activerecord 3.1.10 → 4.2.11

data/lib/active_record/relation/query_methods.rb

@@ -1,47 +1,217 @@
 require 'active_support/core_ext/array/wrap'
-require 'active_support/core_ext/object/blank'
+require 'active_support/core_ext/string/filters'
+require 'active_model/forbidden_attributes_protection'
 
 module ActiveRecord
   module QueryMethods
     extend ActiveSupport::Concern
 
-    attr_accessor :includes_values, :eager_load_values, :preload_values,
-                  :select_values, :group_values, :order_values, :joins_values,
-                  :where_values, :having_values, :bind_values,
-                  :limit_value, :offset_value, :lock_value, :readonly_value, :create_with_value,
-                  :from_value, :reorder_value, :reverse_order_value
+    include ActiveModel::ForbiddenAttributesProtection
 
+    # WhereChain objects act as placeholder for queries in which #where does not have any parameter.
+    # In this case, #where must be chained with #not to return a new relation.
+    class WhereChain
+      def initialize(scope)
+        @scope = scope
+      end
+
+      # Returns a new relation expressing WHERE + NOT condition according to
+      # the conditions in the arguments.
+      #
+      # +not+ accepts conditions as a string, array, or hash. See #where for
+      # more details on each format.
+      #
+      #    User.where.not("name = 'Jon'")
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE NOT (name = 'Jon')
+      #
+      #    User.where.not(["name = ?", "Jon"])
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE NOT (name = 'Jon')
+      #
+      #    User.where.not(name: "Jon")
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name != 'Jon'
+      #
+      #    User.where.not(name: nil)
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name IS NOT NULL
+      #
+      #    User.where.not(name: %w(Ko1 Nobu))
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name NOT IN ('Ko1', 'Nobu')
+      #
+      #    User.where.not(name: "Jon", role: "admin")
+      #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name != 'Jon' AND role != 'admin'
+      def not(opts, *rest)
+        where_value = @scope.send(:build_where, opts, rest).map do |rel|
+          case rel
+          when NilClass
+            raise ArgumentError, 'Invalid argument for .where.not(), got nil.'
+          when Arel::Nodes::In
+            Arel::Nodes::NotIn.new(rel.left, rel.right)
+          when Arel::Nodes::Equality
+            Arel::Nodes::NotEqual.new(rel.left, rel.right)
+          when String
+            Arel::Nodes::Not.new(Arel::Nodes::SqlLiteral.new(rel))
+          else
+            Arel::Nodes::Not.new(rel)
+          end
+        end
+
+        @scope.references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts)) if Hash === opts
+        @scope.where_values += where_value
+        @scope
+      end
+    end
+
+    Relation::MULTI_VALUE_METHODS.each do |name|
+      class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
+        def #{name}_values                   # def select_values
+          @values[:#{name}] || []            #   @values[:select] || []
+        end                                  # end
+                                             #
+        def #{name}_values=(values)          # def select_values=(values)
+          raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded #   raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded
+          check_cached_relation
+          @values[:#{name}] = values         #   @values[:select] = values
+        end                                  # end
+      CODE
+    end
+
+    (Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS - [:create_with]).each do |name|
+      class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
+        def #{name}_value                    # def readonly_value
+          @values[:#{name}]                  #   @values[:readonly]
+        end                                  # end
+      CODE
+    end
+
+    Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS.each do |name|
+      class_eval <<-CODE, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
+        def #{name}_value=(value)            # def readonly_value=(value)
+          raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded #   raise ImmutableRelation if @loaded
+          check_cached_relation
+          @values[:#{name}] = value          #   @values[:readonly] = value
+        end                                  # end
+      CODE
+    end
+
+    def check_cached_relation # :nodoc:
+      if defined?(@arel) && @arel
+        @arel = nil
+        ActiveSupport::Deprecation.warn(<<-MSG.squish)
+          Modifying already cached Relation. The cache will be reset. Use a
+          cloned Relation to prevent this warning.
+        MSG
+      end
+    end
+
+    def create_with_value # :nodoc:
+      @values[:create_with] || {}
+    end
+
+    alias extensions extending_values
+
+    # Specify relationships to be included in the result set. For
+    # example:
+    #
+    #   users = User.includes(:address)
+    #   users.each do |user|
+    #     user.address.city
+    #   end
+    #
+    # allows you to access the +address+ attribute of the +User+ model without
+    # firing an additional query. This will often result in a
+    # performance improvement over a simple +join+.
+    #
+    # You can also specify multiple relationships, like this:
+    #
+    #   users = User.includes(:address, :friends)
+    #
+    # Loading nested relationships is possible using a Hash:
+    #
+    #   users = User.includes(:address, friends: [:address, :followers])
+    #
+    # === conditions
+    #
+    # If you want to add conditions to your included models you'll have
+    # to explicitly reference them. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.includes(:posts).where('posts.name = ?', 'example')
+    #
+    # Will throw an error, but this will work:
+    #
+    #   User.includes(:posts).where('posts.name = ?', 'example').references(:posts)
+    #
+    # Note that +includes+ works with association names while +references+ needs
+    # the actual table name.
     def includes(*args)
-      args.reject! {|a| a.blank? }
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:includes, args)
+      spawn.includes!(*args)
+    end
 
