zlmdb 25.10.1__cp312-cp312-manylinux2014_aarch64.manylinux_2_17_aarch64.manylinux_2_28_aarch64.whl

zlmdb/lmdb/cffi.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2606 @@
+#
+# Copyright 2013 The py-lmdb authors, all rights reserved.
+#
+# Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+# modification, are permitted only as authorized by the OpenLDAP
+# Public License.
+#
+# A copy of this license is available in the file LICENSE in the
+# top-level directory of the distribution or, alternatively, at
+# <http://www.OpenLDAP.org/license.html>.
+#
+# OpenLDAP is a registered trademark of the OpenLDAP Foundation.
+#
+# Individual files and/or contributed packages may be copyright by
+# other parties and/or subject to additional restrictions.
+#
+# This work also contains materials derived from public sources.
+#
+# Additional information about OpenLDAP can be obtained at
+# <http://www.openldap.org/>.
+#
+
+"""
+CPython/CFFI wrapper for OpenLDAP's "Lightning" MDB database.
+
+Please see https://lmdb.readthedocs.io/
+"""
+
+from __future__ import absolute_import
+from __future__ import with_statement
+
+import errno
+import inspect
+import os
+import sys
+import threading
+
+is_win32 = sys.platform == "win32"
+if is_win32:
+    import msvcrt
+
+try:
+    import __builtin__  # type: ignore[import-not-found]
+except ImportError:
+    import builtins as __builtin__  # type: ignore
+
+
+def _reading_docs():
+    """Return True if Sphinx is currently parsing this file."""
+    return "sphinx" in __import__("sys").modules
+
+
+try:
+    from zlmdb.lmdb import _config
+except ImportError:
+    _config = None  # type: ignore
+
+
+__all__ = [
+    "Cursor",
+    "Environment",
+    "Transaction",
+    "_Database",
+    "enable_drop_gil",
+    "version",
+]
+
+__all__ += [
+    "BadDbiError",
+    "BadRslotError",
+    "BadTxnError",
+    "BadValsizeError",
+    "CorruptedError",
+    "CursorFullError",
+    "DbsFullError",
+    "DiskError",
+    "Error",
+    "IncompatibleError",
+    "InvalidError",
+    "InvalidParameterError",
+    "KeyExistsError",
+    "LockError",
+    "MapFullError",
+    "MapResizedError",
+    "MemoryError",
+    "NotFoundError",
+    "PageFullError",
+    "PageNotFoundError",
+    "PanicError",
+    "ReadersFullError",
+    "ReadonlyError",
+    "TlsFullError",
+    "TxnFullError",
+    "VersionMismatchError",
+]
+
+
+# Handle moronic Python 3 mess.
+UnicodeType = getattr(__builtin__, "unicode", str)
+BytesType = getattr(__builtin__, "bytes", str)
+
+O_0755 = int("0755", 8)
+O_0111 = int("0111", 8)
+EMPTY_BYTES = UnicodeType().encode()
+
+
+# Used to track context across CFFI callbacks.
+_callbacks = threading.local()
+
+_CFFI_CDEF = """
+    typedef int mode_t;
+    typedef ... MDB_env;
+    typedef struct MDB_txn MDB_txn;
+    typedef struct MDB_cursor MDB_cursor;
+    typedef unsigned int MDB_dbi;
+    enum MDB_cursor_op {
+        MDB_FIRST,
+        MDB_FIRST_DUP,
+        MDB_GET_BOTH,
+        MDB_GET_BOTH_RANGE,
+        MDB_GET_CURRENT,
+        MDB_GET_MULTIPLE,
+        MDB_LAST,
+        MDB_LAST_DUP,
+        MDB_NEXT,
+        MDB_NEXT_DUP,
+        MDB_NEXT_MULTIPLE,
+        MDB_NEXT_NODUP,
+        MDB_PREV,
+        MDB_PREV_DUP,
+        MDB_PREV_NODUP,
+        MDB_SET,
+        MDB_SET_KEY,
+        MDB_SET_RANGE,
+        ...
+    };
+    typedef enum MDB_cursor_op MDB_cursor_op;
+
+    struct MDB_val {
+        size_t mv_size;
+        void *mv_data;
+        ...;
+    };
+    typedef struct MDB_val MDB_val;
+
+    struct MDB_stat {
+        unsigned int ms_psize;
+        unsigned int ms_depth;
+        size_t ms_branch_pages;
+        size_t ms_leaf_pages;
+        size_t ms_overflow_pages;
+        size_t ms_entries;
+        ...;
+    };
+    typedef struct MDB_stat MDB_stat;
+
+    struct MDB_envinfo {
+        void *me_mapaddr;
+        size_t me_mapsize;
+        size_t me_last_pgno;
+        size_t me_last_txnid;
+        unsigned int me_maxreaders;
+        unsigned int me_numreaders;
+        ...;
+    };
+    typedef struct MDB_envinfo MDB_envinfo;
+
+    typedef int (*MDB_cmp_func)(const MDB_val *a, const MDB_val *b);
+    typedef void (*MDB_rel_func)(MDB_val *item, void *oldptr, void *newptr,
+                   void *relctx);
+
+    char *mdb_strerror(int err);
+    int mdb_env_create(MDB_env **env);
+    int mdb_env_open(MDB_env *env, const char *path, unsigned int flags,
+                     mode_t mode);
+    int mdb_env_copy2(MDB_env *env, const char *path, int flags);
+    int mdb_env_copyfd2(MDB_env *env, int fd, int flags);
+    int mdb_env_stat(MDB_env *env, MDB_stat *stat);
+    int mdb_env_info(MDB_env *env, MDB_envinfo *stat);
+    int mdb_env_get_maxkeysize(MDB_env *env);
+    int mdb_env_sync(MDB_env *env, int force);
+    void mdb_env_close(MDB_env *env);
+    int mdb_env_set_flags(MDB_env *env, unsigned int flags, int onoff);
+    int mdb_env_get_flags(MDB_env *env, unsigned int *flags);
+    int mdb_env_get_path(MDB_env *env, const char **path);
+    int mdb_env_set_mapsize(MDB_env *env, size_t size);
+    int mdb_env_set_maxreaders(MDB_env *env, unsigned int readers);
+    int mdb_env_get_maxreaders(MDB_env *env, unsigned int *readers);
+    int mdb_env_set_maxdbs(MDB_env *env, MDB_dbi dbs);
+    int mdb_txn_begin(MDB_env *env, MDB_txn *parent, unsigned int flags,
+                      MDB_txn **txn);
+    int mdb_txn_commit(MDB_txn *txn);
+    void mdb_txn_reset(MDB_txn *txn);
+    int mdb_txn_renew(MDB_txn *txn);
+    void mdb_txn_abort(MDB_txn *txn);
+    size_t mdb_txn_id(MDB_txn *txn);
+    int mdb_dbi_open(MDB_txn *txn, const char *name, unsigned int flags,
+                     MDB_dbi *dbi);
+    int mdb_stat(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, MDB_stat *stat);
+    int mdb_drop(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, int del_);
+    int mdb_get(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, MDB_val *key, MDB_val *data);
+    int mdb_cursor_open(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, MDB_cursor **cursor);
+    void mdb_cursor_close(MDB_cursor *cursor);
+    int mdb_cursor_del(MDB_cursor *cursor, unsigned int flags);
+    int mdb_cursor_count(MDB_cursor *cursor, size_t *countp);
+    int mdb_cursor_get(MDB_cursor *cursor, MDB_val *key, MDB_val*data, int op);
+
+    typedef int (MDB_msg_func)(const char *msg, void *ctx);
+    int mdb_reader_list(MDB_env *env, MDB_msg_func *func, void *ctx);
+    int mdb_reader_check(MDB_env *env, int *dead);
+    int mdb_dbi_flags(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, unsigned int *flags);
+
+    #define MDB_VERSION_MAJOR ...
+    #define MDB_VERSION_MINOR ...
+    #define MDB_VERSION_PATCH ...
+
+    #define EACCES ...
+    #define EAGAIN ...
+    #define EINVAL ...
+    #define ENOMEM ...
+    #define ENOSPC ...
+
+    #define MDB_BAD_RSLOT ...
+    #define MDB_BAD_DBI ...
+    #define MDB_BAD_TXN ...
+    #define MDB_BAD_VALSIZE ...
+    #define MDB_CORRUPTED ...
+    #define MDB_CURSOR_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_DBS_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_INCOMPATIBLE ...
+    #define MDB_INVALID ...
+    #define MDB_KEYEXIST ...
+    #define MDB_MAP_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_MAP_RESIZED ...
+    #define MDB_NOTFOUND ...
+    #define MDB_PAGE_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_PAGE_NOTFOUND ...
+    #define MDB_PANIC ...
+    #define MDB_READERS_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_TLS_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_TXN_FULL ...
+    #define MDB_VERSION_MISMATCH ...
+
+    #define MDB_APPEND ...
+    #define MDB_APPENDDUP ...
+    #define MDB_CP_COMPACT ...
+    #define MDB_CREATE ...
+    #define MDB_DUPFIXED ...
+    #define MDB_DUPSORT ...
+    #define MDB_INTEGERDUP ...
+    #define MDB_INTEGERKEY ...
+    #define MDB_MAPASYNC ...
+    #define MDB_NODUPDATA ...
+    #define MDB_NOLOCK ...
+    #define MDB_NOMEMINIT ...
+    #define MDB_NOMETASYNC ...
+    #define MDB_NOOVERWRITE ...
+    #define MDB_NORDAHEAD ...
+    #define MDB_NOSUBDIR ...
+    #define MDB_NOSYNC ...
+    #define MDB_NOTLS ...
+    #define MDB_RDONLY ...
+    #define MDB_REVERSEKEY ...
+    #define MDB_WRITEMAP ...
+
+    // Helpers below inline MDB_vals. Avoids key alloc/dup on CPython, where
+    // CFFI will use PyString_AS_STRING when passed as an argument.
