x-transformers 1.44.8__py3-none-any.whl → 2.0.1__py3-none-any.whl

x_transformers-2.0.1.dist-info/METADATA

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+Metadata-Version: 2.4
+Name: x-transformers
+Version: 2.0.1
+Summary: X-Transformers
+Project-URL: Homepage, https://pypi.org/project/x-transformers/
+Project-URL: Repository, https://github.com/lucidrains/x-transformers
+Author-email: Phil Wang <lucidrains@gmail.com>
+License: MIT License
+        
+        Copyright (c) 2020 Phil Wang
+        
+        Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+        of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+        in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+        to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+        copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+        furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+        
+        The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+        copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+        
+        THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+        IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+        FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+        AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+        LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+        OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+        SOFTWARE.
+License-File: LICENSE
+Keywords: artificial intelligence,attention mechanism,transformers
+Classifier: Development Status :: 4 - Beta
+Classifier: Intended Audience :: Developers
+Classifier: License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License
+Classifier: Programming Language :: Python :: 3.6
+Classifier: Topic :: Scientific/Engineering :: Artificial Intelligence
+Requires-Python: >=3.9
+Requires-Dist: einops>=0.8.0
+Requires-Dist: einx>=0.3.0
+Requires-Dist: loguru
+Requires-Dist: packaging>=21.0
+Requires-Dist: torch>=2.0
+Provides-Extra: examples
+Requires-Dist: torchvision; extra == 'examples'
+Requires-Dist: tqdm; extra == 'examples'
+Provides-Extra: test
+Requires-Dist: pytest; extra == 'test'
+Description-Content-Type: text/markdown
+
+## x-transformers
+
+[![PyPI version](https://badge.fury.io/py/x-transformers.svg)](https://badge.fury.io/py/x-transformers)
+
+A concise but fully-featured transformer, complete with a set of promising e**x**perimental features from various papers.
+
+## Install
+
+```bash
+$ pip install x-transformers
+```
+
+## Usage
+
+Full encoder / decoder
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import XTransformer
+
+model = XTransformer(
+    dim = 512,
+    enc_num_tokens = 256,
+    enc_depth = 6,
+    enc_heads = 8,
+    enc_max_seq_len = 1024,
+    dec_num_tokens = 256,
+    dec_depth = 6,
+    dec_heads = 8,
+    dec_max_seq_len = 1024,
+    tie_token_emb = True      # tie embeddings of encoder and decoder
+)
+
+src = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024))
+src_mask = torch.ones_like(src).bool()
+tgt = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024))
+
+loss = model(src, tgt, mask = src_mask) # (1, 1024, 512)
+loss.backward()
+```
+
+Decoder-only (GPT-like)
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+).cuda()
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024)).cuda()
+
+model(x) # (1, 1024, 20000)
+```
+
+GPT3 would be approximately the following (but you wouldn't be able to run it anyways)
+
+```python
+
+gpt3 = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 50000,
+    max_seq_len = 2048,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 12288,
+        depth = 96,
+        heads = 96,
+        attn_dim_head = 128
+    )
+).cuda()
+```
+
+Encoder-only (BERT-like)
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+).cuda()
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024)).cuda()
+mask = torch.ones_like(x).bool()
+
+model(x, mask = mask) # (1, 1024, 20000)
+```
+
+State of the art image classification (<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.01580">SimpleViT</a>)
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import ViTransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = ViTransformerWrapper(
+    image_size = 256,
+    patch_size = 32,
+    num_classes = 1000,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+    )
+)
+
+img = torch.randn(1, 3, 256, 256)
+model(img) # (1, 1000)
+```
+
+Image -> caption
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import ViTransformerWrapper, TransformerWrapper, Encoder, Decoder
+
+encoder = ViTransformerWrapper(
+    image_size = 256,
+    patch_size = 32,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+decoder = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        cross_attend = True
+    )
+)
+
+img = torch.randn(1, 3, 256, 256)
+caption = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+
+encoded = encoder(img, return_embeddings = True)
+decoder(caption, context = encoded) # (1, 1024, 20000)
+```
+
+<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.06794">PaLI</a>, state of the art language-vision model
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import ViTransformerWrapper, XTransformer, Encoder
+
+# PaLI composes of
+# 1. vision transformer (ViTransformerWrapper) +
+# 2. encoder-decoder transformer (XTransformer)
+
+vit = ViTransformerWrapper(
+    image_size = 256,
+    patch_size = 32,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+pali = XTransformer(
+    dim = 512,
+    enc_num_tokens = 256,
+    enc_depth = 6,
+    enc_heads = 8,
+    enc_max_seq_len = 1024,
+    dec_num_tokens = 256,
+    dec_depth = 6,
+    dec_heads = 8,
+    dec_max_seq_len = 1024
+)
+
+# training data
+
+img = torch.randn(1, 3, 256, 256)               # images
+prompt = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024))       # prompt
+prompt_mask = torch.ones(1, 1024).bool()        # prompt text mask
+output_text = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024))  # target output text
+
+# train
+
+img_embeds = vit(
+    img,
+    return_embeddings = True
+)
+
+loss = pali(
+    prompt,
+    output_text,
+    mask = prompt_mask,
+    src_prepend_embeds = img_embeds             # will preprend image embeddings to encoder text embeddings before attention
+)
+
+loss.backward()
+
+# do the above for many steps on a 17B parameter model
+# attention is all you need
+```
+
+## Dropouts
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    emb_dropout = 0.1,         # dropout after embedding
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        layer_dropout = 0.1,   # stochastic depth - dropout entire layer
+        attn_dropout = 0.1,    # dropout post-attention
+        ff_dropout = 0.1       # feedforward dropout
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+## Features
+
+### Flash Attention
+
+<img src="./images/flash-attention.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+What originally started off as <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.05682">a short paper</a> from Markus Rabe culminated as a practical fused attention CUDA kernel, named <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.14135">Flash Attention</a> by <a href="https://tridao.me/">Tri Dao</a>.
+
+The technique processes the attention matrix in tiles, only keeping track of the running softmax and exponentiated weighted sums. By recomputing on the backwards pass in a tiled fashion, one is able to keep the memory linear with respect to sequence length. This allows a lot of recent models  to be able to reach for longer context lengths without worrying about the memory bottleneck.
+
+Other engineering decisions made by Tri Dao led to its enormous success, namely minimizing HBM accesses so that both the forwards and backwards outperform naive attention. In other words, flash attention is not only more memory efficient, but faster as well, making it a necessity for training transformers.
+
+MetaAI has recently added the ability to use <a href="https://github.com/hazyresearch/flash-attention">Tri Dao's CUDA kernel</a> through the <a href="https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.nn.functional.scaled_dot_product_attention.html">scaled_dot_product_attention</a> function in Pytorch 2.0. (They also have a `mem_efficient` attention, which is identical to flash attention design, just that the tiles are traversed differently)
+
+<a href="https://ai.facebook.com/blog/large-language-model-llama-meta-ai/">Llama</a> was trained using Flash Attention. The only reason to avoid it is if you require operating on the attention matrix (dynamic positional bias, talking heads, residual attention).
+
+You can use it in this repository by setting `attn_flash` to `True` and enjoy the immediate memory savings and increase in speed.
+
+ex.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_flash = True # just set this to True if you have pytorch 2.0 installed
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Augmenting Self-attention with Persistent Memory
+
+<img src="./images/all-attention.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1907.01470
+
+Proposes adding learned memory key / values prior to attention. They were able to remove feedforwards altogether and attain similar performance to the original transformers. I have found that keeping the feedforwards and adding the memory key / values leads to even better performance.
+
+```python
+from x_transformers import Decoder, Encoder
+
+enc = Encoder(
+    dim = 512,
+    depth = 6,
+    heads = 8,
+    attn_num_mem_kv = 16 # 16 memory key / values
+)
+```
+
+### Memory Transformers
+
+<img src="./images/memory-transformer.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.11527
+
+Proposes adding learned tokens, akin to CLS tokens, named memory tokens, that is passed through the attention layers alongside the input tokens. This setting is compatible with both encoder and decoder training.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    num_memory_tokens = 20, # 20 memory tokens
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+```
+
+Update: MetaAI researchers <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.16588">have found</a> that adding memory tokens (they call them register tokens), alleviates outliers (which is suspected now to be a pathology of attention networks unable to <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.12929">attend to nothing</a>).