-      return self if args.empty?
+    def includes!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      args.reject!(&:blank?)
+      args.flatten!
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.includes_values = (relation.includes_values + args).flatten.uniq
-      relation
+      self.includes_values |= args
+      self
     end
 
+    # Forces eager loading by performing a LEFT OUTER JOIN on +args+:
+    #
+    #   User.eager_load(:posts)
+    #   => SELECT "users"."id" AS t0_r0, "users"."name" AS t0_r1, ...
+    #   FROM "users" LEFT OUTER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" =
+    #   "users"."id"
     def eager_load(*args)
-      return self if args.blank?
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:eager_load, args)
+      spawn.eager_load!(*args)
+    end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.eager_load_values += args
-      relation
+    def eager_load!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      self.eager_load_values += args
+      self
     end
 
+    # Allows preloading of +args+, in the same way that +includes+ does:
+    #
+    #   User.preload(:posts)
+    #   => SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE "posts"."user_id" IN (1, 2, 3)
     def preload(*args)
-      return self if args.blank?
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:preload, args)
+      spawn.preload!(*args)
+    end
+
+    def preload!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      self.preload_values += args
+      self
+    end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.preload_values += args
-      relation
+    # Use to indicate that the given +table_names+ are referenced by an SQL string,
+    # and should therefore be JOINed in any query rather than loaded separately.
+    # This method only works in conjunction with +includes+.
+    # See #includes for more details.
+    #
+    #   User.includes(:posts).where("posts.name = 'foo'")
+    #   # => Doesn't JOIN the posts table, resulting in an error.
+    #
+    #   User.includes(:posts).where("posts.name = 'foo'").references(:posts)
+    #   # => Query now knows the string references posts, so adds a JOIN
+    def references(*table_names)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:references, table_names)
+      spawn.references!(*table_names)
+    end
+
+    def references!(*table_names) # :nodoc:
+      table_names.flatten!
+      table_names.map!(&:to_s)
+
+      self.references_values |= table_names
+      self
     end
 
     # Works in two unique ways.
-    # 
+    #
     # First: takes a block so it can be used just like Array#select.
     #
-    #   Model.scoped.select { |m| m.field == value }
+    #   Model.all.select { |m| m.field == value }
     #
     # This will build an array of objects from the database for the scope,
     # converting them into an array and iterating through them using Array#select.
@@ -49,189 +219,711 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # Second: Modifies the SELECT statement for the query so that only certain
     # fields are retrieved:
     #
-    #   >> Model.select(:field)
-    #   => [#<Model field:value>]
+    #   Model.select(:field)
+    #   # => [#<Model id: nil, field: "value">]
     #
     # Although in the above example it looks as though this method returns an
     # array, it actually returns a relation object and can have other query
     # methods appended to it, such as the other methods in ActiveRecord::QueryMethods.
     #
-    # This method will also take multiple parameters:
+    # The argument to the method can also be an array of fields.
     #
-    #   >> Model.select(:field, :other_field, :and_one_more)
-    #   => [#<Model field: "value", other_field: "value", and_one_more: "value">]
+    #   Model.select(:field, :other_field, :and_one_more)
+    #   # => [#<Model id: nil, field: "value", other_field: "value", and_one_more: "value">]
     #
-    # Any attributes that do not have fields retrieved by a select
-    # will return `nil` when the getter method for that attribute is used:
+    # You can also use one or more strings, which will be used unchanged as SELECT fields.
     #
-    #   >> Model.select(:field).first.other_field
-    #   => nil
-    def select(value = Proc.new)
+    #   Model.select('field AS field_one', 'other_field AS field_two')
+    #   # => [#<Model id: nil, field: "value", other_field: "value">]
+    #
+    # If an alias was specified, it will be accessible from the resulting objects:
+    #
+    #   Model.select('field AS field_one').first.field_one
+    #   # => "value"
+    #
+    # Accessing attributes of an object that do not have fields retrieved by a select
+    # except +id+ will throw <tt>ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError</tt>:
+    #
+    #   Model.select(:field).first.other_field
+    #   # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute: other_field
+    def select(*fields)
       if block_given?
-        to_a.select {|*block_args| value.call(*block_args) }
+        to_a.select { |*block_args| yield(*block_args) }
       else
-        relation = clone
-        relation.select_values += Array.wrap(value)
-        relation
+        raise ArgumentError, 'Call this with at least one field' if fields.empty?
+        spawn._select!(*fields)
       end
     end
 
+    def _select!(*fields) # :nodoc:
+      fields.flatten!
+      fields.map! do |field|
+        klass.attribute_alias?(field) ? klass.attribute_alias(field).to_sym : field
+      end
+      self.select_values += fields
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Allows to specify a group attribute:
+    #
+    #   User.group(:name)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" GROUP BY name
+    #
+    # Returns an array with distinct records based on the +group+ attribute:
+    #
+    #   User.select([:id, :name])
+    #   => [#<User id: 1, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar">, #<User id: 3, name: "Foo">
+    #
+    #   User.group(:name)
+    #   => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", ...>]
+    #
+    #   User.group('name AS grouped_name, age')
+    #   => [#<User id: 3, name: "Foo", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 2, name: "Oscar", age: 21, ...>, #<User id: 5, name: "Foo", age: 23, ...>]
+    #
+    # Passing in an array of attributes to group by is also supported.
+    #   User.select([:id, :first_name]).group(:id, :first_name).first(3)
+    #   => [#<User id: 1, first_name: "Bill">, #<User id: 2, first_name: "Earl">, #<User id: 3, first_name: "Beto">]
     def group(*args)
-      return self if args.blank?
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:group, args)
+      spawn.group!(*args)
+    end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.group_values += args.flatten
-      relation
+    def group!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      args.flatten!
+
+      self.group_values += args
+      self
     end
 