+    static int pymdb_del(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi,
+                         char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         char *val_s, size_t vallen);
+    static int pymdb_put(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi,
+                         char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         char *val_s, size_t vallen,
+                         unsigned int flags);
+    static int pymdb_get(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi,
+                         char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         MDB_val *val_out);
+    static int pymdb_cursor_get(MDB_cursor *cursor,
+                                char *key_s, size_t key_len,
+                                char *data_s, size_t data_len,
+                                MDB_val *key, MDB_val *data, int op);
+    static int pymdb_cursor_put(MDB_cursor *cursor,
+                                char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                                char *val_s, size_t vallen, int flags);
+
+    // Prefaults a range
+    static void preload(int rc, void *x, size_t size);
+
+"""
+_CFFI_CDEF_PATCHED = """
+    int mdb_env_copy3(MDB_env *env, const char *path, unsigned int flags, MDB_txn *txn);
+    int mdb_env_copyfd3(MDB_env *env, int fd, unsigned int flags, MDB_txn *txn);
+"""
+
+_CFFI_VERIFY = """
+    #include <sys/stat.h>
+    #include "lmdb.h"
+    #include "preload.h"
+
+    // Helpers below inline MDB_vals. Avoids key alloc/dup on CPython, where
+    // CFFI will use PyString_AS_STRING when passed as an argument.
+    static int pymdb_get(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         MDB_val *val_out)
+    {
+        MDB_val key = {keylen, key_s};
+        int rc = mdb_get(txn, dbi, &key, val_out);
+        return rc;
+    }
+
+    static int pymdb_put(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         char *val_s, size_t vallen, unsigned int flags)
+    {
+        MDB_val key = {keylen, key_s};
+        MDB_val val = {vallen, val_s};
+        return mdb_put(txn, dbi, &key, &val, flags);
+    }
+
+    static int pymdb_del(MDB_txn *txn, MDB_dbi dbi, char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                         char *val_s, size_t vallen)
+    {
+        MDB_val key = {keylen, key_s};
+        MDB_val val = {vallen, val_s};
+        MDB_val *valptr;
+        if(vallen == 0) {
+            valptr = NULL;
+        } else {
+            valptr = &val;
+        }
+        return mdb_del(txn, dbi, &key, valptr);
+    }
+
+    static int pymdb_cursor_get(MDB_cursor *cursor,
+                                char *key_s, size_t key_len,
+                                char *data_s, size_t data_len,
+                                MDB_val *key, MDB_val *data, int op)
+    {
+        MDB_val tmp_key = {key_len, key_s};
+        MDB_val tmp_data = {data_len, data_s};
+        int rc = mdb_cursor_get(cursor, &tmp_key, &tmp_data, op);
+        if(! rc) {
+            *key = tmp_key;
+            *data = tmp_data;
+        }
+        return rc;
+    }
+
+    static int pymdb_cursor_put(MDB_cursor *cursor, char *key_s, size_t keylen,
+                                char *val_s, size_t vallen, int flags)
+    {
+        MDB_val tmpkey = {keylen, key_s};
+        MDB_val tmpval = {vallen, val_s};
+        return mdb_cursor_put(cursor, &tmpkey, &tmpval, flags);
+    }
+
+"""
+
+if not _reading_docs():
+    import cffi
+
+    # Try to use distutils-bundled CFFI configuration to avoid a recompile and
+    # potential compile errors during first module import.
+    _config_vars = (
+        _config.CONFIG
+        if _config
+        else {
+            "extra_compile_args": ["-w"],
+            "extra_sources": ["lib/mdb.c", "lib/midl.c"],
+            "extra_include_dirs": ["lib"],
+            "extra_library_dirs": [],
+            "libraries": [],
+        }
+    )
+
+    _have_patched_lmdb = "-DHAVE_PATCHED_LMDB=1" in _config.CONFIG["extra_compile_args"]  # type: ignore
+
+    if _have_patched_lmdb:
+        _CFFI_CDEF += _CFFI_CDEF_PATCHED
+
+    # Try to load pre-compiled extension first (for binary wheels)
+    _lib = None
+    _ffi = None
+    try:
+        from zlmdb.lmdb import _lmdb_cffi  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+
+        _lib = _lmdb_cffi.lib
+        _ffi = _lmdb_cffi.ffi
+    except ImportError:
+        pass
+
+    # Fall back to creating our own FFI instance for source builds
+    if _ffi is None:
+        _ffi = cffi.FFI()
+        _ffi.cdef(_CFFI_CDEF)
+
+    # Fall back to ffi.verify() for source builds
+    if _lib is None:
+        _lib = _ffi.verify(
+            _CFFI_VERIFY,
+            modulename="lmdb_cffi",
+            ext_package="lmdb",
+            sources=_config_vars["extra_sources"],
+            extra_compile_args=_config_vars["extra_compile_args"],
+            include_dirs=_config_vars["extra_include_dirs"],
+            libraries=_config_vars["libraries"],
+            library_dirs=_config_vars["extra_library_dirs"],
+        )
+
+    @_ffi.callback("int(char *, void *)")
+    def _msg_func(s, _):
+        """mdb_msg_func() callback. Appends `s` to _callbacks.msg_func list."""
+        _callbacks.msg_func.append(_ffi.string(s).decode())
+        return 0
+
+
+class Error(Exception):
+    """Raised when an LMDB-related error occurs, and no more specific
+    :py:class:`lmdb.Error` subclass exists."""
+
+    def __init__(self, what, code=0):
+        self.what = what
+        self.code = code
+        self.reason = _ffi.string(_lib.mdb_strerror(code))
+        msg = what
+        if code:
+            msg = "%s: %s" % (what, self.reason)
+            hint = getattr(self, "MDB_HINT", None)
+            if hint:
+                msg += " (%s)" % (hint,)
+        Exception.__init__(self, msg)
+
+
+class KeyExistsError(Error):
+    """Key/data pair already exists."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_KEYEXIST"
+
+
+class NotFoundError(Error):
+    """No matching key/data pair found.
+
+    Normally py-lmdb indicates a missing key by returning ``None``, or a
+    user-supplied default value, however LMDB may return this error where
+    py-lmdb does not know to convert it into a non-exceptional return.
+    """
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_NOTFOUND"
+
+
+class PageNotFoundError(Error):
+    """Request page not found."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_PAGE_NOTFOUND"
+
+
+class CorruptedError(Error):
+    """Located page was of the wrong type."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_CORRUPTED"
+
+
+class PanicError(Error):
+    """Update of meta page failed."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_PANIC"
+
+
+class VersionMismatchError(Error):
+    """Database environment version mismatch."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_VERSION_MISMATCH"
+
+
+class InvalidError(Error):
+    """File is not an MDB file."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_INVALID"
+
+
+class MapFullError(Error):
+    """Environment map_size= limit reached."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_MAP_FULL"
+    MDB_HINT = "Please use a larger Environment(map_size=) parameter"
+
+
+class DbsFullError(Error):
+    """Environment max_dbs= limit reached."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_DBS_FULL"
+    MDB_HINT = "Please use a larger Environment(max_dbs=) parameter"
+
+
+class ReadersFullError(Error):
+    """Environment max_readers= limit reached."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_READERS_FULL"
+    MDB_HINT = "Please use a larger Environment(max_readers=) parameter"
+
+
+class TlsFullError(Error):
+    """Thread-local storage keys full - too many environments open."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_TLS_FULL"
+
+
+class TxnFullError(Error):
+    """Transaciton has too many dirty pages - transaction too big."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_TXN_FULL"
+    MDB_HINT = "Please do less work within your transaction"
+
+
+class CursorFullError(Error):
+    """Internal error - cursor stack limit reached."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_CURSOR_FULL"
+
+
+class PageFullError(Error):
+    """Internal error - page has no more space."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_PAGE_FULL"
+
+
+class MapResizedError(Error):
+    """Database contents grew beyond environment map_size=."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_MAP_RESIZED"
+
+
+class IncompatibleError(Error):
+    """Operation and DB incompatible, or DB flags changed."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_INCOMPATIBLE"
+
+
+class BadRslotError(Error):
+    """Invalid reuse of reader locktable slot."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_BAD_RSLOT"
+
+
+class BadDbiError(Error):
+    """The specified DBI was changed unexpectedly."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_BAD_DBI"
+
+
+class BadTxnError(Error):
+    """Transaction cannot recover - it must be aborted."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_BAD_TXN"
+
+
+class BadValsizeError(Error):
+    """Too big key/data, key is empty, or wrong DUPFIXED size."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "MDB_BAD_VALSIZE"
+
+
+class ReadonlyError(Error):
+    """An attempt was made to modify a read-only database."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "EACCES"
+
+
+class InvalidParameterError(Error):
+    """An invalid parameter was specified."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "EINVAL"
+
+
+class LockError(Error):
+    """The environment was locked by another process."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "EAGAIN"
+
+
+class MemoryError(Error):
+    """Out of memory."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "ENOMEM"
+
+
+class DiskError(Error):
+    """No more disk space."""
+
+    MDB_NAME = "ENOSPC"
+
+
+# Prepare _error_map, a mapping of integer MDB_ERROR_CODE to exception class.
+if not _reading_docs():
+    _error_map = {}
+    for obj in list(globals().values()):
+        if inspect.isclass(obj) and issubclass(obj, Error) and obj is not Error:
+            _error_map[getattr(_lib, obj.MDB_NAME)] = obj  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+    del obj
+
+
+def _error(what, rc):
+    """Lookup and instantiate the correct exception class for the error code
+    `rc`, using :py:class:`Error` if no better class exists."""
+    return _error_map.get(rc, Error)(what, rc)
+
+
+class Some_LMDB_Resource_That_Was_Deleted_Or_Closed(object):
+    """We need this because CFFI on PyPy treats None as cffi.NULL, instead of
+    throwing an exception it feeds LMDB null pointers. That means simply
+    replacing native handles with None during _invalidate() will cause NULL
+    pointer dereferences. Instead use this class, and its weird name to cause a
+    TypeError, with a very obvious string in the exception text.
+
+    The only alternatives to this are inserting a check around every single use
+    of a native handle to ensure the handle is still valid prior to calling
+    LMDB, or doing no crash-safety checking at all.
