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].flat_map { |x| Immutable::List[x, 100] }
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 100, 2, 100, 3, 100]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def flat_map(&block)
+      return enum_for(:flat_map) unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        head_list = List.from_enum(yield(head))
+        next tail.flat_map(&block) if head_list.empty?
+        Cons.new(head_list.first, head_list.drop(1).append(tail.flat_map(&block)))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` which contains all the items for which the given block
+    # returns true.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["Bird", "Cow", "Elephant"].select { |e| e.size >= 4 }
+    #   # => Immutable::List["Bird", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    # @yield [item] Once for each item.
+    def select(&block)
+      return enum_for(:select) unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        list = self
+        while true
+          break list if list.empty?
+          break Cons.new(list.head, list.tail.select(&block)) if yield(list.head)
+          list = list.tail
+        end
+      end
+    end
+    alias :find_all :select
+    alias :keep_if  :select
+
+    # Return a `List` which contains all elements up to, but not including, the
+    # first element for which the block returns `nil` or `false`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].take_while { |e| e < 5 }
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 3]
+    #
+    # @return [List, Enumerator]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def take_while(&block)
+      return enum_for(:take_while) unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        next Cons.new(head, tail.take_while(&block)) if yield(head)
+        EmptyList
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` which contains all elements starting from the
+    # first element for which the block returns `nil` or `false`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].drop_while { |e| e < 5 }
+    #   # => Immutable::List[5, 7, 6, 4, 2]
+    #
+    # @return [List, Enumerator]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def drop_while(&block)
+      return enum_for(:drop_while) unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        list = self
+        list = list.tail while !list.empty? && yield(list.head)
+        list
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` containing the first `number` items from this `List`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].take(3)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 3, 5]
+    #
+    # @param number [Integer] The number of items to retain
+    # @return [List]
+    def take(number)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        next Cons.new(head, tail.take(number - 1)) if number > 0
+        EmptyList
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` containing all but the last item from this `List`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["A", "B", "C"].pop  # => Immutable::List["A", "B"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def pop
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        new_size = size - 1
+        next Cons.new(head, tail.take(new_size - 1)) if new_size >= 1
+        EmptyList
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` containing all items after the first `number` items from
+    # this `List`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2].drop(3)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[7, 6, 4, 2]
+    #
+    # @param number [Integer] The number of items to skip over
+    # @return [List]
+    def drop(number)
+      LazyList.new do
+        list = self
+        while !list.empty? && number > 0
+          number -= 1
+          list = list.tail
+        end
+        list
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` with all items from this `List`, followed by all items from
+    # `other`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].append(Immutable::List[4, 5])
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
+    #
+    # @param other [List] The list to add onto the end of this one
+    # @return [List]
+    def append(other)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next other if empty?
+        Cons.new(head, tail.append(other))
+      end
+    end
+    alias :concat :append
+    alias :+ :append
+
+    # Return a `List` with the same items, but in reverse order.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["A", "B", "C"].reverse # => Immutable::List["C", "B", "A"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def reverse
+      LazyList.new { reduce(EmptyList) { |list, item| list.cons(item) }}
+    end
+
+    # Combine two lists by "zipping" them together.  The corresponding elements
+    # from this `List` and each of `others` (that is, the elements with the
+    # same indices) will be gathered into lists.
+    #
+    # If `others` contains fewer elements than this list, `nil` will be used
+    # for padding.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["A", "B", "C"].zip(Immutable::List[1, 2, 3])
+    #   # => Immutable::List[Immutable::List["A", 1], Immutable::List["B", 2], Immutable::List["C", 3]]
+    #
+    # @param others [List] The list to zip together with this one
+    # @return [List]
+    def zip(others)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty? && others.empty?
+        Cons.new(Cons.new(head, Cons.new(others.head)), tail.zip(others.tail))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Gather the first element of each nested list into a new `List`, then the second
+    # element of each nested list, then the third, and so on. In other words, if each
+    # nested list is a "row", return a `List` of "columns" instead.
+    #
+    # Although the returned list is lazy, each returned nested list (each "column")
+    # is strict. So while each nested list in the input can be infinite, the parent
+    # `List` must not be, or trying to realize the first element in the output will
+    # cause an infinite loop.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   # First let's create some infinite lists
+    #   list1 = Immutable.iterate(1, &:next)
+    #   list2 = Immutable.iterate(2) { |n| n * 2 }
+    #   list3 = Immutable.iterate(3) { |n| n * 3 }
+    #
+    #   # Now we transpose our 3 infinite "rows" into an infinite series of 3-element "columns"
+    #   Immutable::List[list1, list2, list3].transpose.take(4)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 2, 3],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[2, 4, 9],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[3, 8, 27],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[4, 16, 81]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def transpose
+      return EmptyList if empty?
