ed25519 1.0.0-jruby → 1.1.0-jruby

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/ScalarOps.java

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+/**
+ * EdDSA-Java by str4d
+ *
+ * To the extent possible under law, the person who associated CC0 with
+ * EdDSA-Java has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights
+ * to EdDSA-Java.
+ *
+ * You should have received a copy of the CC0 legalcode along with this
+ * work. If not, see <https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/>.
+ *
+ */
+package net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math;
+
+public interface ScalarOps {
+    /**
+     * Reduce the given scalar mod $l$.
+     * <p>
+     * From the Ed25519 paper:<br>
+     * Here we interpret $2b$-bit strings in little-endian form as integers in
+     * $\{0, 1,..., 2^{(2b)}-1\}$.
+     * @param s the scalar to reduce
+     * @return $s \bmod l$
+     */
+    public byte[] reduce(byte[] s);
+
+    /**
+     * $r = (a * b + c) \bmod l$
+     * @param a a scalar
+     * @param b a scalar
+     * @param c a scalar
+     * @return $(a*b + c) \bmod l$
+     */
+    public byte[] multiplyAndAdd(byte[] a, byte[] b, byte[] c);
+}

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/bigint/BigIntegerFieldElement.java

@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+/**
+ * EdDSA-Java by str4d
+ *
+ * To the extent possible under law, the person who associated CC0 with
+ * EdDSA-Java has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights
+ * to EdDSA-Java.
+ *
+ * You should have received a copy of the CC0 legalcode along with this
+ * work. If not, see <https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/>.
+ *
+ */
+package net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.bigint;
+
+import java.io.Serializable;
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.Field;
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.FieldElement;
+
+/**
+ * A particular element of the field \Z/(2^255-19).
+ * @author str4d
+ *
+ */
+public class BigIntegerFieldElement extends FieldElement implements Serializable {
+    private static final long serialVersionUID = 4890398908392808L;
+    /**
+     * Variable is package private for encoding.
+     */
+    final BigInteger bi;
+
+    public BigIntegerFieldElement(Field f, BigInteger bi) {
+        super(f);
+        this.bi = bi;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isNonZero() {
+        return !bi.equals(BigInteger.ZERO);
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement add(FieldElement val) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.add(((BigIntegerFieldElement)val).bi)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FieldElement addOne() {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.add(BigInteger.ONE)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement subtract(FieldElement val) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.subtract(((BigIntegerFieldElement)val).bi)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FieldElement subtractOne() {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.subtract(BigInteger.ONE)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement negate() {
+        return f.getQ().subtract(this);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FieldElement divide(FieldElement val) {
+        return divide(((BigIntegerFieldElement)val).bi);
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement divide(BigInteger val) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.divide(val)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement multiply(FieldElement val) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.multiply(((BigIntegerFieldElement)val).bi)).mod(f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement square() {
+        return multiply(this);
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement squareAndDouble() {
+        FieldElement sq = square();
+        return sq.add(sq);
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement invert() {
+        // Euler's theorem
+        //return modPow(f.getQm2(), f.getQ());
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.modInverse(((BigIntegerFieldElement)f.getQ()).bi));
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement mod(FieldElement m) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.mod(((BigIntegerFieldElement)m).bi));
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement modPow(FieldElement e, FieldElement m) {
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, bi.modPow(((BigIntegerFieldElement)e).bi, ((BigIntegerFieldElement)m).bi));
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement pow(FieldElement e){
+        return modPow(e, f.getQ());
+    }
+
+    public FieldElement pow22523(){
+        return pow(f.getQm5d8());
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public FieldElement cmov(FieldElement val, int b) {
+        // Not constant-time, but it doesn't really matter because none of the underlying BigInteger operations
+        // are either, so there's not much point in trying hard here ...
+        return b == 0 ? this : val;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+        return bi.hashCode();
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+        if (!(obj instanceof BigIntegerFieldElement))
+            return false;
+        BigIntegerFieldElement fe = (BigIntegerFieldElement) obj;
+        return bi.equals(fe.bi);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "[BigIntegerFieldElement val="+bi+"]";
+    }
+}

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/bigint/BigIntegerLittleEndianEncoding.java

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+/**
+ * EdDSA-Java by str4d
+ *
+ * To the extent possible under law, the person who associated CC0 with
+ * EdDSA-Java has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights
+ * to EdDSA-Java.
+ *
+ * You should have received a copy of the CC0 legalcode along with this
+ * work. If not, see <https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/>.
+ *
+ */
+package net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.bigint;
+
+import java.io.Serializable;
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.Encoding;
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.Field;
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.FieldElement;
+
+public class BigIntegerLittleEndianEncoding extends Encoding implements Serializable {
+    private static final long serialVersionUID = 3984579843759837L;
+    /**
+     * Mask where only the first b-1 bits are set.
+     */
+    private BigInteger mask;
+
+    @Override
+    public synchronized void setField(Field f) {
+        super.setField(f);
+        mask = BigInteger.ONE.shiftLeft(f.getb()-1).subtract(BigInteger.ONE);
+    }
+
+    public byte[] encode(FieldElement x) {
+        return encode(((BigIntegerFieldElement)x).bi.and(mask));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     *  Convert $x$ to little endian.
+     *  Constant time.
+     *
+     *  @param x the BigInteger value to encode
+     *  @return array of length $b/8$
+     *  @throws IllegalStateException if field not set
+     */
+    public byte[] encode(BigInteger x) {
+        if (f == null)
+            throw new IllegalStateException("field not set");
+        byte[] in = x.toByteArray();
+        byte[] out = new byte[f.getb()/8];
+        for (int i = 0; i < in.length; i++) {
+            out[i] = in[in.length-1-i];
+        }
+        for (int i = in.length; i < out.length; i++) {
+            out[i] = 0;
+        }
+        return out;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     *  Decode a FieldElement from its $(b-1)$-bit encoding.