+    """
+
+    def __nonzero__(self):
+        return 0
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        return False
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return "<This used to be a LMDB resource but it was deleted or closed>"
+
+
+_invalid = Some_LMDB_Resource_That_Was_Deleted_Or_Closed()
+
+
+def _mvbuf(mv):
+    """Convert a MDB_val cdata to a CFFI buffer object."""
+    return _ffi.buffer(mv.mv_data, mv.mv_size)
+
+
+def _mvstr(mv):
+    """Convert a MDB_val cdata to Python bytes."""
+    return _ffi.buffer(mv.mv_data, mv.mv_size)[:]
+
+
+def preload(mv):
+    _lib.preload(0, mv.mv_data, mv.mv_size)
+
+
+def enable_drop_gil():
+    """Deprecated."""
+
+
+def version(subpatch=False):
+    """
+    Return a tuple of integers `(major, minor, patch)` describing the LMDB
+    library version that the binding is linked against. The version of the
+    binding itself is available from ``lmdb.__version__``.
+
+        `subpatch`:
+            If true, returns a 4 integer tuple consisting of the same plus
+            an extra integer that represents any patches applied by py-lmdb
+            itself (0 representing no patches).
+
+    """
+    if subpatch:
+        return (
+            _lib.MDB_VERSION_MAJOR,
+            _lib.MDB_VERSION_MINOR,
+            _lib.MDB_VERSION_PATCH,
+            1 if _have_patched_lmdb else 0,
+        )
+
+    return (_lib.MDB_VERSION_MAJOR, _lib.MDB_VERSION_MINOR, _lib.MDB_VERSION_PATCH)
+
+
+class Environment(object):
+    """
+    Structure for a database environment. An environment may contain multiple
+    databases, all residing in the same shared-memory map and underlying disk
+    file.
+
+    To write to the environment a :py:class:`Transaction` must be created. One
+    simultaneous write transaction is allowed, however there is no limit on the
+    number of read transactions even when a write transaction exists.
+
+    This class is aliased to `lmdb.open`.
+
+    It is a serious error to have open the same LMDB file in the same process at
+    the same time.  Failure to heed this may lead to data corruption and
+    interpreter crash.
+
+    Equivalent to `mdb_env_open()
+    <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1fe2740e25b1689dc412e7b9faadba1b>`_
+
+        `path`:
+            Location of directory (if `subdir=True`) or file prefix to store
+            the database.
+
+        `map_size`:
+            Maximum size database may grow to; used to size the memory mapping.
+            If database grows larger than ``map_size``, an exception will be
+            raised and the user must close and reopen :py:class:`Environment`.
+            On 64-bit there is no penalty for making this huge (say 1TB). Must
+            be <2GB on 32-bit.
+
+            .. note::
+
+                **The default map size is set low to encourage a crash**, so
+                users can figure out a good value before learning about this
+                option too late.
+
+        `subdir`:
+            If ``True``, `path` refers to a subdirectory to store the data and
+            lock files in, otherwise it refers to a filename prefix.
+
+        `readonly`:
+            If ``True``, disallow any write operations. Note the lock file is
+            still modified. If specified, the ``write`` flag to
+            :py:meth:`begin` or :py:class:`Transaction` is ignored.
+
+        `metasync`:
+            If ``False``, flush system buffers to disk only once per
+            transaction, omit the metadata flush. Defer that until the system
+            flushes files to disk, or next commit or :py:meth:`sync`.
+
+            This optimization maintains database integrity, but a system crash
+            may undo the last committed transaction. I.e. it preserves the ACI
+            (atomicity, consistency, isolation) but not D (durability) database
+            property.
+
+        `sync`:
+            If ``False``, don't flush system buffers to disk when committing a
+            transaction. This optimization means a system crash can corrupt the
+            database or lose the last transactions if buffers are not yet
+            flushed to disk.
+
+            The risk is governed by how often the system flushes dirty buffers
+            to disk and how often :py:meth:`sync` is called.  However, if the
+            filesystem preserves write order and `writemap=False`, transactions
+            exhibit ACI (atomicity, consistency, isolation) properties and only
+            lose D (durability).  I.e. database integrity is maintained, but a
+            system crash may undo the final transactions.
+
+            Note that `sync=False, writemap=True` leaves the system with no
+            hint for when to write transactions to disk, unless :py:meth:`sync`
+            is called. `map_async=True, writemap=True` may be preferable.
+
+        `mode`:
+            File creation mode.
+
+        `create`:
+            If ``False``, do not create the directory `path` if it is missing.
+
+        `readahead`:
+            If ``False``, LMDB will disable the OS filesystem readahead
+            mechanism, which may improve random read performance when a
+            database is larger than RAM.
+
+        `writemap`:
+            If ``True``, use a writeable memory map unless `readonly=True`.
+            This is faster and uses fewer mallocs, but loses protection from
+            application bugs like wild pointer writes and other bad updates
+            into the database. Incompatible with nested transactions.
+
+            Processes with and without `writemap` on the same environment do
+            not cooperate well.
+
+        `meminit`:
+            If ``False`` LMDB will not zero-initialize buffers prior to writing
+            them to disk. This improves performance but may cause old heap data
+            to be written saved in the unused portion of the buffer. Do not use
+            this option if your application manipulates confidential data (e.g.
+            plaintext passwords) in memory. This option is only meaningful when
+            `writemap=False`; new pages are always zero-initialized when
+            `writemap=True`.
+
+        `map_async`:
+             When ``writemap=True``, use asynchronous flushes to disk. As with
+             ``sync=False``, a system crash can then corrupt the database or
+             lose the last transactions. Calling :py:meth:`sync` ensures
+             on-disk database integrity until next commit.
+
+        `max_readers`:
+            Maximum number of simultaneous read transactions. Can only be set
+            by the first process to open an environment, as it affects the size
+            of the lock file and shared memory area. Attempts to simultaneously
+            start more than this many *read* transactions will fail.
+
+        `max_dbs`:
+            Maximum number of databases available. If 0, assume environment
+            will be used as a single database.
+
+        `max_spare_txns`:
+            Read-only transactions to cache after becoming unused. Caching
+            transactions avoids two allocations, one lock and linear scan
+            of the shared environment per invocation of :py:meth:`begin`,
+            :py:class:`Transaction`, :py:meth:`get`, :py:meth:`gets`, or
+            :py:meth:`cursor`. Should match the process's maximum expected
+            concurrent transactions (e.g. thread count).
+
+        `lock`:
+            If ``False``, don't do any locking. If concurrent access is
+            anticipated, the caller must manage all concurrency itself. For
+            proper operation the caller must enforce single-writer semantics,
+            and must ensure that no readers are using old transactions while a
+            writer is active. The simplest approach is to use an exclusive lock
+            so that no readers may be active at all when a writer begins.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        path,
+        map_size=10485760,
+        subdir=True,
+        readonly=False,
+        metasync=True,
+        sync=True,
+        map_async=False,
+        mode=O_0755,
+        create=True,
+        readahead=True,
+        writemap=False,
+        meminit=True,
+        max_readers=126,
+        max_dbs=0,
+        max_spare_txns=1,
+        lock=True,
+    ):
+        self._max_spare_txns = max_spare_txns
+        self._spare_txns = []
+
+        envpp = _ffi.new("MDB_env **")
+
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_create(envpp)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_create", rc)
+        self._env = envpp[0]
+        self._deps = set()
+        self._creating_db_in_readonly = False
+
+        self.set_mapsize(map_size)
+
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_set_maxreaders(self._env, max_readers)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_set_maxreaders", rc)
+
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_set_maxdbs(self._env, max_dbs)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_set_maxdbs", rc)
+
+        if create and subdir and not readonly:
+            try:
+                os.mkdir(path, mode)
+            except EnvironmentError as e:
+                if e.errno != errno.EEXIST:
+                    raise
+
+        flags = _lib.MDB_NOTLS
+        if not subdir:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOSUBDIR
+        if readonly:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_RDONLY
+        self.readonly = readonly
+        if not metasync:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOMETASYNC
+        if not sync:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOSYNC
+        if map_async:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_MAPASYNC
+        if not readahead:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NORDAHEAD
+        if writemap:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_WRITEMAP
+        if not meminit:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOMEMINIT
+        if not lock:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOLOCK
+
+        if isinstance(path, UnicodeType):
+            path = path.encode(sys.getfilesystemencoding())
+
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_open(self._env, path, flags, mode & ~O_0111)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error(path, rc)
+
+        with self.begin(db=object()) as txn:
+            self._db = _Database(
+                env=self,
+                txn=txn,
+                name=None,
+                reverse_key=False,
+                dupsort=False,
+                create=True,
+                integerkey=False,
+                integerdup=False,
+                dupfixed=False,
+            )
+
+        self._dbs = {None: self._db}
+
+    def __enter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, _1, _2, _3):
+        self.close()
+
+    def __del__(self):
+        self.close()
+
+    _env = None
+    _deps = None
+    _spare_txns = None
+    _dbs = None
+
+    def set_mapsize(self, map_size):
+        """Change the maximum size of the map file. This function will fail if
+        any transactions are active in the current process.
+
+        `map_size`:
+            The new size in bytes.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_set_mapsize()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gaa2506ec8dab3d969b0e609cd82e619e5>`_
+
+        Warning:
+        There's a data race in the underlying library that may cause
+        catastrophic loss of data if you use this method.
+
+        You are safe if one of the following are true:
+            * Only one process accessing a particular LMDB file ever calls
+              this method.
+
+            * You use locking external to this library to ensure that only one
+              process accessing the current LMDB file can be inside this function.