+
+Update 2: a hybrid architecture out of Nvidia named <a href="https://openreview.net/forum?id=A1ztozypga">Hymba</a> used memory tokens successfully in the autoregressive case, termed meta tokens in their paper.
+
+Update 3: further corroborated by <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.00663">a paper</a> trying to extend memory in attention networks, termed persistent memory
+
+### Transformers Without Tears
+
+<img src="./images/scalenorm.png"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.05895
+
+They experiment with alternatives to Layer normalization and found one that is both effective and simpler. Researchers have shared with me this leads to faster convergence.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        use_scalenorm = True # set to True to use for all layers
+    )
+)
+```
+
+You can also use the l2 normalized embeddings proposed as part of `fixnorm`. I have found it leads to improved convergence, when paired with small initialization (proposed by <a href="https://github.com/BlinkDL">BlinkDL</a>). The small initialization will be taken care of as long as `l2norm_embed` is set to `True`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    l2norm_embed = True,    # set this to True for l2 normalized embedding + small init
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+```
+
+Along the same lines of l2 normalized embeddings, Huggingface's <a href="https://huggingface.co/bigscience/bloom">175B parameter BLOOM</a> also places a layernorm right after the embeddings and just before the tokens enter the attention layers. This was corroborated by Yandex's <a href="https://github.com/yandex/YaLM-100B">100B parameter YaLM</a> to stabilize training.
+
+It is recommended you either have either `l2norm_embed` or `post_emb_norm` set to `True` but not both, as they probably serve the same purpose.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    post_emb_norm = True,    # set this to True to layernorm summed token + pos embeddings
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Root Mean Square Layer Normalization
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.07467
+
+The authors propose to replace layer normalization with a simpler alternative, without mean centering and the learned bias. An investigative paper found this to be the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.11972">best performing normalization variant</a>. It was also used in Deepmind's latest large language models, <a href="https://deepmind.com/research/publications/2021/improving-language-models-by-retrieving-from-trillions-of-tokens">Retro</a> and <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.11446">Gopher</a>.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        use_rmsnorm = True # set to true to use for all layers
+    )
+)
+```
+
+*July 2023* <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.14995">A linear attention paper</a> has experiments to show that removing the learned multiplicative gamma led to no performance degradation. This simplifies the RMS normalization to a satisfying `l2norm(x) * sqrt(dim)`.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        use_simple_rmsnorm = True # set to true to use for all layers
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### GLU Variants Improve Transformer
+
+<img src="./images/ffglu.png"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.05202
+
+Noam Shazeer paper that explores gating in the feedforward, finding that simple gating with GELU leads to significant improvements. This variant also showed up in the latest mT5 architecture. You should always turn this on (I may eventually turn it on by default).
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        ff_glu = True # set to true to use for all feedforwards
+    )
+)
+```
+
+The <a href="https://ai.googleblog.com/2022/04/pathways-language-model-palm-scaling-to.html">PaLM</a> language model also chose to use the Swish GLU variant. You can turn this on by setting two flags
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        ff_swish = True, # set this to True
+        ff_glu = True    # set to true to use for all feedforwards
+    )
+)
+``````
+
+### No Bias in Feedforward
+
+Starting with <a href="https://ai.googleblog.com/2022/04/pathways-language-model-palm-scaling-to.html">PaLM</a>, there begun a trend to remove biases from the transformer all together. <a href="https://github.com/borisdayma">Boris Dayma</a> has run a number of experiments that showed removing biases from feedforwards led to increased throughput without any loss of accuracy. This was corroborated by <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.14034">yet another paper</a> investigating transformer architecture variants.
+
+You can turn off the feedforward bias as follows
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        ff_no_bias = True  # set this to True
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### ReLU²
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/2109.08668
+
+This paper used neural architecture search and found an activation, Relu Squared, that is both simpler and performs better than GELU, in the autoregressive language model setting. I have confirmed this in my independent experiments. However, if one were using the GLU variant from above, GELU still performs better. Pending further corroboration.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        ff_relu_squared = True
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Explicit Sparse Transformer: Concentrated Attention Through Explicit Selection
+
+<img src="./images/topk-attention.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1912.11637
+
+This paper proposes an efficient way to sparsify attention by zeroing all dot-product query/key values not within the top k values. The show that this cheap method was as effective as other more expensive operations like sparsemax or entmax15. This technique comes with the cost of an extra hyperparameter (the top k values to keep). The paper recommends a value of `k = 8`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_sparse_topk = 8,                       # keep only the top 8 values before attention (softmax)
+        attn_sparse_topk_straight_through = True    # straight through the original gradients
+    )
+)
+```
+
+An extreme case of `topk` value of `1`, you can use the following
+
+```python
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_hard = True  # will only propagate the single value of the argmax of qk logit. offered in the case it addresses https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.01104
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Talking-Heads Attention
+
+<img src="./images/talking-heads.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.02436
+
+A Noam Shazeer paper that proposes mixing information between heads pre and post attention (softmax). This comes with the cost of extra memory and compute.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_pre_talking_heads = True,  # linear combination across pre-softmax attn logits across heads
+        attn_post_talking_heads = True  # linear combination across post-softmax attn across heads
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### One Write-Head Is All You Need
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.02150
+
+Yet another Noam Shazeer paper (he's a legend) that proposes to only have one head for the key / values, but multi-headed queries. This paper was largely ignored for a while, but recently validated at scale in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.07814">AlphaCode</a> as well as <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.02311">PaLM</a>. It has the property of being memory efficient when decoding extremely large language models. You can use it with one keyword argument as shown below.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_one_kv_head = True
+    )
+)
+```
+
+This has been further generalized in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.13245">a recent paper</a> to allow for groups of query heads to attend to a single key / value head. You can use this by specifying the `attn_kv_heads`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_kv_heads = 2 # say you want 4 query heads to attend to 1 key / value head
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Attention on Attention for Image Captioning
+
+<img src="./images/attention-on-attention.png"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.06954
+
+This paper proposes to add a gated linear unit at the end of the attention layer, further gated by the original queries. Although this is not widely used outside of visual question / answering, I suspect it should lead to improvements after seeing the success of the feedforward GLU variant.
+
+Update: After some experimentation, I found this variant actually performs worse, but if it were to be modified to not concatenate the queries before gating, it performs much better. That is what we will be using in this repository.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_on_attn = True  # gate output of attention layer, by queries
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Intra-attention Gating on Values
+
+<img src="./images/gate_values.png" width="400px"></img>
+
+<a href="https://github.com/deepmind/alphafold">Alphafold2</a> had a peculiar variant of attention where they gate the aggregated values with the input, presumably to have the block have more control over the update.
+
+A quick test shows a small but noticeable improvement, on about the same order as attention on attention.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_gate_values = True  # gate aggregated values with the input
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Improving Transformer Models by Reordering their Sublayers
+
+<img src="./images/sandwich.png"></img>
+
+<img src="./images/sandwich-2.png"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.03864
+
+This paper proposes to break from the normal fixed pattern of alternating attention and feedforwards, but to have blocks of only attention at the beginning followed by blocks of feedforwards at the end. This was further corroborated by a paper by Nvidia that reduces the number of attention layers to be 1/3rd of the feedforwards without loss in performance.
+
+The amount of interleaving is controlled by a "sandwich coefficient", which they found to be optimal at a value of `6`.
+
+You can experiment with this feature as shown below
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        sandwich_coef = 6  # interleave attention and feedforwards with sandwich coefficient of 6
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Weight-tied Layers
+
+In the early days of the cambrian explosion of BERT, a paper explored weight tying all the layers, the model named <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.11942">ALBERT</a>. You can use it by setting `weight_tie_layers = True`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        weight_tie_layers = True   # set this to True to weight tie all the layers
+    )
+)
+```
+
+If you wish to do something more sophisticated, say 3 layers, with each layer recurrent 4 times before onto the next (similar to <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.15071">this paper</a>), that is possible as well. Be aware the `layers_execute_order` is 0-indexed
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        custom_layers = (
+            'a', 'f',        # 3 sets of attention and feedforward
+            'a', 'f',
+            'a', 'f'
+        ),
+        layers_execute_order = (
+            *((0, 1) * 4),   # each done 4 times before sequentially passed forward, but you can probably imagine some more interesting configurations...