+     *  The highest bit is masked out.
+     *
+     *  @param in the $(b-1)$-bit encoding of a FieldElement.
+     *  @return the FieldElement represented by 'val'.
+     *  @throws IllegalStateException if field not set
+     *  @throws IllegalArgumentException if encoding is invalid
+     */
+    public FieldElement decode(byte[] in) {
+        if (f == null)
+            throw new IllegalStateException("field not set");
+        if (in.length != f.getb()/8)
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Not a valid encoding");
+        return new BigIntegerFieldElement(f, toBigInteger(in).and(mask));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     *  Convert in to big endian
+     *
+     *  @param in the $(b-1)$-bit encoding of a FieldElement.
+     *  @return the decoded value as a BigInteger
+     */
+    public BigInteger toBigInteger(byte[] in) {
+        byte[] out = new byte[in.length];
+        for (int i = 0; i < in.length; i++) {
+            out[i] = in[in.length-1-i];
+        }
+        return new BigInteger(1, out);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * From the Ed25519 paper:<br>
+     * $x$ is negative if the $(b-1)$-bit encoding of $x$ is lexicographically larger
+     * than the $(b-1)$-bit encoding of $-x$. If $q$ is an odd prime and the encoding
+     * is the little-endian representation of $\{0, 1,\dots, q-1\}$ then the negative
+     * elements of $F_q$ are $\{1, 3, 5,\dots, q-2\}$.
+     * @return true if negative
+     */
+    public boolean isNegative(FieldElement x) {
+        return ((BigIntegerFieldElement)x).bi.testBit(0);
+    }
+}

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/bigint/BigIntegerScalarOps.java

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+/**
+ * EdDSA-Java by str4d
+ *
+ * To the extent possible under law, the person who associated CC0 with
+ * EdDSA-Java has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights
+ * to EdDSA-Java.
+ *
+ * You should have received a copy of the CC0 legalcode along with this
+ * work. If not, see <https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/>.
+ *
+ */
+package net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.bigint;
+
+import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.Field;
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.ScalarOps;
+
+public class BigIntegerScalarOps implements ScalarOps {
+    private final BigInteger l;
+    private final BigIntegerLittleEndianEncoding enc;
+
+    public BigIntegerScalarOps(Field f, BigInteger l) {
+        this.l = l;
+        enc = new BigIntegerLittleEndianEncoding();
+        enc.setField(f);
+    }
+
+    public byte[] reduce(byte[] s) {
+        return enc.encode(enc.toBigInteger(s).mod(l));
+    }
+
+    public byte[] multiplyAndAdd(byte[] a, byte[] b, byte[] c) {
+        return enc.encode(enc.toBigInteger(a).multiply(enc.toBigInteger(b)).add(enc.toBigInteger(c)).mod(l));
+    }
+
+}

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/bigint/package.html

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+<html><body>
+<p>
+   Low-level, non-optimized implementation using BigIntegers for any curve.
+   See the <a href="../ed25519/package-summary.html">ed25519</a> implementation for Curve 25519.
+</p>
+</body></html>

data/ext/ed25519_jruby/net/i2p/crypto/eddsa/math/ed25519/Ed25519FieldElement.java

@@ -0,0 +1,988 @@
+/**
+ * EdDSA-Java by str4d
+ *
+ * To the extent possible under law, the person who associated CC0 with
+ * EdDSA-Java has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights
+ * to EdDSA-Java.
+ *
+ * You should have received a copy of the CC0 legalcode along with this
+ * work. If not, see <https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/>.
+ *
+ */
+package net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.ed25519;
+
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.Utils;
+import net.i2p.crypto.eddsa.math.*;
+
+import java.util.Arrays;
+
+/**
+ * Class to represent a field element of the finite field $p = 2^{255} - 19$ elements.
+ * <p>
+ * An element $t$, entries $t[0] \dots t[9]$, represents the integer
+ * $t[0]+2^{26} t[1]+2^{51} t[2]+2^{77} t[3]+2^{102} t[4]+\dots+2^{230} t[9]$.
+ * Bounds on each $t[i]$ vary depending on context.
+ * <p>
+ * Reviewed/commented by Bloody Rookie (nemproject@gmx.de)
+ */
+public class Ed25519FieldElement extends FieldElement {
+    /**
+     * Variable is package private for encoding.
+     */
+    final int[] t;
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a field element.
+     *
+     * @param f The underlying field, must be the finite field with $p = 2^{255} - 19$ elements
+     * @param t The $2^{25.5}$ bit representation of the field element.
+     */
+    public Ed25519FieldElement(Field f, int[] t) {
+        super(f);
+        if (t.length != 10)
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid radix-2^51 representation");
+        this.t = t;
+    }
+
+    private static final byte[] ZERO = new byte[32];
+
+    /**
+     * Gets a value indicating whether or not the field element is non-zero.
+     *
+     * @return 1 if it is non-zero, 0 otherwise.
+     */
+    public boolean isNonZero() {
+        final byte[] s = toByteArray();
+        return Utils.equal(s, ZERO) == 0;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = f + g$
+     * <p>
+     * TODO-CR BR: $h$ is allocated via new, probably not a good idea. Do we need the copying into temp variables if we do that?
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * <li>$|g|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{26},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{26},1.1*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * </ul>
+     *
+     * @param val The field element to add.