+    # Allows to specify an order attribute:
+    #
+    #   User.order(:name)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC
+    #
+    #   User.order(email: :desc)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."email" DESC
+    #
+    #   User.order(:name, email: :desc)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY "users"."name" ASC, "users"."email" DESC
+    #
+    #   User.order('name')
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name
+    #
+    #   User.order('name DESC')
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC
+    #
+    #   User.order('name DESC, email')
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" ORDER BY name DESC, email
     def order(*args)
-      return self if args.blank?
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:order, args)
+      spawn.order!(*args)
+    end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.order_values += args.flatten
-      relation
+    def order!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      preprocess_order_args(args)
+
+      self.order_values += args
+      self
     end
 
+    # Replaces any existing order defined on the relation with the specified order.
+    #
+    #   User.order('email DESC').reorder('id ASC') # generated SQL has 'ORDER BY id ASC'
+    #
+    # Subsequent calls to order on the same relation will be appended. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.order('email DESC').reorder('id ASC').order('name ASC')
+    #
+    # generates a query with 'ORDER BY id ASC, name ASC'.
     def reorder(*args)
-      return self if args.blank?
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:reorder, args)
+      spawn.reorder!(*args)
+    end
+
+    def reorder!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      preprocess_order_args(args)
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.reorder_value = args.flatten
-      relation
+      self.reordering_value = true
+      self.order_values = args
+      self
     end
 
-    def joins(*args)
-      return self if args.compact.blank?
+    VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES = Set.new([:where, :select, :group, :order, :lock,
+                                     :limit, :offset, :joins, :includes, :from,
+                                     :readonly, :having])
 
-      relation = clone
+    # Removes an unwanted relation that is already defined on a chain of relations.
+    # This is useful when passing around chains of relations and would like to
+    # modify the relations without reconstructing the entire chain.
+    #
+    #   User.order('email DESC').unscope(:order) == User.all
+    #
+    # The method arguments are symbols which correspond to the names of the methods
+    # which should be unscoped. The valid arguments are given in VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.
+    # The method can also be called with multiple arguments. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.order('email DESC').select('id').where(name: "John")
+    #       .unscope(:order, :select, :where) == User.all
+    #
+    # One can additionally pass a hash as an argument to unscope specific :where values.
+    # This is done by passing a hash with a single key-value pair. The key should be
+    # :where and the value should be the where value to unscope. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.where(name: "John", active: true).unscope(where: :name)
+    #       == User.where(active: true)
+    #
+    # This method is similar to <tt>except</tt>, but unlike
+    # <tt>except</tt>, it persists across merges:
+    #
+    #   User.order('email').merge(User.except(:order))
+    #       == User.order('email')
+    #
+    #   User.order('email').merge(User.unscope(:order))
+    #       == User.all
+    #
+    # This means it can be used in association definitions:
+    #
+    #   has_many :comments, -> { unscope where: :trashed }
+    #
+    def unscope(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:unscope, args)
+      spawn.unscope!(*args)
+    end
 
+    def unscope!(*args) # :nodoc:
       args.flatten!
-      relation.joins_values += args
+      self.unscope_values += args
+
+      args.each do |scope|
+        case scope
+        when Symbol
+          symbol_unscoping(scope)
+        when Hash
+          scope.each do |key, target_value|
+            if key != :where
+              raise ArgumentError, "Hash arguments in .unscope(*args) must have :where as the key."
+            end
+
+            Array(target_value).each do |val|
+              where_unscoping(val)
+            end
+          end
+        else
+          raise ArgumentError, "Unrecognized scoping: #{args.inspect}. Use .unscope(where: :attribute_name) or .unscope(:order), for example."
+        end
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Performs a joins on +args+:
+    #
+    #   User.joins(:posts)
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id"
+    #
+    # You can use strings in order to customize your joins:
+    #
+    #   User.joins("LEFT JOIN bookmarks ON bookmarks.bookmarkable_type = 'Post' AND bookmarks.user_id = users.id")
+    #   => SELECT "users".* FROM "users" LEFT JOIN bookmarks ON bookmarks.bookmarkable_type = 'Post' AND bookmarks.user_id = users.id
+    def joins(*args)
+      check_if_method_has_arguments!(:joins, args)
+      spawn.joins!(*args)
+    end
 
-      relation
+    def joins!(*args) # :nodoc:
+      args.compact!
+      args.flatten!
+      self.joins_values += args
+      self
+    end
+
+    def bind(value) # :nodoc:
+      spawn.bind!(value)
+    end
+
+    def bind!(value) # :nodoc:
+      self.bind_values += [value]
+      self
     end
 
