ddtrace 0.53.0 → 1.9.0

data/ext/ddtrace_profiling_native_extension/private_vm_api_access.c

@@ -0,0 +1,846 @@
+#include "extconf.h"
+
+// This file exports functions used to access private Ruby VM APIs and internals.
+// To do this, it imports a few VM internal (private) headers.
+//
+// **Important Note**: Our medium/long-term plan is to stop relying on all private Ruby headers, and instead request and
+// contribute upstream changes so that they become official public VM APIs.
+//
+// In the meanwhile, be very careful when changing things here :)
+
+#ifdef RUBY_MJIT_HEADER
+  // Pick up internal structures from the private Ruby MJIT header file
+  #include RUBY_MJIT_HEADER
+#else
+  // On older Rubies, use a copy of the VM internal headers shipped in the debase-ruby_core_source gem
+
+  // We can't do anything about warnings in VM headers, so we just use this technique to suppress them.
+  // See https://nelkinda.com/blog/suppress-warnings-in-gcc-and-clang/#d11e364 for details.
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic push
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wunused-parameter"
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wattributes"
+    #include <vm_core.h>
+  #pragma GCC diagnostic pop
+  #include <iseq.h>
+#endif
+
+#define PRIVATE_VM_API_ACCESS_SKIP_RUBY_INCLUDES
+#include "private_vm_api_access.h"
+
+// MRI has a similar rb_thread_ptr() function which we can't call it directly
+// because Ruby does not expose the thread_data_type publicly.
+// Instead, we have our own version of that function, and we lazily initialize the thread_data_type pointer
+// from a known-correct object: the current thread.
+//
+// Note that beyond returning the rb_thread_struct*, rb_check_typeddata() raises an exception
+// if the argument passed in is not actually a `Thread` instance.
+static inline rb_thread_t *thread_struct_from_object(VALUE thread) {
+  static const rb_data_type_t *thread_data_type = NULL;
+  if (UNLIKELY(thread_data_type == NULL)) thread_data_type = RTYPEDDATA_TYPE(rb_thread_current());
+
+  return (rb_thread_t *) rb_check_typeddata(thread, thread_data_type);
+}
+
+rb_nativethread_id_t pthread_id_for(VALUE thread) {
+  // struct rb_native_thread was introduced in Ruby 3.2 (preview2): https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/5836
+  #ifndef NO_RB_NATIVE_THREAD
+    return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->nt->thread_id;
+  #else
+    return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->thread_id;
+  #endif
+}
+
+// Queries if the current thread is the owner of the global VM lock.
+//
+// @ivoanjo: Ruby has a similarly-named `ruby_thread_has_gvl_p` but that API is insufficient for our needs because it can
+// still return `true` even when a thread DOES NOT HAVE the global VM lock.
+// In particular, looking at the implementation, that API assumes that if a thread is not in a "blocking region" then it
+// will have the GVL which is probably true for the situations that API was designed to be called from BUT this assumption
+// does not hold true when calling `ruby_thread_has_gvl_p` from a signal handler. (Because the thread may have lost the
+// GVL due to a scheduler decision, not because it decided to block.)
+// I have also submitted https://bugs.ruby-lang.org/issues/19172 to discuss this with upstream Ruby developers.
+//
+// Thus we need our own gvl-checking method which actually looks at the gvl structure to determine if it is the owner.
+bool is_current_thread_holding_the_gvl(void) {
+  current_gvl_owner owner = gvl_owner();
+  return owner.valid && pthread_equal(pthread_self(), owner.owner);
+}
+
+#ifndef NO_GVL_OWNER // Ruby < 2.6 doesn't have the owner/running field
+  // NOTE: Reading the owner in this is a racy read, because we're not grabbing the lock that Ruby uses to protect it.
+  //
+  // While we could potentially grab this lock, I (@ivoanjo) think we actually don't need it because:
+  // * In the case where a thread owns the GVL and calls `gvl_owner`, it will always see the correct value. That's
+  //   because every thread sets itself as the owner when it grabs the GVL and unsets itself at the end.
+  //   That means that `is_current_thread_holding_the_gvl` is always accurate.
+  // * In a case where we observe a different thread, then this may change by the time we do something with this value
+  //   anyway. So unless we want to prevent the Ruby scheduler from switching threads, we need to deal with races here.