+     * @return The field element this + val.
+     */
+    public FieldElement add(FieldElement val) {
+        int[] g = ((Ed25519FieldElement)val).t;
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            h[i] = t[i] + g[i];
+        }
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = f - g$
+     * <p>
+     * Can overlap $h$ with $f$ or $g$.
+     * <p>
+     * TODO-CR BR: See above.
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * <li>$|g|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{26},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{26},1.1*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * </ul>
+     *
+     * @param val The field element to subtract.
+     * @return The field element this - val.
+     **/
+    public FieldElement subtract(FieldElement val) {
+        int[] g = ((Ed25519FieldElement)val).t;
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            h[i] = t[i] - g[i];
+        }
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = -f$
+     * <p>
+     * TODO-CR BR: see above.
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by $1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},1.1*2^{25},1.1*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul>
+     *
+     * @return The field element (-1) * this.
+     */
+    public FieldElement negate() {
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            h[i] = - t[i];
+        }
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = f * g$
+     * <p>
+     * Can overlap $h$ with $f$ or $g$.
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by
+     * $1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * <li>$|g|$ bounded by
+     * $1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by
+     * $1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Notes on implementation strategy:
+     * <p>
+     * Using schoolbook multiplication. Karatsuba would save a little in some
+     * cost models.
+     * <p>
+     * Most multiplications by 2 and 19 are 32-bit precomputations; cheaper than
+     * 64-bit postcomputations.
+     * <p>
+     * There is one remaining multiplication by 19 in the carry chain; one *19
+     * precomputation can be merged into this, but the resulting data flow is
+     * considerably less clean.
+     * <p>
+     * There are 12 carries below. 10 of them are 2-way parallelizable and
+     * vectorizable. Can get away with 11 carries, but then data flow is much
+     * deeper.
+     * <p>
+     * With tighter constraints on inputs can squeeze carries into int32.
+     *
+     * @param val The field element to multiply.
+     * @return The (reasonably reduced) field element this * val.
+     */
+    public FieldElement multiply(FieldElement val) {
+        int[] g = ((Ed25519FieldElement)val).t;
+        int g1_19 = 19 * g[1]; /* 1.959375*2^29 */
+        int g2_19 = 19 * g[2]; /* 1.959375*2^30; still ok */
+        int g3_19 = 19 * g[3];
+        int g4_19 = 19 * g[4];
+        int g5_19 = 19 * g[5];
+        int g6_19 = 19 * g[6];
+        int g7_19 = 19 * g[7];
+        int g8_19 = 19 * g[8];
+        int g9_19 = 19 * g[9];
+        int f1_2 = 2 * t[1];
+        int f3_2 = 2 * t[3];
+        int f5_2 = 2 * t[5];
+        int f7_2 = 2 * t[7];
+        int f9_2 = 2 * t[9];
+        long f0g0    = t[0] * (long) g[0];
+        long f0g1    = t[0] * (long) g[1];
+        long f0g2    = t[0] * (long) g[2];
+        long f0g3    = t[0] * (long) g[3];
+        long f0g4    = t[0] * (long) g[4];
+        long f0g5    = t[0] * (long) g[5];
+        long f0g6    = t[0] * (long) g[6];
+        long f0g7    = t[0] * (long) g[7];
+        long f0g8    = t[0] * (long) g[8];
+        long f0g9    = t[0] * (long) g[9];
+        long f1g0    = t[1] * (long) g[0];
+        long f1g1_2  = f1_2 * (long) g[1];
+        long f1g2    = t[1] * (long) g[2];
+        long f1g3_2  = f1_2 * (long) g[3];
+        long f1g4    = t[1] * (long) g[4];
+        long f1g5_2  = f1_2 * (long) g[5];
+        long f1g6    = t[1] * (long) g[6];
+        long f1g7_2  = f1_2 * (long) g[7];
+        long f1g8    = t[1] * (long) g[8];
+        long f1g9_38 = f1_2 * (long) g9_19;
+        long f2g0    = t[2] * (long) g[0];
+        long f2g1    = t[2] * (long) g[1];
+        long f2g2    = t[2] * (long) g[2];
+        long f2g3    = t[2] * (long) g[3];
+        long f2g4    = t[2] * (long) g[4];
+        long f2g5    = t[2] * (long) g[5];
+        long f2g6    = t[2] * (long) g[6];
+        long f2g7    = t[2] * (long) g[7];
+        long f2g8_19 = t[2] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f2g9_19 = t[2] * (long) g9_19;
+        long f3g0    = t[3] * (long) g[0];
+        long f3g1_2  = f3_2 * (long) g[1];
+        long f3g2    = t[3] * (long) g[2];
+        long f3g3_2  = f3_2 * (long) g[3];
+        long f3g4    = t[3] * (long) g[4];
+        long f3g5_2  = f3_2 * (long) g[5];
+        long f3g6    = t[3] * (long) g[6];
+        long f3g7_38 = f3_2 * (long) g7_19;
+        long f3g8_19 = t[3] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f3g9_38 = f3_2 * (long) g9_19;
+        long f4g0    = t[4] * (long) g[0];
+        long f4g1    = t[4] * (long) g[1];
+        long f4g2    = t[4] * (long) g[2];
+        long f4g3    = t[4] * (long) g[3];
+        long f4g4    = t[4] * (long) g[4];
+        long f4g5    = t[4] * (long) g[5];
+        long f4g6_19 = t[4] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f4g7_19 = t[4] * (long) g7_19;
+        long f4g8_19 = t[4] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f4g9_19 = t[4] * (long) g9_19;
+        long f5g0    = t[5] * (long) g[0];
+        long f5g1_2  = f5_2 * (long) g[1];
+        long f5g2    = t[5] * (long) g[2];
+        long f5g3_2  = f5_2 * (long) g[3];
+        long f5g4    = t[5] * (long) g[4];