+        """
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_set_mapsize(self._env, map_size)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_set_mapsize", rc)
+
+    def close(self):
+        """Close the environment, invalidating any open iterators, cursors, and
+        transactions. Repeat calls to :py:meth:`close` have no effect.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_close()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga4366c43ada8874588b6a62fbda2d1e95>`_
+        """
+        if self._env:
+            if self._deps:
+                while self._deps:
+                    self._deps.pop()._invalidate()
+            self._deps = None
+
+            if self._spare_txns:
+                while self._spare_txns:
+                    _lib.mdb_txn_abort(self._spare_txns.pop())
+            self._spare_txns = None
+
+            if self._dbs:
+                self._dbs.clear()
+            self._dbs = None
+            self._db = None
+
+            _lib.mdb_env_close(self._env)
+            self._env = _invalid
+
+    def path(self):
+        """Directory path or file name prefix where this environment is
+        stored.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_get_path()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gac699fdd8c4f8013577cb933fb6a757fe>`_
+        """
+        path = _ffi.new("char **")
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_get_path(self._env, path)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_get_path", rc)
+        return _ffi.string(path[0]).decode(sys.getfilesystemencoding())
+
+    def copy(self, path, compact=False, txn=None):
+        """Make a consistent copy of the environment in the given destination
+        directory.
+
+        `compact`:
+            If ``True``, perform compaction while copying: omit free pages and
+            sequentially renumber all pages in output. This option consumes
+            more CPU and runs more slowly than the default, but may produce a
+            smaller output database.
+
+        `txn`:
+            If provided, the backup will be taken from the database with
+            respect to that transaction, otherwise a temporary read-only
+            transaction will be created.  Note:  this parameter being non-None
+            is not available if the module was built with LMDB_PURE.  Note:
+            this parameter may be set only if compact=True.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_copy2() or mdb_env_copy3()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga5d51d6130325f7353db0955dbedbc378>`_
+        """
+        flags = _lib.MDB_CP_COMPACT if compact else 0
+        if txn and not _have_patched_lmdb:
+            raise TypeError(
+                "Non-patched LMDB doesn't support transaction with env.copy"
+            )
+
+        if txn and not flags:
+            raise TypeError("txn argument only compatible with compact=True")
+
+        encoded = path.encode(sys.getfilesystemencoding())
+        if _have_patched_lmdb:
+            rc = _lib.mdb_env_copy3(
+                self._env, encoded, flags, txn._txn if txn else _ffi.NULL
+            )
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_env_copy3", rc)
+        else:
+            rc = _lib.mdb_env_copy2(self._env, encoded, flags)
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_env_copy2", rc)
+
+    def copyfd(self, fd, compact=False, txn=None):
+        """Copy a consistent version of the environment to file descriptor
+        `fd`.
+
+        `compact`:
+            If ``True``, perform compaction while copying: omit free pages and
+            sequentially renumber all pages in output. This option consumes
+            more CPU and runs more slowly than the default, but may produce a
+            smaller output database.
+
+        `txn`:
+            If provided, the backup will be taken from the database with
+            respect to that transaction, otherwise a temporary read-only
+            transaction will be created.  Note:  this parameter being non-None
+            is not available if the module was built with LMDB_PURE.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_copyfd2() or mdb_env_copyfd3
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga5d51d6130325f7353db0955dbedbc378>`_
+        """
+        if txn and not _have_patched_lmdb:
+            raise TypeError(
+                "Non-patched LMDB doesn't support transaction with env.copy"
+            )
+        if is_win32:
+            # Convert C library handle to kernel handle.
+            fd = msvcrt.get_osfhandle(fd)
+        flags = _lib.MDB_CP_COMPACT if compact else 0
+
+        if txn and not flags:
+            raise TypeError("txn argument only compatible with compact=True")
+
+        if _have_patched_lmdb:
+            rc = _lib.mdb_env_copyfd3(
+                self._env, fd, flags, txn._txn if txn else _ffi.NULL
+            )
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_env_copyfd3", rc)
+        else:
+            rc = _lib.mdb_env_copyfd2(self._env, fd, flags)
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_env_copyfd2", rc)
+
+    def sync(self, force=False):
+        """Flush the data buffers to disk.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_sync()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga85e61f05aa68b520cc6c3b981dba5037>`_
+
+        Data is always written to disk when :py:meth:`Transaction.commit` is
+        called, but the operating system may keep it buffered. MDB always
+        flushes the OS buffers upon commit as well, unless the environment was
+        opened with `sync=False` or `metasync=False`.
+
+        `force`:
+            If ``True``, force a synchronous flush. Otherwise if the
+            environment was opened with `sync=False` the flushes will be
+            omitted, and with `map_async=True` they will be asynchronous.
+        """
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_sync(self._env, force)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_sync", rc)
+
+    def _convert_stat(self, st):
+        """Convert a MDB_stat to a dict."""
+        return {
+            "psize": st.ms_psize,
+            "depth": st.ms_depth,
+            "branch_pages": st.ms_branch_pages,
+            "leaf_pages": st.ms_leaf_pages,
+            "overflow_pages": st.ms_overflow_pages,
+            "entries": st.ms_entries,
+        }
+
+    def stat(self):
+        """stat()
+
+        Return some environment statistics for the default database as a dict:
+
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``psize``          | Size of a database page in bytes.     |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``depth``          | Height of the B-tree.                 |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``branch_pages``   | Number of internal (non-leaf) pages.  |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``leaf_pages``     | Number of leaf pages.                 |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``overflow_pages`` | Number of overflow pages.             |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+        | ``entries``        | Number of data items.                 |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------+
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_stat()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gaf881dca452050efbd434cd16e4bae255>`_
+        """
+        st = _ffi.new("MDB_stat *")
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_stat(self._env, st)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_stat", rc)
+        return self._convert_stat(st)
+
+    def info(self):
+        """Return some nice environment information as a dict:
+
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``map_addr``       | Address of database map in RAM.             |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``map_size``       | Size of database map in RAM.                |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``last_pgno``      | ID of last used page.                       |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``last_txnid``     | ID of last committed transaction.           |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``max_readers``    | Number of reader slots allocated in the     |
+        |                    | lock file. Equivalent to the value of       |
+        |                    | `maxreaders=` specified by the first        |
+        |                    | process opening the Environment.            |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+        | ``num_readers``    | Maximum number of reader slots in           |
+        |                    | simultaneous use since the lock file was    |
+        |                    | initialized.                                |
+        +--------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_env_info()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga18769362c7e7d6cf91889a028a5c5947>`_
+        """
+        info = _ffi.new("MDB_envinfo *")
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_info(self._env, info)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_info", rc)
+        return {
+            "map_addr": int(_ffi.cast("long", info.me_mapaddr)),
+            "map_size": info.me_mapsize,
+            "last_pgno": info.me_last_pgno,
+            "last_txnid": info.me_last_txnid,
+            "max_readers": info.me_maxreaders,
+            "num_readers": info.me_numreaders,
+        }
+
+    def flags(self):
+        """Return a dict describing Environment constructor flags used to
+        instantiate this environment."""
+        flags_ = _ffi.new("unsigned int[]", 1)
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_get_flags(self._env, flags_)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_get_flags", rc)
+        flags = flags_[0]
+        return {
+            "subdir": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NOSUBDIR),
+            "readonly": bool(flags & _lib.MDB_RDONLY),
+            "metasync": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NOMETASYNC),
+            "sync": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NOSYNC),
+            "map_async": bool(flags & _lib.MDB_MAPASYNC),
+            "readahead": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NORDAHEAD),
+            "writemap": bool(flags & _lib.MDB_WRITEMAP),
+            "meminit": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NOMEMINIT),
+            "lock": not (flags & _lib.MDB_NOLOCK),
+        }
+
+    def max_key_size(self):
+        """Return the maximum size in bytes of a record's key part. This
+        matches the ``MDB_MAXKEYSIZE`` constant set at compile time."""
+        return _lib.mdb_env_get_maxkeysize(self._env)
+
+    def max_readers(self):
+        """Return the maximum number of readers specified during open of the
+        environment by the first process. This is the same as `max_readers=`
+        specified to the constructor if this process was the first to open the
+        environment."""
+        readers_ = _ffi.new("unsigned int[]", 1)
+        rc = _lib.mdb_env_get_maxreaders(self._env, readers_)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_env_get_maxreaders", rc)
+        return readers_[0]
+
+    def readers(self):
+        """Return a multi line Unicode string describing the current state of
+        the reader lock table."""
+        _callbacks.msg_func = []
+        try:
+            rc = _lib.mdb_reader_list(self._env, _msg_func, _ffi.NULL)
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_reader_list", rc)
+            return UnicodeType().join(_callbacks.msg_func)
+        finally:
+            del _callbacks.msg_func
+
+    def reader_check(self):
+        """Search the reader lock table for stale entries, for example due to a
+        crashed process. Returns the number of stale entries that were cleared.
+        """
+        reaped = _ffi.new("int[]", 1)
+        rc = _lib.mdb_reader_check(self._env, reaped)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_reader_check", rc)
+        return reaped[0]
+
+    def open_db(
+        self,
+        key=None,
+        txn=None,
+        reverse_key=False,
+        dupsort=False,
+        create=True,
+        integerkey=False,
+        integerdup=False,
+        dupfixed=False,
+    ):
+        """
+        Open a database, returning an instance of :py:class:`_Database`. Repeat
+        :py:meth:`Environment.open_db` calls for the same name will return the
+        same handle. As a special case, the main database is always open.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_dbi_open()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gac08cad5b096925642ca359a6d6f0562a>`_
+
+        Named databases are implemented by *storing a special descriptor in the
+        main database*. All databases in an environment *share the same file*.
+        Because the descriptor is present in the main database, attempts to
+        create a named database will fail if a key matching the database's name
+        already exists. Furthermore *the key is visible to lookups and
+        enumerations*. If your main database keyspace conflicts with the names
+        you use for named databases, then move the contents of your main
+        database to another named database.
+
+        ::
+
+            >>> env = lmdb.open('/tmp/test', max_dbs=2)
+            >>> with env.begin(write=True) as txn:
+            ...     txn.put('somename', 'somedata')
+
+            >>> # Error: database cannot share name of existing key!
+            >>> subdb = env.open_db('somename')
+
+        A newly created database will not exist if the transaction that created
+        it aborted, nor if another process deleted it. The handle resides in
+        the shared environment, it is not owned by the current transaction or
+        process. Only one thread should call this function; it is not
+        mutex-protected in a read-only transaction.