+            *((2, 3) * 4),
+            *((4, 5) * 4),
+        )
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Understanding and Improving Transformer From a Multi-Particle Dynamic System Point of View
+
+<img src="./images/macaron-1.png"></img>
+
+<img src="./images/macaron-2.png"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.02762
+
+The authors propose to view the success of transformers from a dynamical systems point of view, and then proposes an improvement based on mathematics of that POV. Specifically, they propose to place the attention layer in between two feedforward layers. This was adopted by a paper using transformers for speech recognition, the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2005.08100">Conformer</a>.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        macaron = True  # use macaron configuration
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### T5's Simplified Relative Positional Encoding
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.10683
+
+T5 is one of the most successful encoder / decoder transformer architectures trained to date. They invented a new simplified relative positional encoding based on learned bias values that are added to the attention matrix pre-softmax. This bias is shared and injected into each attention layer. I have decided to include this because it offers a cheap way to have relative positional encoding (superior to absolute positional), and I have read papers that suggest having positional encoding added to each layer (vs only before the first) is beneficial.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        rel_pos_bias = True  # adds relative positional bias to all attention layers, a la T5
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Residual Attention
+
+<img src="./images/residual_attn.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/2012.11747
+
+This paper from Google proposes residualizing the pre-attention scores across all layers. At the cost of no extra parameters, they show improvement on top of regular attention networks. If you turn on this setting, be aware that the best results in the paper used post-normalization, in which case a learning warmup will be needed. The authors also reported that they could use a higher learning rate and get even better gains in the same amount of steps. (In the paper they use `2e-4` vs `1e-4` for vanilla transformer)
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Encoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Encoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        pre_norm = False,       # in the paper, residual attention had best results with post-layernorm
+        residual_attn = True    # add residual attention
+    )
+)
+```
+
+I also tried residualizing cross attention and may have noticed an improvement in convergence. You can try it by setting the `cross_residual_attn` keyword to `True`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import XTransformer
+
+model = XTransformer(
+    dim = 512,
+    enc_num_tokens = 256,
+    enc_depth = 6,
+    enc_heads = 8,
+    enc_max_seq_len = 1024,
+    dec_num_tokens = 256,
+    dec_depth = 6,
+    dec_heads = 8,
+    dec_max_seq_len = 1024,
+    dec_cross_residual_attn = True     # residualize cross attention
+)
+```
+
+### Transformer-XL recurrence
+
+You can also do Transformer-XL recurrence, by simply passing in a `max_mem_len` in the `TransformerWrapper` class, and then making sure your `Decoder` has `rel_pos_bias` (or `rotary_pos_emb`) set to `True`.
+
+Then, you can retrieve the memories at each step with the `return_mems` keyword and pass it to the next iteration.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model_xl = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 512,
+    max_mem_len = 2048,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        rel_pos_bias = True
+    )
+)
+
+seg1 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+seg2 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+seg3 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+
+logits1, mems1  = model_xl(seg1, return_mems = True)
+logits2, mems2  = model_xl(seg2, mems = mems1, return_mems = True)
+logits3, mems3  = model_xl(seg3, mems = mems2, return_mems = True)
+```
+
+Setting up the logic for training and sampling from transformer xl can be a bit overwhelming. This repository offers a simple wrapper that should make this easy, with the `XLAutoregressiveWrapper`.
+
+```python
+# pass in the above model_xl
+
+xl_wrapper = XLAutoregressiveWrapper(model_xl)
+
+seg = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 4096)).cuda()  # sequence exceeding max length, automatically segmented and memory managed
+
+loss = xl_wrapper(seg)
+loss.backward()
+
+# then, after much training
+
+prime = seg[:, :1024]   # if prime exceeds max length, memory will be caught up before generating
+
+generated = xl_wrapper.generate(prime, 4096)  # (1, 4096)
+```
+
+### Enhanced recurrence
+
+<img src="./images/enhanced-recurrence.png" width="400px"/>
+
+<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2012.15688">This paper</a> proposes a simple technique to enhance the range of Transformer-XL. They simply route the memory segment of a layer to the layer below it, for the next recurrent step. You can enable this by setting `shift_mem_down = 1`. You can also shift down arbitrary number of layers by setting this value to `> 1`.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model_xl = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 512,
+    max_mem_len = 2048,
+    shift_mem_down = 1,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        rotary_pos_emb = True
+    )
+)
+
+seg1 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+seg2 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+seg3 = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 512))
+
+logits1, mems1  = model_xl(seg1, return_mems = True)
+logits2, mems2  = model_xl(seg2, mems = mems1, return_mems = True) # mems1 of layer N are automatically routed to the layer N-1
+```
+
+### Gated residual
+
+<img src="./images/gating.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.06764
+
+The authors propose gating the residual connections in the transformer network and demonstrate increased stability and performance for Transformer-XL in a variety of reinforcement learning tasks.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    max_mem_len = 2048,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 16,
+        gate_residual = True
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Rotary Positional Embeddings
+
+<img src="./images/rotary.png" width="500px"></img>
+
+Developed in Beijing, this new technique quickly gained interest in the NLP circles. In short, it allows you to endow the transformer with relative positional embeddings at the cost of no learned parameters. You apply a rotary operation to the queries and keys prior to their dot product in attention. The big idea is injecting positions through rotations.
+
+Highly recommend that you have this turned on whenever you are working on an ordered sequence.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        rotary_pos_emb = True  # turns on rotary positional embeddings
+    )
+)
+```
+
+Update (12/2022): Rotary embedding has since been hugely successful, widely adopted in many large language models, including the largest in the world, PaLM. However, it has been uncovered in the ALiBi paper that rotary embeddings cannot length extrapolate well. This was recently addressed in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.10554v1">a Microsoft research paper</a>. They propose a way to unobtrusively add the same decay as in ALiBi, and found that this resolves the extrapolation problem. You can use it in this repository by setting `rotary_xpos = True`. Like ALiBi, it would enforce the attention to be local. You can set the receptive field with `rotary_xpos_scale_base` value, which defaults to `512`
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        rotary_xpos = True   # modified rotary to extrapolate well beyond length at which it was trained
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Dynamic Positional Bias
+
+<img src="./images/dynamic-pos-bias.png" width="150px"></img>
+
+This technique bears roots from the field of vision transformers, where researchers are trying to have relative positions generalize to larger resolutions (without having to retrain the entire network). It was used in two recent papers, <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2108.00154">CrossFormer</a>, as well as <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.09883">SwinV2</a>.
+
+<a href="https://github.com/cfoster0">Charles Foster</a> first tried this for a language model, and found that it works. Later on <a href="https://github.com/bob80333">Eric Engelhart</a> produced experimental results that show the same type of extrapolation holds, even for 1d sequences.
+
+Eric trained at sequence lengths of 128, and showed that it generalized well to 1024. In addition, he showed that linear positions was better than log (used in SwinV2), for language.
+
+Linear distances
+
+<img src="./images/dynamic-pos-bias-linear.png" width="600px"></img>
+
+Log distances
+
+<img src="./images/dynamic-pos-bias-log.png" width="600px"></img>
+
+Negative control - Sinusoidal
+
+<img src="./images/dynamic-pos-bias-sinusoidal.png" width="600px"></img>
+
+More of Eric's experimental results can be found <a href="https://github.com/bob80333/investigating_extrapolation">here</a>
+
+You can use this type of relative position if you wish to train at smaller sequence lengths and have it generalize to longer ones, for both autoregressive and bidirectional models.
+
+Update: <a href="https://www.kaggle.com/competitions/stanford-ribonanza-rna-folding/discussion/460121">First place RNA folding using dynamic positional bias</a>
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 256,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        dynamic_pos_bias = True,                # set this to True
+        dynamic_pos_bias_log_distance = False   # whether to use log distance, as in SwinV2
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### ALiBi Positional Embedding
+
+<a href="https://ofir.io/train_short_test_long.pdf">This paper</a> proposes to simply apply a static linear bias to the attention matrix. The authors show this is not only effective as a relative positional encoding, but also allows the attention net to extrapolate to greater sequences length than what it was trained on, for autoregressive language models.
+
+This repository also offers a bidirectional variant (nonsymmetric), proposed by the authors <a href="https://github.com/ofirpress/attention_with_linear_biases/issues/5">here</a>. However, this is untested. If you need bidirectional length extrapolation, the safest option would be Dynamic Position Bias
+
+Update: It may be that ALiBi enforces a strong local attention across the heads, and may hinder it from attending at distances greater than 1k. To avoid any issues with global message passing, I've decided to introduce another hyperparameter `alibi_num_heads`, so one can specify less heads for the ALiBi bias
+
+Update: There are reports that ALiBi outperform Rotary embeddings for pretraining and downstream fine-tuning.