+        long f5g5_38 = f5_2 * (long) g5_19;
+        long f5g6_19 = t[5] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f5g7_38 = f5_2 * (long) g7_19;
+        long f5g8_19 = t[5] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f5g9_38 = f5_2 * (long) g9_19;
+        long f6g0    = t[6] * (long) g[0];
+        long f6g1    = t[6] * (long) g[1];
+        long f6g2    = t[6] * (long) g[2];
+        long f6g3    = t[6] * (long) g[3];
+        long f6g4_19 = t[6] * (long) g4_19;
+        long f6g5_19 = t[6] * (long) g5_19;
+        long f6g6_19 = t[6] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f6g7_19 = t[6] * (long) g7_19;
+        long f6g8_19 = t[6] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f6g9_19 = t[6] * (long) g9_19;
+        long f7g0    = t[7] * (long) g[0];
+        long f7g1_2  = f7_2 * (long) g[1];
+        long f7g2    = t[7] * (long) g[2];
+        long f7g3_38 = f7_2 * (long) g3_19;
+        long f7g4_19 = t[7] * (long) g4_19;
+        long f7g5_38 = f7_2 * (long) g5_19;
+        long f7g6_19 = t[7] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f7g7_38 = f7_2 * (long) g7_19;
+        long f7g8_19 = t[7] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f7g9_38 = f7_2 * (long) g9_19;
+        long f8g0    = t[8] * (long) g[0];
+        long f8g1    = t[8] * (long) g[1];
+        long f8g2_19 = t[8] * (long) g2_19;
+        long f8g3_19 = t[8] * (long) g3_19;
+        long f8g4_19 = t[8] * (long) g4_19;
+        long f8g5_19 = t[8] * (long) g5_19;
+        long f8g6_19 = t[8] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f8g7_19 = t[8] * (long) g7_19;
+        long f8g8_19 = t[8] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f8g9_19 = t[8] * (long) g9_19;
+        long f9g0    = t[9] * (long) g[0];
+        long f9g1_38 = f9_2 * (long) g1_19;
+        long f9g2_19 = t[9] * (long) g2_19;
+        long f9g3_38 = f9_2 * (long) g3_19;
+        long f9g4_19 = t[9] * (long) g4_19;
+        long f9g5_38 = f9_2 * (long) g5_19;
+        long f9g6_19 = t[9] * (long) g6_19;
+        long f9g7_38 = f9_2 * (long) g7_19;
+        long f9g8_19 = t[9] * (long) g8_19;
+        long f9g9_38 = f9_2 * (long) g9_19;
+
+        /**
+         * Remember: 2^255 congruent 19 modulo p.
+         * h = h0 * 2^0 + h1 * 2^26 + h2 * 2^(26+25) + h3 * 2^(26+25+26) + ... + h9 * 2^(5*26+5*25).
+         * So to get the real number we would have to multiply the coefficients with the corresponding powers of 2.
+         * To get an idea what is going on below, look at the calculation of h0:
+         * h0 is the coefficient to the power 2^0 so it collects (sums) all products that have the power 2^0.
+         * f0 * g0 really is f0 * 2^0 * g0 * 2^0 = (f0 * g0) * 2^0.
+         * f1 * g9 really is f1 * 2^26 * g9 * 2^230 = f1 * g9 * 2^256 = 2 * f1 * g9 * 2^255 congruent 2 * 19 * f1 * g9 * 2^0 modulo p.
+         * f2 * g8 really is f2 * 2^51 * g8 * 2^204 = f2 * g8 * 2^255 congruent 19 * f2 * g8 * 2^0 modulo p.
+         * and so on...
+         */
+        long h0 = f0g0 + f1g9_38 + f2g8_19 + f3g7_38 + f4g6_19 + f5g5_38 + f6g4_19 + f7g3_38 + f8g2_19 + f9g1_38;
+        long h1 = f0g1 + f1g0    + f2g9_19 + f3g8_19 + f4g7_19 + f5g6_19 + f6g5_19 + f7g4_19 + f8g3_19 + f9g2_19;
+        long h2 = f0g2 + f1g1_2  + f2g0    + f3g9_38 + f4g8_19 + f5g7_38 + f6g6_19 + f7g5_38 + f8g4_19 + f9g3_38;
+        long h3 = f0g3 + f1g2    + f2g1    + f3g0    + f4g9_19 + f5g8_19 + f6g7_19 + f7g6_19 + f8g5_19 + f9g4_19;
+        long h4 = f0g4 + f1g3_2  + f2g2    + f3g1_2  + f4g0    + f5g9_38 + f6g8_19 + f7g7_38 + f8g6_19 + f9g5_38;
+        long h5 = f0g5 + f1g4    + f2g3    + f3g2    + f4g1    + f5g0    + f6g9_19 + f7g8_19 + f8g7_19 + f9g6_19;
+        long h6 = f0g6 + f1g5_2  + f2g4    + f3g3_2  + f4g2    + f5g1_2  + f6g0    + f7g9_38 + f8g8_19 + f9g7_38;
+        long h7 = f0g7 + f1g6    + f2g5    + f3g4    + f4g3    + f5g2    + f6g1    + f7g0    + f8g9_19 + f9g8_19;
+        long h8 = f0g8 + f1g7_2  + f2g6    + f3g5_2  + f4g4    + f5g3_2  + f6g2    + f7g1_2  + f8g0    + f9g9_38;
+        long h9 = f0g9 + f1g8    + f2g7    + f3g6    + f4g5    + f5g4    + f6g3    + f7g2    + f8g1    + f9g0;
+        long carry0;
+        long carry1;
+        long carry2;
+        long carry3;
+        long carry4;
+        long carry5;
+        long carry6;
+        long carry7;
+        long carry8;
+        long carry9;
+
+        /*
+        |h0| <= (1.65*1.65*2^52*(1+19+19+19+19)+1.65*1.65*2^50*(38+38+38+38+38))
+          i.e. |h0| <= 1.4*2^60; narrower ranges for h2, h4, h6, h8
+        |h1| <= (1.65*1.65*2^51*(1+1+19+19+19+19+19+19+19+19))
+          i.e. |h1| <= 1.7*2^59; narrower ranges for h3, h5, h7, h9
+        */
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+        /* |h0| <= 2^25 */
+        /* |h4| <= 2^25 */
+        /* |h1| <= 1.71*2^59 */
+        /* |h5| <= 1.71*2^59 */
+
+        carry1 = (h1 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h2 += carry1; h1 -= carry1 << 25;
+        carry5 = (h5 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h6 += carry5; h5 -= carry5 << 25;
+        /* |h1| <= 2^24; from now on fits into int32 */
+        /* |h5| <= 2^24; from now on fits into int32 */
+        /* |h2| <= 1.41*2^60 */
+        /* |h6| <= 1.41*2^60 */
+
+        carry2 = (h2 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h3 += carry2; h2 -= carry2 << 26;
+        carry6 = (h6 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h7 += carry6; h6 -= carry6 << 26;
+        /* |h2| <= 2^25; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h6| <= 2^25; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h3| <= 1.71*2^59 */
+        /* |h7| <= 1.71*2^59 */
+
+        carry3 = (h3 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h4 += carry3; h3 -= carry3 << 25;