-    def bind(value)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.bind_values += [value]
-      relation
+    # Returns a new relation, which is the result of filtering the current relation
+    # according to the conditions in the arguments.
+    #
+    # #where accepts conditions in one of several formats. In the examples below, the resulting
+    # SQL is given as an illustration; the actual query generated may be different depending
+    # on the database adapter.
+    #
+    # === string
+    #
+    # A single string, without additional arguments, is passed to the query
+    # constructor as an SQL fragment, and used in the where clause of the query.
+    #
+    #    Client.where("orders_count = '2'")
+    #    # SELECT * from clients where orders_count = '2';
+    #
+    # Note that building your own string from user input may expose your application
+    # to injection attacks if not done properly. As an alternative, it is recommended
+    # to use one of the following methods.
+    #
+    # === array
+    #
+    # If an array is passed, then the first element of the array is treated as a template, and
+    # the remaining elements are inserted into the template to generate the condition.
+    # Active Record takes care of building the query to avoid injection attacks, and will
+    # convert from the ruby type to the database type where needed. Elements are inserted
+    # into the string in the order in which they appear.
+    #
+    #   User.where(["name = ? and email = ?", "Joe", "joe@example.com"])
+    #   # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com';
+    #
+    # Alternatively, you can use named placeholders in the template, and pass a hash as the
+    # second element of the array. The names in the template are replaced with the corresponding
+    # values from the hash.
+    #
+    #   User.where(["name = :name and email = :email", { name: "Joe", email: "joe@example.com" }])
+    #   # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com';
+    #
+    # This can make for more readable code in complex queries.
+    #
+    # Lastly, you can use sprintf-style % escapes in the template. This works slightly differently
+    # than the previous methods; you are responsible for ensuring that the values in the template
+    # are properly quoted. The values are passed to the connector for quoting, but the caller
+    # is responsible for ensuring they are enclosed in quotes in the resulting SQL. After quoting,
+    # the values are inserted using the same escapes as the Ruby core method <tt>Kernel::sprintf</tt>.
+    #
+    #   User.where(["name = '%s' and email = '%s'", "Joe", "joe@example.com"])
+    #   # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com';
+    #
+    # If #where is called with multiple arguments, these are treated as if they were passed as
+    # the elements of a single array.
+    #
+    #   User.where("name = :name and email = :email", { name: "Joe", email: "joe@example.com" })
+    #   # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com';
+    #
+    # When using strings to specify conditions, you can use any operator available from
+    # the database. While this provides the most flexibility, you can also unintentionally introduce
+    # dependencies on the underlying database. If your code is intended for general consumption,
+    # test with multiple database backends.
+    #
+    # === hash
+    #
+    # #where will also accept a hash condition, in which the keys are fields and the values
+    # are values to be searched for.
+    #
+    # Fields can be symbols or strings. Values can be single values, arrays, or ranges.
+    #
+    #    User.where({ name: "Joe", email: "joe@example.com" })
+    #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = 'Joe' AND email = 'joe@example.com'
+    #
+    #    User.where({ name: ["Alice", "Bob"]})
+    #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name IN ('Alice', 'Bob')
+    #
+    #    User.where({ created_at: (Time.now.midnight - 1.day)..Time.now.midnight })
+    #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE (created_at BETWEEN '2012-06-09 07:00:00.000000' AND '2012-06-10 07:00:00.000000')
+    #
+    # In the case of a belongs_to relationship, an association key can be used
+    # to specify the model if an ActiveRecord object is used as the value.
+    #
+    #    author = Author.find(1)
+    #
+    #    # The following queries will be equivalent:
+    #    Post.where(author: author)
+    #    Post.where(author_id: author)
+    #
+    # This also works with polymorphic belongs_to relationships:
+    #
+    #    treasure = Treasure.create(name: 'gold coins')
+    #    treasure.price_estimates << PriceEstimate.create(price: 125)
+    #
+    #    # The following queries will be equivalent:
+    #    PriceEstimate.where(estimate_of: treasure)
+    #    PriceEstimate.where(estimate_of_type: 'Treasure', estimate_of_id: treasure)
+    #
+    # === Joins
+    #
+    # If the relation is the result of a join, you may create a condition which uses any of the
+    # tables in the join. For string and array conditions, use the table name in the condition.
+    #
+    #    User.joins(:posts).where("posts.created_at < ?", Time.now)
+    #
+    # For hash conditions, you can either use the table name in the key, or use a sub-hash.
+    #
+    #    User.joins(:posts).where({ "posts.published" => true })
+    #    User.joins(:posts).where({ posts: { published: true } })
+    #
+    # === no argument
+    #
+    # If no argument is passed, #where returns a new instance of WhereChain, that
+    # can be chained with #not to return a new relation that negates the where clause.
+    #
+    #    User.where.not(name: "Jon")
+    #    # SELECT * FROM users WHERE name != 'Jon'
+    #
+    # See WhereChain for more details on #not.
+    #
+    # === blank condition
+    #
+    # If the condition is any blank-ish object, then #where is a no-op and returns
+    # the current relation.
+    def where(opts = :chain, *rest)
+      if opts == :chain
+        WhereChain.new(spawn)
+      elsif opts.blank?
+        self
+      else
+        spawn.where!(opts, *rest)
+      end
     end
 