+      LazyList.new do
+        next EmptyList if any? { |list| list.empty? }
+        heads, tails = EmptyList, EmptyList
+        reverse_each { |list| heads, tails = heads.cons(list.head), tails.cons(list.tail) }
+        Cons.new(heads, tails.transpose)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Concatenate an infinite series of copies of this `List` together into a
+    # new `List`. Or, if empty, just return an empty list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].cycle.take(10)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def cycle
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        Cons.new(head, tail.append(cycle))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `List` with the same elements, but rotated so that the one at
+    # index `count` is the first element of the new list. If `count` is positive,
+    # the elements will be shifted left, and those shifted past the lowest position
+    # will be moved to the end. If `count` is negative, the elements will be shifted
+    # right, and those shifted past the last position will be moved to the beginning.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   l = Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #   l.rotate(2)   # => Immutable::List["C", "D", "E", "F", "A", "B"]
+    #   l.rotate(-1)  # => Immutable::List["F", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E"]
+    #
+    # @param count [Integer] The number of positions to shift items by
+    # @return [Vector]
+    # @raise [TypeError] if count is not an integer.
+    def rotate(count = 1)
+      raise TypeError, "expected Integer" if not count.is_a?(Integer)
+      return self if empty? || (count % size) == 0
+      count = (count >= 0) ? count % size : (size - (~count % size) - 1)
+      drop(count).append(take(count))
+    end
+
+    # Return two `List`s, one of the first `number` items, and another with the
+    # remaining.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["a", "b", "c", "d"].split_at(2)
+    #   # => [Immutable::List["a", "b"], Immutable::List["c", "d"]]
+    #
+    # @param number [Integer] The index at which to split this list
+    # @return [Array]
+    def split_at(number)
+      [take(number), drop(number)].freeze
+    end
+
+    # Return two `List`s, one up to (but not including) the first item for which the
+    # block returns `nil` or `false`, and another of all the remaining items.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[4, 3, 5, 2, 1].span { |x| x > 2 }
+    #   # => [Immutable::List[4, 3, 5], Immutable::List[2, 1]]
+    #
+    # @return [Array]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def span(&block)
+      return [self, EmptyList].freeze unless block_given?
+      splitter = Splitter.new(self, block)
+      mutex = Mutex.new
+      [Splitter::Left.new(splitter, splitter.left, mutex),
+       Splitter::Right.new(splitter, mutex)].freeze
+    end
+
+    # Return two `List`s, one up to (but not including) the first item for which the
+    # block returns true, and another of all the remaining items.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 3, 4, 2, 5].break { |x| x > 3 }
+    #   # => [Immutable::List[1, 3], Immutable::List[4, 2, 5]]
+    #
+    # @return [Array]
+    # @yield [item]
+    def break(&block)
+      return span unless block_given?
+      span { |item| !yield(item) }
+    end
+
+    # Return an empty `List`. If used on a subclass, returns an empty instance
+    # of that class.
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def clear
+      EmptyList
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `List` with the same items, but sorted.
+    #
+    # @overload sort
+    #   Compare elements with their natural sort key (`#<=>`).
+    #
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort
+    #     # => Immutable::List["Dog", "Elephant", "Lion"]
+    #
+    # @overload sort
+    #   Uses the block as a comparator to determine sorted order.
+    #
+    #   @yield [a, b] Any number of times with different pairs of elements.
+    #   @yieldreturn [Integer] Negative if the first element should be sorted
+    #                          lower, positive if the latter element, or 0 if
+    #                          equal.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort { |a,b| a.size <=> b.size }
+    #     # => Immutable::List["Dog", "Lion", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def sort(&comparator)
+      LazyList.new { List.from_enum(super(&comparator)) }
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `List` with the same items, but sorted. The sort order is
+    # determined by mapping the items through the given block to obtain sort
+    # keys, and then sorting the keys according to their natural sort order
+    # (`#<=>`).
+    #
+    # @yield [element] Once for each element.
+    # @yieldreturn a sort key object for the yielded element.