+        carry7 = (h7 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h8 += carry7; h7 -= carry7 << 25;
+        /* |h3| <= 2^24; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h7| <= 2^24; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h4| <= 1.72*2^34 */
+        /* |h8| <= 1.41*2^60 */
+
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+        carry8 = (h8 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h9 += carry8; h8 -= carry8 << 26;
+        /* |h4| <= 2^25; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h8| <= 2^25; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h5| <= 1.01*2^24 */
+        /* |h9| <= 1.71*2^59 */
+
+        carry9 = (h9 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h0 += carry9 * 19; h9 -= carry9 << 25;
+        /* |h9| <= 2^24; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h0| <= 1.1*2^39 */
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+        /* |h0| <= 2^25; from now on fits into int32 unchanged */
+        /* |h1| <= 1.01*2^24 */
+
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        h[0] = (int) h0;
+        h[1] = (int) h1;
+        h[2] = (int) h2;
+        h[3] = (int) h3;
+        h[4] = (int) h4;
+        h[5] = (int) h5;
+        h[6] = (int) h6;
+        h[7] = (int) h7;
+        h[8] = (int) h8;
+        h[9] = (int) h9;
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = f * f$
+     * <p>
+     * Can overlap $h$ with $f$.
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by $1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by $1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * See {@link #multiply(FieldElement)} for discussion
+     * of implementation strategy.
+     *
+     * @return The (reasonably reduced) square of this field element.
+     */
+    public FieldElement square() {
+        int f0 = t[0];
+        int f1 = t[1];
+        int f2 = t[2];
+        int f3 = t[3];
+        int f4 = t[4];
+        int f5 = t[5];
+        int f6 = t[6];
+        int f7 = t[7];
+        int f8 = t[8];
+        int f9 = t[9];
+        int f0_2 = 2 * f0;
+        int f1_2 = 2 * f1;
+        int f2_2 = 2 * f2;
+        int f3_2 = 2 * f3;
+        int f4_2 = 2 * f4;
+        int f5_2 = 2 * f5;
+        int f6_2 = 2 * f6;
+        int f7_2 = 2 * f7;
+        int f5_38 = 38 * f5; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f6_19 = 19 * f6; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f7_38 = 38 * f7; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f8_19 = 19 * f8; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f9_38 = 38 * f9; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        long f0f0    = f0   * (long) f0;
+        long f0f1_2  = f0_2 * (long) f1;
+        long f0f2_2  = f0_2 * (long) f2;
+        long f0f3_2  = f0_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f0f4_2  = f0_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f0f5_2  = f0_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f0f6_2  = f0_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f0f7_2  = f0_2 * (long) f7;
+        long f0f8_2  = f0_2 * (long) f8;
+        long f0f9_2  = f0_2 * (long) f9;
+        long f1f1_2  = f1_2 * (long) f1;
+        long f1f2_2  = f1_2 * (long) f2;
+        long f1f3_4  = f1_2 * (long) f3_2;
+        long f1f4_2  = f1_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f1f5_4  = f1_2 * (long) f5_2;
+        long f1f6_2  = f1_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f1f7_4  = f1_2 * (long) f7_2;
+        long f1f8_2  = f1_2 * (long) f8;
+        long f1f9_76 = f1_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f2f2    = f2   * (long) f2;
+        long f2f3_2  = f2_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f2f4_2  = f2_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f2f5_2  = f2_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f2f6_2  = f2_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f2f7_2  = f2_2 * (long) f7;
+        long f2f8_38 = f2_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f2f9_38 = f2   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f3f3_2  = f3_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f3f4_2  = f3_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f3f5_4  = f3_2 * (long) f5_2;
+        long f3f6_2  = f3_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f3f7_76 = f3_2 * (long) f7_38;
+        long f3f8_38 = f3_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f3f9_76 = f3_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f4f4    = f4   * (long) f4;
+        long f4f5_2  = f4_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f4f6_38 = f4_2 * (long) f6_19;
+        long f4f7_38 = f4   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f4f8_38 = f4_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f4f9_38 = f4   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f5f5_38 = f5   * (long) f5_38;
+        long f5f6_38 = f5_2 * (long) f6_19;
+        long f5f7_76 = f5_2 * (long) f7_38;
+        long f5f8_38 = f5_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f5f9_76 = f5_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f6f6_19 = f6   * (long) f6_19;
+        long f6f7_38 = f6   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f6f8_38 = f6_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f6f9_38 = f6   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f7f7_38 = f7   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f7f8_38 = f7_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f7f9_76 = f7_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f8f8_19 = f8   * (long) f8_19;
+        long f8f9_38 = f8   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f9f9_38 = f9   * (long) f9_38;
+
+        /**
+         * Same procedure as in multiply, but this time we have a higher symmetry leading to less summands.