-    def where(opts, *rest)
-      return self if opts.blank?
+    def where!(opts, *rest) # :nodoc:
+      if Hash === opts
+        opts = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(opts)
+        references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts))
+      end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.where_values += build_where(opts, rest)
-      relation
+      self.where_values += build_where(opts, rest)
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Allows you to change a previously set where condition for a given attribute, instead of appending to that condition.
+    #
+    #   Post.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)                       # => WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
+    #   Post.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)                     # => WHERE `trashed` = 0
+    #   Post.where(active: true).where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false) # => WHERE `active` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
+    #
+    # This is short-hand for unscope(where: conditions.keys).where(conditions). Note that unlike reorder, we're only unscoping
+    # the named conditions -- not the entire where statement.
+    def rewhere(conditions)
+      unscope(where: conditions.keys).where(conditions)
     end
 
+    # Allows to specify a HAVING clause. Note that you can't use HAVING
+    # without also specifying a GROUP clause.
+    #
+    #   Order.having('SUM(price) > 30').group('user_id')
     def having(opts, *rest)
-      return self if opts.blank?
+      opts.blank? ? self : spawn.having!(opts, *rest)
+    end
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.having_values += build_where(opts, rest)
-      relation
+    def having!(opts, *rest) # :nodoc:
+      references!(PredicateBuilder.references(opts)) if Hash === opts
+
+      self.having_values += build_where(opts, rest)
+      self
     end
 
+    # Specifies a limit for the number of records to retrieve.
+    #
+    #   User.limit(10) # generated SQL has 'LIMIT 10'
+    #
+    #   User.limit(10).limit(20) # generated SQL has 'LIMIT 20'
     def limit(value)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.limit_value = value
-      relation
+      spawn.limit!(value)
+    end
+
+    def limit!(value) # :nodoc:
+      self.limit_value = value
+      self
     end
 
+    # Specifies the number of rows to skip before returning rows.
+    #
+    #   User.offset(10) # generated SQL has "OFFSET 10"
+    #
+    # Should be used with order.
+    #
+    #   User.offset(10).order("name ASC")
     def offset(value)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.offset_value = value
-      relation
+      spawn.offset!(value)
+    end
+
+    def offset!(value) # :nodoc:
+      self.offset_value = value
+      self
     end
 
+    # Specifies locking settings (default to +true+). For more information
+    # on locking, please see +ActiveRecord::Locking+.
     def lock(locks = true)
-      relation = clone
+      spawn.lock!(locks)
+    end
 
+    def lock!(locks = true) # :nodoc:
       case locks
       when String, TrueClass, NilClass
-        relation.lock_value = locks || true
+        self.lock_value = locks || true
       else
-        relation.lock_value = false
+        self.lock_value = false
       end
 
-      relation
+      self
     end
 
+    # Returns a chainable relation with zero records.
+    #
+    # The returned relation implements the Null Object pattern. It is an
+    # object with defined null behavior and always returns an empty array of
+    # records without querying the database.
+    #
+    # Any subsequent condition chained to the returned relation will continue
+    # generating an empty relation and will not fire any query to the database.
+    #
+    # Used in cases where a method or scope could return zero records but the
+    # result needs to be chainable.
+    #
+    # For example:
+    #
+    #   @posts = current_user.visible_posts.where(name: params[:name])
+    #   # => the visible_posts method is expected to return a chainable Relation
+    #
+    #   def visible_posts
+    #     case role
+    #     when 'Country Manager'
+    #       Post.where(country: country)
+    #     when 'Reviewer'
+    #       Post.published
+    #     when 'Bad User'
+    #       Post.none # It can't be chained if [] is returned.
+    #     end
+    #   end
+    #
+    def none
+      where("1=0").extending!(NullRelation)
+    end
+
+    def none! # :nodoc:
+      where!("1=0").extending!(NullRelation)
+    end
+
+    # Sets readonly attributes for the returned relation. If value is
+    # true (default), attempting to update a record will result in an error.
+    #
+    #   users = User.readonly
+    #   users.first.save
+    #   => ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord: ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord
     def readonly(value = true)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.readonly_value = value
-      relation
+      spawn.readonly!(value)
+    end
+
+    def readonly!(value = true) # :nodoc:
+      self.readonly_value = value
+      self
     end
 
+    # Sets attributes to be used when creating new records from a
+    # relation object.
+    #
+    #   users = User.where(name: 'Oscar')
+    #   users.new.name # => 'Oscar'
+    #
+    #   users = users.create_with(name: 'DHH')
+    #   users.new.name # => 'DHH'
+    #
+    # You can pass +nil+ to +create_with+ to reset attributes:
+    #
+    #   users = users.create_with(nil)
+    #   users.new.name # => 'Oscar'
     def create_with(value)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.create_with_value = value ? create_with_value.merge(value) : {}
-      relation
+      spawn.create_with!(value)
     end
 