+
+        The `dupsort`, `integerkey`, `integerdup`, and `dupfixed` parameters are
+        ignored if the database already exists.  The state of those settings are
+        persistent and immutable per database.  See :py:meth:`_Database.flags`
+        to view the state of those options for an opened database.  A consequence
+        of the immutability of these flags is that the default non-named database
+        will never have these flags set.
+
+        Preexisting transactions, other than the current transaction and any
+        parents, must not use the new handle, nor must their children.
+
+            `key`:
+                Bytestring database name. If ``None``, indicates the main
+                database should be returned, otherwise indicates a named
+                database should be created inside the main database.
+
+                In other words, *a key representing the database will be
+                visible in the main database, and the database name cannot
+                conflict with any existing key.*
+
+            `txn`:
+                Transaction used to create the database if it does not exist.
+                If unspecified, a temporarily write transaction is used. Do not
+                call :py:meth:`open_db` from inside an existing transaction
+                without supplying it here. Note the passed transaction must
+                have `write=True`.
+
+            `reverse_key`:
+                If ``True``, keys are compared from right to left (e.g. DNS
+                names).
+
+            `dupsort`:
+                Duplicate keys may be used in the database. (Or, from another
+                perspective, keys may have multiple data items, stored in
+                sorted order.) By default keys must be unique and may have only
+                a single data item.
+
+            `create`:
+                If ``True``, create the database if it doesn't exist, otherwise
+                raise an exception.
+
+            `integerkey`:
+                If ``True``, indicates keys in the database are C unsigned
+                or ``size_t`` integers encoded in native byte order. Keys must
+                all be either unsigned or ``size_t``, they cannot be mixed in a
+                single database.
+
+            `integerdup`:
+                If ``True``, values in the
+                database are C unsigned or ``size_t`` integers encoded in
+                native byte order.  Implies `dupsort` and `dupfixed` are
+                ``True``.
+
+            `dupfixed`:
+                If ``True``, values for each key
+                in database are of fixed size, allowing each additional
+                duplicate value for a key to be stored without a header
+                indicating its size.  Implies `dupsort` is ``True``.
+        """
+        if isinstance(key, UnicodeType):
+            raise TypeError("key must be bytes")
+
+        if key is None and (
+            reverse_key or dupsort or integerkey or integerdup or dupfixed
+        ):
+            raise ValueError("May not set flags on the main database")
+
+        db = self._dbs.get(key)
+        if db:
+            return db
+
+        if integerdup:
+            dupfixed = True
+
+        if dupfixed:
+            dupsort = True
+
+        if txn:
+            db = _Database(
+                self,
+                txn,
+                key,
+                reverse_key,
+                dupsort,
+                create,
+                integerkey,
+                integerdup,
+                dupfixed,
+            )
+        else:
+            try:
+                self._creating_db_in_readonly = True
+                with self.begin(write=not self.readonly) as txn:
+                    db = _Database(
+                        self,
+                        txn,
+                        key,
+                        reverse_key,
+                        dupsort,
+                        create,
+                        integerkey,
+                        integerdup,
+                        dupfixed,
+                    )
+            finally:
+                self._creating_db_in_readonly = False
+        self._dbs[key] = db
+        return db
+
+    def begin(self, db=None, parent=None, write=False, buffers=False):
+        """Shortcut for :py:class:`lmdb.Transaction`"""
+        return Transaction(self, db, parent, write, buffers)
+
+
+class _Database(object):
+    """
+    Internal database handle.  This class is opaque, save a single method.
+
+    Should not be constructed directly.  Use :py:meth:`Environment.open_db`
+    instead.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        env,
+        txn,
+        name,
+        reverse_key,
+        dupsort,
+        create,
+        integerkey,
+        integerdup,
+        dupfixed,
+    ):
+        env._deps.add(self)
+        self._deps = set()
+        self._name = name
+
+        flags = 0
+        if reverse_key:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_REVERSEKEY
+        if dupsort:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_DUPSORT
+        if create:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_CREATE
+        if integerkey:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_INTEGERKEY
+        if integerdup:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_INTEGERDUP
+        if dupfixed:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_DUPFIXED
+        dbipp = _ffi.new("MDB_dbi *")
+        self._dbi = None
+        rc = _lib.mdb_dbi_open(txn._txn, name or _ffi.NULL, flags, dbipp)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_dbi_open", rc)
+        self._dbi = dbipp[0]
+        self._load_flags(txn)
+
+    def _load_flags(self, txn):
+        """Load MDB's notion of the database flags."""
+        flags_ = _ffi.new("unsigned int[]", 1)
+        rc = _lib.mdb_dbi_flags(txn._txn, self._dbi, flags_)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_dbi_flags", rc)
+        self._flags = flags_[0]
+
+    def flags(self, *args):
+        """Return the database's associated flags as a dict of _Database
+        constructor kwargs."""
+        if len(args) > 1:
+            raise TypeError("flags takes 0 or 1 arguments")
+
+        return {
+            "reverse_key": bool(self._flags & _lib.MDB_REVERSEKEY),
+            "dupsort": bool(self._flags & _lib.MDB_DUPSORT),
+            "integerkey": bool(self._flags & _lib.MDB_INTEGERKEY),
+            "integerdup": bool(self._flags & _lib.MDB_INTEGERDUP),
+            "dupfixed": bool(self._flags & _lib.MDB_DUPFIXED),
+        }
+
+    def _invalidate(self):
+        self._dbi = _invalid
+
+
+open = Environment
+
+
+class Transaction(object):
+    """
+    A transaction object. All operations require a transaction handle,
+    transactions may be read-only or read-write. Write transactions may not
+    span threads. Transaction objects implement the context manager protocol,
+    so that reliable release of the transaction happens even in the face of
+    unhandled exceptions:
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            # Transaction aborts correctly:
+            with env.begin(write=True) as txn:
+                crash()
+
+            # Transaction commits automatically:
+            with env.begin(write=True) as txn:
+                txn.put('a', 'b')
+
+    Equivalent to `mdb_txn_begin()
+    <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gad7ea55da06b77513609efebd44b26920>`_
+
+        `env`:
+            Environment the transaction should be on.
+
+        `db`:
+            Default named database to operate on. If unspecified, defaults to
+            the environment's main database. Can be overridden on a per-call
+            basis below.
+
+        `parent`:
+            ``None``, or a parent transaction (see lmdb.h).
+
+        `write`:
+            Transactions are read-only by default. To modify the database, you
+            must pass `write=True`. This flag is ignored if
+            :py:class:`Environment` was opened with ``readonly=True``.
+
+        `buffers`:
+            If ``True``, indicates :py:func:`buffer` objects should be yielded
+            instead of bytestrings. This setting applies to the
+            :py:class:`Transaction` instance itself and any :py:class:`Cursors
+            <Cursor>` created within the transaction.
+
+            This feature significantly improves performance, since MDB has a
+            zero-copy design, but it requires care when manipulating the
+            returned buffer objects. The benefit of this facility is diminished
+            when using small keys and values.
+    """
+
+    # If constructor fails, then __del__ will attempt to access these
+    # attributes.
+    _env = _invalid
+    _txn = _invalid
+    _parent = None
+    _write = False
+
+    # Mutations occurred since transaction start. Required to know when Cursor
+    # key/value must be refreshed.
+    _mutations = 0
+
+    def __init__(self, env, db=None, parent=None, write=False, buffers=False):
+        env._deps.add(self)
+        self.env = env  # hold ref
+        self._db = db or env._db
+        self._env = env._env
+        self._key = _ffi.new("MDB_val *")
+        self._val = _ffi.new("MDB_val *")
+        self._to_py = _mvbuf if buffers else _mvstr
+        self._deps = set()
+
+        if parent:
+            self._parent = parent
+            parent_txn = parent._txn
+            parent._deps.add(self)
+        else:
+            parent_txn = _ffi.NULL
+
+        if write:
+            if env.readonly:
+                msg = "Cannot start write transaction with read-only env"
+                raise _error(msg, _lib.EACCES)
+
+            txnpp = _ffi.new("MDB_txn **")
+            rc = _lib.mdb_txn_begin(self._env, parent_txn, 0, txnpp)
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_txn_begin", rc)
+            self._txn = txnpp[0]
+            self._write = True
+        else:
+            try:  # Exception catch in order to avoid racy 'if txns:' test
+                if (
+                    env._creating_db_in_readonly
+                ):  # Don't use spare txns for creating a DB when read-only
+                    raise IndexError
+                self._txn = env._spare_txns.pop()
+                env._max_spare_txns += 1
+                rc = _lib.mdb_txn_renew(self._txn)
+                if rc:
+                    while self._deps:
+                        self._deps.pop()._invalidate()
+                    _lib.mdb_txn_abort(self._txn)
+                    self._txn = _invalid
+                    self._invalidate()
+                    raise _error("mdb_txn_renew", rc)
+            except IndexError:
+                txnpp = _ffi.new("MDB_txn **")
+                flags = _lib.MDB_RDONLY
+                rc = _lib.mdb_txn_begin(self._env, parent_txn, flags, txnpp)
+                if rc:
+                    raise _error("mdb_txn_begin", rc)
+                self._txn = txnpp[0]
+
+    def _invalidate(self):
+        if self._txn:
+            self.abort()
+        self.env._deps.discard(self)
+        self._parent = None
+        self._env = _invalid
+
+    def __del__(self):
+        self.abort()
+
+    def __enter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
+        if exc_type:
+            self.abort()
+        else:
+            self.commit()
+
+    def id(self):
+        """id()
+
+        Return the transaction's ID.
+
+        This returns the identifier associated with this transaction. For a
+        read-only transaction, this corresponds to the snapshot being read;
+        concurrent readers will frequently have the same transaction ID.
+        """
+        return _lib.mdb_txn_id(self._txn)
+
+    def stat(self, db):
+        """stat(db)
+
+        Return statistics like :py:meth:`Environment.stat`, except for a single
+        DBI. `db` must be a database handle returned by :py:meth:`open_db`.