+         * e.g. f1f9_76 really stands for f1 * 2^26 * f9 * 2^230 + f9 * 2^230 + f1 * 2^26 congruent 2 * 2 * 19 * f1 * f9  2^0 modulo p.
+         */
+        long h0 = f0f0   + f1f9_76 + f2f8_38 + f3f7_76 + f4f6_38 + f5f5_38;
+        long h1 = f0f1_2 + f2f9_38 + f3f8_38 + f4f7_38 + f5f6_38;
+        long h2 = f0f2_2 + f1f1_2  + f3f9_76 + f4f8_38 + f5f7_76 + f6f6_19;
+        long h3 = f0f3_2 + f1f2_2  + f4f9_38 + f5f8_38 + f6f7_38;
+        long h4 = f0f4_2 + f1f3_4  + f2f2    + f5f9_76 + f6f8_38 + f7f7_38;
+        long h5 = f0f5_2 + f1f4_2  + f2f3_2  + f6f9_38 + f7f8_38;
+        long h6 = f0f6_2 + f1f5_4  + f2f4_2  + f3f3_2  + f7f9_76 + f8f8_19;
+        long h7 = f0f7_2 + f1f6_2  + f2f5_2  + f3f4_2  + f8f9_38;
+        long h8 = f0f8_2 + f1f7_4  + f2f6_2  + f3f5_4  + f4f4    + f9f9_38;
+        long h9 = f0f9_2 + f1f8_2  + f2f7_2  + f3f6_2  + f4f5_2;
+        long carry0;
+        long carry1;
+        long carry2;
+        long carry3;
+        long carry4;
+        long carry5;
+        long carry6;
+        long carry7;
+        long carry8;
+        long carry9;
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+
+        carry1 = (h1 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h2 += carry1; h1 -= carry1 << 25;
+        carry5 = (h5 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h6 += carry5; h5 -= carry5 << 25;
+
+        carry2 = (h2 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h3 += carry2; h2 -= carry2 << 26;
+        carry6 = (h6 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h7 += carry6; h6 -= carry6 << 26;
+
+        carry3 = (h3 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h4 += carry3; h3 -= carry3 << 25;
+        carry7 = (h7 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h8 += carry7; h7 -= carry7 << 25;
+
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+        carry8 = (h8 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h9 += carry8; h8 -= carry8 << 26;
+
+        carry9 = (h9 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h0 += carry9 * 19; h9 -= carry9 << 25;
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        h[0] = (int) h0;
+        h[1] = (int) h1;
+        h[2] = (int) h2;
+        h[3] = (int) h3;
+        h[4] = (int) h4;
+        h[5] = (int) h5;
+        h[6] = (int) h6;
+        h[7] = (int) h7;
+        h[8] = (int) h8;
+        h[9] = (int) h9;
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * $h = 2 * f * f$
+     * <p>
+     * Can overlap $h$ with $f$.
+     * <p>
+     * Preconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|f|$ bounded by $1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},1.65*2^{26},1.65*2^{25},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * Postconditions:
+     * </p><ul>
+     * <li>$|h|$ bounded by $1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},1.01*2^{25},1.01*2^{24},$ etc.
+     * </ul><p>
+     * See {@link #multiply(FieldElement)} for discussion
+     * of implementation strategy.
+     *
+     * @return The (reasonably reduced) square of this field element times 2.