+  current_gvl_owner gvl_owner(void) {
+    const rb_thread_t *current_owner =
+      #ifndef NO_RB_THREAD_SCHED // Introduced in Ruby 3.2 as a replacement for struct rb_global_vm_lock_struct
+        GET_RACTOR()->threads.sched.running;
+      #elif HAVE_RUBY_RACTOR_H
+        GET_RACTOR()->threads.gvl.owner;
+      #else
+        GET_VM()->gvl.owner;
+      #endif
+
+    if (current_owner == NULL) return (current_gvl_owner) {.valid = false};
+
+    return (current_gvl_owner) {
+      .valid = true,
+      .owner =
+        #ifndef NO_RB_NATIVE_THREAD
+          current_owner->nt->thread_id
+        #else
+          current_owner->thread_id
+        #endif
+    };
+  }
+#else
+  current_gvl_owner gvl_owner(void) {
+    rb_vm_t *vm =
+      #ifndef NO_GET_VM
+        GET_VM();
+      #else
+        thread_struct_from_object(rb_thread_current())->vm;
+      #endif
+
+    // BIG Issue: Ruby < 2.6 did not have the owner field. The really nice thing about the owner field is that it's
+    // "atomic" -- when a thread sets it, it "declares" two things in a single step
+    // * Declaration 1: Someone has the GVL
+    // * Declaration 2: That someone is the specific thread
+    //
+    // Observation 1: On older versions of Ruby, this ownership concept is actually split. Specifically, `gvl.acquired`
+    // is a boolean that represents declaration 1 above, and `vm->running_thread` (or `ruby_current_thread`/
+    // `ruby_current_execution_context_ptr`) represents declaration 2.
+    //
+    // Observation 2: In addition, when a thread releases the GVL, it only sets `gvl.acquired` back to 0 **BUT CRUCIALLY
+    // DOES NOT CHANGE THE OTHER global variables**.
+    //
+    // Observation 1+2 above lead to the following possible race:
+    // * Thread A grabs the GVL (`gvl.acquired == 1`)
+    // * Thread A sets `running_thread` (`gvl.acquired == 1` + `running_thread == Thread A`)
+    // * Thread A releases the GVL (`gvl.acquired == 0` + `running_thread == Thread A`)
+    // * Thread B grabs the GVL (`gvl.acquired == 1` + `running_thread == Thread A`)
+    // * Thread A calls gvl_owner. Due to the current state (`gvl.acquired == 1` + `running_thread == Thread A`), this
+    //   function returns an incorrect result.
+    // * Thread B finally sets `running_thread` (`gvl.acquired == 1` + `running_thread == Thread B`)
+    //
+    // This is especially problematic because we use `gvl_owner` to implement `is_current_thread_holding_the_gvl` which
+    // is called in a signal handler to decide "is it safe for me to call `rb_postponed_job_register_one` or not".
+    // (See constraints in `collectors_cpu_and_wall_time_worker.c` comments for why).
+    //
+    // Thus an incorrect `is_current_thread_holding_the_gvl` result may lead to issues inside `rb_postponed_job_register_one`.
+    //
+    // For this reason we currently do not enable the new Ruby profiler on Ruby 2.5 and below by default, and we print a
+    // warning when customers force-enable it.
+    bool gvl_acquired = vm->gvl.acquired != 0;
+    rb_thread_t *current_owner = vm->running_thread;
+
+    if (!gvl_acquired || current_owner == NULL) return (current_gvl_owner) {.valid = false};
+
+    return (current_gvl_owner) {.valid = true, .owner = current_owner->thread_id};
+  }
+#endif // NO_GVL_OWNER
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_core.h at commit d9cf0388599a3234b9f3c06ddd006cd59a58ab8b (November 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 2004-2007 Koichi Sasada
+// to support tid_for (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+#if defined(__linux__) || defined(__FreeBSD__)
+# define RB_THREAD_T_HAS_NATIVE_ID
+#endif
+
+uint64_t native_thread_id_for(VALUE thread) {
+  // The tid is only available on Ruby >= 3.1 + Linux (and FreeBSD). It's the same as `gettid()` aka the task id as seen in /proc
+  #if !defined(NO_THREAD_TID) && defined(RB_THREAD_T_HAS_NATIVE_ID)
+    #ifndef NO_RB_NATIVE_THREAD
+      return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->nt->tid;
+    #else
+      return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->tid;
+    #endif
+  #else
+    rb_nativethread_id_t pthread_id = pthread_id_for(thread);
+
+    #ifdef __APPLE__
+      uint64_t result;
+      // On macOS, this gives us the same identifier that shows up in activity monitor
+      int error = pthread_threadid_np(pthread_id, &result);
+      if (error) rb_syserr_fail(error, "Unexpected failure in pthread_threadid_np");
+      return result;
+    #else
+      // Fallback, when we have nothing better (e.g. on Ruby < 3.1 on Linux)
+      // @ivoanjo: In the future we may want to explore some potential hacks to get the actual tid on linux
+      // (e.g. https://stackoverflow.com/questions/558469/how-do-i-get-a-thread-id-from-an-arbitrary-pthread-t )
+      return (uint64_t) pthread_id;
+    #endif
+  #endif
+}
+
+// Returns the stack depth by using the same approach as rb_profile_frames and backtrace_each: get the positions
+// of the end and current frame pointers and subtracting them.