+        """
+        st = _ffi.new("MDB_stat *")
+        rc = _lib.mdb_stat(self._txn, db._dbi, st)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_stat", rc)
+        return self.env._convert_stat(st)
+
+    def drop(self, db, delete=True):
+        """Delete all keys in a named database and optionally delete the named
+        database itself. Deleting the named database causes it to become
+        unavailable, and invalidates existing cursors.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_drop()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gab966fab3840fc54a6571dfb32b00f2db>`_
+        """
+        while db._deps:
+            db._deps.pop()._invalidate()
+        rc = _lib.mdb_drop(self._txn, db._dbi, delete)
+        self._mutations += 1
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_drop", rc)
+        if db._name in self.env._dbs:
+            del self.env._dbs[db._name]
+
+    def _cache_spare(self):
+        # In order to avoid taking and maintaining a lock, a race is allowed
+        # below which may result in more spare txns than desired. It seems
+        # unlikely the race could ever result in a large amount of spare txns,
+        # and in any case a correctly configured program should not be opening
+        # more read-only transactions than there are configured spares.
+        if self.env._max_spare_txns > 0:
+            _lib.mdb_txn_reset(self._txn)
+            self.env._spare_txns.append(self._txn)
+            self.env._max_spare_txns -= 1
+            self._txn = _invalid
+            self._invalidate()
+            return True
+
+        return False
+
+    def commit(self):
+        """Commit the pending transaction.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_txn_commit()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga846fbd6f46105617ac9f4d76476f6597>`_
+        """
+        while self._deps:
+            self._deps.pop()._invalidate()
+        if self._write or not self._cache_spare():
+            rc = _lib.mdb_txn_commit(self._txn)
+            self._txn = _invalid
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_txn_commit", rc)
+            self._invalidate()
+
+    def abort(self):
+        """Abort the pending transaction. Repeat calls to :py:meth:`abort` have
+        no effect after a previously successful :py:meth:`commit` or
+        :py:meth:`abort`, or after the associated :py:class:`Environment` has
+        been closed.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_txn_abort()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga73a5938ae4c3239ee11efa07eb22b882>`_
+        """
+        if self._txn:
+            while self._deps:
+                self._deps.pop()._invalidate()
+            if self._write or not self._cache_spare():
+                rc = _lib.mdb_txn_abort(self._txn)
+                self._txn = _invalid
+                if rc:
+                    raise _error("mdb_txn_abort", rc)
+            self._invalidate()
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None, db=None):
+        """Fetch the first value matching `key`, returning `default` if `key`
+        does not exist. A cursor must be used to fetch all values for a key in
+        a `dupsort=True` database.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga8bf10cd91d3f3a83a34d04ce6b07992d>`_
+        """
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_get(self._txn, (db or self._db)._dbi, key, len(key), self._val)
+        if rc:
+            if rc == _lib.MDB_NOTFOUND:
+                return default
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_get", rc)
+
+        preload(self._val)
+        return self._to_py(self._val)
+
+    def put(self, key, value, dupdata=True, overwrite=True, append=False, db=None):
+        """Store a record, returning ``True`` if it was written, or ``False``
+        to indicate the key was already present and `overwrite=False`.
+        On success, the cursor is positioned on the new record.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_put()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga4fa8573d9236d54687c61827ebf8cac0>`_
+
+            `key`:
+                Bytestring key to store.
+
+            `value`:
+                Bytestring value to store.
+
+            `dupdata`:
+                If ``False`` and database was opened with `dupsort=True`, will return
+                ``False`` if the key already has that value.  In other words, this only
+                affects the return value.
+
+            `overwrite`:
+                If ``False``, do not overwrite any existing matching key.  If
+                False and writing to a dupsort=True database, this will not add a value
+                to the key and this function will return ``False``.
+
+            `append`:
+                If ``True``, append the pair to the end of the database without
+                comparing its order first. Appending a key that is not greater
+                than the highest existing key will fail and return ``False``.
+
+            `db`:
+                Named database to operate on. If unspecified, defaults to the
+                database given to the :py:class:`Transaction` constructor.
+        """
+        # Handle None key/value according to LMDB behavior
+        if key is None:
+            raise BadValsizeError("Key cannot be None")
+        if value is None:
+            value = b""
+
+        flags = 0
+        if not dupdata:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NODUPDATA
+        if not overwrite:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOOVERWRITE
+        if append:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_APPEND
+
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_put(
+            self._txn, (db or self._db)._dbi, key, len(key), value, len(value), flags
+        )
+        self._mutations += 1
+        if rc:
+            if rc == _lib.MDB_KEYEXIST:
+                return False
+            raise _error("mdb_put", rc)
+        return True
+
+    def replace(self, key, value, db=None):
+        """Use a temporary cursor to invoke :py:meth:`Cursor.replace`.
+
+        `db`:
+            Named database to operate on. If unspecified, defaults to the
+            database given to the :py:class:`Transaction` constructor.
+        """
+        with Cursor(db or self._db, self) as curs:
+            return curs.replace(key, value)
+
+    def pop(self, key, db=None):
+        """Use a temporary cursor to invoke :py:meth:`Cursor.pop`.
+
+        `db`:
+            Named database to operate on. If unspecified, defaults to the
+            database given to the :py:class:`Transaction` constructor.
+        """
+        with Cursor(db or self._db, self) as curs:
+            return curs.pop(key)
+
+    def delete(self, key, value=EMPTY_BYTES, db=None):
+        """Delete a key from the database.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_del()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#gab8182f9360ea69ac0afd4a4eaab1ddb0>`_
+
+            `key`:
+                The key to delete.
+
+            value:
+                If the database was opened with dupsort=True and value is not
+                the empty bytestring, then delete elements matching only this
+                `(key, value)` pair, otherwise all values for key are deleted.
+
+        Returns True if at least one key was deleted.
+        """
+        if value is None:  # for bug-compatibility with cpython impl
+            value = EMPTY_BYTES
+
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_del(
+            self._txn, (db or self._db)._dbi, key, len(key), value, len(value)
+        )
+        self._mutations += 1
+        if rc:
+            if rc == _lib.MDB_NOTFOUND:
+                return False
+            raise _error("mdb_del", rc)
+        return True
+
+    def cursor(self, db=None):
+        """Shortcut for ``lmdb.Cursor(db, self)``"""
+        return Cursor(db or self._db, self)
+
+
+class Cursor(object):
+    """
+    Structure for navigating a database.
+
+    Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_open()
+    <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga9ff5d7bd42557fd5ee235dc1d62613aa>`_
+
+        `db`:
+            :py:class:`_Database` to navigate.
+
+        `txn`:
+            :py:class:`Transaction` to navigate.
+
+    As a convenience, :py:meth:`Transaction.cursor` can be used to quickly
+    return a cursor:
+
+        ::
+
+            >>> env = lmdb.open('/tmp/foo')
+            >>> child_db = env.open_db('child_db')
+            >>> with env.begin() as txn:
+            ...     cursor = txn.cursor()           # Cursor on main database.
+            ...     cursor2 = txn.cursor(child_db)  # Cursor on child database.
+
+    Cursors start in an unpositioned state. If :py:meth:`iternext` or
+    :py:meth:`iterprev` are used in this state, iteration proceeds from the
+    start or end respectively. Iterators directly position using the cursor,
+    meaning strange behavior results when multiple iterators exist on the same
+    cursor.
+
+    .. note::
+
+        From the perspective of the Python binding, cursors return to an
+        'unpositioned' state once any scanning or seeking method (e.g.
+        :py:meth:`next`, :py:meth:`prev_nodup`, :py:meth:`set_range`) returns
+        ``False`` or raises an exception. This is primarily to ensure safe,
+        consistent semantics in the face of any error condition.
+
+        When the Cursor returns to an unpositioned state, its :py:meth:`key`
+        and :py:meth:`value` return empty strings to indicate there is no
+        active position, although internally the LMDB cursor may still have a
+        valid position.
+
+        This may lead to slightly surprising behaviour when iterating the
+        values for a `dupsort=True` database's keys, since methods such as
+        :py:meth:`iternext_dup` will cause Cursor to appear unpositioned,
+        despite it returning ``False`` only to indicate there are no more
+        values for the current key. In that case, simply calling
+        :py:meth:`next` would cause iteration to resume at the next available
+        key.
+
+        This behaviour may change in future.
+
+    Iterator methods such as :py:meth:`iternext` and :py:meth:`iterprev` accept
+    `keys` and `values` arguments. If both are ``True``, then the value of
+    :py:meth:`item` is yielded on each iteration. If only `keys` is ``True``,
+    :py:meth:`key` is yielded, otherwise only :py:meth:`value` is yielded.
+
+    Prior to iteration, a cursor can be positioned anywhere in the database:
+
+        ::
+
+            >>> with env.begin() as txn:
+            ...     cursor = txn.cursor()
+            ...     if not cursor.set_range('5'): # Position at first key >= '5'.
+            ...         print('Not found!')
+            ...     else:
+            ...         for key, value in cursor: # Iterate from first key >= '5'.
+            ...             print((key, value))
+
+    Iteration is not required to navigate, and sometimes results in ugly or
+    inefficient code. In cases where the iteration order is not obvious, or is
+    related to the data being read, use of :py:meth:`set_key`,
+    :py:meth:`set_range`, :py:meth:`key`, :py:meth:`value`, and :py:meth:`item`
+    may be preferable:
+
+        ::
+
+            >>> # Record the path from a child to the root of a tree.
+            >>> path = ['child14123']
+            >>> while path[-1] != 'root':
+            ...     assert cursor.set_key(path[-1]), \\
+            ...         'Tree is broken! Path: %s' % (path,)
+            ...     path.append(cursor.value())
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, db, txn):
+        db._deps.add(self)
+        txn._deps.add(self)
+        self.db = db  # hold ref
+        self.txn = txn  # hold ref
+        self._dbi = db._dbi
+        self._txn = txn._txn
+        self._key = _ffi.new("MDB_val *")
+        self._val = _ffi.new("MDB_val *")
+        self._valid = False
+        self._to_py = txn._to_py
+        curpp = _ffi.new("MDB_cursor **")
+        self._cur = None
+        rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_open(self._txn, self._dbi, curpp)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_open", rc)
+        self._cur = curpp[0]
+        # If Transaction.mutations!=last_mutation, must MDB_GET_CURRENT to
+        # refresh `key' and `val'.