+     */
+    public FieldElement squareAndDouble() {
+        int f0 = t[0];
+        int f1 = t[1];
+        int f2 = t[2];
+        int f3 = t[3];
+        int f4 = t[4];
+        int f5 = t[5];
+        int f6 = t[6];
+        int f7 = t[7];
+        int f8 = t[8];
+        int f9 = t[9];
+        int f0_2 = 2 * f0;
+        int f1_2 = 2 * f1;
+        int f2_2 = 2 * f2;
+        int f3_2 = 2 * f3;
+        int f4_2 = 2 * f4;
+        int f5_2 = 2 * f5;
+        int f6_2 = 2 * f6;
+        int f7_2 = 2 * f7;
+        int f5_38 = 38 * f5; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f6_19 = 19 * f6; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f7_38 = 38 * f7; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f8_19 = 19 * f8; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        int f9_38 = 38 * f9; /* 1.959375*2^30 */
+        long f0f0    = f0   * (long) f0;
+        long f0f1_2  = f0_2 * (long) f1;
+        long f0f2_2  = f0_2 * (long) f2;
+        long f0f3_2  = f0_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f0f4_2  = f0_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f0f5_2  = f0_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f0f6_2  = f0_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f0f7_2  = f0_2 * (long) f7;
+        long f0f8_2  = f0_2 * (long) f8;
+        long f0f9_2  = f0_2 * (long) f9;
+        long f1f1_2  = f1_2 * (long) f1;
+        long f1f2_2  = f1_2 * (long) f2;
+        long f1f3_4  = f1_2 * (long) f3_2;
+        long f1f4_2  = f1_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f1f5_4  = f1_2 * (long) f5_2;
+        long f1f6_2  = f1_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f1f7_4  = f1_2 * (long) f7_2;
+        long f1f8_2  = f1_2 * (long) f8;
+        long f1f9_76 = f1_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f2f2    = f2   * (long) f2;
+        long f2f3_2  = f2_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f2f4_2  = f2_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f2f5_2  = f2_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f2f6_2  = f2_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f2f7_2  = f2_2 * (long) f7;
+        long f2f8_38 = f2_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f2f9_38 = f2   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f3f3_2  = f3_2 * (long) f3;
+        long f3f4_2  = f3_2 * (long) f4;
+        long f3f5_4  = f3_2 * (long) f5_2;
+        long f3f6_2  = f3_2 * (long) f6;
+        long f3f7_76 = f3_2 * (long) f7_38;
+        long f3f8_38 = f3_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f3f9_76 = f3_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f4f4    = f4   * (long) f4;
+        long f4f5_2  = f4_2 * (long) f5;
+        long f4f6_38 = f4_2 * (long) f6_19;
+        long f4f7_38 = f4   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f4f8_38 = f4_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f4f9_38 = f4   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f5f5_38 = f5   * (long) f5_38;
+        long f5f6_38 = f5_2 * (long) f6_19;
+        long f5f7_76 = f5_2 * (long) f7_38;
+        long f5f8_38 = f5_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f5f9_76 = f5_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f6f6_19 = f6   * (long) f6_19;
+        long f6f7_38 = f6   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f6f8_38 = f6_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f6f9_38 = f6   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f7f7_38 = f7   * (long) f7_38;
+        long f7f8_38 = f7_2 * (long) f8_19;
+        long f7f9_76 = f7_2 * (long) f9_38;
+        long f8f8_19 = f8   * (long) f8_19;
+        long f8f9_38 = f8   * (long) f9_38;
+        long f9f9_38 = f9   * (long) f9_38;
+        long h0 = f0f0   + f1f9_76 + f2f8_38 + f3f7_76 + f4f6_38 + f5f5_38;
+        long h1 = f0f1_2 + f2f9_38 + f3f8_38 + f4f7_38 + f5f6_38;
+        long h2 = f0f2_2 + f1f1_2  + f3f9_76 + f4f8_38 + f5f7_76 + f6f6_19;
+        long h3 = f0f3_2 + f1f2_2  + f4f9_38 + f5f8_38 + f6f7_38;
+        long h4 = f0f4_2 + f1f3_4  + f2f2    + f5f9_76 + f6f8_38 + f7f7_38;
+        long h5 = f0f5_2 + f1f4_2  + f2f3_2  + f6f9_38 + f7f8_38;
+        long h6 = f0f6_2 + f1f5_4  + f2f4_2  + f3f3_2  + f7f9_76 + f8f8_19;
+        long h7 = f0f7_2 + f1f6_2  + f2f5_2  + f3f4_2  + f8f9_38;
+        long h8 = f0f8_2 + f1f7_4  + f2f6_2  + f3f5_4  + f4f4    + f9f9_38;
+        long h9 = f0f9_2 + f1f8_2  + f2f7_2  + f3f6_2  + f4f5_2;
+        long carry0;
+        long carry1;
+        long carry2;
+        long carry3;
+        long carry4;
+        long carry5;
+        long carry6;
+        long carry7;
+        long carry8;
+        long carry9;
+
+        h0 += h0;
+        h1 += h1;
+        h2 += h2;
+        h3 += h3;
+        h4 += h4;
+        h5 += h5;
+        h6 += h6;
+        h7 += h7;
+        h8 += h8;
+        h9 += h9;
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+
+        carry1 = (h1 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h2 += carry1; h1 -= carry1 << 25;
+        carry5 = (h5 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h6 += carry5; h5 -= carry5 << 25;
+
+        carry2 = (h2 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h3 += carry2; h2 -= carry2 << 26;
+        carry6 = (h6 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h7 += carry6; h6 -= carry6 << 26;
+
+        carry3 = (h3 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h4 += carry3; h3 -= carry3 << 25;
+        carry7 = (h7 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h8 += carry7; h7 -= carry7 << 25;
+
+        carry4 = (h4 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h5 += carry4; h4 -= carry4 << 26;
+        carry8 = (h8 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h9 += carry8; h8 -= carry8 << 26;
+
+        carry9 = (h9 + (long) (1<<24)) >> 25; h0 += carry9 * 19; h9 -= carry9 << 25;
+
+        carry0 = (h0 + (long) (1<<25)) >> 26; h1 += carry0; h0 -= carry0 << 26;
+
+        int[] h = new int[10];
+        h[0] = (int) h0;
+        h[1] = (int) h1;
+        h[2] = (int) h2;
+        h[3] = (int) h3;
+        h[4] = (int) h4;
+        h[5] = (int) h5;
+        h[6] = (int) h6;
+        h[7] = (int) h7;
+        h[8] = (int) h8;
+        h[9] = (int) h9;
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(f, h);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Invert this field element.
+     * <p>
+     * The inverse is found via Fermat's little theorem:<br>
+     * $a^p \cong a \mod p$ and therefore $a^{(p-2)} \cong a^{-1} \mod p$
+     *
+     * @return The inverse of this field element.