+ptrdiff_t stack_depth_for(VALUE thread) {
+  #ifndef USE_THREAD_INSTEAD_OF_EXECUTION_CONTEXT // Modern Rubies
+    const rb_execution_context_t *ec = thread_struct_from_object(thread)->ec;
+  #else // Ruby < 2.5
+    const rb_thread_t *ec = thread_struct_from_object(thread);
+  #endif
+
+  const rb_control_frame_t *cfp = ec->cfp, *end_cfp = RUBY_VM_END_CONTROL_FRAME(ec);
+
+  if (end_cfp == NULL) return 0;
+
+  // Skip dummy frame, as seen in `backtrace_each` (`vm_backtrace.c`) and our custom rb_profile_frames
+  // ( https://github.com/ruby/ruby/blob/4bd38e8120f2fdfdd47a34211720e048502377f1/vm_backtrace.c#L890-L914 )
+  end_cfp = RUBY_VM_NEXT_CONTROL_FRAME(end_cfp);
+
+  return end_cfp <= cfp ? 0 : end_cfp - cfp - 1;
+}
+
+// This was renamed in Ruby 3.2
+#if !defined(ccan_list_for_each) && defined(list_for_each)
+  #define ccan_list_for_each list_for_each
+#endif
+
+// Tries to match rb_thread_list() but that method isn't accessible to extensions
+VALUE ddtrace_thread_list(void) {
+  VALUE result = rb_ary_new();
+  rb_thread_t *thread = NULL;
+
+  // Ruby 3 Safety: Our implementation is inspired by `rb_ractor_thread_list` BUT that method wraps the operations below
+  // with `RACTOR_LOCK` and `RACTOR_UNLOCK`.
+  //
+  // This initially made me believe that one MUST grab the ractor lock (which is different from the ractor-scoped Global
+  // VM Lock) in able to iterate the `threads.set`. This turned out not to be the case: upon further study of the VM
+  // codebase in 3.2-master, 3.1 and 3.0, there's quite a few places where `threads.set` is accessed without grabbing
+  // the ractor lock: `ractor_mark` (ractor.c), `thgroup_list` (thread.c), `rb_check_deadlock` (thread.c), etc.
+  //
+  // I suspect the design in `rb_ractor_thread_list` may be done that way to perhaps in the future expose it to be
+  // called from a different Ractor, but I'm not sure...
+  #ifdef HAVE_RUBY_RACTOR_H
+    rb_ractor_t *current_ractor = GET_RACTOR();
+    ccan_list_for_each(&current_ractor->threads.set, thread, lt_node) {
+  #else
+    rb_vm_t *vm =
+      #ifndef NO_GET_VM
+        GET_VM();
+      #else
+        thread_struct_from_object(rb_thread_current())->vm;
+      #endif
+    list_for_each(&vm->living_threads, thread, vmlt_node) {
+  #endif
+      switch (thread->status) {
+        case THREAD_RUNNABLE:
+        case THREAD_STOPPED:
+        case THREAD_STOPPED_FOREVER:
+          rb_ary_push(result, thread->self);
+        default:
+          break;
+      }
+    }
+
+  return result;
+}
+
+bool is_thread_alive(VALUE thread) {
+  return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->status != THREAD_KILLED;
+}
+
+// `thread` gets used on all Rubies except 2.2
+// To avoid getting false "unused argument" warnings in setups where it's not used, we need to do this weird dance
+// with diagnostic stuff. See https://nelkinda.com/blog/suppress-warnings-in-gcc-and-clang/#d11e364 for details.
+#pragma GCC diagnostic push
+#pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wunused-parameter"
+VALUE thread_name_for(VALUE thread) {
+  #ifdef NO_THREAD_NAMES
+    return Qnil;
+  #else
+    return thread_struct_from_object(thread)->name;
+  #endif
+}
+#pragma GCC diagnostic pop
+
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// The sources below are modified versions of code extracted from the Ruby project.
+// Each function is annotated with its origin, why we imported it, and the changes made.
+//
+// The Ruby project copyright and license follow:
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2013 Yukihiro Matsumoto. All rights reserved.
+//
+// Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+// modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+// are met:
+// 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+//    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+// 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+//    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+//    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+//
+// THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+// ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+// IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+// ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+// FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+// DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+// OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+// HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+// LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+// OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+// SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+#ifndef USE_LEGACY_RB_PROFILE_FRAMES // Modern Rubies
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_core.h at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 2004-2007 Koichi Sasada
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+#define ISEQ_BODY(iseq) ((iseq)->body)
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+//
+// `node_id` gets used depending on Ruby VM compilation settings (USE_ISEQ_NODE_ID being defined).
+// To avoid getting false "unused argument" warnings in setups where it's not used, we need to do this weird dance
+// with diagnostic stuff. See https://nelkinda.com/blog/suppress-warnings-in-gcc-and-clang/#d11e364 for details.