+        self._last_mutation = txn._mutations
+
+    def _invalidate(self):
+        if self._cur:
+            _lib.mdb_cursor_close(self._cur)
+            self.db._deps.discard(self)
+            self.txn._deps.discard(self)
+            self._cur = _invalid
+            self._dbi = _invalid
+            self._txn = _invalid
+
+    def __del__(self):
+        self._invalidate()
+
+    def close(self):
+        """Close the cursor, freeing its associated resources."""
+        self._invalidate()
+
+    def __enter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, _1, _2, _3):
+        self._invalidate()
+
+    def key(self):
+        """Return the current key."""
+        # Must refresh `key` and `val` following mutation.
+        if self._last_mutation != self.txn._mutations:
+            self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        return self._to_py(self._key)
+
+    def value(self):
+        """Return the current value."""
+        # Must refresh `key` and `val` following mutation.
+        if self._last_mutation != self.txn._mutations:
+            self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        preload(self._val)
+        return self._to_py(self._val)
+
+    def item(self):
+        """Return the current `(key, value)` pair."""
+        # Must refresh `key` and `val` following mutation.
+        if self._last_mutation != self.txn._mutations:
+            self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        preload(self._val)
+        return self._to_py(self._key), self._to_py(self._val)
+
+    def _iter(self, op, keys, values):
+        if not values:
+            get = self.key
+        elif not keys:
+            get = self.value
+        else:
+            get = self.item
+
+        cur = self._cur
+        key = self._key
+        val = self._val
+        rc = 0
+
+        while self._valid:
+            yield get()
+            rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_get(cur, key, val, op)
+            self._valid = not rc
+
+        if rc:
+            self._key.mv_size = 0
+            self._val.mv_size = 0
+            if rc != _lib.MDB_NOTFOUND:
+                raise _error("mdb_cursor_get", rc)
+
+    def iternext(self, keys=True, values=True):
+        """Return a forward iterator that yields the current element before
+        calling :py:meth:`next`, repeating until the end of the database is
+        reached. As a convenience, :py:class:`Cursor` implements the iterator
+        protocol by automatically returning a forward iterator when invoked:
+
+            ::
+
+                >>> # Equivalent:
+                >>> it = iter(cursor)
+                >>> it = cursor.iternext(keys=True, values=True)
+
+        If the cursor is not yet positioned, it is moved to the first key in
+        the database, otherwise iteration proceeds from the current position.
+        """
+        if not self._valid:
+            self.first()
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_NEXT, keys, values)
+
+    __iter__ = iternext
+
+    def iternext_dup(self, keys=False, values=True):
+        """Return a forward iterator that yields the current value
+        ("duplicate") of the current key before calling :py:meth:`next_dup`,
+        repeating until the last value of the current key is reached.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            if not cursor.set_key("foo"):
+                print("No values found for 'foo'")
+            else:
+                for idx, data in enumerate(cursor.iternext_dup()):
+                    print("%d'th value for 'foo': %s" % (idx, data))
+        """
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_NEXT_DUP, keys, values)
+
+    def iternext_nodup(self, keys=True, values=False):
+        """Return a forward iterator that yields the current value
+        ("duplicate") of the current key before calling :py:meth:`next_nodup`,
+        repeating until the end of the database is reached.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        If the cursor is not yet positioned, it is moved to the first key in
+        the database, otherwise iteration proceeds from the current position.
+
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            for key in cursor.iternext_nodup():
+                print("Key '%s' has %d values" % (key, cursor.count()))
+        """
+        if not self._valid:
+            self.first()
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_NEXT_NODUP, keys, values)
+
+    def iterprev(self, keys=True, values=True):
+        """Return a reverse iterator that yields the current element before
+        calling :py:meth:`prev`, until the start of the database is reached.
+
+        If the cursor is not yet positioned, it is moved to the last key in
+        the database, otherwise iteration proceeds from the current position.
+
+        ::
+
+            >>> with env.begin() as txn:
+            ...     for i, (key, value) in enumerate(txn.cursor().iterprev()):
+            ...         print('%dth last item is (%r, %r)' % (1+i, key, value))
+        """
+        if not self._valid:
+            self.last()
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_PREV, keys, values)
+
+    def iterprev_dup(self, keys=False, values=True):
+        """Return a reverse iterator that yields the current value
+        ("duplicate") of the current key before calling :py:meth:`prev_dup`,
+        repeating until the first value of the current key is reached.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+        """
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_PREV_DUP, keys, values)
+
+    def iterprev_nodup(self, keys=True, values=False):
+        """Return a reverse iterator that yields the current value
+        ("duplicate") of the current key before calling :py:meth:`prev_nodup`,
+        repeating until the start of the database is reached.
+
+        If the cursor is not yet positioned, it is moved to the last key in
+        the database, otherwise iteration proceeds from the current position.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+        """
+        if not self._valid:
+            self.last()
+        return self._iter(_lib.MDB_PREV_NODUP, keys, values)
+
+    def _cursor_get(self, op):
+        rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_get(self._cur, self._key, self._val, op)
+        self._valid = v = not rc
+        self._last_mutation = self.txn._mutations
+        if rc:
+            self._key.mv_size = 0
+            self._val.mv_size = 0
+            if rc != _lib.MDB_NOTFOUND:
+                if not (rc == _lib.EINVAL and op == _lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT):
+                    raise _error("mdb_cursor_get", rc)
+        return v
+
+    def _cursor_get_kv(self, op, k, v):
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_cursor_get(
+            self._cur, k, len(k), v, len(v), self._key, self._val, op
+        )
+        self._valid = v = not rc
+        if rc:
+            self._key.mv_size = 0
+            self._val.mv_size = 0
+            if rc != _lib.MDB_NOTFOUND:
+                if not (rc == _lib.EINVAL and op == _lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT):
+                    raise _error("mdb_cursor_get", rc)
+        return v
+
+    def first(self):
+        """Move to the first key in the database, returning ``True`` on success
+        or ``False`` if the database is empty.
+
+        If the database was opened with `dupsort=True` and the key contains
+        duplicates, the cursor is positioned on the first value ("duplicate").
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_FIRST
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_FIRST)
+
+    def first_dup(self):
+        """Move to the first value ("duplicate") for the current key, returning
+        ``True`` on success or ``False`` if the database is empty.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_FIRST_DUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_FIRST_DUP)
+
+    def last(self):
+        """Move to the last key in the database, returning ``True`` on success
+        or ``False`` if the database is empty.
+
+        If the database was opened with `dupsort=True` and the key contains
+        duplicates, the cursor is positioned on the last value ("duplicate").
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_LAST
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_LAST)
+
+    def last_dup(self):
+        """Move to the last value ("duplicate") for the current key, returning
+        ``True`` on success or ``False`` if the database is empty.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_LAST_DUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_LAST_DUP)
+
+    def prev(self):
+        """Move to the previous element, returning ``True`` on success or
+        ``False`` if there is no previous item.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, moves to the previous data
+        item ("duplicate") for the current key if one exists, otherwise moves
+        to the previous key.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_PREV
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_PREV)
+
+    def prev_dup(self):
+        """Move to the previous value ("duplicate") of the current key,
+        returning ``True`` on success or ``False`` if there is no previous
+        value.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_PREV_DUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_PREV_DUP)
+
+    def prev_nodup(self):
+        """Move to the last value ("duplicate") of the previous key, returning
+        ``True`` on success or ``False`` if there is no previous key.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_PREV_NODUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_PREV_NODUP)
+
+    def next(self):
+        """Move to the next element, returning ``True`` on success or ``False``
+        if there is no next element.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, moves to the next value
+        ("duplicate") for the current key if one exists, otherwise moves to the
+        first value of the next key.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_NEXT
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_NEXT)
+
+    def next_dup(self):
+        """Move to the next value ("duplicate") of the current key, returning
+        ``True`` on success or ``False`` if there is no next value.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_NEXT_DUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_NEXT_DUP)
+
+    def next_nodup(self):
+        """Move to the first value ("duplicate") of the next key, returning
+        ``True`` on success or ``False`` if there is no next key.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_NEXT_NODUP
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_NEXT_NODUP)
+
+    def set_key(self, key):
+        """Seek exactly to `key`, returning ``True`` on success or ``False`` if
+        the exact key was not found. It is an error to :py:meth:`set_key` the
+        empty bytestring.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, moves to the first value
+        ("duplicate") for the key.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_SET_KEY
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_SET_KEY, key, EMPTY_BYTES)
+
+    def set_key_dup(self, key, value):
+        """Seek exactly to `(key, value)`, returning ``True`` on success or
+        ``False`` if the exact key and value was not found. It is an error
+        to :py:meth:`set_key` the empty bytestring.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_GET_BOTH
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        return self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_GET_BOTH, key, value)
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None):
+        """Equivalent to :py:meth:`set_key()`, except :py:meth:`value` is
+        returned when `key` is found, otherwise `default`.
+        """
+        if self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_SET_KEY, key, EMPTY_BYTES):
+            return self.value()
+        return default
+
+    def getmulti(self, keys, dupdata=False, dupfixed_bytes=None, keyfixed=False):
+        """Returns an iterable of `(key, value)` 2-tuples containing results
+        for each key in the iterable `keys`.
+
+            `keys`:
+                Iterable to read keys from.
+
+            `dupdata`:
+                If ``True`` and database was opened with `dupsort=True`, read
+                all duplicate values for each matching key.
+
+            `dupfixed_bytes`:
+                If database was opened with `dupsort=True` and `dupfixed=True`,
+                accepts the size of each value, in bytes, and applies an
+                optimization reducing the number of database lookups.
+
+            `keyfixed`:
+                If `dupfixed_bytes` is set and database key size is fixed,
+                setting keyfixed=True will result in this function returning
+                a memoryview to the results as a structured array of bytes.
+                The structured array can be instantiated by passing the
+                memoryview buffer to NumPy:
+
+                .. code-block:: python
+
+                    key_bytes, val_bytes = 4, 8
+                    dtype = np.dtype([(f'S{key_bytes}', f'S{val_bytes}}')])
+                    arr = np.frombuffer(
+                        cur.getmulti(keys, dupdata=True, dupfixed_bytes=val_bytes, keyfixed=True)
+                    )
+
+        """
+        if dupfixed_bytes and dupfixed_bytes < 0:
+            raise _error("dupfixed_bytes must be a positive integer.")