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["Elephant", "Dog", "Lion"].sort_by { |e| e.size }
+    #   # => Immutable::List["Dog", "Lion", "Elephant"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def sort_by(&transformer)
+      return sort unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new { List.from_enum(super(&transformer)) }
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `List` with `sep` inserted between each of the existing elements.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["one", "two", "three"].intersperse(" ")
+    #   # => Immutable::List["one", " ", "two", " ", "three"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def intersperse(sep)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if tail.empty?
+        Cons.new(head, Cons.new(sep, tail.intersperse(sep)))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` with the same items, but all duplicates removed.
+    # Use `#hash` and `#eql?` to determine which items are duplicates.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[:a, :b, :a, :c, :b].uniq      # => Immutable::List[:a, :b, :c]
+    #   Immutable::List["a", "A", "b"].uniq(&:upcase) # => Immutable::List["a", "b"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def uniq(&block)
+      _uniq(::Set.new, &block)
+    end
+
+    # @private
+    # Separate from `uniq` so as not to expose `items` in the public API.
+    def _uniq(items, &block)
+      if block_given?
+        LazyList.new do
+          next self if empty?
+          if items.add?(block.call(head))
+            Cons.new(head, tail._uniq(items, &block))
+          else
+            tail._uniq(items, &block)
+          end
+        end
+      else
+        LazyList.new do
+          next self if empty?
+          next tail._uniq(items) if items.include?(head)
+          Cons.new(head, tail._uniq(items.add(head)))
+        end
+      end
+    end
+    protected :_uniq
+
+    # Return a `List` with all the elements from both this list and `other`,
+    # with all duplicates removed.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2].union(Immutable::List[2, 3]) # => Immutable::List[1, 2, 3]
+    #
+    # @param other [List] The list to merge with
+    # @return [List]
+    def union(other, items = ::Set.new)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next other._uniq(items) if empty?
+        next tail.union(other, items) if items.include?(head)
+        Cons.new(head, tail.union(other, items.add(head)))
+      end
+    end
+    alias :| :union
+
+    # Return a `List` with all elements except the last one.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["a", "b", "c"].init # => Immutable::List["a", "b"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def init
+      return EmptyList if tail.empty?
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(head, tail.init) }
+    end
+
+    # Return the last item in this list.
+    # @return [Object]
+    def last
+      list = self
+      list = list.tail until list.tail.empty?
+      list.head
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` of all suffixes of this list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1,2,3].tails
+    #   # => Immutable::List[
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 2, 3],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[2, 3],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[3]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def tails
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        Cons.new(self, tail.tails)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` of all prefixes of this list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1,2,3].inits
+    #   # => Immutable::List[
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 2],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 2, 3]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def inits
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        Cons.new(List[head], tail.inits.map { |list| list.cons(head) })
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` of all combinations of length `n` of items from this `List`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1,2,3].combination(2)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 2],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[1, 3],
+    #   #      Immutable::List[2, 3]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def combination(n)
+      return Cons.new(EmptyList) if n == 0
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        tail.combination(n - 1).map { |list| list.cons(head) }.append(tail.combination(n))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Split the items in this list in groups of `number`. Return a list of lists.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   ("a".."o").to_list.chunk(5)
+    #   # => Immutable::List[
+    #   #      Immutable::List["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"],
+    #   #      Immutable::List["f", "g", "h", "i", "j"],
+    #   #      Immutable::List["k", "l", "m", "n", "o"]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def chunk(number)
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        first, remainder = split_at(number)
+        Cons.new(first, remainder.chunk(number))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Split the items in this list in groups of `number`, and yield each group
+    # to the block (as a `List`). If no block is given, returns an
+    # `Enumerator`.
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    # @yield [list] Once for each chunk.
+    def each_chunk(number, &block)
+      return enum_for(:each_chunk, number) unless block_given?
+      chunk(number).each(&block)
+      self
+    end
+    alias :each_slice :each_chunk
+
+    # Return a new `List` with all nested lists recursively "flattened out",
+    # that is, their elements inserted into the new `List` in the place where
+    # the nested list originally was.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[Immutable::List[1, 2], Immutable::List[3, 4]].flatten
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 4]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def flatten
+      LazyList.new do
+        next self if empty?