+#pragma GCC diagnostic push
+#pragma GCC diagnostic ignored "-Wunused-parameter"
+inline static int
+calc_pos(const rb_iseq_t *iseq, const VALUE *pc, int *lineno, int *node_id)
+{
+    VM_ASSERT(iseq);
+    VM_ASSERT(ISEQ_BODY(iseq));
+    VM_ASSERT(ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->iseq_encoded);
+    VM_ASSERT(ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->iseq_size);
+    if (! pc) {
+        if (ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->type == ISEQ_TYPE_TOP) {
+            VM_ASSERT(! ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->local_table);
+            VM_ASSERT(! ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->local_table_size);
+            return 0;
+        }
+        if (lineno) *lineno = FIX2INT(ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->location.first_lineno);
+#ifdef USE_ISEQ_NODE_ID
+        if (node_id) *node_id = -1;
+#endif
+        return 1;
+    }
+    else {
+        ptrdiff_t n = pc - ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->iseq_encoded;
+        VM_ASSERT(n <= ISEQ_BODY(iseq)->iseq_size);
+        VM_ASSERT(n >= 0);
+        ASSUME(n >= 0);
+        size_t pos = n; /* no overflow */
+        if (LIKELY(pos)) {
+            /* use pos-1 because PC points next instruction at the beginning of instruction */
+            pos--;
+        }
+#if VMDEBUG && defined(HAVE_BUILTIN___BUILTIN_TRAP)
+        else {
+            /* SDR() is not possible; that causes infinite loop. */
+            rb_print_backtrace();
+            __builtin_trap();
+        }
+#endif
+        if (lineno) *lineno = rb_iseq_line_no(iseq, pos);
+#ifdef USE_ISEQ_NODE_ID
+        if (node_id) *node_id = rb_iseq_node_id(iseq, pos);
+#endif
+        return 1;
+    }
+}
+#pragma GCC diagnostic pop
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+inline static int
+calc_lineno(const rb_iseq_t *iseq, const VALUE *pc)
+{
+    int lineno;
+    if (calc_pos(iseq, pc, &lineno, NULL)) return lineno;
+    return 0;
+}
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// Modifications:
+// * Renamed rb_profile_frames => ddtrace_rb_profile_frames
+// * Add thread argument
+// * Add is_ruby_frame argument
+// * Removed `if (lines)` tests -- require/assume that like `buff`, `lines` is always specified
+// * Support Ruby < 2.5 by using rb_thread_t instead of rb_execution_context_t (which did not exist and was just
+//   part of rb_thread_t)
+// * Support Ruby < 2.4 by using `RUBY_VM_NORMAL_ISEQ_P(cfp->iseq)` instead of `VM_FRAME_RUBYFRAME_P(cfp)`.
+//   Given that the Ruby 2.3 version of `rb_profile_frames` did not support native methods and thus did not need this
+//   check, how did I figure out what to replace it with? I did it by looking at other places in the VM code where the
+//   code looks exactly the same but Ruby 2.4 uses `VM_FRAME_RUBYFRAME_P` whereas Ruby 2.3 used `RUBY_VM_NORMAL_ISEQ_P`.
+//   Examples of these are `errinfo_place` in `eval.c`, `rb_vm_get_ruby_level_next_cfp` (among others) in `vm.c`, etc.
+// * Skip dummy frame that shows up in main thread
+// * Add `end_cfp == NULL` and `end_cfp <= cfp` safety checks. These are used in a bunch of places in
+//   `vm_backtrace.c` (`backtrace_each`, `backtrace_size`, `rb_ec_partial_backtrace_object`) but are conspicuously
+//   absent from `rb_profile_frames`. Oversight?
+// * Skip frames where `cfp->iseq && !cfp->pc`. These seem to be internal and are skipped by `backtrace_each` in
+//   `vm_backtrace.c`.
+// * Check thread status and do not sample if thread has been killed.
+// * Match Ruby reference stack trace APIs that use the iseq instead of the callable method entry to get information
+//   for iseqs created from calls to `eval` and `instance_eval`. This makes it so that `rb_profile_frame_path` on
+//   the `VALUE` returned by rb_profile_frames returns `(eval)` instead of the path of the file where the `eval`
+//   was called from.
+// * Imported fix from https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/7116 to avoid sampling threads that are still being created
+//
+// **IMPORTANT: WHEN CHANGING THIS FUNCTION, CONSIDER IF THE SAME CHANGE ALSO NEEDS TO BE MADE TO THE VARIANT FOR
+// RUBY 2.2 AND BELOW WHICH IS ALSO PRESENT ON THIS FILE**
+//
+// What is rb_profile_frames?
+// `rb_profile_frames` is a Ruby VM debug API added for use by profilers for sampling the stack trace of a Ruby thread.
+// Its main other user is the stackprof profiler: https://github.com/tmm1/stackprof .
+//
+// Why do we need a custom version of rb_profile_frames?
+//
+// There are a few reasons:
+// 1. To backport improved behavior to older Rubies. Prior to Ruby 3.0 (https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/3299),
+//    rb_profile_frames skipped CFUNC frames, aka frames that are implemented with native code, and thus the resulting
+//    stacks were quite incomplete as a big part of the Ruby standard library is implemented with native code.