+
+Update: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.19466">New paper</a> shows that no positional embedding can length extrapolate even than explicit ones
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        alibi_pos_bias = True, # turns on ALiBi positional embedding
+        alibi_num_heads = 4    # only use ALiBi for 4 out of the 8 heads, so other 4 heads can still attend far distances
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Shifted Tokens
+
+An <a href="https://github.com/BlinkDL">independent researcher</a> has found that shifting a subset of the feature dimension along the sequence dimension by 1 token helps with convergence (<a href="https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/191393788">Time-mixing</a>). I have tested this for the autoregressive case and can confirm that it leads to greatly improved convergence. This also lines up with <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.07477">the results</a> of some papers in the vision domain.
+
+To use it, simply set `shift_tokens = 1` (or to whatever number of shifts you desire). The feature dimension will be divided by `shift_tokens + 1` and then each chunk will be shifted `[0, shift_tokens]` respectively
+
+Update: new experiments by @sdtblck suggests this may only work for character-level training
+
+Update: after more experiments, it seems that in the context of BPE encoding, with rotary turned on, there is no benefit to shifting. for character-level training, shifting may still improve a tiny bit
+
+Update: When doing BPE encoded tokens, it seems that shift of 2 will bottleneck the dimensions (divided by 5). It is recommended you always do a shift of 1, unless if you are working with character level.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        shift_tokens = 1
+    )
+)
+```
+
+If you want finer control over how much is shifted per block (whether attention or feedforward), simply pass in a tuple of size that is equal to the number of layers.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        shift_tokens = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) # 12 blocks, attention and feedforward alternating, with progressively less shifting
+    )
+)
+```
+
+### Sandwich Norm
+
+<img src="./images/sandwich_norm.png" width="400px"/>
+
+This technique first made an appearance in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.13290">the CoqView paper</a>, a Chinese version of the famous text-to-image transformer DALL-E. They propose, when using pre-layernorm, to add an extra layernorm to all the branch outputs. I have found this to be very effective for a number of projects, when facing instability during training.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        sandwich_norm = True # set this to True
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+### ResiDual
+
+<img src="./images/resi_dual.png" width="400px"/>
+
+<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.14802">This Microsoft paper</a> proposes yet another normalization configuration, combining both pre and post layernorm. They claim this hybridization reduces representation collapse (known to be an issue with pre-layernorm with increasing depth), while maintaining stability and reducing vanishing gradients (issues with post-layernorm). Initial experiments on my end show it to work no worse than pre-layernorm or sandwich norm. More study needed by the public to see if this is actually a winning technique.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        resi_dual = True,               # set this to True
+        resi_dual_scale = 0.1           # in appendix, they said on fp16 the prenorm residual is prone to overflow. they claim by scaling it at each layer by a factor, it would prevent the overflow, and keep results the same (as layernorms are invariant to scaling of the input)
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+### Normformer
+
+<img src="./images/normformer.png" width="400px"/>
+
+This <a href="https://openreview.net/forum?id=GMYWzWztDx5">paper</a> uncovers an issue with pre-norm transformers where gradients are mismatched between the early and later layers. They propose 4 changes, of which I will be offering 3.
+
+The first change is to offer per head scaling after aggregating the values in attention. My experiments show a slight improvement in convergence.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_head_scale = True  # set this to True
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+The second change is an extra layernorm right after the activation in the feedforward. I have also verified a slight improvement, at the cost of extra compute.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        ff_post_act_ln = True # set this to True
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+For the residual scaling, you simply have to set `scale_residual = True`. I have noticed slight improvements, but occasional instability as well, so use with caution.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        scale_residual = True # set this to True
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+The last change is a layernorm right after the outwards projection in attention. This is actually identical to the sandwich norm proposed by the Coqview paper, so you can use this by simply setting `sandwich_norm = True`, although it would also add it to the feedforward layer.
+
+### Cosine Sim Attention
+
+<img src="./images/cosine-sim-attention.png" width="400px"></img>
+
+This <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.04245">paper</a> proposes to l2 normalize the queries and keys along the head dimension before the dot product (cosine similarity), with the additional change of the scale being learned rather than static. The normalization prevents the attention operation from overflowing, and removes any need for numerical stability measures prior to softmax. Both are perennial problems when training transformers.
+
+This was validated at scale recently by the training of <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.09883">a 3B parameter vision transformer</a>. The SwinV2 paper also proposes to change the pre-layernorm to a post-layernorm for further stability.
+
+I have validated that this works just as well as dot product attention in an autoregressive setting, if one were to initialize the temperature as proposed in the QK-norm paper (as a function of the sequence length).
+
+This flavor of attention also has <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.05498">a connection</a> to sparse distributed memory. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THIIk7LR9_8">[youtube talk]</a>
+
+Update: I have discovered a way to remove the learned temperature altogether, by grouping the feature dimension and doing l2-normalization on each group. This allows the queries and keys to have a similarity that is upper bounded by the number of groups. A group size of 8 or 16 was sufficient in my tests. Decided to name this technique "Grouped QK Normalization". The drawback is that I believe an attention head dimension 32 is too small to use this tactic (a dimension often used in vision)
+
+Update 2: Tero Karras has successfully used cosine sim attention in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.02696">a new paper</a>.
+
+You can use it as follows
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_qk_norm = True,       # set this to True
+        attn_qk_norm_groups = 8    # number of groups in the feature dimension for l2norm, similarity scores will be bounded between [-group, group]. determines how sharp the attention can be
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+Another update: Simply scaling the cosine similarity (group of 1) with a fixed constant (10) may work too
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_qk_norm = True,       # set to True
+        attn_qk_norm_scale = 10    # new scale on the similarity, with groups of 1
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+### QK RMSNorm
+
+<img src="./images/qknorm-analysis.png" width="450px"></img>
+
+Update: Google Brain has proven out something similar to cosine sim attention in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.05442">a 22B parameter model</a>. In their papers, they have analysis showing that the normalization resulted in not only extra stability, but also better results in the end (due to less need to adjust learning rate when increasing parameter count).
+
+We are nearing the point of wiping out a source of transformer training instability with one simple intervention, in my opinion. The only slight difference in the paper is that they still have a learned scale across the feature dimension (per use of rmsnorm). Not sure how critical this is, but just to make sure we don't miss anything, I will include this here. You can use this by setting `qk_norm_dim_scale = True`
+
+Update: <a href="https://twitter.com/Tim_Dettmers/status/1625531080513306627">Counterpoint from Tim Dettmers</a>
+
+Update 2: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.19268">Counter</a> to Tim's assertion that outliers are needed, and potentially even <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.12929">some solutions</a>
+
+Update 3: Used by <a href="https://www.adept.ai/blog/persimmon-8b">8B parameter LLM</a> successfully
+
+Update 4: a MetaAI group found that they can <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.16588">alleviate outliers</a> by adding `register tokens`, also known as `memory tokens` from earlier literature (Burtsev et al). Perhaps what should be tried next is see if qk norm can be improved in the presence of memory tokens.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8,
+        attn_qk_norm = True,
+        attn_qk_norm_dim_scale = True # set this to True, in addition to `attn_qk_norm = True`
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 256, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+### Turning off absolute positional embedding
+
+A number of papers have hinted that causal transformers (`Decoder`) can learn absolute positions in the absence of added embeddings of any sort. This was recently thoroughly investigated <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.16634">here</a>. You can turn off the absolute positional embedding by setting `use_abs_pos_emb = False` in the `TransformerWrapper`
+
+Given <a href="https://ai.googleblog.com/2022/04/pathways-language-model-palm-scaling-to.html">PaLM</a>, the trend going forward may be to forgo absolute positional embedding (again, for causal transformers only), and add relative positional embeddings with RoPE, ALiBi, etc.
+
+Update: <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.19466">This paper</a> shows that in the absence of any engineered absolute or relative positional embeddings, decoders can generate implicit positions, and even length generalize better than solutions of the past. They were unaware of dynamic positional bias, however.
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    use_abs_pos_emb = False,   # set this to False
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 6,
+        heads = 8,
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024))
+model(x)
+```
+
+### Forgetful Causal Mask
+
+<img src="./images/fcm.png" width="450px"></img>
+
+<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2210.13432">This paper</a> shows convincing results that one can combine masking (from masked language modeling) with autoregressive training, leading to significantly better results.