+        next head.append(tail.flatten) if head.is_a?(List)
+        Cons.new(head, tail.flatten)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Passes each item to the block, and gathers them into a {Hash} where the
+    # keys are return values from the block, and the values are `List`s of items
+    # for which the block returned that value.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
+    # @yield [item]
+    # @example
+    #    Immutable::List["a", "b", "ab"].group_by { |e| e.size }
+    #    # Immutable::Hash[
+    #    #   1 => Immutable::List["b", "a"],
+    #    #   2 => Immutable::List["ab"]
+    #    # ]
+    def group_by(&block)
+      group_by_with(EmptyList, &block)
+    end
+    alias :group :group_by
+
+    # Retrieve the item at `index`. Negative indices count back from the end of
+    # the list (-1 is the last item). If `index` is invalid (either too high or
+    # too low), return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index to retrieve
+    # @return [Object]
+    def at(index)
+      index += size if index < 0
+      return nil if index < 0
+      node = self
+      while index > 0
+        node = node.tail
+        index -= 1
+      end
+      node.head
+    end
+
+    # Return specific objects from the `List`. All overloads return `nil` if
+    # the starting index is out of range.
+    #
+    # @overload list.slice(index)
+    #   Returns a single object at the given `index`. If `index` is negative,
+    #   count backwards from the end.
+    #
+    #   @param index [Integer] The index to retrieve. May be negative.
+    #   @return [Object]
+    #   @example
+    #     l = Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     l[2]  # => "C"
+    #     l[-1] # => "F"
+    #     l[6]  # => nil
+    #
+    # @overload list.slice(index, length)
+    #   Return a sublist starting at `index` and continuing for `length`
+    #   elements or until the end of the `List`, whichever occurs first.
+    #
+    #   @param start [Integer] The index to start retrieving items from. May be
+    #                          negative.
+    #   @param length [Integer] The number of items to retrieve.
+    #   @return [List]
+    #   @example
+    #     l = Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     l[2, 3]  # => Immutable::List["C", "D", "E"]
+    #     l[-2, 3] # => Immutable::List["E", "F"]
+    #     l[20, 1] # => nil
+    #
+    # @overload list.slice(index..end)
+    #   Return a sublist starting at `index` and continuing to index
+    #   `end` or the end of the `List`, whichever occurs first.
+    #
+    #   @param range [Range] The range of indices to retrieve.
+    #   @return [Vector]
+    #   @example
+    #     l = Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"]
+    #     l[2..3]    # => Immutable::List["C", "D"]
+    #     l[-2..100] # => Immutable::List["E", "F"]
+    #     l[20..21]  # => nil
+    def slice(arg, length = (missing_length = true))
+      if missing_length
+        if arg.is_a?(Range)
+          from, to = arg.begin, arg.end
+          from += size if from < 0
+          return nil if from < 0
+          to   += size if to < 0
+          to   += 1    if !arg.exclude_end?
+          length = to - from
+          length = 0 if length < 0
+          list = self
+          while from > 0
+            return nil if list.empty?
+            list = list.tail
+            from -= 1
+          end
+          list.take(length)
+        else
+          at(arg)
+        end
+      else
+        return nil if length < 0
+        arg += size if arg < 0
+        return nil if arg < 0
+        list = self
+        while arg > 0
+          return nil if list.empty?
+          list = list.tail
+          arg -= 1
+        end
+        list.take(length)
+      end
+    end
+    alias :[] :slice
+
+    # Return a `List` of indices of matching objects.
+    #
+    # @overload indices(object)
+    #   Return a `List` of indices where `object` is found. Use `#==` for
+    #   testing equality.
+    #
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 4].indices(2)
+    #     # => Immutable::List[1]
+    #
+    # @overload indices
+    #   Pass each item successively to the block. Return a list of indices
+    #   where the block returns true.
+    #
+    #   @yield [item]
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 4].indices { |e| e.even? }
+    #     # => Immutable::List[1, 3]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    def indices(object = Undefined, i = 0, &block)
+      return indices { |item| item == object } if not block_given?
+      return EmptyList if empty?
+      LazyList.new do
+        node = self
+        while true
+          break Cons.new(i, node.tail.indices(Undefined, i + 1, &block)) if yield(node.head)
+          node = node.tail
+          break EmptyList if node.empty?
+          i += 1
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Merge all the nested lists into a single list, using the given comparator
+    # block to determine the order which items should be shifted out of the nested
+    # lists and into the output list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   list_1 = Immutable::List[1, -3, -5]
+    #   list_2 = Immutable::List[-2, 4, 6]
+    #   Immutable::List[list_1, list_2].merge { |a,b| a.abs <=> b.abs }
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, -2, -3, 4, -5, 6]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    # @yield [a, b] Pairs of items from matching indices in each list.
+    # @yieldreturn [Integer] Negative if the first element should be selected
+    #                        first, positive if the latter element, or zero if
+    #                        either.