+//
+// 2. To extend this function to work with any thread. The upstream rb_profile_frames function only targets the current
+//    thread, and to support wall-clock profiling we require sampling other threads. This is only safe because of the
+//    Global VM Lock. (We don't yet support sampling Ractors beyond the main one; we'll need to find a way to do it
+//    safely first.)
+//
+// 3. To get more information out of the Ruby VM. The Ruby VM has a lot more information than is exposed through
+//    rb_profile_frames, and by making our own copy of this function we can extract more of this information.
+//    See for backtracie gem (https://github.com/ivoanjo/backtracie) for an exploration of what can potentially be done.
+//
+// 4. Because we haven't yet submitted patches to upstream Ruby. As with any changes on the `private_vm_api_access.c`,
+//    our medium/long-term plan is to contribute upstream changes and make it so that we don't need any of this
+//    on modern Rubies.
+//
+// 5. To make rb_profile_frames behave more like the Ruby-level reference stack trace APIs (`Thread#backtrace_locations`
+//    and friends). We've found quite a few situations where the data from rb_profile_frames and the reference APIs
+//    disagree, and quite a few of them seem oversights/bugs (speculation from my part) rather than deliberate
+//    decisions.
+int ddtrace_rb_profile_frames(VALUE thread, int start, int limit, VALUE *buff, int *lines, bool* is_ruby_frame)
+{
+    int i;
+    // Modified from upstream: Instead of using `GET_EC` to collect info from the current thread,
+    // support sampling any thread (including the current) passed as an argument
+    rb_thread_t *th = thread_struct_from_object(thread);
+#ifndef USE_THREAD_INSTEAD_OF_EXECUTION_CONTEXT // Modern Rubies
+    const rb_execution_context_t *ec = th->ec;
+#else // Ruby < 2.5
+    const rb_thread_t *ec = th;
+#endif
+    const rb_control_frame_t *cfp = ec->cfp, *end_cfp = RUBY_VM_END_CONTROL_FRAME(ec);
+    const rb_callable_method_entry_t *cme;
+
+    // This should not happen for ddtrace (it can only happen when a thread is still being created), but I've imported
+    // it from https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/7116 in a "just in case" kind of mindset.
+    if (cfp == NULL) return 0;
+
+    // Avoid sampling dead threads
+    if (th->status == THREAD_KILLED) return 0;
+
+    // `vm_backtrace.c` includes this check in several methods. This happens on newly-created threads, and may
+    // also (not entirely sure) happen on dead threads
+    if (end_cfp == NULL) return PLACEHOLDER_STACK_IN_NATIVE_CODE;
+
+    // Fix: Skip dummy frame that shows up in main thread.
+    //
+    // According to a comment in `backtrace_each` (`vm_backtrace.c`), there's two dummy frames that we should ignore
+    // at the base of every thread's stack.
+    // (see https://github.com/ruby/ruby/blob/4bd38e8120f2fdfdd47a34211720e048502377f1/vm_backtrace.c#L890-L914 )
+    //
+    // One is being pointed to by `RUBY_VM_END_CONTROL_FRAME(ec)`, and so we need to advance to the next one, and
+    // reaching it will be used as a condition to break out of the loop below.
+    //
+    // Note that in `backtrace_each` there's two calls to `RUBY_VM_NEXT_CONTROL_FRAME`, but the loop bounds there
+    // are computed in a different way, so the two calls really are equivalent to one here.
+    end_cfp = RUBY_VM_NEXT_CONTROL_FRAME(end_cfp);
+
+    // See comment on `record_placeholder_stack_in_native_code` for a full explanation of what this means (and why we don't just return 0)
+    if (end_cfp <= cfp) return PLACEHOLDER_STACK_IN_NATIVE_CODE;
+
+    for (i=0; i<limit && cfp != end_cfp;) {
+        if (cfp->iseq && !cfp->pc) {
+          // Fix: Do nothing -- this frame should not be used
+          //
+          // rb_profile_frames does not do this check, but `backtrace_each` (`vm_backtrace.c`) does. This frame is not
+          // exposed by the Ruby backtrace APIs and for now we want to match its behavior 1:1
+        }
+#ifndef USE_ISEQ_P_INSTEAD_OF_RUBYFRAME_P // Modern Rubies
+        else if (VM_FRAME_RUBYFRAME_P(cfp)) {
+#else // Ruby < 2.4
+        else if (RUBY_VM_NORMAL_ISEQ_P(cfp->iseq)) {
+#endif
+            if (start > 0) {
+                start--;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            /* record frame info */
+            cme = rb_vm_frame_method_entry(cfp);
+
+            if (cme && cme->def->type == VM_METHOD_TYPE_ISEQ &&
+              // Fix: Do not use callable method entry when iseq is for an eval.
+              // TL;DR: This fix is needed for us to match the Ruby reference API information in the
+              // "when sampling an eval/instance eval inside an object" spec.