+
+You can use this by setting the `mask_prob` on the `AutoregressiveWrapper` class
+
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import TransformerWrapper, Decoder, AutoregressiveWrapper
+
+model = TransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 20000,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+model = AutoregressiveWrapper(
+    model,
+    mask_prob = 0.15  # in paper, they use 15%, same as BERT
+).cuda()
+
+# mock data
+
+x = torch.randint(0, 20000, (1, 1024)).cuda()
+
+# derive cross entropy loss, masking all taken care of
+
+loss = model(x)
+loss.backward()
+```
+
+
+## Miscellaneous
+
+### Cross Attention
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import Encoder, CrossAttender
+
+enc = Encoder(dim = 512, depth = 6)
+model = CrossAttender(dim = 512, depth = 6)
+
+nodes = torch.randn(1, 1, 512)
+node_masks = torch.ones(1, 1).bool()
+
+neighbors = torch.randn(1, 5, 512)
+neighbor_masks = torch.ones(1, 5).bool()
+
+encoded_neighbors = enc(neighbors, mask = neighbor_masks)
+model(nodes, context = encoded_neighbors, mask = node_masks, context_mask = neighbor_masks) # (1, 1, 512)
+
+```
+
+### Continuous Embeddings
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import ContinuousTransformerWrapper, Decoder
+
+model = ContinuousTransformerWrapper(
+    dim_in = 32,
+    dim_out = 100,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+x = torch.randn((1, 1024, 32))
+mask = torch.ones(1, 1024).bool()
+
+model(x, mask = mask) # (1, 1024, 100)
+```
+
+You can also train a transformer that accepts continuous values autoregressively easily, in the same scheme as done successfully in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.05329">this paper</a>
+
+```python
+import torch
+from x_transformers import ContinuousTransformerWrapper, Decoder
+from x_transformers import ContinuousAutoregressiveWrapper
+
+model = ContinuousTransformerWrapper(
+    dim_in = 777,
+    dim_out = 777,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+# wrap it with the continuous autoregressive wrapper
+
+model = ContinuousAutoregressiveWrapper(model)
+
+# mock data
+
+x = torch.randn((1, 1024, 777))
+mask = torch.ones(1, 1024).bool()
+
+# train on a lot of data above
+
+loss = model(x, mask = mask)
+loss.backward
+
+# then generate
+
+start_emb = torch.randn(1, 777)
+generated = model.generate(start_emb, 17) # (17, 777)
+```
+
+### xVal - Continuous and Discrete
+
+<img src="./images/xval.png" width="400px"></img>
+
+This is promising work that resulted from the collaboration across many institutes (collectively known as Polymathic AI). They found that by offering a continuously scaled number token to the transformer, the transformer was able to generalize arithmetic and forecasting tasks better than the alternative encoding schemes.
+
+This is corroborated by some [prior work](https://github.com/lucidrains/tab-transformer-pytorch#ft-transformer)
+
+```python
+import torch
+
+from x_transformers import (
+    Decoder,
+    XValTransformerWrapper,
+    XValAutoregressiveWrapper
+)
+
+model = XValTransformerWrapper(
+    num_tokens = 4,
+    numerical_token_id = 3,
+    max_seq_len = 1024,
+    attn_layers = Decoder(
+        dim = 512,
+        depth = 12,
+        heads = 8
+    )
+)
+
+# wrap it with the xval autoregressive wrapper
+
+model = XValAutoregressiveWrapper(model)
+
+# mock data
+
+ids = torch.randint(0, 4, (1, 777))
+nums = torch.randn(1, 777)
+
+# train on a lot of data above
+
+loss = model(ids, nums)
+loss.backward()
+
+# then generate
+
+start_ids = torch.randint(0, 4, (1, 1))
+start_nums = torch.randn(1, 1)
+
+ids_out, num_out, is_number_mask = model.generate(start_ids, start_nums, 17)
+
+# (1, 17), (1, 17), (1, 17)
+
+# discrete, continuous, mask for discrete / continuous
+```
+
+## Citations
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{vaswani2017attention,
+    title   = {Attention Is All You Need},
+    author  = {Ashish Vaswani and Noam Shazeer and Niki Parmar and Jakob Uszkoreit and Llion Jones and Aidan N. Gomez and Lukasz Kaiser and Illia Polosukhin},
+    year    = {2017},
+    eprint  = {1706.03762},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{DBLP:journals/corr/abs-1907-01470,
+    author    = {Sainbayar Sukhbaatar and Edouard Grave and Guillaume Lample and Herv{\'{e}} J{\'{e}}gou and Armand Joulin},
+    title     = {Augmenting Self-attention with Persistent Memory},
+    journal   = {CoRR},
+    volume    = {abs/1907.01470},
+    year      = {2019},
+    url       = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1907.01470}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{1910.05895,
+    author  = {Toan Q. Nguyen and Julian Salazar},
+    title   = {Transformers without Tears: Improving the Normalization of Self-Attention},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {arXiv:1910.05895},
+    doi     = {10.5281/zenodo.3525484},
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{shazeer2020glu,
+    title   = {GLU Variants Improve Transformer},
+    author  = {Noam Shazeer},
+    year    = {2020},
+    url     = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.05202}    
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Zoph2022STMoEDS,
+    title   = {ST-MoE: Designing Stable and Transferable Sparse Expert Models},
+    author  = {Barret Zoph and Irwan Bello and Sameer Kumar and Nan Du and Yanping Huang and Jeff Dean and Noam M. Shazeer and William Fedus},
+    year    = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{bhojanapalli2020lowrank,
+    title   = {Low-Rank Bottleneck in Multi-head Attention Models},
+    author  = {Srinadh Bhojanapalli and Chulhee Yun and Ankit Singh Rawat and Sashank J. Reddi and Sanjiv Kumar},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2002.07028}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{burtsev2020memory,
+    title   = {Memory Transformer}, 
+    author  = {Mikhail S. Burtsev and Grigory V. Sapunov},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2006.11527},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{zhao2019explicit,
+    title   = {Explicit Sparse Transformer: Concentrated Attention Through Explicit Selection}, 
+    author  = {Guangxiang Zhao and Junyang Lin and Zhiyuan Zhang and Xuancheng Ren and Qi Su and Xu Sun},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {1912.11637},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{correia2019adaptively,
+    title   = {Adaptively Sparse Transformers},
+    author  = {Gonçalo M. Correia and Vlad Niculae and André F. T. Martins},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {1909.00015},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{shazeer2020talkingheads,
+    title   = {Talking-Heads Attention}, 
+    author  = {Noam Shazeer and Zhenzhong Lan and Youlong Cheng and Nan Ding and Le Hou},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2003.02436},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{press2020improving,
+    title   = {Improving Transformer Models by Reordering their Sublayers}, 
+    author  = {Ofir Press and Noah A. Smith and Omer Levy},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {1911.03864},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{lu2019understanding,
+    title   = {Understanding and Improving Transformer From a Multi-Particle Dynamic System Point of View}, 
+    author  = {Yiping Lu and Zhuohan Li and Di He and Zhiqing Sun and Bin Dong and Tao Qin and Liwei Wang and Tie-Yan Liu},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {1906.02762},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{ke2020rethinking,
+    title     = {Rethinking Positional Encoding in Language Pre-training},
+    author    = {Guolin Ke and Di He and Tie-Yan Liu},
+    year      = {2020},
+    eprint    = {2006.15595},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{dosovitskiy2020image,
+    title   = {An Image is Worth 16x16 Words: Transformers for Image Recognition at Scale},
+    author  = {Alexey Dosovitskiy and Lucas Beyer and Alexander Kolesnikov and Dirk Weissenborn and Xiaohua Zhai and Thomas Unterthiner and Mostafa Dehghani and Matthias Minderer and Georg Heigold and Sylvain Gelly and Jakob Uszkoreit and Neil Houlsby},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2010.11929},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CV}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{huang2019attention,
+    title   = {Attention on Attention for Image Captioning},
+    author  = {Lun Huang and Wenmin Wang and Jie Chen and Xiao-Yong Wei},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {1908.06954},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CV}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{raffel2020exploring,
+    title   = {Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer}, 
+    author  = {Colin Raffel and Noam Shazeer and Adam Roberts and Katherine Lee and Sharan Narang and Michael Matena and Yanqi Zhou and Wei Li and Peter J. Liu},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {1910.10683},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{martins-etal-2020-sparse,
+    title   = "Sparse Text Generation",
+    author  = "Martins, Pedro Henrique  and
+        Marinho, Zita  and