-    def from(value)
-      relation = clone
-      relation.from_value = value
-      relation
+    def create_with!(value) # :nodoc:
+      if value
+        value = sanitize_forbidden_attributes(value)
+        self.create_with_value = create_with_value.merge(value)
+      else
+        self.create_with_value = {}
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Specifies table from which the records will be fetched. For example:
+    #
+    #   Topic.select('title').from('posts')
+    #   # => SELECT title FROM posts
+    #
+    # Can accept other relation objects. For example:
+    #
+    #   Topic.select('title').from(Topic.approved)
+    #   # => SELECT title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') subquery
+    #
+    #   Topic.select('a.title').from(Topic.approved, :a)
+    #   # => SELECT a.title FROM (SELECT * FROM topics WHERE approved = 't') a
+    #
+    def from(value, subquery_name = nil)
+      spawn.from!(value, subquery_name)
+    end
+
+    def from!(value, subquery_name = nil) # :nodoc:
+      self.from_value = [value, subquery_name]
+      if value.is_a? Relation
+        self.bind_values = value.arel.bind_values + value.bind_values + bind_values
+      end
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Specifies whether the records should be unique or not. For example:
+    #
+    #   User.select(:name)
+    #   # => Might return two records with the same name
+    #
+    #   User.select(:name).distinct
+    #   # => Returns 1 record per distinct name
+    #
+    #   User.select(:name).distinct.distinct(false)
+    #   # => You can also remove the uniqueness
+    def distinct(value = true)
+      spawn.distinct!(value)
     end
+    alias uniq distinct
 
-    def extending(*modules)
-      modules << Module.new(&Proc.new) if block_given?
+    # Like #distinct, but modifies relation in place.
+    def distinct!(value = true) # :nodoc:
+      self.distinct_value = value
+      self
+    end
+    alias uniq! distinct!
+
+    # Used to extend a scope with additional methods, either through
+    # a module or through a block provided.
+    #
+    # The object returned is a relation, which can be further extended.
+    #
+    # === Using a module
+    #
+    #   module Pagination
+    #     def page(number)
+    #       # pagination code goes here
+    #     end
+    #   end
+    #
+    #   scope = Model.all.extending(Pagination)
+    #   scope.page(params[:page])
+    #
+    # You can also pass a list of modules:
+    #
+    #   scope = Model.all.extending(Pagination, SomethingElse)
+    #
+    # === Using a block
+    #
+    #   scope = Model.all.extending do
+    #     def page(number)
+    #       # pagination code goes here
+    #     end
+    #   end
+    #   scope.page(params[:page])
+    #
+    # You can also use a block and a module list:
+    #
+    #   scope = Model.all.extending(Pagination) do
+    #     def per_page(number)
+    #       # pagination code goes here
+    #     end
+    #   end
+    def extending(*modules, &block)
+      if modules.any? || block
+        spawn.extending!(*modules, &block)
+      else
+        self
+      end
+    end
+
+    def extending!(*modules, &block) # :nodoc:
+      modules << Module.new(&block) if block
+      modules.flatten!
 
-      return self if modules.empty?
+      self.extending_values += modules
+      extend(*extending_values) if extending_values.any?
 
-      relation = clone
-      relation.send(:apply_modules, modules.flatten)
-      relation
+      self
     end
 
+    # Reverse the existing order clause on the relation.
+    #
+    #   User.order('name ASC').reverse_order # generated SQL has 'ORDER BY name DESC'
     def reverse_order
-      relation = clone
-      relation.reverse_order_value = !relation.reverse_order_value
-      relation
+      spawn.reverse_order!
     end
 
-    def arel
-      @arel ||= with_default_scope.build_arel
+    def reverse_order! # :nodoc:
+      orders = order_values.uniq
+      orders.reject!(&:blank?)
+      self.order_values = reverse_sql_order(orders)
+      self
     end
 
-    def build_arel
-      arel = table.from table
+    # Returns the Arel object associated with the relation.
+    def arel # :nodoc:
+      @arel ||= build_arel
+    end
 
-      build_joins(arel, @joins_values) unless @joins_values.empty?
+    private
 
-      collapse_wheres(arel, (@where_values - ['']).uniq)
+    def build_arel
+      arel = Arel::SelectManager.new(table.engine, table)
 
-      arel.having(*@having_values.uniq.reject{|h| h.blank?}) unless @having_values.empty?
+      build_joins(arel, joins_values.flatten) unless joins_values.empty?
 
-      arel.take(connection.sanitize_limit(@limit_value)) if @limit_value
-      arel.skip(@offset_value.to_i) if @offset_value
+      collapse_wheres(arel, (where_values - [''])) #TODO: Add uniq with real value comparison / ignore uniqs that have binds
 
-      arel.group(*@group_values.uniq.reject{|g| g.blank?}) unless @group_values.empty?
+      arel.having(*having_values.uniq.reject(&:blank?)) unless having_values.empty?
 
-      order = @reorder_value ? @reorder_value : @order_values
-      order = reverse_sql_order(order) if @reverse_order_value
-      arel.order(*order.uniq.reject{|o| o.blank?}) unless order.empty?
+      arel.take(connection.sanitize_limit(limit_value)) if limit_value
+      arel.skip(offset_value.to_i) if offset_value
+      arel.group(*arel_columns(group_values.uniq.reject(&:blank?))) unless group_values.empty?
 