+              //
+              // Longer note:
+              // When a frame is a ruby frame (VM_FRAME_RUBYFRAME_P above), we can get information about it
+              // by introspecting both the callable method entry, as well as the iseq directly.
+              // Often they match... but sometimes they provide different info (as in the "iseq for an eval" situation
+              // here).
+              // If my reading of vm_backtrace.c is correct, the actual Ruby stack trace API **never** uses the
+              // callable method entry for Ruby frames, but only for VM_METHOD_TYPE_CFUNC (see `backtrace_each` method
+              // on that file).
+              // So... why does `rb_profile_frames` do something different? Is it a bug? Is it because it exposes
+              // more information than the Ruby stack frame API?
+              // As a final note, the `backtracie` gem (https://github.com/ivoanjo/backtracie) can be used to introspect
+              // the full metadata provided by both the callable method entry as well as the iseq, and is really useful
+              // to debug and learn more about these differences.
+              cfp->iseq->body->type != ISEQ_TYPE_EVAL) {
+                buff[i] = (VALUE)cme;
+            }
+            else {
+                buff[i] = (VALUE)cfp->iseq;
+            }
+
+            lines[i] = calc_lineno(cfp->iseq, cfp->pc);
+            is_ruby_frame[i] = true;
+            i++;
+        }
+        else {
+            cme = rb_vm_frame_method_entry(cfp);
+            if (cme && cme->def->type == VM_METHOD_TYPE_CFUNC) {
+                buff[i] = (VALUE)cme;
+                lines[i] = 0;
+                is_ruby_frame[i] = false;
+                i++;
+            }
+        }
+        cfp = RUBY_VM_PREVIOUS_CONTROL_FRAME(cfp);
+    }
+
+    return i;
+}
+
+#ifdef USE_BACKPORTED_RB_PROFILE_FRAME_METHOD_NAME
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frame_method_name (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+static VALUE
+id2str(ID id)
+{
+    VALUE str = rb_id2str(id);
+    if (!str) return Qnil;
+    return str;
+}
+#define rb_id2str(id) id2str(id)
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frame_method_name (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+static const rb_iseq_t *
+frame2iseq(VALUE frame)
+{
+    if (NIL_P(frame)) return NULL;
+
+    if (RB_TYPE_P(frame, T_IMEMO)) {
+    switch (imemo_type(frame)) {
+      case imemo_iseq:
+        return (const rb_iseq_t *)frame;
+      case imemo_ment:
+        {
+        const rb_callable_method_entry_t *cme = (rb_callable_method_entry_t *)frame;
+        switch (cme->def->type) {
+          case VM_METHOD_TYPE_ISEQ:
+            return cme->def->body.iseq.iseqptr;
+          default:
+            return NULL;
+        }
+        }
+      default:
+        break;
+    }
+    }
+    rb_bug("frame2iseq: unreachable");
+}
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frame_method_name (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+static const rb_callable_method_entry_t *
+cframe(VALUE frame)
+{
+    if (NIL_P(frame)) return NULL;
+
+    if (RB_TYPE_P(frame, T_IMEMO)) {
+    switch (imemo_type(frame)) {
+      case imemo_ment:
+            {
+        const rb_callable_method_entry_t *cme = (rb_callable_method_entry_t *)frame;
+        switch (cme->def->type) {
+          case VM_METHOD_TYPE_CFUNC:
+            return cme;
+          default:
+            return NULL;
+        }
+            }
+          default:
+            return NULL;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return NULL;
+}
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+//
+// Ruby 3.0 finally added support for showing CFUNC frames (frames for methods written using native code)
+// in stack traces gathered via `rb_profile_frames` (https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/3299).
+// To access this information on older Rubies, beyond using our custom `ddtrace_rb_profile_frames` above, we also need
+// to backport the Ruby 3.0+ version of `rb_profile_frame_method_name`.