+        Martins, Andr{\'e} F. T.",
+    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)",
+    month   = nov,
+    year    = "2020",
+    address = "Online",
+    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
+    url     = "https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/2020.emnlp-main.348"
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{he2020realformer,
+    title   = {RealFormer: Transformer Likes Residual Attention},
+    author  = {Ruining He and Anirudh Ravula and Bhargav Kanagal and Joshua Ainslie},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2012.11747},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{carion2020endtoend,
+    title   = {End-to-End Object Detection with Transformers},
+    author  = {Nicolas Carion and Francisco Massa and Gabriel Synnaeve and Nicolas Usunier and Alexander Kirillov and Sergey Zagoruyko},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2005.12872},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CV}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{press2021ALiBi,
+    title   = {Train Short, Test Long: Attention with Linear Biases Enable Input Length Extrapolation},
+    author  = {Ofir Press and Noah A. Smith and Mike Lewis},
+    year    = {2021},
+    url     = {https://ofir.io/train_short_test_long.pdf}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{parisotto2019stabilizing,
+    title     = {Stabilizing Transformers for Reinforcement Learning},
+    author    = {Emilio Parisotto and H. Francis Song and Jack W. Rae and Razvan Pascanu and Caglar Gulcehre and Siddhant M. Jayakumar and Max Jaderberg and Raphael Lopez Kaufman and Aidan Clark and Seb Noury and Matthew M. Botvinick and Nicolas Heess and Raia Hadsell},
+    year      = {2019},
+    eprint    = {1910.06764},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{narang2021transformer,
+    title       = {Do Transformer Modifications Transfer Across Implementations and Applications?},
+    author      = {Sharan Narang and Hyung Won Chung and Yi Tay and William Fedus and Thibault Fevry and Michael Matena and Karishma Malkan and Noah Fiedel and Noam Shazeer and Zhenzhong Lan and Yanqi Zhou and Wei Li and Nan Ding and Jake Marcus and Adam Roberts and Colin Raffel},
+    year        = {2021},
+    eprint      = {2102.11972},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{zhang2019root,
+    title   = {Root Mean Square Layer Normalization},
+    author  = {Biao Zhang and Rico Sennrich},
+    year    = {2019},
+    eprint  = {1910.07467},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Qin2023ScalingTT,
+    title   = {Scaling TransNormer to 175 Billion Parameters},
+    author  = {Zhen Qin and Dong Li and Weigao Sun and Weixuan Sun and Xuyang Shen and Xiaodong Han and Yunshen Wei and Baohong Lv and Fei Yuan and Xiao Luo and Y. Qiao and Yiran Zhong},
+    year    = {2023},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260203124}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{su2021roformer,
+    title   = {RoFormer: Enhanced Transformer with Rotary Position Embedding},
+    author  = {Jianlin Su and Yu Lu and Shengfeng Pan and Bo Wen and Yunfeng Liu},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2104.09864},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Chen2023ExtendingCW,
+    title   = {Extending Context Window of Large Language Models via Positional Interpolation},
+    author  = {Shouyuan Chen and Sherman Wong and Liangjian Chen and Yuandong Tian},
+    year    = {2023}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Sun2022ALT,
+  title     = {A Length-Extrapolatable Transformer},
+  author    = {Yutao Sun and Li Dong and Barun Patra and Shuming Ma and Shaohan Huang and Alon Benhaim and Vishrav Chaudhary and Xia Song and Furu Wei},
+  year      = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@Article{AlphaFold2021,
+    author  = {Jumper, John and Evans, Richard and Pritzel, Alexander and Green, Tim and Figurnov, Michael and Ronneberger, Olaf and Tunyasuvunakool, Kathryn and Bates, Russ and {\v{Z}}{\'\i}dek, Augustin and Potapenko, Anna and Bridgland, Alex and Meyer, Clemens and Kohl, Simon A A and Ballard, Andrew J and Cowie, Andrew and Romera-Paredes, Bernardino and Nikolov, Stanislav and Jain, Rishub and Adler, Jonas and Back, Trevor and Petersen, Stig and Reiman, David and Clancy, Ellen and Zielinski, Michal and Steinegger, Martin and Pacholska, Michalina and Berghammer, Tamas and Bodenstein, Sebastian and Silver, David and Vinyals, Oriol and Senior, Andrew W and Kavukcuoglu, Koray and Kohli, Pushmeet and Hassabis, Demis},
+    journal = {Nature},
+    title   = {Highly accurate protein structure prediction with {AlphaFold}},
+    year    = {2021},
+    doi     = {10.1038/s41586-021-03819-2},
+    note    = {(Accelerated article preview)},
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@software{peng_bo_2021_5196578,
+    author       = {PENG Bo},
+    title        = {BlinkDL/RWKV-LM: 0.01},
+    month        = {aug},
+    year         = {2021},
+    publisher    = {Zenodo},
+    version      = {0.01},
+    doi          = {10.5281/zenodo.5196578},
+    url          = {https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5196578}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{csordás2021devil,
+    title   = {The Devil is in the Detail: Simple Tricks Improve Systematic Generalization of Transformers},
+    author  = {Róbert Csordás and Kazuki Irie and Jürgen Schmidhuber},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2108.12284},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{so2021primer,
+    title   = {Primer: Searching for Efficient Transformers for Language Modeling}, 
+    author  = {David R. So and Wojciech Mańke and Hanxiao Liu and Zihang Dai and Noam Shazeer and Quoc V. Le},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2109.08668},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.LG}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{ding2021erniedoc,
+    title   = {ERNIE-Doc: A Retrospective Long-Document Modeling Transformer}, 
+    author  = {Siyu Ding and Junyuan Shang and Shuohuan Wang and Yu Sun and Hao Tian and Hua Wu and Haifeng Wang},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2012.15688},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{ding2021cogview,
+    title   = {CogView: Mastering Text-to-Image Generation via Transformers},
+    author  = {Ming Ding and Zhuoyi Yang and Wenyi Hong and Wendi Zheng and Chang Zhou and Da Yin and Junyang Lin and Xu Zou and Zhou Shao and Hongxia Yang and Jie Tang},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2105.13290},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CV}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{anonymous2022normformer,
+    title   = {NormFormer: Improved Transformer Pretraining with Extra Normalization},
+    author  = {Anonymous},
+    booktitle = {Submitted to The Tenth International Conference on Learning Representations },
+    year    = {2022},
+    url     = {https://openreview.net/forum?id=GMYWzWztDx5},
+    note    = {under review}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{henry2020querykey,
+    title   = {Query-Key Normalization for Transformers},
+    author  = {Alex Henry and Prudhvi Raj Dachapally and Shubham Pawar and Yuxuan Chen},
+    year    = {2020},
+    eprint  = {2010.04245},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CL}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{liu2021swin,
+    title   = {Swin Transformer V2: Scaling Up Capacity and Resolution},
+    author  = {Ze Liu and Han Hu and Yutong Lin and Zhuliang Yao and Zhenda Xie and Yixuan Wei and Jia Ning and Yue Cao and Zheng Zhang and Li Dong and Furu Wei and Baining Guo},
+    year    = {2021},
+    eprint  = {2111.09883},
+    archivePrefix = {arXiv},
+    primaryClass = {cs.CV}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Haviv2022TransformerLM,
+    title   = {Transformer Language Models without Positional Encodings Still Learn Positional Information},
+    author  = {Adi Haviv and Ori Ram and Ofir Press and Peter Izsak and Omer Levy},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2022},
+    volume  = {abs/2203.16634}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{chowdhery2022PaLM,
+    title   = {PaLM: Scaling Language Modeling with Pathways},
+    author  = {Chowdhery, Aakanksha et al},
+    year    = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Shazeer2019FastTD,
+    title   = {Fast Transformer Decoding: One Write-Head is All You Need},
+    author  = {Noam M. Shazeer},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2019},
+    volume  = {abs/1911.02150}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Ainslie2023GQATG,
+    title   = {GQA: Training Generalized Multi-Query Transformer Models from Multi-Head Checkpoints},
+    author  = {Joshua Ainslie and James Lee-Thorp and Michiel de Jong and Yury Zemlyanskiy and Federico Lebr'on and Sumit K. Sanghai},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2023},
+    volume  = {abs/2305.13245},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258833177}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Liu2022FCMFC,