+    def merge(&comparator)
+      return merge_by unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        sorted = reject(&:empty?).sort do |a, b|
+          yield(a.head, b.head)
+        end
+        next EmptyList if sorted.empty?
+        Cons.new(sorted.head.head, sorted.tail.cons(sorted.head.tail).merge(&comparator))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Merge all the nested lists into a single list, using sort keys generated
+    # by mapping the items in the nested lists through the given block to determine the
+    # order which items should be shifted out of the nested lists and into the output
+    # list. Whichever nested list's `#head` has the "lowest" sort key (according to
+    # their natural order) will be the first in the merged `List`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   list_1 = Immutable::List[1, -3, -5]
+    #   list_2 = Immutable::List[-2, 4, 6]
+    #   Immutable::List[list_1, list_2].merge_by { |x| x.abs }
+    #   # => Immutable::List[1, -2, -3, 4, -5, 6]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    # @yield [item] Once for each item in either list.
+    # @yieldreturn [Object] A sort key for the element.
+    def merge_by(&transformer)
+      return merge_by { |item| item } unless block_given?
+      LazyList.new do
+        sorted = reject(&:empty?).sort_by do |list|
+          yield(list.head)
+        end
+        next EmptyList if sorted.empty?
+        Cons.new(sorted.head.head, sorted.tail.cons(sorted.head.tail).merge_by(&transformer))
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a randomly chosen element from this list.
+    # @return [Object]
+    def sample
+      at(rand(size))
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `List` with the given items inserted before the item at `index`.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List["A", "D", "E"].insert(1, "B", "C") # => Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E"]
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index where the new items should go
+    # @param items [Array] The items to add
+    # @return [List]
+    def insert(index, *items)
+      if index == 0
+        return List.from_enum(items).append(self)
+      elsif index > 0
+        LazyList.new do
+          Cons.new(head, tail.insert(index-1, *items))
+        end
+      else
+        raise IndexError if index < -size
+        insert(index + size, *items)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` with all elements equal to `obj` removed. `#==` is used
+    # for testing equality.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[:a, :b, :a, :a, :c].delete(:a) # => Immutable::List[:b, :c]
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The object to remove.
+    # @return [List]
+    def delete(obj)
+      list = self
+      list = list.tail while list.head == obj && !list.empty?
+      return EmptyList if list.empty?
+      LazyList.new { Cons.new(list.head, list.tail.delete(obj)) }
+    end
+
+    # Return a `List` containing the same items, minus the one at `index`.
+    # If `index` is negative, it counts back from the end of the list.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].delete_at(1)  # => Immutable::List[1, 3]
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].delete_at(-1) # => Immutable::List[1, 2]
+    #
+    # @param index [Integer] The index of the item to remove
+    # @return [List]
+    def delete_at(index)
+      if index == 0
+        tail
+      elsif index < 0
+        index += size if index < 0
+        return self if index < 0
+        delete_at(index)
+      else
+        LazyList.new { Cons.new(head, tail.delete_at(index - 1)) }
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Replace a range of indexes with the given object.
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object)
+    #   Return a new `List` of the same size, with every index set to `object`.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z")
+    #     # => Immutable::List["Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object, index)
+    #   Return a new `List` with all indexes from `index` to the end of the
+    #   vector set to `obj`.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @param [Integer] index Starting index. May be negative.
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z", 3)
+    #     # => Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @overload fill(object, index, length)
+    #   Return a new `List` with `length` indexes, beginning from `index`,
+    #   set to `obj`. Expands the `List` if `length` would extend beyond the
+    #   current length.
+    #
+    #   @param [Object] object Fill value.
+    #   @param [Integer] index Starting index. May be negative.
+    #   @param [Integer] length
+    #   @example
+    #     Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "D", "E", "F"].fill("Z", 3, 2)
+    #     # => Immutable::List["A", "B", "C", "Z", "Z", "F"]
+    #     Immutable::List["A", "B"].fill("Z", 1, 5)
+    #     # => Immutable::List["A", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z", "Z"]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    # @raise [IndexError] if index is out of negative range.
+    def fill(obj, index = 0, length = nil)
+      if index == 0
+        length ||= size
+        if length > 0
+          LazyList.new do
+            Cons.new(obj, tail.fill(obj, 0, length-1))
+          end
+        else
+          self
+        end
+      elsif index > 0
+        LazyList.new do
+          Cons.new(head, tail.fill(obj, index-1, length))
+        end
+      else
+        raise IndexError if index < -size
+        fill(obj, index + size, length)
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Yields all permutations of length `n` of the items in the list, and then
+    # returns `self`. If no length `n` is specified, permutations of the entire
+    # list will be yielded.