+//
+// Modifications:
+// * Renamed rb_profile_frame_method_name => ddtrace_rb_profile_frame_method_name
+VALUE
+ddtrace_rb_profile_frame_method_name(VALUE frame)
+{
+    const rb_callable_method_entry_t *cme = cframe(frame);
+    if (cme) {
+        ID mid = cme->def->original_id;
+        return id2str(mid);
+    }
+    const rb_iseq_t *iseq = frame2iseq(frame);
+    return iseq ? rb_iseq_method_name(iseq) : Qnil;
+}
+
+#endif // USE_BACKPORTED_RB_PROFILE_FRAME_METHOD_NAME
+
+// Support code for older Rubies that cannot use the MJIT header
+#ifndef RUBY_MJIT_HEADER
+
+#define MJIT_STATIC // No-op on older Rubies
+
+// Taken from upstream include/ruby/backward/2/bool.h at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) Ruby developers <ruby-core@ruby-lang.org>
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see above)
+// Modifications: None
+#ifndef FALSE
+# define FALSE false
+#elif FALSE
+# error FALSE must be false
+#endif
+
+#ifndef TRUE
+# define TRUE true
+#elif ! TRUE
+# error TRUE must be true
+#endif
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_insnhelper.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+// Copyright (C) 2007 Koichi Sasada
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see above)
+// Modifications: None
+static rb_callable_method_entry_t *
+check_method_entry(VALUE obj, int can_be_svar)
+{
+    if (obj == Qfalse) return NULL;
+
+#if VM_CHECK_MODE > 0
+    if (!RB_TYPE_P(obj, T_IMEMO)) rb_bug("check_method_entry: unknown type: %s", rb_obj_info(obj));
+#endif
+
+    switch (imemo_type(obj)) {
+      case imemo_ment:
+        return (rb_callable_method_entry_t *)obj;
+      case imemo_cref:
+        return NULL;
+      case imemo_svar:
+        if (can_be_svar) {
+            return check_method_entry(((struct vm_svar *)obj)->cref_or_me, FALSE);
+        }
+      default:
+#if VM_CHECK_MODE > 0
+        rb_bug("check_method_entry: svar should not be there:");
+#endif
+        return NULL;
+    }
+}
+
+#ifndef USE_LEGACY_RB_VM_FRAME_METHOD_ENTRY
+  // Taken from upstream vm_insnhelper.c at commit 5f10bd634fb6ae8f74a4ea730176233b0ca96954 (March 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+  // Copyright (C) 2007 Koichi Sasada
+  // to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see above)
+  //
+  // While older Rubies may have this function, the symbol is not exported which leads to dynamic loader issues, e.g.
+  // `dyld: lazy symbol binding failed: Symbol not found: _rb_vm_frame_method_entry`.
+  //
+  // Modifications: None
+  MJIT_STATIC const rb_callable_method_entry_t *
+  rb_vm_frame_method_entry(const rb_control_frame_t *cfp)
+  {
+      const VALUE *ep = cfp->ep;
+      rb_callable_method_entry_t *me;
+
+      while (!VM_ENV_LOCAL_P(ep)) {
+          if ((me = check_method_entry(ep[VM_ENV_DATA_INDEX_ME_CREF], FALSE)) != NULL) return me;
+          ep = VM_ENV_PREV_EP(ep);
+      }
+
+      return check_method_entry(ep[VM_ENV_DATA_INDEX_ME_CREF], TRUE);
+  }
+#else
+  // Taken from upstream vm_insnhelper.c at commit 556e9f726e2b80f6088982c6b43abfe68bfad591 (October 2018, ruby_2_3 branch)
+  // Copyright (C) 2007 Koichi Sasada
+  // to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see above)
+  //
+  // Quite a few macros in this function changed after Ruby 2.3. Rather than trying to fix the Ruby 3.2 version to work
+  // with 2.3 constants, I decided to import the Ruby 2.3 version.
+  //
+  // Modifications: None
+  const rb_callable_method_entry_t *
+  rb_vm_frame_method_entry(const rb_control_frame_t *cfp)
+  {
+      VALUE *ep = cfp->ep;
+      rb_callable_method_entry_t *me;
+
+      while (!VM_EP_LEP_P(ep)) {
+          if ((me = check_method_entry(ep[-1], FALSE)) != NULL) return me;
+          ep = VM_EP_PREV_EP(ep);
+      }
+
+      return check_method_entry(ep[-1], TRUE);
+  }
+#endif // USE_LEGACY_RB_VM_FRAME_METHOD_ENTRY
+
+#endif // RUBY_MJIT_HEADER
+
+#else // USE_LEGACY_RB_PROFILE_FRAMES, Ruby < 2.3
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit bbda1a027475bf7ce5e1a9583a7b55d0be71c8fe (March 2018, ruby_2_2 branch)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// to support our custom rb_profile_frames (see below)
+// Modifications: None
+inline static int
+calc_lineno(const rb_iseq_t *iseq, const VALUE *pc)
+{
+    return rb_iseq_line_no(iseq, pc - iseq->iseq_encoded);
+}
+
+// Taken from upstream vm_backtrace.c at commit bbda1a027475bf7ce5e1a9583a7b55d0be71c8fe (March 2018, ruby_2_2 branch)
+// Copyright (C) 1993-2012 Yukihiro Matsumoto
+// Modifications:
+// * Renamed rb_profile_frames => ddtrace_rb_profile_frames
+// * Add thread argument
+// * Add is_ruby_frame argument
+// * Removed `if (lines)` tests -- require/assume that like `buff`, `lines` is always specified
+// * Added support for getting the name from native methods by getting inspiration from `backtrace_each` in
+//   `vm_backtrace.c`. Note that unlike the `rb_profile_frames` for modern Rubies, this version actually returns the
+//   method name as as `VALUE` containing a Ruby string in the `buff`.
+// * Skip dummy frame that shows up in main thread
+// * Add `end_cfp == NULL` and `end_cfp <= cfp` safety checks. These are used in a bunch of places in
+//   `vm_backtrace.c` (`backtrace_each`, `backtrace_size`, `rb_ec_partial_backtrace_object`) but are conspicuously
+//   absent from `rb_profile_frames`. Oversight?