-      build_select(arel, @select_values.uniq)
+      build_order(arel)
 
-      arel.from(@from_value) if @from_value
-      arel.lock(@lock_value) if @lock_value
+      build_select(arel)
+
+      arel.distinct(distinct_value)
+      arel.from(build_from) if from_value
+      arel.lock(lock_value) if lock_value
 
       arel
     end
 
-    private
+    def symbol_unscoping(scope)
+      if !VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.include?(scope)
+        raise ArgumentError, "Called unscope() with invalid unscoping argument ':#{scope}'. Valid arguments are :#{VALID_UNSCOPING_VALUES.to_a.join(", :")}."
+      end
+
+      single_val_method = Relation::SINGLE_VALUE_METHODS.include?(scope)
+      unscope_code = "#{scope}_value#{'s' unless single_val_method}="
+
+      case scope
+      when :order
+        result = []
+      when :where
+        self.bind_values = []
+      else
+        result = [] unless single_val_method
+      end
+
+      self.send(unscope_code, result)
+    end
+
+    def where_unscoping(target_value)
+      target_value = target_value.to_s
+
+      self.where_values = where_values.reject do |rel|
+        case rel
+        when Arel::Nodes::Between, Arel::Nodes::In, Arel::Nodes::NotIn, Arel::Nodes::Equality, Arel::Nodes::NotEqual, Arel::Nodes::LessThan, Arel::Nodes::LessThanOrEqual, Arel::Nodes::GreaterThan, Arel::Nodes::GreaterThanOrEqual
+          subrelation = (rel.left.kind_of?(Arel::Attributes::Attribute) ? rel.left : rel.right)
+          subrelation.name == target_value
+        end
+      end
+
+      bind_values.reject! { |col,_| col.name == target_value }
+    end
 
     def custom_join_ast(table, joins)
-      joins = joins.reject { |join| join.blank? }
+      joins = joins.reject(&:blank?)
 
       return [] if joins.empty?
 
-      @implicit_readonly = true
-
-      joins.map do |join|
+      joins.map! do |join|
         case join
         when Array
           join = Arel.sql(join.join(' ')) if array_of_strings?(join)
@@ -243,14 +935,13 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     def collapse_wheres(arel, wheres)
-      equalities = wheres.grep(Arel::Nodes::Equality)
-
-      arel.where(Arel::Nodes::And.new(equalities)) unless equalities.empty?
-
-      (wheres - equalities).each do |where|
+      predicates = wheres.map do |where|
+        next where if ::Arel::Nodes::Equality === where
         where = Arel.sql(where) if String === where
-        arel.where(Arel::Nodes::Grouping.new(where))
+        Arel::Nodes::Grouping.new(where)
       end
+
+      arel.where(Arel::Nodes::And.new(predicates)) if predicates.present?
     end
 
     def build_where(opts, other = [])
@@ -258,35 +949,90 @@ module ActiveRecord
       when String, Array
         [@klass.send(:sanitize_sql, other.empty? ? opts : ([opts] + other))]
       when Hash
-        attributes = @klass.send(:expand_hash_conditions_for_aggregates, opts)
-        PredicateBuilder.build_from_hash(table.engine, attributes, table)
+        opts = PredicateBuilder.resolve_column_aliases(klass, opts)
+
+        tmp_opts, bind_values = create_binds(opts)
+        self.bind_values += bind_values
+
+        attributes = @klass.send(:expand_hash_conditions_for_aggregates, tmp_opts)
+        add_relations_to_bind_values(attributes)
+
+        PredicateBuilder.build_from_hash(klass, attributes, table)
       else
         [opts]
       end
     end
 
+    def create_binds(opts)
+      bindable, non_binds = opts.partition do |column, value|
+        PredicateBuilder.can_be_bound?(value) &&
+          @klass.columns_hash.include?(column.to_s) &&
+          !@klass.reflect_on_aggregation(column)
+      end
+
+      association_binds, non_binds = non_binds.partition do |column, value|
+        value.is_a?(Hash) && association_for_table(column)
+      end
+
+      new_opts = {}
+      binds = []
+
+      connection = self.connection
+
+      bindable.each do |(column,value)|
+        binds.push [@klass.columns_hash[column.to_s], value]
+        new_opts[column] = connection.substitute_at(column)
+      end
+
+      association_binds.each do |(column, value)|
+        association_relation = association_for_table(column).klass.send(:relation)
+        association_new_opts, association_bind = association_relation.send(:create_binds, value)
+        new_opts[column] = association_new_opts
+        binds += association_bind
+      end
+
+      non_binds.each { |column,value| new_opts[column] = value }
+
+      [new_opts, binds]
+    end
+
+    def association_for_table(table_name)
+      table_name = table_name.to_s
+      @klass._reflect_on_association(table_name) ||
+        @klass._reflect_on_association(table_name.singularize)
+    end
+
+    def build_from
+      opts, name = from_value
+      case opts
+      when Relation
+        name ||= 'subquery'
+        opts.arel.as(name.to_s)
+      else
+        opts
+      end
+    end
+
     def build_joins(manager, joins)
       buckets = joins.group_by do |join|
         case join
         when String
-          'string_join'
+          :string_join
         when Hash, Symbol, Array
-          'association_join'
-        when ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency::JoinAssociation
-          'stashed_join'
+          :association_join
+        when ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency
+          :stashed_join
         when Arel::Nodes::Join
-          'join_node'
+          :join_node
         else
           raise 'unknown class: %s' % join.class.name
         end
       end
 