+    title   = {FCM: Forgetful Causal Masking Makes Causal Language Models Better Zero-Shot Learners},
+    author  = {Hao Liu and Xinyang Geng and Lisa Lee and Igor Mordatch and Sergey Levine and Sharan Narang and P. Abbeel},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2022},
+    volume  = {abs/2210.13432}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Huang2016DeepNW,
+    title   = {Deep Networks with Stochastic Depth},
+    author  = {Gao Huang and Yu Sun and Zhuang Liu and Daniel Sedra and Kilian Q. Weinberger},
+    booktitle = {European Conference on Computer Vision},
+    year    = {2016}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Hua2022TransformerQI,
+    title   = {Transformer Quality in Linear Time},
+    author  = {Weizhe Hua and Zihang Dai and Hanxiao Liu and Quoc V. Le},
+    booktitle = {International Conference on Machine Learning},
+    year    = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Chang2022MaskGITMG,
+    title   = {MaskGIT: Masked Generative Image Transformer},
+    author  = {Huiwen Chang and Han Zhang and Lu Jiang and Ce Liu and William T. Freeman},
+    journal = {2022 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)},
+    year    = {2022},
+    pages   = {11305-11315}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Lezama2022ImprovedMI,
+    title   = {Improved Masked Image Generation with Token-Critic},
+    author  = {Jos{\'e} Lezama and Huiwen Chang and Lu Jiang and Irfan Essa},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2022},
+    volume  = {abs/2209.04439}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2302.01327,
+    doi     = {10.48550/ARXIV.2302.01327},
+    url     = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2302.01327},
+    author  = {Kumar, Manoj and Dehghani, Mostafa and Houlsby, Neil},
+    title   = {Dual PatchNorm},
+    publisher = {arXiv},
+    year    = {2023},
+    copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{dao2022flashattention,
+    title   = {Flash{A}ttention: Fast and Memory-Efficient Exact Attention with {IO}-Awareness},
+    author  = {Dao, Tri and Fu, Daniel Y. and Ermon, Stefano and Rudra, Atri and R{\'e}, Christopher},
+    booktitle = {Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems},
+    year    = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Dehghani2023ScalingVT,
+    title   = {Scaling Vision Transformers to 22 Billion Parameters},
+    author  = {Mostafa Dehghani and Josip Djolonga and Basil Mustafa and Piotr Padlewski and Jonathan Heek and Justin Gilmer and Andreas Steiner and Mathilde Caron and Robert Geirhos and Ibrahim M. Alabdulmohsin and Rodolphe Jenatton and Lucas Beyer and Michael Tschannen and Anurag Arnab and Xiao Wang and Carlos Riquelme and Matthias Minderer and Joan Puigcerver and Utku Evci and Manoj Kumar and Sjoerd van Steenkiste and Gamaleldin F. Elsayed and Aravindh Mahendran and Fisher Yu and Avital Oliver and Fantine Huot and Jasmijn Bastings and Mark Collier and Alexey A. Gritsenko and Vighnesh Birodkar and Cristina Nader Vasconcelos and Yi Tay and Thomas Mensink and Alexander Kolesnikov and Filip Paveti'c and Dustin Tran and Thomas Kipf and Mario Luvci'c and Xiaohua Zhai and Daniel Keysers and Jeremiah Harmsen and Neil Houlsby},
+    year    = {2023}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Beyer2022BetterPV,
+    title   = {Better plain ViT baselines for ImageNet-1k},
+    author  = {Lucas Beyer and Xiaohua Zhai and Alexander Kolesnikov},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2022},
+    volume  = {abs/2205.01580}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Kazemnejad2023TheIO,
+    title   = {The Impact of Positional Encoding on Length Generalization in Transformers},
+    author  = {Amirhossein Kazemnejad and Inkit Padhi and Karthikeyan Natesan Ramamurthy and Payel Das and Siva Reddy},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2023},
+    volume  = {abs/2305.19466}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{bloc97-2023
+    title   = {NTK-Aware Scaled RoPE allows LLaMA models to have extended (8k+) context size without any fine-tuning and minimal perplexity degradation.},
+    author  = {/u/bloc97},
+    url     = {https://www.reddit.com/r/LocalLLaMA/comments/14lz7j5/ntkaware_scaled_rope_allows_llama_models_to_have/}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Zoph2022STMoEDS,
+    title   = {ST-MoE: Designing Stable and Transferable Sparse Expert Models},
+    author  = {Barret Zoph and Irwan Bello and Sameer Kumar and Nan Du and Yanping Huang and Jeff Dean and Noam M. Shazeer and William Fedus},
+    year    = {2022}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Lan2019ALBERTAL,
+    title   = {ALBERT: A Lite BERT for Self-supervised Learning of Language Representations},
+    author  = {Zhenzhong Lan and Mingda Chen and Sebastian Goodman and Kevin Gimpel and Piyush Sharma and Radu Soricut},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2019},
+    volume  = {abs/1909.11942},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202888986}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Li2022ContrastiveDO,
+    title   = {Contrastive Decoding: Open-ended Text Generation as Optimization},
+    author  = {Xiang Lisa Li and Ari Holtzman and Daniel Fried and Percy Liang and Jason Eisner and Tatsunori Hashimoto and Luke Zettlemoyer and Mike Lewis},
+    booktitle = {Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
+    year    = {2022},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253157949}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{OBrien2023ContrastiveDI,
+    title   = {Contrastive Decoding Improves Reasoning in Large Language Models},
+    author  = {Sean O'Brien and Mike Lewis},
+    year    = {2023},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261884427}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Darcet2023VisionTN,
+    title   = {Vision Transformers Need Registers},
+    author  = {Timoth'ee Darcet and Maxime Oquab and Julien Mairal and Piotr Bojanowski},
+    year    = {2023},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:263134283}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Bondarenko2023QuantizableTR,
+    title   = {Quantizable Transformers: Removing Outliers by Helping Attention Heads Do Nothing},
+    author  = {Yelysei Bondarenko and Markus Nagel and Tijmen Blankevoort},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2023},
+    volume  = {abs/2306.12929},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:259224568}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Golkar2023xValAC,
+    title   = {xVal: A Continuous Number Encoding for Large Language Models},
+    author  = {Siavash Golkar and Mariel Pettee and Michael Eickenberg and Alberto Bietti and M. Cranmer and G{\'e}raud Krawezik and Francois Lanusse and Michael McCabe and Ruben Ohana and Liam Parker and Bruno R{\'e}galdo-Saint Blancard and Tiberiu Teşileanu and Kyunghyun Cho and Shirley Ho},
+    year    = {2023},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:263622222}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Wang2022DeepNetST,
+    title   = {DeepNet: Scaling Transformers to 1, 000 Layers},
+    author  = {Hongyu Wang and Shuming Ma and Li Dong and Shaohan Huang and Dongdong Zhang and Furu Wei},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2022},
+    volume  = {abs/2203.00555},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247187905}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Rafailov2023DirectPO,
+    title   = {Direct Preference Optimization: Your Language Model is Secretly a Reward Model},
+    author  = {Rafael Rafailov and Archit Sharma and Eric Mitchell and Stefano Ermon and Christopher D. Manning and Chelsea Finn},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2023},
+    volume  = {abs/2305.18290},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258959321}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{xAI2024Grok,
+    author = {xAI},
+    title  = {Grok},
+    year   = {2024},
+    publisher = {GitHub},
+    journal = {GitHub repository},
+    howpublished = {\url{https://github.com/xai-org/grok-1}},
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Golovneva2024ContextualPE,
+    title   = {Contextual Position Encoding: Learning to Count What's Important},
+    author  = {Olga Golovneva and Tianlu Wang and Jason Weston and Sainbayar Sukhbaatar},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:270094992}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Peebles2022ScalableDM,
+    title   = {Scalable Diffusion Models with Transformers},
+    author  = {William S. Peebles and Saining Xie},
+    journal = {2023 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV)},
+    year    = {2022},
+    pages   = {4172-4182},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254854389}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@misc{Rubin2024,
+    author  = {Ohad Rubin},
+    url     = {https://medium.com/@ohadrubin/exploring-weight-decay-in-layer-normalization-challenges-and-a-reparameterization-solution-ad4d12c24950}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Mesnard2024GemmaOM,
+    title   = {Gemma: Open Models Based on Gemini Research and Technology},