+// * Check thread status and do not sample if thread has been killed.
+// * Imported fix from https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/7116 to avoid sampling threads that are still being created
+//
+// The `rb_profile_frames` function changed quite a bit between Ruby 2.2 and 2.3. Since the change was quite complex
+// I opted not to try to extend support to Ruby 2.2 using the same custom function, and instead I started
+// anew from the Ruby 2.2 version of the function, applying some of the same fixes that we have for the modern version.
+int ddtrace_rb_profile_frames(VALUE thread, int start, int limit, VALUE *buff, int *lines, bool* is_ruby_frame)
+{
+    // **IMPORTANT: THIS IS A CUSTOM RB_PROFILE_FRAMES JUST FOR RUBY 2.2;
+    // SEE ABOVE FOR THE FUNCTION THAT GETS USED FOR MODERN RUBIES**
+
+    int i;
+    rb_thread_t *th = thread_struct_from_object(thread);
+    rb_control_frame_t *cfp = th->cfp, *end_cfp = RUBY_VM_END_CONTROL_FRAME(th);
+
+    // This should not happen for ddtrace (it can only happen when a thread is still being created), but I've imported
+    // it from https://github.com/ruby/ruby/pull/7116 in a "just in case" kind of mindset.
+    if (cfp == NULL) return 0;
+
+    // Avoid sampling dead threads
+    if (th->status == THREAD_KILLED) return 0;
+
+    // `vm_backtrace.c` includes this check in several methods. This happens on newly-created threads, and may
+    // also (not entirely sure) happen on dead threads
+    if (end_cfp == NULL) return PLACEHOLDER_STACK_IN_NATIVE_CODE;
+
+    // Fix: Skip dummy frame that shows up in main thread.
+    //
+    // According to a comment in `backtrace_each` (`vm_backtrace.c`), there's two dummy frames that we should ignore
+    // at the base of every thread's stack.
+    // (see https://github.com/ruby/ruby/blob/4bd38e8120f2fdfdd47a34211720e048502377f1/vm_backtrace.c#L890-L914 )
+    //
+    // One is being pointed to by `RUBY_VM_END_CONTROL_FRAME(ec)`, and so we need to advance to the next one, and
+    // reaching it will be used as a condition to break out of the loop below.
+    //
+    // Note that in `backtrace_each` there's two calls to `RUBY_VM_NEXT_CONTROL_FRAME`, but the loop bounds there
+    // are computed in a different way, so the two calls really are equivalent to one here.
+    end_cfp = RUBY_VM_NEXT_CONTROL_FRAME(end_cfp);
+
+    // See comment on `record_placeholder_stack_in_native_code` for a full explanation of what this means (and why we don't just return 0)
+    if (end_cfp <= cfp) return PLACEHOLDER_STACK_IN_NATIVE_CODE;
+
+    for (i=0; i<limit && cfp != end_cfp;) {
+        if (cfp->iseq && cfp->pc) { /* should be NORMAL_ISEQ */
+            if (start > 0) {
+                start--;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            /* record frame info */
+            buff[i] = cfp->iseq->self;
+            lines[i] = calc_lineno(cfp->iseq, cfp->pc);
+            is_ruby_frame[i] = true;
+            i++;
+        } else if (RUBYVM_CFUNC_FRAME_P(cfp)) {
+            ID mid = cfp->me->def ? cfp->me->def->original_id : cfp->me->called_id;
+            buff[i] = rb_id2str(mid);
+            lines[i] = 0;
+            is_ruby_frame[i] = false;
+            i++;
+        }
+        cfp = RUBY_VM_PREVIOUS_CONTROL_FRAME(cfp);
+    }
+
+    return i;
+}
+
+#endif // USE_LEGACY_RB_PROFILE_FRAMES
+
+#ifndef NO_RACTORS
+  // This API and definition are exported as a public symbol by the VM BUT the function header is not defined in any public header, so we
+  // repeat it here to be able to use in our code.
+  bool rb_ractor_main_p_(void);
+  extern struct rb_ractor_struct *ruby_single_main_ractor;
+
+  // Taken from upstream ractor_core.h at commit d9cf0388599a3234b9f3c06ddd006cd59a58ab8b (November 2022, Ruby 3.2 trunk)
+  // to allow us to ensure that we're always operating on the main ractor (if Ruby has ractors)
+  // Modifications:
+  // * None
+  bool ddtrace_rb_ractor_main_p(void)
+  {
+      if (ruby_single_main_ractor) {
+          return true;
+      }
+      else {
+          return rb_ractor_main_p_();
+      }
+  }
+#else
+  // Simplify callers on older Rubies, instead of having them probe if the VM supports Ractors we just tell them that yes
+  // they're always on the main Ractor
+  bool ddtrace_rb_ractor_main_p(void) { return true; }
+#endif // NO_RACTORS