+    #
+    # There is no guarantee about which order the permutations will be yielded in.
+    #
+    # If no block is given, an `Enumerator` is returned instead.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].permutation.to_a
+    #   # => [Immutable::List[1, 2, 3],
+    #   #     Immutable::List[2, 1, 3],
+    #   #     Immutable::List[2, 3, 1],
+    #   #     Immutable::List[1, 3, 2],
+    #   #     Immutable::List[3, 1, 2],
+    #   #     Immutable::List[3, 2, 1]]
+    #
+    # @return [self, Enumerator]
+    # @yield [list] Once for each permutation.
+    def permutation(length = size, &block)
+      return enum_for(:permutation, length) if not block_given?
+      if length == 0
+        yield EmptyList
+      elsif length == 1
+        each { |obj| yield Cons.new(obj, EmptyList) }
+      elsif not empty?
+        if length < size
+          tail.permutation(length, &block)
+        end
+
+        tail.permutation(length-1) do |p|
+          0.upto(length-1) do |i|
+            left,right = p.split_at(i)
+            yield left.append(right.cons(head))
+          end
+        end
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Yield every non-empty sublist to the given block. (The entire `List` also
+    # counts as one sublist.)
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3].subsequences { |list| p list }
+    #   # prints:
+    #   # Immutable::List[1]
+    #   # Immutable::List[1, 2]
+    #   # Immutable::List[1, 2, 3]
+    #   # Immutable::List[2]
+    #   # Immutable::List[2, 3]
+    #   # Immutable::List[3]
+    #
+    # @yield [sublist] One or more contiguous elements from this list
+    # @return [self]
+    def subsequences(&block)
+      return enum_for(:subsequences) if not block_given?
+      if not empty?
+        1.upto(size) do |n|
+          yield take(n)
+        end
+        tail.subsequences(&block)
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Return two `List`s, the first containing all the elements for which the
+    # block evaluates to true, the second containing the rest.
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Immutable::List[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].partition { |x| x.even? }
+    #   # => [Immutable::List[2, 4, 6], Immutable::List[1, 3, 5]]
+    #
+    # @return [List]
+    # @yield [item] Once for each item.
+    def partition(&block)
+      return enum_for(:partition) if not block_given?
+      partitioner = Partitioner.new(self, block)
+      mutex = Mutex.new
+      [Partitioned.new(partitioner, partitioner.left, mutex),
+       Partitioned.new(partitioner, partitioner.right, mutex)].freeze
+    end
+
+    # Return true if `other` has the same type and contents as this `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object] The collection to compare with
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    def eql?(other)
+      list = self
+      loop do
+        return true if other.equal?(list)
+        return false unless other.is_a?(List)
+        return other.empty? if list.empty?
+        return false if other.empty?
+        return false unless other.head.eql?(list.head)
+        list = list.tail
+        other = other.tail
+      end
+    end
+
+    # See `Object#hash`
+    # @return [Integer]
+    def hash
+      reduce(0) { |hash, item| (hash << 5) - hash + item.hash }
+    end
+
+    # Return `self`. Since this is an immutable object duplicates are
+    # equivalent.
+    # @return [List]
+    def dup
+      self
+    end
+    alias :clone :dup
+
+    # Return `self`.
+    # @return [List]
+    def to_list
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Return the contents of this `List` as a programmer-readable `String`. If all the
+    # items in the list are serializable as Ruby literal strings, the returned string can
+    # be passed to `eval` to reconstitute an equivalent `List`.
+    #
+    # @return [String]
+    def inspect
+      result = "Immutable::List["
+      each_with_index { |obj, i| result << ', ' if i > 0; result << obj.inspect }
+      result << "]"
+    end
+
+    # Allows this `List` to be printed at the `pry` console, or using `pp` (from the
+    # Ruby standard library), in a way which takes the amount of horizontal space on
+    # the screen into account, and which indents nested structures to make them easier
+    # to read.
+    #
+    # @private
+    def pretty_print(pp)
+      pp.group(1, "Immutable::List[", "]") do
+        pp.breakable ''
+        pp.seplist(self) { |obj| obj.pretty_print(pp) }
+      end
+    end
+
+    # @private
+    def respond_to?(name, include_private = false)
+      super || !!name.to_s.match(CADR)
+    end
+
+    # Return `true` if the size of this list can be obtained in constant time (without
+    # traversing the list).