-      association_joins         = buckets['association_join'] || []
-      stashed_association_joins = buckets['stashed_join'] || []
-      join_nodes                = (buckets['join_node'] || []).uniq
-      string_joins              = (buckets['string_join'] || []).map { |x|
-        x.strip
-      }.uniq
+      association_joins         = buckets[:association_join] || []
+      stashed_association_joins = buckets[:stashed_join] || []
+      join_nodes                = (buckets[:join_node] || []).uniq
+      string_joins              = (buckets[:string_join] || []).map(&:strip).uniq
 
       join_list = join_nodes + custom_join_ast(manager, string_joins)
 
@@ -296,56 +1042,137 @@ module ActiveRecord
         join_list
       )
 
-      join_dependency.graft(*stashed_association_joins)
-
-      @implicit_readonly = true unless association_joins.empty? && stashed_association_joins.empty?
+      join_infos = join_dependency.join_constraints stashed_association_joins
 
-      # FIXME: refactor this to build an AST
-      join_dependency.join_associations.each do |association|
-        association.join_to(manager)
+      join_infos.each do |info|
+        info.joins.each { |join| manager.from(join) }
+        manager.bind_values.concat info.binds
       end
 
-      manager.join_sources.concat join_list
+      manager.join_sources.concat(join_list)
 
       manager
     end
 
-    def build_select(arel, selects)
-      unless selects.empty?
-        @implicit_readonly = false
-        arel.project(*selects)
+    def build_select(arel)
+      if select_values.any?
+        arel.project(*arel_columns(select_values.uniq))
       else
         arel.project(@klass.arel_table[Arel.star])
       end
     end
 
-    def apply_modules(modules)
-      unless modules.empty?
-        @extensions += modules
-        modules.each {|extension| extend(extension) }
+    def arel_columns(columns)
+      columns.map do |field|
+        if (Symbol === field || String === field) && columns_hash.key?(field.to_s) && !from_value
+          arel_table[field]
+        elsif Symbol === field
+          connection.quote_table_name(field.to_s)
+        else
+          field
+        end
       end
     end
 
     def reverse_sql_order(order_query)
       order_query = ["#{quoted_table_name}.#{quoted_primary_key} ASC"] if order_query.empty?
 
-      order_query.map do |o|
+      order_query.flat_map do |o|
         case o
-        when Arel::Nodes::Ascending, Arel::Nodes::Descending
+        when Arel::Nodes::Ordering
           o.reverse
-        when String, Symbol
-          o.to_s.split(',').collect do |s|
+        when String
+          o.to_s.split(',').map! do |s|
+            s.strip!
             s.gsub!(/\sasc\Z/i, ' DESC') || s.gsub!(/\sdesc\Z/i, ' ASC') || s.concat(' DESC')
           end
         else
           o
         end
-      end.flatten
+      end
     end
 
     def array_of_strings?(o)
-      o.is_a?(Array) && o.all?{|obj| obj.is_a?(String)}
+      o.is_a?(Array) && o.all? { |obj| obj.is_a?(String) }
+    end
+
+    def build_order(arel)
+      orders = order_values.uniq
+      orders.reject!(&:blank?)
+
+      arel.order(*orders) unless orders.empty?
+    end
+
+    VALID_DIRECTIONS = [:asc, :desc, :ASC, :DESC,
+                        'asc', 'desc', 'ASC', 'DESC'] # :nodoc:
+
+    def validate_order_args(args)
+      args.each do |arg|
+        next unless arg.is_a?(Hash)
+        arg.each do |_key, value|
+          raise ArgumentError, "Direction \"#{value}\" is invalid. Valid " \
+                               "directions are: #{VALID_DIRECTIONS.inspect}" unless VALID_DIRECTIONS.include?(value)
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    def preprocess_order_args(order_args)
+      order_args.flatten!
+      validate_order_args(order_args)
+
+      references = order_args.grep(String)
+      references.map! { |arg| arg =~ /^([a-zA-Z]\w*)\.(\w+)/ && $1 }.compact!
+      references!(references) if references.any?
+
+      # if a symbol is given we prepend the quoted table name
+      order_args.map! do |arg|
+        case arg
+        when Symbol
+          arg = klass.attribute_alias(arg) if klass.attribute_alias?(arg)
+          table[arg].asc
+        when Hash
+          arg.map { |field, dir|
+            field = klass.attribute_alias(field) if klass.attribute_alias?(field)
+            table[field].send(dir.downcase)
+          }
+        else
+          arg
+        end
+      end.flatten!
+    end
+
+    # Checks to make sure that the arguments are not blank. Note that if some
+    # blank-like object were initially passed into the query method, then this
+    # method will not raise an error.
+    #
+    # Example:
+    #
+    #    Post.references()   # => raises an error
+    #    Post.references([]) # => does not raise an error
+    #
+    # This particular method should be called with a method_name and the args
+    # passed into that method as an input. For example:
+    #
+    # def references(*args)
+    #   check_if_method_has_arguments!("references", args)
+    #   ...
+    # end
+    def check_if_method_has_arguments!(method_name, args)
+      if args.blank?
+        raise ArgumentError, "The method .#{method_name}() must contain arguments."
+      end
     end
 
+    def add_relations_to_bind_values(attributes)
+      if attributes.is_a?(Hash)
+        attributes.each_value do |value|
+          if value.is_a?(ActiveRecord::Relation)
+            self.bind_values += value.arel.bind_values + value.bind_values
+          else
+            add_relations_to_bind_values(value)
+          end
+        end
+      end
+    end
   end
 end