+     */
+    public FieldElement invert() {
+        FieldElement t0, t1, t2, t3;
+
+        // 2 == 2 * 1
+        t0 = square();
+
+        // 4 == 2 * 2
+        t1 = t0.square();
+
+        // 8 == 2 * 4
+        t1 = t1.square();
+
+        // 9 == 8 + 1
+        t1 = multiply(t1);
+
+        // 11 == 9 + 2
+        t0 = t0.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 22 == 2 * 11
+        t2 = t0.square();
+
+        // 31 == 22 + 9
+        t1 = t1.multiply(t2);
+
+        // 2^6 - 2^1
+        t2 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^10 - 2^5
+        for (int i = 1; i < 5; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^10 - 2^0
+        t1 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^11 - 2^1
+        t2 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^20 - 2^10
+        for (int i = 1; i < 10; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^20 - 2^0
+        t2 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^21 - 2^1
+        t3 = t2.square();
+
+        // 2^40 - 2^20
+        for (int i = 1; i < 20; ++i) {
+            t3 = t3.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^40 - 2^0
+        t2 = t3.multiply(t2);
+
+        // 2^41 - 2^1
+        t2 = t2.square();
+
+        // 2^50 - 2^10
+        for (int i = 1; i < 10; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^50 - 2^0
+        t1 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^51 - 2^1
+        t2 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^100 - 2^50
+        for (int i = 1; i < 50; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^100 - 2^0
+        t2 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^101 - 2^1
+        t3 = t2.square();
+
+        // 2^200 - 2^100
+        for (int i = 1; i < 100; ++i) {
+            t3 = t3.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^200 - 2^0
+        t2 = t3.multiply(t2);
+
+        // 2^201 - 2^1
+        t2 = t2.square();
+
+        // 2^250 - 2^50
+        for (int i = 1; i < 50; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^250 - 2^0
+        t1 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^251 - 2^1
+        t1 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^255 - 2^5
+        for (int i = 1; i < 5; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^255 - 21
+        return t1.multiply(t0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gets this field element to the power of $(2^{252} - 3)$.
+     * This is a helper function for calculating the square root.
+     * <p>
+     * TODO-CR BR: I think it makes sense to have a sqrt function.
+     *
+     * @return This field element to the power of $(2^{252} - 3)$.
+     */
+    public FieldElement pow22523() {
+        FieldElement t0, t1, t2;
+
+        // 2 == 2 * 1
+        t0 = square();
+
+        // 4 == 2 * 2
+        t1 = t0.square();
+
+        // 8 == 2 * 4
+        t1 = t1.square();
+
+        // z9 = z1*z8
+        t1 = multiply(t1);
+
+        // 11 == 9 + 2
+        t0 = t0.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 22 == 2 * 11
+        t0 = t0.square();
+
+        // 31 == 22 + 9
+        t0 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^6 - 2^1
+        t1 = t0.square();
+
+        // 2^10 - 2^5
+        for (int i = 1; i < 5; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^10 - 2^0
+        t0 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^11 - 2^1
+        t1 = t0.square();
+
+        // 2^20 - 2^10
+        for (int i = 1; i < 10; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^20 - 2^0
+        t1 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^21 - 2^1
+        t2 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^40 - 2^20
+        for (int i = 1; i < 20; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^40 - 2^0
+        t1 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^41 - 2^1
+        t1 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^50 - 2^10
+        for (int i = 1; i < 10; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^50 - 2^0
+        t0 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^51 - 2^1
+        t1 = t0.square();
+
+        // 2^100 - 2^50
+        for (int i = 1; i < 50; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^100 - 2^0
+        t1 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^101 - 2^1
+        t2 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^200 - 2^100
+        for (int i = 1; i < 100; ++i) {
+            t2 = t2.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^200 - 2^0
+        t1 = t2.multiply(t1);
+
+        // 2^201 - 2^1
+        t1 = t1.square();
+
+        // 2^250 - 2^50
+        for (int i = 1; i < 50; ++i) {
+            t1 = t1.square();
+        }
+
+        // 2^250 - 2^0
+        t0 = t1.multiply(t0);
+
+        // 2^251 - 2^1
+        t0 = t0.square();
+
+        // 2^252 - 2^2
+        t0 = t0.square();
+
+        // 2^252 - 3
+        return multiply(t0);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Constant-time conditional move. Well, actually it is a conditional copy.
+     * Logic is inspired by the SUPERCOP implementation at:
+     *   https://github.com/floodyberry/supercop/blob/master/crypto_sign/ed25519/ref10/fe_cmov.c
+     *
+     * @param val the other field element.
+     * @param b must be 0 or 1, otherwise results are undefined.
+     * @return a copy of this if $b == 0$, or a copy of val if $b == 1$.
+     */
+    @Override
+    public FieldElement cmov(FieldElement val, int b) {
+        Ed25519FieldElement that = (Ed25519FieldElement) val;
+        b = -b;
+        int[] result = new int[10];
+        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+            result[i] = this.t[i];
+            int x = this.t[i] ^ that.t[i];
+            x &= b;
+            result[i] ^= x;
+        }
+        return new Ed25519FieldElement(this.f, result);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int hashCode() {
+        return Arrays.hashCode(t);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean equals(Object obj) {
+        if (!(obj instanceof Ed25519FieldElement))
+            return false;
+        Ed25519FieldElement fe = (Ed25519FieldElement) obj;
+        return 1==Utils.equal(toByteArray(), fe.toByteArray());
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return "[Ed25519FieldElement val="+Utils.bytesToHex(toByteArray())+"]";
+    }
+}