+    # @return [Integer]
+    def cached_size?
+      false
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    # Perform compositions of `car` and `cdr` operations (traditional shorthand
+    # for `head` and `tail` respectively). Their names consist of a `c`,
+    # followed by at least one `a` or `d`, and finally an `r`. The series of
+    # `a`s and `d`s in the method name identify the series of `car` and `cdr`
+    # operations performed, in inverse order.
+    #
+    # @return [Object, List]
+    # @example
+    #   l = Immutable::List[nil, Immutable::List[1]]
+    #   l.car   # => nil
+    #   l.cdr   # => Immutable::List[Immutable::List[1]]
+    #   l.cadr  # => Immutable::List[1]
+    #   l.caadr # => 1
+    def method_missing(name, *args, &block)
+      if name.to_s.match(CADR)
+        code = "def #{name}; self."
+        code << Regexp.last_match[1].reverse.chars.map do |char|
+          {'a' => 'head', 'd' => 'tail'}[char]
+        end.join('.')
+        code << '; end'
+        List.class_eval(code)
+        send(name, *args, &block)
+      else
+        super
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # The basic building block for constructing lists
+  #
+  # A Cons, also known as a "cons cell", has a "head" and a "tail", where
+  # the head is an element in the list, and the tail is a reference to the
+  # rest of the list. This way a singly linked list can be constructed, with
+  # each `Cons` holding a single element and a pointer to the next
+  # `Cons`.
+  #
+  # The last `Cons` instance in the chain has the {EmptyList} as its tail.
+  #
+  # @private
+  class Cons
+    include List
+
+    attr_reader :head, :tail
+
+    def initialize(head, tail = EmptyList)
+      @head = head
+      @tail = tail
+      @size = tail.cached_size? ? tail.size + 1 : nil
+    end
+
+    def empty?
+      false
+    end
+
+    def size
+      @size ||= super
+    end
+    alias :length :size
+
+    def cached_size?
+      @size != nil
+    end
+  end
+
+  # A `LazyList` takes a block that returns a `List`, i.e. an object that responds
+  # to `#head`, `#tail` and `#empty?`. The list is only realized (i.e. the block is
+  # only called) when one of these operations is performed.
+  #
+  # By returning a `Cons` that in turn has a {LazyList} as its tail, one can
+  # construct infinite `List`s.
+  #
+  # @private
+  class LazyList
+    include List
+
+    def initialize(&block)
+      @head   = block # doubles as storage for block while yet unrealized
+      @tail   = nil
+      @atomic = Concurrent::Atomic.new(0) # haven't yet run block
+      @size   = nil
+    end
+
+    def head
+      realize if @atomic.get != 2
+      @head
+    end
+    alias :first :head
+
+    def tail
+      realize if @atomic.get != 2
+      @tail
+    end
+
+    def empty?
+      realize if @atomic.get != 2
+      @size == 0
+    end
+
+    def size
+      @size ||= super
+    end
+    alias :length :size
+
+    def cached_size?
+      @size != nil
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    QUEUE = ConditionVariable.new
+    MUTEX = Mutex.new
+
+    def realize
+      while true
+        # try to "claim" the right to run the block which realizes target
+        if @atomic.compare_and_swap(0,1) # full memory barrier here
+          begin
+            list = @head.call
+            if list.empty?
+              @head, @tail, @size = nil, self, 0
+            else
+              @head, @tail = list.head, list.tail
+            end
+          rescue
+            @atomic.set(0)
+            MUTEX.synchronize { QUEUE.broadcast }
+            raise
+          end
+          @atomic.set(2)
+          MUTEX.synchronize { QUEUE.broadcast }
+          return
+        end
+        # we failed to "claim" it, another thread must be running it
+        if @atomic.get == 1 # another thread is running the block
+          MUTEX.synchronize do
+            # check value of @atomic again, in case another thread already changed it
+            #   *and* went past the call to QUEUE.broadcast before we got here
+            QUEUE.wait(MUTEX) if @atomic.get == 1
+          end
+        elsif @atomic.get == 2 # another thread finished the block
+          return
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # Common behavior for other classes which implement various kinds of `List`s
+  # @private
+  class Realizable
+    include List
+
+    def initialize
+      @head, @tail, @size = Undefined, Undefined, nil
+    end
+
+    def head
+      realize if @head == Undefined
+      @head
+    end
+    alias :first :head
+
+    def tail
+      realize if @tail == Undefined
+      @tail
+    end
+
+    def empty?