+    author  = {Gemma Team Thomas Mesnard and Cassidy Hardin and Robert Dadashi and Surya Bhupatiraju and Shreya Pathak and L. Sifre and Morgane Riviere and Mihir Kale and J Christopher Love and Pouya Dehghani Tafti and L'eonard Hussenot and Aakanksha Chowdhery and Adam Roberts and Aditya Barua and Alex Botev and Alex Castro-Ros and Ambrose Slone and Am'elie H'eliou and Andrea Tacchetti and Anna Bulanova and Antonia Paterson and Beth Tsai and Bobak Shahriari and Charline Le Lan and Christopher A. Choquette-Choo and Cl'ement Crepy and Daniel Cer and Daphne Ippolito and David Reid and Elena Buchatskaya and Eric Ni and Eric Noland and Geng Yan and George Tucker and George-Christian Muraru and Grigory Rozhdestvenskiy and Henryk Michalewski and Ian Tenney and Ivan Grishchenko and Jacob Austin and James Keeling and Jane Labanowski and Jean-Baptiste Lespiau and Jeff Stanway and Jenny Brennan and Jeremy Chen and Johan Ferret and Justin Chiu and Justin Mao-Jones and Katherine Lee and Kathy Yu and Katie Millican and Lars Lowe Sjoesund and Lisa Lee and Lucas Dixon and Machel Reid and Maciej Mikula and Mateo Wirth and Michael Sharman and Nikolai Chinaev and Nithum Thain and Olivier Bachem and Oscar Chang and Oscar Wahltinez and Paige Bailey and Paul Michel and Petko Yotov and Pier Giuseppe Sessa and Rahma Chaabouni and Ramona Comanescu and Reena Jana and Rohan Anil and Ross McIlroy and Ruibo Liu and Ryan Mullins and Samuel L Smith and Sebastian Borgeaud and Sertan Girgin and Sholto Douglas and Shree Pandya and Siamak Shakeri and Soham De and Ted Klimenko and Tom Hennigan and Vladimir Feinberg and Wojciech Stokowiec and Yu-hui Chen and Zafarali Ahmed and Zhitao Gong and Tris Brian Warkentin and Ludovic Peran and Minh Giang and Cl'ement Farabet and Oriol Vinyals and Jeffrey Dean and Koray Kavukcuoglu and Demis Hassabis and Zoubin Ghahramani and Douglas Eck and Joelle Barral and Fernando Pereira and Eli Collins and Armand Joulin and Noah Fiedel and Evan Senter and Alek Andreev and Kathleen Kenealy},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2024},
+    volume  = {abs/2403.08295},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:268379206}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Nguyen2024MinPS,
+    title   = {Min P Sampling: Balancing Creativity and Coherence at High Temperature},
+    author  = {Minh Nguyen and Andrew Baker and Andreas Kirsch and Clement Neo},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2024},
+    volume  = {abs/2407.01082},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:270870613}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Bao2022AllAW,
+    title   = {All are Worth Words: A ViT Backbone for Diffusion Models},
+    author  = {Fan Bao and Shen Nie and Kaiwen Xue and Yue Cao and Chongxuan Li and Hang Su and Jun Zhu},
+    journal = {2023 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)},
+    year    = {2022},
+    pages   = {22669-22679},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253581703}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Jumper2021HighlyAP,
+    title   = {Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold},
+    author  = {John M. Jumper and Richard Evans and Alexander Pritzel and Tim Green and Michael Figurnov and Olaf Ronneberger and Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool and Russ Bates and Augustin Ž{\'i}dek and Anna Potapenko and Alex Bridgland and Clemens Meyer and Simon A A Kohl and Andy Ballard and Andrew Cowie and Bernardino Romera-Paredes and Stanislav Nikolov and Rishub Jain and Jonas Adler and Trevor Back and Stig Petersen and David Reiman and Ellen Clancy and Michal Zielinski and Martin Steinegger and Michalina Pacholska and Tamas Berghammer and Sebastian Bodenstein and David Silver and Oriol Vinyals and Andrew W. Senior and Koray Kavukcuoglu and Pushmeet Kohli and Demis Hassabis},
+    journal = {Nature},
+    year    = {2021},
+    volume  = {596},
+    pages   = {583 - 589},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235959867}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Yang2017BreakingTS,
+    title     = {Breaking the Softmax Bottleneck: A High-Rank RNN Language Model},
+    author    = {Zhilin Yang and Zihang Dai and Ruslan Salakhutdinov and William W. Cohen},
+    journal   = {ArXiv},
+    year      = {2017},
+    volume    = {abs/1711.03953},
+    url       = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26238954}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Kanai2018SigsoftmaxRO,
+    title   = {Sigsoftmax: Reanalysis of the Softmax Bottleneck},
+    author  = {Sekitoshi Kanai and Yasuhiro Fujiwara and Yuki Yamanaka and Shuichi Adachi},
+    booktitle = {Neural Information Processing Systems},
+    year    = {2018},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44064935}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Kim2020TheLC,
+    title   = {The Lipschitz Constant of Self-Attention},
+    author  = {Hyunjik Kim and George Papamakarios and Andriy Mnih},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2020},
+    volume  = {abs/2006.04710},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219530837}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Ramapuram2024TheoryAA,
+    title   = {Theory, Analysis, and Best Practices for Sigmoid Self-Attention},
+    author  = {Jason Ramapuram and Federico Danieli and Eeshan Gunesh Dhekane and Floris Weers and Dan Busbridge and Pierre Ablin and Tatiana Likhomanenko and Jagrit Digani and Zijin Gu and Amitis Shidani and Russ Webb},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:272463580}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Leviathan2024SelectiveAI,
+    title   = {Selective Attention Improves Transformer},
+    author  = {Yaniv Leviathan and Matan Kalman and Yossi Matias},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:273098114}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Bai2019DeepEM,
+    title   = {Deep Equilibrium Models},
+    author  = {Shaojie Bai and J. Zico Kolter and Vladlen Koltun},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2019},
+    volume  = {abs/1909.01377},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202539738}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Wu2021MuseMorphoseFA,
+    title   = {MuseMorphose: Full-Song and Fine-Grained Piano Music Style Transfer With One Transformer VAE},
+    author  = {Shih-Lun Wu and Yi-Hsuan Yang},
+    journal = {IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing},
+    year    = {2021},
+    volume  = {31},
+    pages   = {1953-1967},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234338162}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Zhou2024ValueRL,
+    title   = {Value Residual Learning For Alleviating Attention Concentration In Transformers},
+    author  = {Zhanchao Zhou and Tianyi Wu and Zhiyun Jiang and Zhenzhong Lan},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:273532030}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{anonymous2024forgetting,
+    title   = {Forgetting Transformer: Softmax Attention with a Forget Gate},
+    author  = {Anonymous},
+    booktitle = {Submitted to The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://openreview.net/forum?id=q2Lnyegkr8},
+    note    = {under review}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{anonymous2024from,
+    title   = {From {MLP} to Neo{MLP}: Leveraging Self-Attention for Neural Fields},
+    author  = {Anonymous},
+    booktitle = {Submitted to The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://openreview.net/forum?id=A8Vuf2e8y6},
+    note    = {under review}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{Duvvuri2024LASERAW,
+    title   = {LASER: Attention with Exponential Transformation},
+    author  = {Sai Surya Duvvuri and Inderjit S. Dhillon},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:273849947}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Zhu2024HyperConnections,
+    title   = {Hyper-Connections},
+    author  = {Defa Zhu and Hongzhi Huang and Zihao Huang and Yutao Zeng and Yunyao Mao and Banggu Wu and Qiyang Min and Xun Zhou},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2024},
+    volume  = {abs/2409.19606},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:272987528}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@inproceedings{anonymous2024hymba,
+    title   = {Hymba: A Hybrid-head Architecture for Small Language Models},
+    author  = {Anonymous},
+    booktitle = {Submitted to The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations},
+    year    = {2024},
+    url     = {https://openreview.net/forum?id=A1ztozypga},
+    note    = {under review}
+}
+```
+
+```bibtex
+@article{Shao2024DeepSeekV2AS,
+    title   = {DeepSeek-V2: A Strong, Economical, and Efficient Mixture-of-Experts Language Model},
+    author  = {Zhihong Shao and Damai Dai and Daya Guo and Bo Liu (Benjamin Liu) and Zihan Wang and Huajian Xin},
+    journal = {ArXiv},
+    year    = {2024},
+    volume  = {abs/2405.04434},
+    url     = {https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:269613809}
+}
+```
+
+*solve intelligence... then use that to solve everything else.* - Demis Hassabis