+        elif (dupfixed_bytes or keyfixed) and not dupdata:
+            raise _error("dupdata is required for dupfixed_bytes/key_bytes.")
+        elif keyfixed and not dupfixed_bytes:
+            raise _error("dupfixed_bytes is required for key_bytes.")
+
+        if dupfixed_bytes:
+            get_op = _lib.MDB_GET_MULTIPLE
+            next_op = _lib.MDB_NEXT_MULTIPLE
+        else:
+            get_op = _lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT
+            next_op = _lib.MDB_NEXT_DUP
+
+        a = bytearray()
+        lst = list()
+        for key in keys:
+            if self.set_key(key):
+                while self._valid:
+                    self._cursor_get(get_op)
+                    preload(self._val)
+                    key = self._to_py(self._key)
+                    val = self._to_py(self._val)
+
+                    if dupfixed_bytes:
+                        gen = (
+                            (key, val[i : i + dupfixed_bytes])
+                            for i in range(0, len(val), dupfixed_bytes)
+                        )
+                        if keyfixed:
+                            for k, v in gen:
+                                a.extend(k + v)
+                        else:
+                            for k, v in gen:
+                                lst.append((k, v))
+                    else:
+                        lst.append((key, val))
+
+                    if dupdata:
+                        self._cursor_get(next_op)
+                    else:
+                        break
+
+        if keyfixed:
+            return memoryview(a)
+        else:
+            return lst
+
+    def set_range(self, key):
+        """Seek to the first key greater than or equal to `key`, returning
+        ``True`` on success, or ``False`` to indicate key was past end of
+        database. Behaves like :py:meth:`first` if `key` is the empty
+        bytestring.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, moves to the first value
+        ("duplicate") for the key.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_SET_RANGE
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        if not key:
+            return self.first()
+        return self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_SET_RANGE, key, EMPTY_BYTES)
+
+    def set_range_dup(self, key, value):
+        """Seek to the first key/value pair greater than or equal to `key`,
+        returning ``True`` on success, or ``False`` to indicate that `value` was past the
+        last value of `key` or that `(key, value)` was past the end end of database.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_get()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga48df35fb102536b32dfbb801a47b4cb0>`_
+        with `MDB_GET_BOTH_RANGE
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1206b2af8b95e7f6b0ef6b28708c9127>`_
+        """
+        rc = self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_GET_BOTH_RANGE, key, value)
+        # issue #126: MDB_GET_BOTH_RANGE does not satisfy its documentation,
+        # and fails to update `key` and `value` on success. Therefore
+        # explicitly call MDB_GET_CURRENT after MDB_GET_BOTH_RANGE.
+        self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        return rc
+
+    def delete(self, dupdata=False):
+        """Delete the current element and move to the next, returning ``True``
+        on success or ``False`` if the database was empty.
+
+        If `dupdata` is ``True``, delete all values ("duplicates") for the
+        current key, otherwise delete only the currently positioned value. Only
+        meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_del()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga26a52d3efcfd72e5bf6bd6960bf75f95>`_
+        """
+        v = self._valid
+        if v:
+            flags = _lib.MDB_NODUPDATA if dupdata else 0
+            rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_del(self._cur, flags)
+            self.txn._mutations += 1
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_cursor_del", rc)
+            self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+            v = rc == 0
+        return v
+
+    def count(self):
+        """Return the number of values ("duplicates") for the current key.
+
+        Only meaningful for databases opened with `dupsort=True`.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_count()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga4041fd1e1862c6b7d5f10590b86ffbe2>`_
+        """
+        countp = _ffi.new("size_t *")
+        rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_count(self._cur, countp)
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_count", rc)
+        return countp[0]
+
+    def put(self, key, val, dupdata=True, overwrite=True, append=False):
+        """Store a record, returning ``True`` if it was written, or ``False``
+        to indicate the key was already present and `overwrite=False`. On
+        success, the cursor is positioned on the key.
+
+        Equivalent to `mdb_cursor_put()
+        <http://lmdb.tech/doc/group__mdb.html#ga1f83ccb40011837ff37cc32be01ad91e>`_
+
+            `key`:
+                Bytestring key to store.
+
+            `val`:
+                Bytestring value to store.
+
+            `dupdata`:
+                If ``False`` and database was opened with `dupsort=True`, will return
+                ``False`` if the key already has that value.  In other words, this only
+                affects the return value.
+
+            `overwrite`:
+                If ``False``, do not overwrite the value for the key if it
+                exists, just return ``False``. For databases opened with
+                `dupsort=True`, ``False`` will always be returned if a
+                duplicate key/value pair is inserted, regardless of the setting
+                for `overwrite`.
+
+            `append`:
+                If ``True``, append the pair to the end of the database without
+                comparing its order first. Appending a key that is not greater
+                than the highest existing key will fail and return ``False``.
+        """
+        flags = 0
+        if not dupdata:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NODUPDATA
+        if not overwrite:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOOVERWRITE
+        if append:
+            if self.txn._db._flags & _lib.MDB_DUPSORT:
+                flags |= _lib.MDB_APPENDDUP
+            else:
+                flags |= _lib.MDB_APPEND
+
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_cursor_put(self._cur, key, len(key), val, len(val), flags)
+        self.txn._mutations += 1
+        if rc:
+            if rc == _lib.MDB_KEYEXIST:
+                return False
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_put", rc)
+        self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        return True
+
+    def putmulti(self, items, dupdata=True, overwrite=True, append=False):
+        """Invoke :py:meth:`put` for each `(key, value)` 2-tuple from the
+        iterable `items`. Elements must be exactly 2-tuples, they may not be of
+        any other type, or tuple subclass.
+
+        Returns a tuple `(consumed, added)`, where `consumed` is the number of
+        elements read from the iterable, and `added` is the number of new
+        entries added to the database. `added` may be less than `consumed` when
+        `overwrite=False`.
+
+            `items`:
+                Iterable to read records from.
+
+            `dupdata`:
+                If ``True`` and database was opened with `dupsort=True`, add
+                pair as a duplicate if the given key already exists. Otherwise
+                overwrite any existing matching key.
+
+            `overwrite`:
+                If ``False``, do not overwrite the value for the key if it
+                exists, just return ``False``. For databases opened with
+                `dupsort=True`, ``False`` will always be returned if a
+                duplicate key/value pair is inserted, regardless of the setting
+                for `overwrite`.
+
+            `append`:
+                If ``True``, append records to the end of the database without
+                comparing their order first. Appending a key that is not
+                greater than the highest existing key will cause corruption.
+        """
+        flags = 0
+        if not dupdata:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NODUPDATA
+        if not overwrite:
+            flags |= _lib.MDB_NOOVERWRITE
+        if append:
+            if self.txn._db._flags & _lib.MDB_DUPSORT:
+                flags |= _lib.MDB_APPENDDUP
+            else:
+                flags |= _lib.MDB_APPEND
+
+        added = 0
+        skipped = 0
+        for key, value in items:
+            rc = _lib.pymdb_cursor_put(
+                self._cur, key, len(key), value, len(value), flags
+            )
+            self.txn._mutations += 1
+            added += 1
+            if rc:
+                if rc == _lib.MDB_KEYEXIST:
+                    skipped += 1
+                else:
+                    raise _error("mdb_cursor_put", rc)
+        self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        return added, added - skipped
+
+    def replace(self, key, val):
+        """Store a record, returning its previous value if one existed. Returns
+        ``None`` if no previous value existed. This uses the best available
+        mechanism to minimize the cost of a `set-and-return-previous`
+        operation.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, only the first data element
+        ("duplicate") is returned if it existed, all data elements are removed
+        and the new `(key, data)` pair is inserted.
+
+            `key`:
+                Bytestring key to store.
+
+            `value`:
+                Bytestring value to store.
+        """
+        if self.db._flags & _lib.MDB_DUPSORT:
+            if self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_SET_KEY, key, EMPTY_BYTES):
+                preload(self._val)
+                old = _mvstr(self._val)
+                self.delete(True)
+            else:
+                old = None
+            self.put(key, val)
+            return old
+
+        flags = _lib.MDB_NOOVERWRITE
+        keylen = len(key)
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_cursor_put(self._cur, key, keylen, val, len(val), flags)
+        self.txn._mutations += 1
+        if not rc:
+            return
+        if rc != _lib.MDB_KEYEXIST:
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_put", rc)
+
+        self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        preload(self._val)
+        old = _mvstr(self._val)
+        rc = _lib.pymdb_cursor_put(self._cur, key, keylen, val, len(val), 0)
+        self.txn._mutations += 1
+        if rc:
+            raise _error("mdb_cursor_put", rc)
+        self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+        return old
+
+    def pop(self, key):
+        """Fetch a record's value then delete it. Returns ``None`` if no
+        previous value existed. This uses the best available mechanism to
+        minimize the cost of a `delete-and-return-previous` operation.
+
+        For databases opened with `dupsort=True`, the first data element
+        ("duplicate") for the key will be popped.
+
+            `key`:
+                Bytestring key to delete.
+        """
+        if self._cursor_get_kv(_lib.MDB_SET_KEY, key, EMPTY_BYTES):
+            preload(self._val)
+            old = _mvstr(self._val)
+            rc = _lib.mdb_cursor_del(self._cur, 0)
+            self.txn._mutations += 1
+            if rc:
+                raise _error("mdb_cursor_del", rc)
+            self._cursor_get(_lib.MDB_GET_CURRENT)
+            return old
+
+    def _iter_from(self, k, reverse):
+        """Helper for centidb. Please do not rely on this interface, it may be
+        removed in future.
+        """
+        if not k and not reverse:
+            found = self.first()
+        else:
+            found = self.set_range(k)
+        if reverse:
+            if not found:
+                self.last()
+            return self.iterprev()
+        else:
+            if not found:
+                return iter(())
+            return self.iternext()