+      realize if @head == Undefined
+      @size == 0
+    end
+
+    def size
+      @size ||= super
+    end
+    alias :length :size
+
+    def cached_size?
+      @size != nil
+    end
+
+    def realized?
+      @head != Undefined
+    end
+  end
+
+  # This class can divide a collection into 2 `List`s, one of items
+  #   for which the block returns true, and another for false
+  # At the same time, it guarantees the block will only be called ONCE for each item
+  #
+  # @private
+  class Partitioner
+    attr_reader :left, :right
+    def initialize(list, block)
+      @list, @block, @left, @right = list, block, [], []
+    end
+
+    def next_item
+      unless @list.empty?
+        item = @list.head
+        (@block.call(item) ? @left : @right) << item
+        @list = @list.tail
+      end
+    end
+
+    def done?
+      @list.empty?
+    end
+  end
+
+  # One of the `List`s which gets its items from a Partitioner
+  # @private
+  class Partitioned < Realizable
+    def initialize(partitioner, buffer, mutex)
+      super()
+      @partitioner, @buffer, @mutex = partitioner, buffer, mutex
+    end
+
+    def realize
+      # another thread may get ahead of us and null out @mutex
+      mutex = @mutex
+      mutex && mutex.synchronize do
+        return if @head != Undefined # another thread got ahead of us
+        while true
+          if !@buffer.empty?
+            @head = @buffer.shift
+            @tail = Partitioned.new(@partitioner, @buffer, @mutex)
+            # don't hold onto references
+            # tail will keep references alive until end of list is reached
+            @partitioner, @buffer, @mutex = nil, nil, nil
+            return
+          elsif @partitioner.done?
+            @head, @size, @tail = nil, 0, self
+            @partitioner, @buffer, @mutex = nil, nil, nil # allow them to be GC'd
+            return
+          else
+            @partitioner.next_item
+          end
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # This class can divide a list up into 2 `List`s, one for the prefix of
+  # elements for which the block returns true, and another for all the elements
+  # after that. It guarantees that the block will only be called ONCE for each
+  # item
+  #
+  # @private
+  class Splitter
+    attr_reader :left, :right
+    def initialize(list, block)
+      @list, @block, @left, @right = list, block, [], EmptyList
+    end
+
+    def next_item
+      unless @list.empty?
+        item = @list.head
+        if @block.call(item)
+          @left << item
+          @list = @list.tail
+        else
+          @right = @list
+          @list  = EmptyList
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    def done?
+      @list.empty?
+    end
+
+    # @private
+    class Left < Realizable
+      def initialize(splitter, buffer, mutex)
+        super()
+        @splitter, @buffer, @mutex = splitter, buffer, mutex
+      end
+
+      def realize
+        # another thread may get ahead of us and null out @mutex
+        mutex = @mutex
+        mutex && mutex.synchronize do
+          return if @head != Undefined # another thread got ahead of us
+          while true
+            if !@buffer.empty?
+              @head = @buffer.shift
+              @tail = Left.new(@splitter, @buffer, @mutex)
+              @splitter, @buffer, @mutex = nil, nil, nil
+              return
+            elsif @splitter.done?
+              @head, @size, @tail = nil, 0, self
+              @splitter, @buffer, @mutex = nil, nil, nil
+              return
+            else
+              @splitter.next_item
+            end
+          end
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    # @private
+    class Right < Realizable
+      def initialize(splitter, mutex)
+        super()
+        @splitter, @mutex = splitter, mutex
+      end
+
+      def realize
+        mutex = @mutex
+        mutex && mutex.synchronize do
+          return if @head != Undefined
+          @splitter.next_item until @splitter.done?
+          if @splitter.right.empty?
+            @head, @size, @tail = nil, 0, self
+          else
+            @head, @tail = @splitter.right.head, @splitter.right.tail
+          end
+          @splitter, @mutex = nil, nil
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # A list without any elements. This is a singleton, since all empty lists are equivalent.
+  # @private
+  module EmptyList
+    class << self
+      include List
+
+      # There is no first item in an empty list, so return `nil`.
+      # @return [nil]
+      def head
+        nil
+      end
+      alias :first :head
+
+      # There are no subsequent elements, so return an empty list.
+      # @return [self]
+      def tail
+        self
+      end
+
+      def empty?
+        true
+      end
+
+      # Return the number of items in this `List`.
+      # @return [Integer]
+      def size
+        0
+      end
+      alias :length :size
+
+      def cached_size?
+        true
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end.freeze